a kingdom of Europe, in its largest extent bounded by Pomerania, Brandenburg, Silesia, and Moravia, to the west; and, towards the east, by part of Russia and the Lesser Tartary; on the north, it has the Baltic, Russia, the grand province of Livonia, and Samogitia; and on the south, it is bounded by Bessarabia, Transylvania, Moldavia, and Hungary. Geographers generally divide it into the provinces of Poland Proper, Lithuania, Samogitia, Courland, Prussia, Maffovia, Polachia, Polesia, Little Russia, called likewise Ruffia Rubra or Red Ruffia, Podolia, and the Ukraine. Now, however, it is very considerably reduced in extent, as will appear in the course of its history. For a map of Poland, Lithuania, and Prussia, see Plate CCCCX.

With regard to the history of Poland, we are not to gather the earlier part of it from any accounts transmitted to us by the natives. The early histories of all nations indeed are involved in fable; but the Poles never had even a fabulous history of their own nation. The reason of this is, that it was not the custom with that nation to entertain itinerant poets for the amusement of the great; for to the songs of these poets entertained among other nations we are obliged for the early part of their history; but this affluence being deficient in Poland, we must have recourse to what is recorded concerning it by the historians of other nations.

The sovereigns of Poland at first had the title of Polish dukes or generals, as if their office had been only to lead the armies into the field. The first of these is universally allowed to have been Lechus or duke Lech; and to render him more illustrious, he is said to have been a lineal descendant from Japhet the son of Noah. According to some writers, he migrated at the head of a numerous body of the descendants of the ancient Scythians from some of the neighbouring nations; and, to this day, Poland is called by the Tartars the kingdom of Lechus. Butchting, however, gives a different account of the origin of the Poles. Sarmatia, he observes, was an extensive country, inhabited by a variety of nations of different names. He supposes the Poles to be the descendants of the ancient Lazi, a people who lived in Colchis near the Pontus Euxinus; whence the Poles are sometimes called Polazi. Crossing several rivers, they entered Pannonia, and settled on the borders of the Warta, while their neighbours the Zechi settled on the Elbe, in the 55th year of Christ. As to the name of Poland, or Polka, as it is called by the natives, it comes from the Slavonic word Pole, or Poh, which signifies a country adapted to hunting, because the whole country was formerly covered with vast forests, exceedingly proper for that employment.

Of the transactions of Lechus during the time that Vifcimer enjoyed the sovereignty, we have no certain account. His successor was named Vifcimer, who is generally supposed to have been the nephew of Lechus. He was a warlike and successful prince, subduing many provinces of Denmark, and building the city of Wilmar, so called from the name of the sovereign. But the Danish historians take no notice of his wars with their country; nor do they even mention a prince of this name. However, he is said to have reigned for a long time with great glory; but to have left the people in great distress, on account of the disputes which arose about a successor.

After the death of Vifcimer, the nobility were on Form of the point of electing a sovereign, when the people, government charmed by the grievous burdens occasioned by the wars of Vifcimer, unanimously demanded another form of government, that they might no longer be liable to suffer from ambition and tyranny. At first the nobility pretended to yield to this humour of the people with great reluctance; however, they afterwards determined on such a form of government as threw all the power into their own hands. Twelve palatines, or voivodes, were chosen; and the Polish dominions divided into as many provinces. These palatines exercised a despotic authority within their several jurisdictions, and aggravated the misery of the people by perpetual wars among themselves; upon which the Poles, worn out with oppression, resolved to return to their old form of government. Many assemblies were held for for this purpose; but, by reason of the opposition of the vaivodes, they came to nothing. At last, however, they cast their eyes upon Cracus, or Gracus, whose wealth and popularity had raised him to the highest honours among his countrymen. The Poles say that he was a native of Poland, and one of the 12 vaivodes; but the Bohemians affirm that he was a native of their country; however, both agree in maintaining, that he was descended from the ancient family of the Gracchi in Rome; who, they say, were banished to this country.

He is said to have signalized himself against the Franks, whom he overthrew in some desperate engagements, and afterwards built the city of Cracow with their spoils. He did not enlarge his dominions, but made his subjects happy by many excellent regulations. At last, after a long and glorious reign, he expired, or, according to some, was assassinated by a nobleman who aspired to the crown.

Cracus left three children: Gracus, Lechus, and a daughter named Vanda. The first succeeded to the dukedom in virtue of his birthright; but was soon after murdered by his brother Lechus. However, it seems the thoughts of the crime which he had committed disturbed his conscience, that the secret could not be kept. When it was known that he had been the murderer of his late sovereign, he was deposed with all possible marks of ignominy and contempt, and his sister Vanda declared duchess. She was a most beautiful and accomplished lady; and soon after she had been raised to the sovereignty, one Rithogar, a Teutonic prince, sent an ambassador demanding her in marriage, and threatening war if his proposals were refused. Vanda marched in person against him at the head of a numerous army, and the event proved fatal both to Rithogar and herself. The troops of Rithogar abandoned him without striking a blow, upon which he killed himself in despair; and Vanda, having become enamoured of him, was so much concerned for his death, that she drowned herself in the river Vitula or Wefel. From this unfortunate lady the country of Vandalia takes its name.

The family of Cracus having become extinct by the death of Vanda, the Poles were again left at liberty to choose a new sovereign or a new form of government. Through a natural levity, they changed the form of government, and restored the vaivodes notwithstanding all that they had formerly suffered from them. The consequences were the same as before: the vaivodes abused their power; the people were oppressed, and the state was distracted between foreign wars and civil contentions. At that time the Hungarians and Moravians had invaded Poland with a numerous army, and were opposed only by a handful of men almost ready to surrender at discretion. However, one Premislaws, a private folder, contrived a stratagem by which the numerous forces of the enemy were overthrown; and for his valour was rewarded with the dukedom. We are ignorant of the other transactions of his reign; but all historians inform us that he died deeply regretted, and without issue; so that the Poles had once more to choose a sovereign.

On the death of Premislaws several candidates appeared for the throne; and the Poles determined to prefer him who could overcome all his competitors in a horse-race. A stone pillar was erected near the capital, on which were laid all the ensigns of the ducal authority; and an herald proclaimed, that he who first arrived at that pillar from a river at some distance, named Powderic, was to enjoy them. A Polish lord named Lechus was resolved to secure the victory to himself by a stratagem; for which purpose he caused iron spikes to be driven all over the course, reserving only a path for his own horse. The fraudulent design took effect in part, all the rest of the competitors being dismounted, and some severely hurt by their fall. Lechus, in consequence of this victory, was about to be proclaimed duke; when, unluckily for him, a peasant who had found out the artifice opposed the ceremony; and upon an examination of the fact, Lechus was torn in pieces, and the ducal authority conferred upon the peasant.

The name of the new monarch was also Lechus. He attained the sovereignty in the year 774, and behaved with great wisdom and moderation. Though he possessed the qualities of a great warrior, and extended his dominions on the side of Moravia and Bohemia, yet his chief delight was to make his subjects happy by peace. In the decline of life he was obliged to engage in a war with Charlemagne, and is said by some to have fallen in battle with that powerful monarch; though others assert that he died a natural death, having lived so long that the springs of life were quite worn out.

Lechus III. was succeeded by his son Lechus IV., who inherited all his father's virtues. He suppressed an insurrection in the Polish provinces, by which he acquired great reputation; after which he led his army against the Greek and Italian legions who had overrun Panonia. He gained a complete victory over his enemies. Nor was his valour more conspicuous in the battle than his clemency to the vanquished: for he dismissed all his prisoners without ransom; demanding no other conditions than that they should never again disturb the peace of Poland, or the allies of that kingdom. This duke is said to have been endowed with many virtues, and is charged only with the vice of incontinence. He left 20 natural children, and only one legitimate son, named Popiel, to whom he left the sovereignty. Popiel was also a virtuous and pacific prince, who never had recourse to arms but through necessity. He removed the seat of government from Cracow to Gnefna, and was succeeded by his nephew Popiel II., a minor.

The young king behaved with propriety as long as he was under the tuition of others; but as soon as he had got the reins of government into his own hands the face of affairs was altered. Lechus III., who, as hath been already mentioned, had 20 illegitimate children, had promoted them to the government of different provinces; and they had discharged the duties of their offices in such a manner as showed that they were worthy of the confidence reposed in them. However, as soon as Popiel came of age, being seduced by the advice of his wife, an artful and ambitious woman, he removed them from their posts, treated them with the utmost contempt, and at last found means to poison them all at once at an entertainment. A dreadful punishment, however, according to the historians of those times, attended his treachery and cruelty. The bodies of the unhappy governors were left unburied; and from them issued a swarm of rats, who purified Popiel, his wife, and children, wherever they went, and at last devoured them. The nation now became a prey to civil discord at the same time that it was harassed... harassed by a foreign enemy; and, in short, the state seemed to be on the verge of dissolution, when Piafus was proclaimed duke in 839, from whom the natives of ducal or regal dignity were called Piastus. See Piastus.

This excellent monarch died in 861, and was succeeded by his son Ziemowitius, who was of a more warlike disposition than his father, and who first introduced a regular discipline among the Polish troops. He maintained a respectable army, and took great pains to acquire a perfect knowledge in the art of war. The consequence of this was, that he was victorious in all his battles; and retook from the Germans and Hungarians not only all that they had gained, but enlarged his dominions beyond what they had been. After his death nothing remarkable happened in Poland till the time of Mieczlaus I., who attained the ducal authority in 964. He was born blind, and continued so for seven years; after which he recovered his sight without using any medicine; a circumstance so extraordinary, that in those times of ignorance and superstition it was accounted a miracle. In his reign the Christian religion was introduced into Poland. The most probable account of the manner in which Christianity was introduced is, that Mieczlaus having by ambassadors made his addresses to Daborwka daughter to the Duke of Bohemia, the lady rejected his offer unless he would suffer himself to be baptized. To this the duke consented, and was baptized, after having been instructed in the principles of Christianity. He founded the archbishoprics of Gneina and Cracow; and appointed St Adalbert, sent by the pontiff to propagate Christianity in Poland, primate of the whole kingdom. On the birth of his son Boleslaus he redoubled his zeal; founding several bishoprics and monasteries; ordering likewise that, when any part of the Gospel was read, the hearers should half-draw their swords, in testimony of their readiness to defend the faith. He was, however, too superstitious to attend to the duties of a sovereign; and suffered his dominions to be ravaged by his barbarous neighbour the duke of Russia. Yet, with all his devotion, he could not obtain the title of king from the pope, though he had warmly solicited it; but it was afterwards conferred on his son, who succeeded to all his dominions.

Boleslaus I., the first king of Poland, surnamed Chrobry, succeeded to the sovereignty in 999. He also professed and cherished Christianity, and was a man of great valour and prudence. However, the first transaction of his reign favoured very much of the ridiculous piety of those times. He removed from Prague to Gneina the remains of a saint which he had purchased at a considerable price. The Emperor Otho III. made a pilgrimage, on account of a vow, to the tomb of this saint. He was hospitably received by Boleslaus, whom, in return, he invested with the regal dignity; an act which was confirmed by the pope. This new dignity added nothing to the power of Boleslaus; though it increased his consequence with his own subjects. He now affected more state than before: his body-guards were considerably augmented; and he was constantly attended by a numerous and splendid retinue whenever he started out of his palace. Thus he inspired his people with an idea of his greatness, and consequently of their own importance; which no doubt was necessary for the accomplishment of a design he had formed, namely, an offensive war with Russia; but when he was upon the point of setting out on this expedition, he was prevented by the breaking out of a war with the Bohemians. The elevation of Boleslaus to the regal dignity had excited the envy of the duke of Bohemia, who had solicited the same honour for himself, and had been refused. His jealousy was further excited by the connection between Boleslaus and the emperor, the former having married Rixa the emperor's niece. Without any provocation, therefore, or without giving the least intimation of his design, the duke of Bohemia entered Poland at the head of a numerous army, committing everywhere dreadful ravages. Boleslaus immediately marched against him; and the Bohemians retired with precipitation. Scarcity of provisions, and the inclemency of the season, prevented Boleslaus at that time from pursuing; but as soon as these obstacles were removed, he entered Bohemia at the head of a formidable army, with a full resolution of taking an ample revenge. The Bohemians were altogether unable to resist; neither indeed had they courage to venture a battle, though Boleslaus did all in his power to force them to it. So great indeed was the cowardice of the duke or his army, that they suffered Prague, the capital of the duchy, to be taken after a siege of two years; having never, during all that time, ventured to relieve it by fighting the Polish army. The taking of this city was quickly followed by the reduction of all the places of inferior note: but though Boleslaus was in possession of almost all the fortified places in Bohemia, he could not believe his conquests to be complete until he became master of the duke's person. This unfortunate prince had shut himself up with his son in his only remaining fortress of Wiligrod, where he imagined that he should be able to foil all the attempts of the Polish monarch. In this, however, he found himself disappointed. Boleslaus invested the place, and made his approaches with such rapidity, that the garrison, dreading a general assault, resolved to capitulate, and persisted in their resolution notwithstanding all the intrigues and promises of the duke. The consequence was, that the unhappy prince fell into the hands of his enemies, and had his eyes put out by Boleslaus; after which, his son Jarimir was put into perpetual and close confinement.

From Bohemia Boleslaus marched towards Moravia; but no sooner did he arrive on the frontier than the whole province submitted without a blow. He then resumed his intention of invading Russia; for which he had now a very fair opportunity, by reason of a civil war which raged with violence among the children of duke Volodomir. The chief competitors were Jariflaus and Suanepolk. The latter, having been defeated by his brother, was obliged to take refuge in Poland, where he used all the arguments in his power with king Boleslaus in order to induce him to revenge his cause. Boleslaus having already an intention of invading that country, needed but little intreaty; and therefore moved towards Russia at the head of a very numerous army; giving out, that he had no other design than to revenge the injustice done to Suanepolk. He was met on the banks of the river Bog by Jariflaus at the head of an army much superior in number to his own; and for some days the Polish army was kept at bay by the Ruthenians. At last Boleslaus, growing impatient, resolved to pass the river at all events; and therefore forming his cavalry in the best manner for breaking the torrent, torrent, he exposed his own person to the utmost of its force. Encouraged by his example, the Poles advanced breast-high in the water to the opposite shore; from whence the enemy gave them all the annoyance in their power. In spite of all opposition, however, the Poles reached the bank, and soon gained a complete victory, Jariflaus being obliged to fly to Kiovia. This city was immediately invested; but Jariflaus retired farther into the country in order to recruit his army, leaving the city to its fate. The garrison made a brave defence, but were at last compelled to surrender at discretion. A vast treasure was found in the place; great part of which was distributed by Boleslaus among the soldiers.

Though the king of Poland had now become master of the greatest part of Russia, he knew that the only possible means of keeping the country in subjection was by placing a natural sovereign over the inhabitants. For this reason he reinfected Suanepolk, though his pretensions were still disputed by Jariflaus. The latter had formed a flying camp, and meditated a scheme of surprising and carrying off his rival brother; but having failed in this attempt, he retired to Novogorod, where the attachment of the inhabitants enabled him to make some resistance, till at last he was attacked and defeated by Boleslaus, which seemed to give the finishing stroke to his affairs. The king of Poland, however, now met with a more dangerous enemy in the perfidious and ungrateful Suanepolk than he had experienced in Jariflaus. The Russian prince, imagining himself a dependent on Boleslaus, formed a conspiracy against him; by which he projected nothing less than the destruction of him and his whole army. The massacre was already begun when Boleslaus received intelligence. The urgency of the case admitted of no delay; the king therefore mounted his horse; and having with the utmost haste assembled part of his army, fell upon the traitors with such fury, that they were obliged to betake themselves to flight, and Boleslaus got safe into Poland. But in the mean time Jariflaus having assembled fresh forces, pursued the Polish army; and having come up with them just as one half had crossed the river Borithines, attacked them with the utmost fury. Boleslaus defended himself with the greatest resolution; but, by reason of his forces being divided, victory was dubious for a long time. At last, when the army had wholly crossed, the Russians were entirely put to the rout, and a terrible carnage ensued. The victory, however, though complete, was not decisive; for which reason Boleslaus thought proper to continue his retreat, without attempting to conquer a country too extensive for him ever to keep in subjection. Still, however, his martial inclination continued, and he led his army into Saxony. The inhabitants of this country had hitherto resisted all attempts that had been made on their freedom, and still made a violent struggle for liberty; though, in spite of their utmost efforts, they were obliged at last to submit to the yoke. On his withdrawing the troops from Saxony, however, the king thought proper to leave the people to their liberty, contenting himself with a rich booty. The boundaries of his empire he now fixed at the river Elbe; where he erected two iron columns, in order to transmit the memory of his conquest to posterity.

Boleslaus, still unsated with victory, now meditated the conquest of Prussia and Pomerania; the latter of which provinces had, in the former civil wars, been dismembered from Poland. His arms were attended with equal success against both; indeed the very terror of his name seemed to affect all the purposes of a formidable enemy. There, however, he seems to have designed to be the last of his warlike enterprises; for he now applied himself wholly to the enacting of wholesome laws for the benefit of his people. But in the midst of this tranquility Jariflaus assembled the most numerous army that had ever been heard of in Russia, with which he appeared on the frontiers of Poland. Boleslaus, though now advanced in years, marched out against his adversaries, their great and met them on the banks of the Borithines, rendered famous by the victory he had lately gained there. The Polish Poles crossed the river by swimming; and attacked the enemy before they had time to draw up in order of battle with such impetuosity, that a total rout soon ensued. The Russians were seized with a panic, and Jariflaus was hurried away, and almost trampled to death by the fugitives. Many thousand prisoners were taken, but Boleslaus released them upon very easy conditions; contenting himself with an inconsiderable tribute, and endeavouring to engage the affections of the people by his kindness. This well-timed clemency produced such an happy effect, that the Russians voluntarily submitted to his jurisdiction, and again became his subjects. Soon after this he died in the year 1025, after having vastly extended his dominions, and rendered his subjects happy.

Boleslaus was succeeded by his son Mieczaus II., but he possessed none of the great qualities of his father, being indolent and debauched in his behaviour. In the very beginning of his reign, the Russians, Bohemians, and Moravians, revolted. However, as the spirit and discipline introduced by Boleslaus still remained in the Polish army, Mieczaus found no great difficulty in reducing them again to obedience: after which, devoting himself entirely to voluptuousness, he was seized with a frenzy, which put an end to his life in the year 1034. The bad qualities of this prince proved very detrimental to the interest of his son Casimir; though religious the latter had received an excellent education, and was possessed of many virtues. Instead of electing him king, they chose Rixa his mother queen-regent. She proved for Caft-tyrannical, and so partial to her countrymen the Germanians, that a rebellion ensued, and she was forced to fly to Germany; where she obtained the protection of the emperor by means of the immense treasures of Boleslaus, which she had caused to be transported thither before her. Her bad behaviour and expulsion proved still more fatal to the affairs of Casimir than even that of his father. He was immediately driven out of the kingdom; and a civil war taking place, a great many pretenders to the crown appeared at once. To the miseries occasioned by this were added those of a foreign war; for the Bohemians and Russians invaded the kingdom in different places, committing the most dreadful ravages. The consequence of these accumulated distresses was, that the nobility came at last to the resolution of recalling Casimir, and electing him sovereign. However, before they took this measure, it was thought proper to send to Rome to complain of the behaviour of the duke of Bohemia. The deputies were at first received favourably; but but the influence of the duke's gold prevailing, no redress was obtained; so that at last it was resolved, without more ado, to send for Casimir.

The only difficulty was where to find the fugitive prince; for he had been gone five years from the kingdom, and nobody knew the place of his retreat. At last, by sending an embassy to his mother, it was found out that he had retired into France, where he applied eloquently to study at the university of Paris. Afterwards he went to Italy; where, for the sake of subsistence, he took upon him the monastic habit. At that time he had returned to France, and obtained some preferment in the abbey of Clugni. Nothing now obstructed the prince's return but the sacred function with which he was invested. However, a dispensation was obtained from the pope, by which he was released from his ecclesiastical engagements, on condition that he and all the kingdom should become subject to the capitulation tax called Peter-pence. Some other conditions of less consequence were added; such as, that the Poles should shave their heads and beards, and wear a white linen robe at festivals, like other professors of the Catholic religion. Great preparations were made for the reception of the young prince; and he was met on the frontier by the nobility, clergy, and forces of the nation; by whom he was conducted to Gneina, and crowned by the primate with more than usual solemnity. He proved a virtuous and pacific prince, as indeed the distracted situation of the kingdom would not admit of the carrying on of wars. However, Casimir proved his courage in subduing the banditti by which the country was overrun; and by marrying the princess Mary, sister to the duke of Ruffia, all quarrels with that nation were for the present extinguished. Upon the whole, the kingdom flourished during his reign; and became more respectable from the wisdom and stability of the administration than it could have been by many victories. After a happy reign of 16 years, he died beloved and regretted by all his subjects.

By the happy administration of Casimir the kingdom and successor recovered sufficient strength to carry on successful wars against its foreign enemies. Bolelaus II., the son of Casimir, an enterprising and valiant prince, succeeded to the throne; and soon made himself so famous, that three unfortunate princes all took refuge at his court at once, having been expelled from their own dominions by their rebellious subjects. These were, Jacomir, son of Bolelaus duke of Bohemia; Bela, brother to the king of Hungary; and Zaflaus duke of Kiovia, eldest son to Jariflaus duke of Ruffia, and cousin to the king of Poland. Bolelaus determined to redress all their grievances; but while he deliberated upon the most proper means for so doing, the duke of Bohemia, dreading the consequence of Jacomir's escape, assembled an army, and, without any declaration of war, marched through the Hercynian forest, desolated Silegia, and laid waste the frontiers of Poland with fire and sword. Bolelaus marched against him with a force greatly inferior; and, by mere dint of superior capacity, cooped up his adversary in a wood, where he reduced him to the greatest distress. In this extremity the duke sent proposals for accommodation; but they were rejected with disdain by Bolelaus; upon which the former, ordering fires to be kindled in his camp, as if he designed to continue there, removed with the utmost silence in the night-time; and marching through narrow defiles, was advanced several leagues before Bolelaus received advice of his retreat. The king pursued him, but in vain; for which reason he returned, after having ravaged the frontiers of Moravia. The next year he entered Bohemia with a numerous army; but the duke, being unwilling to encounter such a formidable adversary, submitted to such terms as Bolelaus thought proper to impose. In these the king of Poland stipulated for certain conditions in favour of Jacomir, which he took care to be punctually executed; after which he determined to march towards Hungary, to afflict the fugitive prince Bela.

This prince had been for some time solicited by a party of disaffected nobility to return, as his brother, prince of Hungary, the reigning king, had alienated the hearts of his subjects by his tyrannical behaviour: as soon therefore as Bolelaus had finished the war in Bohemia, he was solicited by Bela to embrace so favourable an opportunity, and put him in possession of the kingdom of Hungary. This the king readily complied with, as being agreeable to his own inclinations; and both princes entered Hungary by different routes, each at the head of a numerous body. The king of that country, however, was not disconcerted by such a formidable invasion; and being largely assisted by the emperor, advanced against his antagonists with a vast army; among whom was a numerous body of Bohemians, who had come to his assistance, though in direct violation of the treaty subsisting between the duke and the king of Poland. At last a decisive battle was fought, in which the Germans behaved with the greatest valour, but were entirely defeated through the treachery of the Hungarians, who in the heat of the battle deserted and went over to Bela. Almost all the foreign auxiliaries were killed on the spot; the king himself was seized, and treated with such insolence by his perfidious subjects, that he died in a short time of a broken heart; so that Bela was placed on the throne without further opposition, except from a revolt of the peasants, which was soon quelled by the Polish army.

Bolelaus, having succeeded so happily in these two enterprises, began to look upon himself as invincible; the consequence of which had first intended, now projected no less than the subjugation of the whole country. He had indeed a claim to the sovereignty by virtue of his descent from Mary, queen of Poland, sister to Jariflaus; and this he endeavoured to strengthen by marrying a Ruffian princess himself. Having therefore assembled a very numerous and well-disciplined army, he entered the duchy of Kiovia, where he was opposed by Wiffelaus, who had usurped the sovereignty, with a vast multitude of forces. Bolelaus, however, continued to advance; and the Metz with Ruffian prince being intimidated by the number and surprising good order of his enemies, deserted his own troops, and fled away privately with a slender retinue; upon which his force dispersed themselves for want of a leader. The inhabitants of the city of Kiovia now called to their assistance Suantoflaus and Wfzevold two brothers of Wiffelaus; but these princes acting the part of mediators, procured pardon for the inhabitants from Zaflaus their natural sovereign. With the same facility the two princes recovered all the other dominions belonging to Zaflaus; only one city venturing to stand a siege, and that was soon reduced. But in the mean time the king of Hungary dying, a revolt ensued, and the two sons of Bela were on the point of being deprived of their paternal dominions. This Boleslaus no sooner heard than he marched directly into Hungary; where by the bare terror of his name, he re-established tranquillity, and confirmed the princes in the enjoyment of their kingdom. In the time that this was doing, Zaslaus was again driven from his territories, all the conquests that had been formerly made were lost, and Swantoflaus and Wizevold more powerful than ever. The king's vigour, however, soon disconcerted all their measures. He ravaged all those territories which composed the palatinates of Lusac and Chelm, reduced the strong city of Wolyn, and transported the booty to Poland. The campaign was finished by a battle with Wizevold; which proved so bloody, that though Boleslaus was victorious, his army was weakened in such a manner that he could not pursue his conquests. In the winter he made numerous levies; and returning in the spring to Kiovia, reduced it, after several desperate attacks, by famine. On this occasion, instead of treating the inhabitants with cruelty, he commended their valour, and strictly prohibited his troops from pillaging or insulting them; distributing provisions among them with the utmost liberality.

This clemency procured the highest honour to the king of Poland; but his stay there produced a most terrible disaster. Kiovia was the most dissolute, as well as the richest city, in the north; the king and all his soldiers gave themselves up to the pleasures of the place. Boleslaus himself affected all the imperious state of an eastern monarch, and contracted an inclination for the grossest debaucheries. The consequence had almost proved fatal to Poland. The Hungarian and Russian wars had continued for seven years, during all which time the king had never been at home excepting once for the short space of three months. In the mean time the Polish women, exasperated at hearing that their husbands had neglected them and connected themselves with the women of Kiovia, raised their slaves to the beds of their masters; and in short the whole sex conspired in one general scheme of prostitution, in order to be revenged of the infidelity of their husbands, excepting one single woman, namely, Margaret, the wife of Count Nicholas of Dembohina, who preserved her fidelity in spite of all solicitation. Advice of this strange revolution was soon received at Kiovia, where it excited terrible commotions. The soldiers blamed the king for their dishonour; forgetting how much they had to accuse their own conduct in giving their wives such extreme provocation. The effect of these discontentments was a general defection, and Boleslaus saw himself suddenly left almost alone in the heart of Russia; the soldiers having unanimously resolved to return home to take vengeance of their wives and their gallants.

A dreadful kind of war now ensued. The women knew that they were to expect no mercy from their enraged husbands, and therefore persuaded their lovers to take arms in their defence. They themselves fought by the side of their gallants with the utmost fury, and fought out their husbands in the heat of battle, in order to secure themselves from all danger of punishment by their death. They were, however, on the point of being subdued, when Boleslaus arrived with the few remaining Poles, but assisted by a vast army of Russians, with whom he intended to take equal vengeance on the women, their gallants, and his own soldiers who had deserted him. This produced a carnage more dreadful than ever. The soldiers united with their former wives and their gallants against the common enemy, and fought against Boleslaus and his Russians with the fury of lions. At last, however, the fortune of the king prevailed; the rebels were totally subdued, and the few who escaped the sword were tortured to death, or died in prison.

To add to the calamities of this unhappy kingdom, religious schisms which for some time had prevailed in the church of Rome found their way into Poland also; and the animosity of parties became aggravated in proportion to the frivolousness of their differences. By perverse accident the matter came at last to be a contention for wealth and power between the king and clergy. This soon gave occasion to bloodshed; and the bishop Boleslaus of Cracow was massacred in the cathedral while he was deposed by performing the duties of his office. This and some other enormous crimes in a short time brought on the most whole signal vengeance of the clergy. Gregory VII., the pope, at that time, thundered out the most dreadful anathemas against the king, released his subjects from their allegiance, deprived him of the titles of sovereignty, and laid the kingdom under a general interdict, which the archbishop of Gnesna saw punctually enforced. To this terrible sentence Boleslaus in vain opposed his authority, and recalled the spirit which had formerly rendered him formidable to the neighbouring states. The minds of the people were blinded by superstition, so that they deemed it a less heinous crime to rise in rebellion against their sovereign than to oppose the tyranny of the holy see. Conspiracies were daily formed against the person and government of Boleslaus. The whole kingdom became a scene of confusion, so that the king could no longer continue with safety in his own dominions. He fled therefore with his son Mieczlaus, and took refuge in Hungary; but here also the holy vengeance of the clergy pursued him, nor did they cease persecuting him till he was brought to a miserable end. Authors differ widely with respect to the manner of his death. Some say that he was murdered by the clergy as he was hunting; others, that he killed himself in a fit of despair; and one author tells us, that he wandered about in the woods of Hungary, lived like a savage upon wild beasts, and was at last killed and devoured by dogs. The greatest number, however, tell us, that being driven from place to place by the persecutions of the clergy, he was at last obliged to become a cook in a monastery at Carinthia, in which mean occupation he ended his days.

The destruction of Boleslaus was not sufficient to allay the papal resentment. It extended to the whole kingdom of Poland. Mieczlaus, the son of Boleslaus, was expected at the not suffered to ascend the throne; and the kingdom continued under the most severe interdict, which could only be removed by the force of gold, and the most abject concessions. Besides the tax called Peter-pence, new impositions were added of the most oppressive nature; till at length the pontiff, having satisfied his avarice, and impoverished the country, consented that the brother of the deceased monarch should be raised to the sovereignty, but only with the title of duke. This prince, named Uladislavus, being of a meek disposition, with little ambition, thought it his duty to acquiesce implicitly in the will of the pope; and therefore accepted the terms offered, sending at the same time an embassy to Rome, earnestly intreating the removal of the interdict. The request was granted; but all his endeavours to recover the regal dignity proved fruitless, the pope having, in conjunction with the emperor of Germany, conferred that honour on the duke of Bohemia. This was extremely mortifying to Uladislaus, but it was absorbed in considerations of the utmost consequence to himself and his dominions. Russia took the opportunity of the late civil disturbances to throw off the yoke; and this revolt drew after it the revolt of Prussia, Pomerania, and other provinces. The smaller provinces, however, were soon reduced; but the duke had no sooner returned to Poland, than they again rebelled, and hid their families in impenetrable forests.

Uladislaus marched against them with a considerable army; but was entirely defeated, and obliged to return back with disgrace. Next year, however, he had better fortune; and, having led against them a more numerous army than before, they were content to submit and deliver up the ringleaders of the revolt to be punished as the duke thought proper.

No sooner were the Pomeranians reduced, than civil dissensions took place. Sbigneus, the son of Uladislaus by a concubine, was placed at the head of an army by the discontented nobility, in order to subvert his father's government, and dispute the title of Boleslaus, the legitimate son of Uladislaus, to the succession. The war was terminated by the defeat and captivity of Sbigneus; who was at first confined, but afterwards released on condition that he should join his father in punishing the palatine of Cracow. But before this could be done, the palatine found means to effect a reconciliation with the duke; with which the young princes being pacified, a war took place between them and their father. The end of all was, that the palatine of Cracow was banished, and the princes submitted; after which, Uladislaus, having chastised the Prussians and Pomeranians who had again revolted, died in the year 1103, the 59th of his age.

Uladislaus was succeeded by his son Boleslaus III., who divided the dominions equally betwixt his brother Sbigneus and himself. The former being dissatisfied with his share, raised cabals against his brother. A civil war was for some time prevented by the good offices of the primate; but at last Sbigneus, having privately stirred up the Bohemians, Saxons, and Moravians, against his brother, made such formidable preparations as threatened the conquest of all Poland. Boleslaus, being unprovided with forces to oppose such a formidable power, had recourse to the Ruffians and Hungarians; and in gratitude of Boleslaus, who readily embraced his cause, in expectation of turning it to their own advantage. The event was, that Sbigneus was entirely defeated; and might easily have been obliged to surrender himself at discretion, had not Boleslaus generously left him in quiet possession of the duchy of Mazovia, in order to maintain himself suitably to the dignity of his birth. This kindness the ungrateful Sbigneus repaid by entering into another conspiracy; but the plot being discovered, he was seized, banished, and declared a traitor if ever he set foot again in Poland. Even this severity did not produce the desired effect: Sbigneus persuaded the Pomeranians to arm in his behalf; but he was defeated, taken prisoner, and again banished. Almost all the nobility solicited the king to put such an ungrateful traitor to death; however, that generous prince could not think of polluting his hands with the death of his brother, notwithstanding all he had yet done. Nay, he even took him back to Poland, and appointed him a maintenance suitable to his rank; but he soon had reason to repent his kindness; for his unnatural brother in a short time began to raise fresh disturbances, in consequence of which he soon met with the death which he deserved.

Boleslaus was scarce freed from the intrigues of his brother, when he found himself in greater danger than ever from the ambition of the emperor Henry IV. The emperor had attacked the king of Hungary, with whom Boleslaus was in close alliance, and from whom he had received assistance when in great distress himself. The king of Poland determined to assist his friend; and therefore made a powerful diversion in Bohemia, where he repeatedly defeated the Imperialists; upon which, the emperor collecting all his forces, ravaged Silesia, and even entered Poland, where he laid siege to the strong town of Lubuflz; but was at last obliged to abandon the enterprise, after having sustained much loss. However, Henry was not discouraged, but penetrated still farther into Poland, and was laying waste all before him, when the superior skill of Boleslaus compelled him to retire, after having almost destroyed his army with fatigue and famine, without once coming to action. Enraged at this disappointment, Henry laid siege to Glogaw, in hopes of drawing the Poles to an engagement before he should be obliged to evacuate the country. The fortifications of the place were weak; but the spirit of the inhabitants supplied their deficiencies, and they gave the Imperialists a most unexpected and vigorous reception. At last, however, they were on the point of surrendering to superior force; and actually agreed to give up the place, provided they did not receive any succours during that time. Boleslaus determined, however, not to let such a brave garrison fall a sacrifice to their loyalty; and therefore prevailed on the besieged to break the capitulation rather than surrender when they were on the point of being delivered. All this was transacted with the utmost secrecy; so that the emperor advanced, without thoughts of meeting with any resistance, to take possession of the city; but, being received by a furious discharge of arrows and javelins, he was so incensed, that he resolved to storm the place, and give no quarter. On the approach of the army, the Imperialists were astonished to see not only the breaches filled up, but new walls, secured by a wet ditch, reared behind the old, and erected during the suspension of hostilities by the industry of the besieged. The attack, however, went on; but the inhabitants, animated by despair, defended themselves with incredible valour, and at last obliged the Imperialists to break up the siege with precipitation. Next day Boleslaus arrived, and pursued the emperor with such vigour, that he obliged him to fly with disgrace into his own country. This soon brought on a peace, which was confirmed by a marriage between Boleslaus and the emperor's sister.

Hitherto the glory of Boleslaus had equalled, or even eclipsed, that of his namesake and predecessor Boleslaus the Great; but about the year 1135 he was and consequently brought to nothing. Brought into difficulties and disgrace by his own credulity. He was imposed upon by an artful story patched up by a certain Hungarian; who insinuated himself so far into his affections, that he gave him the government of Wilica, a strong town on the river Nida. But the traitor gave up the place to the Ruffians, who pillaged and burnt it; carrying the inhabitants at the same time into slavery. Boleslaus was incensed, and entered immediately upon a war with Russia, by which means he only heaped one calamity upon another. He received a deputation from the inhabitants of Halitz, to implore his affiance in favour of a young prince, who had been banished into Poland. Boleslaus marched to their relief with a choice body of troops; but as he was preparing to enter the town, he was attacked by the whole Ruffian army, and, after a most violent conflict, entirely defeated. By this disgrace the duke was so much afflicted, that he died in a short time, after having reigned 36 years.

Boleslaus, by his will, left his dominions equally divided among his four sons. Uladislaus, the eldest, had the provinces of Cracow, Sirad, Lencici, Silesia, and Pomerania. Boleslaus, the second son, had for his share the palatinates of Culm and Cujava, with the duchy of Mazovia. The palatinates of Kalezgh and Pofnania fell to Mieczslaws the third son; and to Henry, the fourth son, were assigned those of Lublin and Sandomir. Casimir the youngest child, then an infant in the cradle, was entirely forgot, and no provision made for him. There have been but very few instances where dominions were thus divided, that the princes remained satisfied with their respective shares; neither did the sons of Boleslaus long continue at peace with one another. By the will of the late duke, all the brothers were obliged to own the supremacy of Uladislaus, who was declared duke of all Poland: they were restrained from forming alliances, declaring war, or concluding peace, without his approbation: they were obliged to take the field with a certain number of troops, whenever the duke required it; and they were forbid to meddle with the guardianship of the infant prince Casimir, his education being left entirely to the sovereign. The harmony of the princes was first disturbed by the ambition of Christina, the wife of Uladislaus, who formed a scheme to get possession of all Poland, and deprive the younger children of the benefit of their father's will. Having obtained her husband's concurrence, she assembled the estates of Poland, and made a long speech, showing the dangers which might arise from a partition of the ducal dominions among so many; and concluded with attempting to show the necessity of revoking the ratification of the late duke's will, in order to ensure the obedience of the princes and the tranquillity of the republic. Many of the nobility expressed their resentment against this speech, and fully refuted every article in it; but they were all afterwards gained over, or intimidated by Uladislaus; so that none appeared to take the part of the young princes except a noble Dane, who lost his life for so doing.

Uladislaus now having got the nobility on his side, first drove Boleslaus out of his territories; next, he marched against Henry, and dispossessed him also, forcing both to take refuge with Mieczslaws in Pofnania, where all the three brothers were besieged. Several of the nobility interposed, and used all their influence to effect a reconciliation, but in vain; for Uladislaus was as inexorable as if he had received an injury, and therefore insisted that the besieged princes should surrender at discretion, and submit to the will of the conqueror. Thus driven to despair, the brothers fell out, and attacked the duke's army with such impetuosity, that they obtained a complete victory, and took all his baggage and valuable effects. The brothers improved their victory, and laid siege to Cracow. The Ruffians, who had assisted Uladislaus at first, now entirely abandoned him, and evacuated Poland, which obliged him to shut himself up in Cracow; but, finding the inhabitants little disposed to stand a siege, he retired into Germany in order to solicit assistance from his wife's friends. But here he found himself mistaken, and that these friends were attached to him only in his prosperity; while in the mean time the city of Cracow surrendered, the unfortunate Uladislaus was formally deposed, and his brother Boleslaus raised to the supreme authority.

The new duke began his administration with an act of generosity to his brother Uladislaus, to whom he gave the duchy of Silesia, which thus was separated from Poland, and has never since been re-annexed to it. This had no other effect upon Uladislaus than the putting him in a condition to raise fresh disturbances; for he now found means to persuade the emperor Conrad to invade Poland: but Boleslaus so harassed and fatigued his army by perpetual marches, ambuscades, and skirmishes, that he was obliged in a short time to return to his own country; and for some years Poland enjoyed a profound tranquillity.

During this interval Henry entered on a crusade; and, though he lost almost all his army in that enthusiastic undertaking, he is celebrated by the superstitious writers of that age, as the bulwark of the church, and one of the greatest Christian heroes: however, in all probability, the reason of this extraordinary fame is, that he made large donations to the knights of St John of Jerusalem. Soon after the return of Henry, Poland was invaded by the emperor Frederic Barbarossa, vaded by who was persuaded to this by the solicitations of Uladislaus and his wife Christina. The number of the Imperialists was so great, that Boleslaus and his brothers did not think proper to oppose them in the field; they contented themselves with cutting off the convoys, placing ambuscades, harassing them on their march, and keeping them in perpetual alarms by false attacks and skirmishes. With this view the three brothers divided their forces, defoliated the country before the enemy, and burnt all the towns and cities which were in no condition to stand a siege. Thus the emperor, advancing into the heart of a defoliated country where he could not subsist, was at last reduced to such a situation that he could neither go forward nor retreat, and was obliged to solicit a conference with Boleslaus. The latter was too prudent to irritate him by an unseasonable obliged haughtiness, and therefore went to the German camp to see if an instance of confidence was so agreeable to the emperor, that a treaty was soon agreed upon, which was confirmed by a marriage between Adelaide, niece to the emperor, and Mieczslaws duke of Pofnania.

Boleslaus having thus happily escaped from so great a danger, took it into his head to attempt the conquest of Prussia, for no other reason but because the inhabi- Having unexpectedly invaded the country with a very numerous army, he succeeded in his enterprise; great numbers of infidels were converted, and many churches set up; but no sooner was Boleslaus gone, than the inhabitants returned to their old religion. Upon this Boleslaus again came against them with a formidable power; but, being betrayed by some Prussians whom he had taken into his service and raised to posts of honour, his army was led into defiles and almost entirely cut off; duke Henry was killed, and Boleslaus and Mieczlaus escaped with great difficulty.

This misfortune was quickly followed by another; for now the children of Uladislaws laid claim to all the Polish dominions which had been possessed by their father, most of which had been bestowed upon young Casimir. They were supported in their pretensions by a great number of discontented Poles, and a considerable body of German auxiliaries. Boleslaus, finding himself unable to withstand his enemies by force, had recourse to negotiation, by which means he gained time to recruit his army and repair his losses. An assembly of the states was held, before which the duke so fully refuted the claims of the children of Uladislaws, that it was almost unanimously voted that they had kindled an unjust war; and to take away every pretence for renewing the civil discord of Poland, they were a second time invested with the duchy of Silesia, which for the present put an end to all disputes. After this, Boleslaus applied himself to promote, by all means, the happiness of his subjects, till his death, which happened in the year 1174.

On the death of Boleslaus, the states raised his brother Mieczlaus to the ducal throne, on account of the great opinion they had of him. But the moment that Mieczlaus ceased to be a subject, he became a tyrant, and a slave to almost every kind of vice; the consequence of which was, that in a very short time he was deposed, and his brother Casimir elected in his stead.

Casimir was a prince of the greatest justice and benevolence, inasmuch that he scrupled to accept of the honour which the states had conferred upon him, lest it should be a trespass against the laws of equity. However, this scruple being soon got over, he let himself about the securing peace and tranquillity in all parts of his dominions. He redressed all grievances, suppressed exorbitant imposts, and assembled a general diet, in which it was proposed to refuse the peasants from the tyranny of the nobility; an affair of such consequence, that the duke could not enter upon it by his own authority, even though supported by the clergy. Yet it proved less difficult than had been imagined, to persuade the nobility to relinquish certain privileges extremely detrimental to natural right. They were influenced by the example of their virtuous sovereign, and immediately granted all that he required; and, to secure this declaration in favour of the peasants, the archbishop of Gnesin thundered out anathemas against those who should endeavour to regain the unjust privileges which they had now renounced; and to give a still greater weight to this decision, the acts of the diet were transmitted to Rome, where they were confirmed by the pope.

But though the nobility in general consented to have their power somewhat retrenched, it proved matter of discontent to some, who for this reason immediately became the partisans of the deposed Mieczlaus. This unfortunate prince was now reduced to such indigence, that he wrote an account of his situation to his brother Casimir; which to much affected him, that in an assembly of the diet he proposed to resign the sovereignty in favour of his brother. To this the states replied in the most peremptory manner: they desired him never more to mention the subject to them, lest they should be under the necessity of deposing him and excluding his brother, who, they were determined, should never more have the dominion of Poland. Casimir, however, was so much concerned at the account of his brother's misfortunes, that he tried every method to relieve him, and even connived at the arts practised by some discontented noblemen to restore him. By a very singular generosity, he facilitated the reduction of Gnesin and Lower Poland, where Mieczlaus might have lived in peace and splendour, had not his heart been so corrupted that it could not be subdued by kindness. The consequence was, that he used all his art to wrest from his brother the whole of his dominions, and actually conquered the provinces of Mazovia and Cujava; but of these he was soon dispossessed, and only some places in Lower Poland were left him. After this he made another attempt, on occasion of a report that Casimir had been poisoned in an expedition into Russia. He surprised the city of Cracow; but the citadel refused to surrender, and his hopes were entirely blasted by the return of Casimir himself; who, with an unparalleled generosity and magnanimity, asked peace of his brother whom he had vanquished and had in a manner at his mercy. The last action of this amiable prince was the conquest of Russia, which he effected rather by the reputation of his wisdom and generosity than by the force of his arms. Those barbarians voluntarily submitted to a prince so famed for his benevolence, justice, and humanity. Soon after his return, he died at Cracow, lamented as the best prince in every respect who had ever filled the throne of Poland.

Casimir left one son, named Lechus, an infant; and the states, dreading the consequences of a long minority, hesitated at appointing him sovereign, considering how many competitors he must necessarily have, and how dubious it must be whether he might be fit for the sovereignty after he had obtained it. At last, however, Lechus was nominated, chiefly through the interest he between had obtained on account of the reputation of his father's virtues. The consequence of his nomination was precisely what might have been expected. Mieczlaus formed an alliance against him with the dukes of Opole, Pomerania, and Breslau; and having raised all the men in Lower Poland fit to bear arms, took the road to Cracow with a very numerous army. A bloody battle was fought on the banks of the river Mogarva; in which both sides were so much weakened, that they were unable to keep the field, and consequently were forced to retire for some time in order to repair their forces. Mieczlaus was first ready for action, and therefore had the advantage; however, he thought proper to employ artifice rather than open force; and therefore having attempted in vain to corrupt the guardians of Lechus, he entered into a treaty with the duchess dowager his mother. To her he represented in the strongest manner the miseries which would ensue from her refusal of the conditions he proposed. He stipulated to adopt Lechus and Conrade, her sons, for his own; to surrender surrender the province of Cujavia for their present support; and to declare them heirs to all his dominions. The principal nobility opposed this accommodation, but it was accepted by the duchess in spite of all their remonstrances; and Mieszko was once more put in possession of the capital, after having taken a solemn oath to execute punctually every article of the treaty.

It is not to be supposed that a prince of such a perfidious disposition as Mieszko would pay much regard to the obligations of a simple contract. It was a maxim with him, that a sovereign is no longer obliged to keep his oath than while it is neither safe nor beneficial to break it. Having therefore got all the power into his hands, he behaved in the very same manner as if no treaty with the duchess had subsisted. The duchess, perceiving herself duped, formed a strong party, and excited a general insurrection. The rebellion could not be withstood; Mieszko was driven out of Cracow, and on the point of being reduced to his former circumstances, when he found means to produce a variance between the duchess and palatine of Cracow; and thus once more turned the scale in his favour. The forces of Mieszko now became superior, and he, in consequence, regained possession of Cracow, but did not long enjoy his prosperity, falling a victim to his intemperance; so that Lechus was restored to the sovereignty in the year 1206.

The government of Lechus was the most unfortunate of any of the sovereigns of Poland. In his time the Tartars made an irruption, and committed everywhere the most cruel ravages. At last they came to an engagement with the Poles, assisted by the Ruffians; and after an obstinate and dreadful conflict, obtained a complete victory. This incursion, however, terminated as precipitately as it commenced; for without any apparent reason they retired, just as the whole kingdom was ready to submit; but the devastations they had committed produced a famine, which was soon followed by a plague that depopulated one of the most populous countries of the north. In this unhappy situation of affairs, death ended the misfortunes of Lechus, who was murdered by his own subjects as he was bathing. A civil war took place after his death; and the history for some time is so confused, that it is difficult to say with certainty who was his successor. During this unfortunate state of the country, the Tartars made a second irruption, laid all desolate before them, and were advancing to the capital, when they were attacked and defeated with great slaughter by the palatine of Cracow with only a handful of men. The power of the enemy, however, was not broken by this victory; for, next year, the Tartars returned, and committed such barbarities as can scarce be imagined. Whole provinces were defeated, and every one of the inhabitants massacred. They were returning, laden with spoil, when the palatine fell upon them a second time, but not with the same success as before: for, after an obstinate engagement, he was defeated, and thus all Poland was laid open to the ravages of the barbarians; the nobility fled into Hungary, and the peasants sought an asylum among rocks and impenetrable forests. Cracow, being left entirely defenceless, was soon taken, pillaged, and burnt; after which the barbarians, penetrating into Silesia and Moravia, defoliated these countries, destroying Breslau and other cities. Nor did Hungary escape the fury of their barbarity: the king gave battle to the Tartars, but was defeated with vast slaughter, and had the mortification to see his capital laid in ashes, and above 100,000 of his subjects perish by fire and sword. The arms of the Tartars were invincible; nothing could withstand the prodigious number of forces which they brought into the field, and the fury with which they fought. They fixed their head-quarters on the frontiers of Hungary; and spread their devastations on every side with a celerity and success that threatened the destruction of the whole empire, as well as of the neighbouring kingdoms.

In this dreadful situation was Poland when Boleslaus, surnamed the Chaste, was raised to the sovereignty; but this, so far from putting an end to the troubles, only superadded a civil war to the rest of the calamities. Boleslaus was opposed by his uncle Conrad the brother of Lechus, who was provoked at becoming the subject of his own nephew. Having assembled a powerful army, he gained possession of Cracow; assumed the title of Duke of Poland; and might possibly have kept possession of the sovereignty, had not his avarice and pride equally offended the nobility and peasants. In consequence of their discontent, they unanimously invited Boleslaus, who had fled into Hungary, to come and head the insurrection which now took place in every quarter. On his arrival, he was joyfully received into the capital; but Conrad still headed a powerful party; and it is reported that on this occasion the knights of the Teutonic order were first called into Poland, to dispute the pretensions of Boleslaus. All the endeavours of Conrad, however, proved unsuccessful: he was defeated in two pitched battles, and forced to live in a private situation; though he never ceased to harass his nephew, and make fresh attempts to recover the crown. However, of the reign of Boleslaus we have little account, except that he made a vow of perpetual continency, and imposed the same on his wife; that he founded near 40 monasteries; and that he died after a long reign in 1279, after having adopted Lechus duke of Cujavia, and procured a confirmation of his choice by the free election of the people.

The reign of this last prince was one continued scene of foreign and domestic trouble. On his first accession over-run by him was attacked by the united forces of Russia and Lithuania afflicting by the Tartars; whom, however, he had the good fortune to defeat in a pitched battle. By this Lithuanian victory the enemy were obliged to quit the kingdom; but Lechus was so much weakened, that civil dissensions took place immediately after. These increased to such a degree, that Lechus was obliged to fly to Hungary, the common resource of distressed Polish princes. The inhabitants of Cracow alone remained firm in their duty; and these brave citizens stood all the fatigue and danger of a tedious siege, till they were at last relieved by Lechus at the head of an Hungarian army, who defeated the rebels, and restored to his kingdom a legitimate government. He had scarce reascended the throne when the united forces of the Ruffians, Tartars, and Lithuanians, made a second irruption into Poland, and defoliated the country with the most savage barbarity. Their forces were now rendered more terrible than ever by their having along with them a vast number of large dogs trained to the art of war. Lechus, however, with an army much inferior, obtained a complete victory; the Poles being animated by despair, as perceiving, that, if they were conquered, they must also be devoured. Soon after this, Leszcz died with the reputation of a warlike, wise, but unfortunate prince. As he died without issue, his crown was contested, a civil war again ensued; and the affairs of the state continued in a very declining way till the year 1296, when Premislaus, the duke at that time, resumed the title of king. However, they did not revive in any considerable degree till the year 1305, when Vladislav Łokietek, who had seized the throne in 1303, and afterwards been driven out, was again restored to it. The first transaction of his reign was a war with the Teutonic knights, who had usurped the greater part of Pomerania during the late disturbances. They had been settled in the territory of Culm by Conrad duke of Mazovia; but soon extended their dominion over the neighbouring provinces, and had even got possession of the city of Dantzig, where they massacred a number of Pomeranian gentlemen in cold blood; which so much terrified the neighbouring towns, that they submitted without a stroke. The knights were commanded by the Pope himself to renounce their conquests; but they set at nought all his thunders, and even suffered themselves to be excommunicated rather than part with them. As soon as this happened, the king marched into the territories of the marquis of Brandenburg, because he had pretended to sell a right to the Teutonic knights to those countries, when he had none to them himself. Vladislav next entered the territory of Culm, where he laid everything waste with fire and sword; and, being opposed by the joint forces of the marquis, the knights, and the duke of Mazovia, he obtained a complete victory after a desperate and bloody engagement. Without pursuing the blow, he returned to Poland, recruited his army, and being reinforced by a body of auxiliaries from Hungary and Lithuania, he dispersed the enemy's forces, and ravaged a second time all the dominions of the Teutonic order. Had he improved this advantage, he might easily have exterminated the whole order, or at least reduced them so low, that they could never have occasioned any more disturbances in the state; but he suffered himself to be soothed and cajoled by the promises which they made without any design of keeping them, and concluded a treaty under the mediation of the kings of Hungary and Bohemia. In a few months he was convinced of the perfidy of the knights; for they not only refused to evacuate Pomerania as had been stipulated in the treaty, but endeavoured to extend their usurpations, for which purpose they had assembled a very considerable army. Vladislav, enraged at their treachery, took the field a third time, and gave them battle with such success, that 4000 knights were left dead on the spot, and 30,000 auxiliaries killed or taken prisoners. Yet, though the king had it once more in his power to destroy the whole Teutonic order, he satisfied himself with obtaining the territories which had occasioned the war; after which he spent the remainder of his life in peace and tranquillity.

Vladislav was succeeded by his son Casimir III., surnamed the Great. He subdued the province called Ruffia Nigra in a single campaign. Next he turned his arms against Mazovia; and with the utmost rapidity overran the duchy, and annexed it as a province to the crown; after which he applied himself to domestic affairs, and was the first who introduced a written code of laws into Poland. He was the most impartial judge, the most rigid observer of justice, and the most submissive to the laws, of any potentate mentioned in the history of Europe. The only vice with which he is charged is that of incontinency; but even this the clergy declared to be a venial sin, and amply compensated by his other virtues, particularly the great liberality which he showed to the clerical order.

Casimir was succeeded in 1370 by his nephew Louis Unhappy king of Hungary; but, as the Poles looked upon him rather as a foreign prince, they were not happy under his administration. Indeed a coldness between this monarch and his people took place even before he ascended the throne; for in the past convulsions, to which the Polish monarchs were obliged to swear, a great number of unusual articles were inserted. This probably was the reason why he left Poland almost as soon as his coronation was over, carrying with him the crown, sceptre, globe, and sword of state, to prevent the Poles from electing another prince during his absence. He left the government in the hands of his mother Elizabeth; and she would have been agreeable to the people, had her capacity for government been equal to the task. At that time, however, the state of Poland was too much distracted to be governed by a woman. The country was overrun with bold robbers and gangs of villains, who committed the most horrible disorders; the kingdom was likewise invaded by the Lithuanians; the whole province of Ruffia Nigra revolted; and the kingdom was universally filled with dissension. The Poles could not bear to see their towns filled with Hungarian garrisons; and therefore sent a message to the king, telling him that they thought he had been sufficiently honoured in being elected king of Poland himself, without suffering the kingdom to be governed by a woman and his Hungarian subjects. On this Louis immediately raised a numerous army, with a design fully to conquer the spirit of his subjects. His first operations were directed against the Ruffians; whom he defeated, and again reduced to subjection. Then he turned his arms against the Lithuanians, drove them out of the kingdom, and re-established public tranquillity. However, instead of being satisfied with this, and removing the Hungarian garrisons, he introduced many more, and raised Hungarians to all the chief posts of government. His credit and authority even went so far as to get a successor nominated who was disagreeable to the whole nation, namely Sigismund marquis of Brandenburg. After the death of Louis, however, this election was set aside; and Hedwig, daughter of Casimir the Great, was proclaimed queen.

This princess married Jagello duke of Lithuania, who Hedwig was now converted to Christianity, and baptized by the name of Vladislav. In consequence of this marriage, the duchy of Lithuania, as well as the vast provinces of Samogitia and Ruffia Nigra, became annexed to the uniting crown of Poland. Such a formidable accession of power duchy, together excited the jealousy of the Teutonic knights, who were sensible that Vladislav was now bound to undertake the reduction of Pomerania, and revenge all the injuries Nigra, to which Poland had suffered from them for a great number of years. From his first accession therefore they considered this monarch as their greatest enemy, and endeavoured to prevent his designs against them by effecting Poland. ing a revolution in Lithuania in favour of his brother Andrew. The prospect of success was the greater here, as most of the nobility were discontented with the late alliance, and Uladiflaus had proposed to effect a revolution in religion, which was highly disagreeable.

On a sudden, therefore, two armies marched towards the frontiers of the duchy, which they as suddenly penetrated, laying waste the whole country, and seizing upon some important fortresses before the king of Poland had any notice of the matter. As soon as he received advice of these ravages, Uladiflaus raised some forces with the utmost celerity, which he committed to the care of his brother Skirgello, who defeated the Teutonic knights, and soon obliged them to abandon all their conquests. In the mean time Uladiflaus marched in person into the Higher Poland, which was subjected to a variety of petty tyrants, who oppressed the people, and governed with intolerable despotism. The palatine of Posen in particular had distinguished himself by his rebellious practices; but he was completely defeated by Uladiflaus, and the whole country reduced to obedience.

Having secured the tranquillity of Poland, Uladiflaus visited Lithuania, attended by a great number of the clergy, in order to convert his subjects. This he effected without great difficulty; but left the care of the duchy to his brother Skirgello, a man of cruel, haughty, and debauched turn, and who immediately began to abuse his power. With him the king sent his cousin Vitowda, a prince of a generous, brave, and amiable disposition, to be a check upon his conduct; but the barbarity of Skirgello soon obliged this prince to take refuge among the Teutonic knights, who were now become the asylum of the oppressed and discontented. For some time, however, he did not affright the knights in their designs against his country; but having applied for protection to the king, and finding him remiss in affording the necessary assistance, he at last joined in the schemes formed by the knights for the destruction of Poland. Entering Lithuania at the head of a numerous army, he took the capital, burnt part of it, and destroyed 14,000 persons in the flames, besides a great number who were massacred in attempting to make their escape. The upper part of the city, however, was vigorously defended, so that the besiegers were at last obliged to abandon all thoughts of making themselves masters of it, and to content themselves with defoliating the adjacent country. The next year Vitowda renewed his attempts upon this city, but with the same ill success; though he got possession of some places of less note. As soon, however, as an opportunity offered, he came to an accommodation with the king, who bestowed on him the government of Lithuania. During the first years of his government, he bestowed the most diligent attention upon domestic affairs, endeavouring to repair the calamities which the late wars had occasioned; but his impetuous valour prompted him at last to engage in a war with Tamerlane the Great, after his victory over Bajazet the Turkish emperor. For some time before, Vitowda had been at war with the neighbouring Tartars, and had been constantly victorious, transporting whole hordes of that barbarous people into Poland and Lithuania, where to this day they form a colony distinct in manners and dress from the other inhabitants. Uladiflaus, however, dissuaded him from attacking the whole strength of the nation under such a celebrated commander as Tamerlane; but Vitowda was obdurate; he encountered an army of 400,000 Tartars under Ediga, Tamerlane's lieutenant, with only a battle with tenth part of their number. The battle continued for the Tartars a whole day; but at last Vitowda was surrounded by the numbers of his enemy, and in the utmost danger of being cut in pieces. However, he broke his way through with prodigious slaughter on both sides; and came off at last without a total defeat, having killed a number of the enemy equal to the whole of his own army.

During the absence of Vitowda, the Teutonic knights Wars with the Teutonic knights had penetrated into Lithuania, committing everywhere the most dreadful ravages. On his return he attacked and defeated them, making an irruption into Livonia, to punish the inhabitants of that country for the affronts they had given to the Teutonic order. This was succeeded by a long series of wars between Poland and Prussia, in which it became necessary for Uladiflaus himself to take the field. The knights had now one way or other got possession of Samogitia, Mazovia, Culm, Silea, and Pomerania; so that Uladiflaus resolved to punish them before they became too powerful. With this view he assembled an army composed of several different nations, with which he penetrated into Prussia, took several towns, and was advancing to Marienburg the capital of Pomerania, when he was met by the army of the Prussian knights, who determined to hazard a battle. When the engagement began, the Poles were defeated by all their auxiliaries, and obliged to fling the brunt of the battle by themselves. But the courage and conduct of their king so animated them, that after a most desperate battle they obtained a complete victory; near 40,000 of the enemy being killed in the field, and 30,000 taken prisoners. This terrible overthrow, however, was less fatal to the affairs of the Prussian knights than might have been expected; as Uladiflaus did not improve his victory, and a peace was concluded upon easier terms than his adversaries had any reason to expect.—Some infraction of the treaty occasioned a renewal of hostilities; and Uladiflaus was so much elated with victory that he would hearken to no terms, by which means the enemy were driven to the desperate resolution of burying themselves in the ruins of their capital. The siege was accordingly commenced, and both sides behaved with the greatest vigour; but at last, through the good conduct and valour of the grand master of the knights named Plawen, the Polish monarch found himself obliged to grant them an advantageous peace, at a time when it was universally expected that the whole order would have been exterminated.

Uladiflaus V. died in 1435, and was succeeded by his son Uladiflaus VI. at that time only nine years of age. He had scarce ascended the throne, when the kingdom was invaded by the Tartars, who defeated Buccarius the general of the Polish forces; and committing everywhere dreadful ravages, returned to their own country loaded with booty. A few years after, the nation was involved in a war with Amurath the emperor of the Turks, who threatened to break into Hungary; and it was thought by the diet to be good policy to assist the Hungarians at this juncture, because it was impossible to know where the storm might fall. Poland fall after Hungary was conquered. But before all things were prepared for the young king to take the field, a strong body of auxiliaries were dispatched under the celebrated John Hunniades vaivode of Transylvania, to oppose the Turks, and likewise to support the election of Uladislavus to the crown of Hungary. This detachment surprised the Turkish army near the river Morava, and defeated Amurath with the loss of 30,000 men; after which Hunniades retook all the places which had been conquered by Amurath, the proud sultan was forced to sue for peace, and Uladislavus was raised without opposition to the crown of Hungary. A treaty was concluded, by which the Turks promised to relinquish their designs upon Hungary, to acknowledge the king's right to that crown, and to give up all their conquests in Rascia and Servia. This treaty was sealed by mutual oaths; but Uladislavus broke it at the persuasion of the pope's legate; who insisted, that now was the time for humbling the power of the infidels; and produced a special commission from the pope, absolving him from the oath he had taken at the late treaty. The consequence of this perfidy was, that Uladislavus was entirely defeated and killed at Varna, and the greatest part of his army cut in pieces.

Uladislavus VI. was succeeded by Casimir IV., in whose reign the Teutonic knights were subdued, and obliged to yield up the territories of Culm, Michlow, and the whole duchy of Pomerania, together with the towns of Elbing, Marienburg, Talknith, Schut, and Christburgh, to the crown of Poland. On the other hand, the king restored to them all the other conquests he had made in Prussia, granted a seat in the Polish senate to the grand-master, and endowed him with other privileges, on condition that, six months after his accession, he should do homage for Prussia, and take an oath of fidelity to the king and republic.

This success raised the spirits of the Polish nation, which had drooped ever since the battle of Varna. The diet did not, however, think proper to renew the war against the Turks, but took under their protection the hofpodar of Moldavia; as thinking that this province would make a convenient barrier to the Polish dominions on one side. The request of the prince who asked this protection was therefore readily granted, an oath of fidelity exacted from him and the inhabitants, and a tribute required; regular payment of which was made for a great number of years afterwards.

About this time also the crown of Bohemia becoming vacant, the people were extremely desirous of being governed by one of the princes of Poland; upon which the barons were induced to bestow the crown upon Uladislavus, eldest son of Casimir, in opposition to the intrigues of the king of Hungary. Not satisfied with this acquisition, Uladislavus took advantage of the dissensions in Hungary, in order to unite that crown to his own; and this he also effected; by which means his power was greatly augmented, though not the felicity of his people. So many foreign expeditions had exhausted the treasury, and oppressed the peasants with taxes; the gentry were greatly diminished by a number of bloody engagements; agriculture was neglected, and the country almost depopulated. Before a proper remedy could be applied for these evils, Casimir died in 1492; much more admired, than beloved or regretted, by his subjects. It is related by the historians of this period, that in the reign of Casimir IV., the deputies of the provinces first appeared at the diet, and assumed to themselves the legislative power; all laws before this time having been framed by the king in conjunction with the senate. It is observed also, that before Casimir's time, the Latin language was understood only by the clergy of Poland; in proof of which, it is alleged, that at an interview between this prince and the king of Sweden at Dantzig, his Polish majesty was forced to make use of the affluence of a monk to interpret between him and the Swedish monarch. Casimir, ashamed of the ignorance shown by himself and court, published an edict, enjoining the diligent study of the Latin, which in our days is spoken as vernacular by every Polish gentleman, though very unclassically.

During the succeeding reigns of John, Albert, and Alexander, the Polish affairs fell into decline; the kingdom being harassed by continual wars with the Turks and Tartars. However, they were retrieved by Sigismund I., who ascended the throne in 1507. This monarch, having reformed some internal abuses, next set about rendering the kingdom as formidable as it had formerly been. He first quelled a rebellion which broke out in Lithuania; after which, he drove the Walachians and Moldavians out of Ruffia Nigra, and defeated the Ruffians in a pitched battle, with the loss of 30,000 men. In this engagement he was obliged to cause his cavalry to swim across the Borithenes in order to begin the attack, while a bridge was preparing for the infantry. These orders were executed with astonishing celerity, notwithstanding the rapidity of the stream, the steepness of the banks, and the enemy's opposition. The onset was led by the Lithuanians, who were directed to retreat gradually, with a view of drawing the enemy within reach of the cannon. This the Ruffians mistook for a real flight; and as they were pursuing with eagerness, Sigismund opened his line to the right and left, pouring in grape-shot from the artillery with dreadful successe. The Russian general, and several noblemen of the first distinction, were taken prisoners, while the whole loss of the royal army did not amount to 300 men.

After this complete victory, the king turned his arms against the Teutonic knights, who had elected the marquis of Brandenburgh their grand-master; and this prince not only refused to acknowledge the sovereignty of the crown of Poland, but even invaded the Polish territories. Sigismund marched against him, and gained possession of several important places in Brandenburgh; but as he was pursuing his conquests, the marquis was reinforced by 14,000 Germans, led by the duke of Schonenburg, who ventured to lay siege to Dantzig, after having ravaged all the neighbouring country. The Dantzickers, however, defended themselves with so much spirit, that the besiegers were soon obliged to relinquish their enterprise. In their retreat they were attacked by a strong detachment of Polish cavalry, who made prodigious havoc among them, and compelled the wretched remains to take shelter in Pomerania, where they were inhumanly butchered by the peasants. Soon after this the marquis was obliged to submit to the clemency of the conqueror; from whom, however, he obtained better conditions than could have been expected, or indeed than he would would have got, had he not abandoned the interest of the Teutonic order, and resigned the dignity of grandmaster. In order to secure him in his interest; therefore, Sigismund granted him half the province of Prussia as a secular duke, and dependent on the crown of Poland; by which means he entirely deprived that order of the best part of their dominions, and put it quite out of their power to disturb the tranquillity of Poland any more.

The power of Sigismund had now excited the jealousy of the House of Austria; for which reason they took every method in their power to stir up enemies against him. By their means, the Ruthenians, Moldavians, and Tartars, were all excited to fall upon the Polish territories at once. The vaivode of Walachia, with 50,000 men, made an irruption into the final province of Pokator, but was entirely defeated by count Taró at the head of no more than 6000. This victory is wholly ascribed to the good conduct of the commander, who possessed himself of some eminences on the flanks of the enemy. On these he erected batteries; which played with such fury as soon put their ranks in disorder; upon which the Poles attacked them sword in hand, and entirely dispersed them with the loss of 10,000 killed or taken. The count having then augmented his army with a strong body of Lithuanians, attacked the Muscovites and Tartars, drove them entirely out of the duchy, pursued them into Russia, reduced several towns, and at last said siege to the strong fortress of Strasburg; in which the regent, together with some of the best troops of Russia, were inclosed. The garrison made a gallant defence; and the fortifications were composed of beams joined together, and supported by a bulwark of earth, upon which the cannon-shot made no impression; but the count contrived a method of setting the wood on fire; by which means the regent and nobility were obliged to surrender at discretion, and Taró carried off upwards of 60,000 prisoners, with an immense booty.

In the reign of Sigismund, we may look upon the kingdom of Poland to have been at its greatest pitch of glory. This monarch possessed, in his own person, the republic of Poland, the great duchies of Lithuania, Smolensko, and Saveria, besides vast territories lying beyond the Euxine and Baltic; while his nephew Lewis possessed the kingdoms of Bohemia, Hungary, and Silesia. But this glory received a sudden check in 1548, by the defeat and death of Louis, who perished in a battle fought with Solym the Great, emperor of the Turks. The daughter of this prince married Ferdinand of Austria; whereby the dominions of Hungary, Bohemia, and Silesia, became inseparably connected with the hereditary dominions of the Austrian family. This misfortune is thought to have hastened the death of Sigismund; though, being then in his 84th year, he could not have lived long by the ordinary course of nature. He did not, however, survive the news many months, but died of a lingering disorder, leaving behind him the character of the completest general, the ablest politician, the best prince, and the strongest man, in the north; of which last, indeed, some instances are related by historians that are almost incredible.

Sigismund Augustus, who succeeded his father Sigismund I., proved also a very great and happy prince. At that time the most violent and bloody wars were carrying on in Germany, and indeed through other parts of Europe, on account of religion; but Sigismund wisely avoided interfering in these disputes. He Augustus, would not admit into his dominions any of those diverse and vines who were taxed with holding heterodox opinions, nor even allow his people the liberty of corresponding with them; yet he never persecuted, or employed any other means for the preservation of the state than those of a well-conducted and regular policy. Instead of disputing with his subjects about speculative opinions, Sigismund applied himself diligently to the reforming of abuses, enforcing the laws, enriching the treasury, promoting industry, and redeeming the crown-lands where the titles of the possessors appeared illegal. Out of the revenue recovered in this manner he obtained a formidable standing army, without laying any additional tax upon the subjects; and though he preferred peace to war, he was always able to punish those that offered indignities to his crown or person. His knowledge of the art of war was soon tried in a contest with the Ruthenians, who had made an irruption into Livonia, encouraged by the disputes which had subsisted between the Teutonic knights and the archbishop of Riga, cousin to Sigismund. The province was at that time divided between the knights and the prelate; and the Ruthenians, under pretence of afflicting the former, had seized great part of the dominions of the latter. The archbishop had recourse to his kinsman the king of Poland; who, after fruitless efforts to accommodate matters, marched towards the frontiers of Livonia with an army of 100,000 men. The knights were by no means able to resist such a formidable power; and therefore, deserting their late allies, put themselves under the protection of the king of Poland. The czar, John Basiliades, though defeated by the knights, did not lose his courage; nay, he even insolently refused to return any answer to the proposals of peace made by Sigismund. His army consisted of 300,000 men, with whom he imagined himself able to reduce all Livonia; in spite of the utmost efforts of the king of Poland; however, having met with some checks on that quarter, he directly invaded Poland with his whole army. At first he carried everything before him; but the Poles soon made a vigorous opposition. Yet the Ruthenians, though everywhere defeated, still continued their incursions, which Sigismund at last revenge by invading Russia in his turn. These mutual defolations and ravages at last made both parties desirous of peace, and a truce for three years was agreed on; during the continuance of which the king of Poland died, and with him was extinguished the house of Jagellon, which had governed Poland for near 200 years.

On the death of Sigismund, Poland became a prey to intestine divisions; and a vast number of intrigues were set on foot at the courts of Vienna, France, Saxony, Sweden, and Brandenburg; each endeavouring to establish a prince of their own nation on the throne of Poland. The consequence of all this was, that the kingdom became one universal scene of corruption, state of confusion, and confusion; the members of the diet consulted only their own interest, and were ready on every occasion to fall themselves to the best bidder. The Protestants had by this time got a considerable footing in the kingdom, and thus religious disputes were intermingled. termingled with political ones. One good effect, however, flowed from this confusion: for a law was passed, by which it was enacted, that no difference in religious opinions should make any contention among the subjects of the kingdom; and that all the Poles, without discrimination, should be capable of holding public offices and trusts under the government; and it was also resolved, that the future kings should swear expressly to cultivate the internal tranquillity of the realm, and cherish without distinction their subjects of all persuasions.

While the candidates for the throne were feverishly attempting to support their own interest in the best manner they could, John Crafofski, a Polish gentleman of great merit, but diminutive stature, had just returned from France, whither he had travelled for improvement. His humour, wit, and diverting size, had rendered him universally agreeable at the court of France, and in a particular manner engaged the esteem of Catharine de Medicis, which the little Pole had the address to make use of for his own advantage. He owed many obligations to the duke of Anjou; whom, out of gratitude, he represented in such favourable terms, that the Poles began to entertain thoughts of making him their king. These sentiments were confirmed and encouraged by Crafofski, who returned into France by order of several leading men in Poland, and acquainted the king and queen Catharine, that nothing was wanting besides the formality of an embassy to procure the crown for the duke of Anjou, almost without opposition. Charles IX., king of France, at that time also promoted the scheme, being jealous of the duke of Anjou's popularity, and willing to have him removed to as great a distance as possible. Accordingly the parties came to an agreement; and it was stipulated that the duke of Anjou should maintain the laws, liberties, and customs of the kingdom of Poland, and of the grand duchy of Lithuania; that he should transport all his effects and annual revenues in France into Poland; that the French monarch should pay the late king Sigismund's debts; that he should maintain 100 young Polish gentlemen at his court; and 50 in other places; that he should send a fleet to the Baltic, to assist Poland against the Russians; and lastly, that Henry should marry the princess Anne, sister to the late king Sigismund; but this article Henry would not ratify till his return to Poland.

Everything being thus settled, the young king quitted France, attended by a splendid retinue, and was accompanied by the queen-mother as far as Lorraine. He was received by his subjects on the frontiers of Poland, and conducted to Cracow, where he was soon after crowned. The affections of the Poles were soon engaged by the youth and accomplishments of Henry; but scarce was he seated on the throne, when, by the death of Charles IX., he became heir to the crown of France. Of this he was informed by repeated messages from queen Catharine; he repented his having accepted the crown of Poland, and resolved to leave it for that of France. But being sensible that the Poles would oppose his departure, he kept his intentions secret, and watched an opportunity of escaping out of the palace in disguise in the night-time. The Poles, as might well have been expected, were irritated at being thus abandoned, from the mere motive of interest, by a prince whom they had loved and honoured so much. Parties were dispatched after him by different roads; and Zamoliki, a nobleman who headed one of these parties, overtook him some leagues distant from Cracow. All the prayers and tears of that nobleman, however, could not prevail on Henry to return; he rode post to Vienna, and then passed into France by the way of Italy.

In the mean time, the Poles were so much exasperated against Henry and his whole nation, that all the French in Cracow would have been massacred if the magistrates had not placed guards in the streets. Henry, however, had foreseen the consequences of his flight, and therefore endeavoured to apologise for his behaviour. One Danzai undertook his cause in full senate; and with great eloquence explained the king's motives for his abrupt departure. Henry also wrote to the chief nobility and clergy with his own hand. But nothing could satisfy the Poles; who now acquainted their king, that if he did not immediately return, they would be obliged to divest him of the royal dignity, and to choose another sovereign. Henry began to excuse himself on account of the wars in which he was engaged, and promised to send men of unexceptionable integrity to govern Poland till he should return; but no excuses could be accepted; and, on the 15th of July 1575, he was solemnly divested of the regal dignity in full diet, and the throne declared vacant.

After the deposition of Henry, commotions and factions again took place. However, the contending parties were now reduced to two; one who supported the interest of Maximilian emperor of Germany; the other, who were for electing the princess Anne, and marrying her to Stephen Batory prince of Transylvania. The latter prevailed through the courage of one gentleman, who, in imitation of the power assumed by the Roman tribunes, stood up in the full senate, and opposed the proclamation of Maximilian, declaring that his election was violent and illegal. In this situation of affairs, it was obvious that strength and celebrity must determine which election was legitimate; both parties wrote to the princes whose cause they had espoused, intreating them to come with all possible expedition to take possession of the throne. Batory proved the more alert; for while Maximilian was disputing about certain conditions which the Poles required for the security of their privileges, he entered Poland, married the princess, and was crowned on the first of May 1576.

No opposition was made to the authority of Batory except by the inhabitants of Dantzig. These adhered to the interest of Maximilian even after he was dead, and had the presumption to demand from the king an oath acknowledging their absolute freedom and independence. Batory referred them to the senate, declaring that he had no right to give up the privileges of the republic; but admonished the citizens to avoid all occasion of a civil war, which must necessarily terminate in their disadvantage. But the obstinate citizens, construing the king's lenity into fear, shut the gates against the ambassador, seized upon the fortresses of Grebin, and published a manifesto resembling a libel upon the king and the republic. The king incensed at these proceedings, marched against Grebin, retook the castle, and ravaged certain territories belonging... longing to the Dantzickers; who retaliated by burning to the ground a monastery named Oliva, to prevent the Poles from taking possession of so important a situation.

Notwithstanding these outrages, Batori renewed his overtures for an accommodation; but the Dantzickers were deaf to these salutary proposals; so that he was obliged to declare them rebels, and send against them a body of troops under one Zborowski. As the number of the Polish army, however, was not considerable, the Dantzickers marched out to give him battle. They were assisted by a corps of Germans, and a resolution was formed of attacking the Poles in their camp by surprise; but the project was disconcerted by a sudden storm, accompanied with dreadful thunder and lightning, which spread a panic through the army, as if it had been a judgment from heaven, and obliged the commander, John de Collen, to retire into the city. In a short time, however, they recovered their spirits, and came to an action with the Poles; but were defeated with the loss of 8000 men killed on the spot, a great many taken prisoners, and the loss of several pieces of cannon. But this check, instead of abating the courage of the Dantzickers, only animated them the more, and they resolved to hold out to the last extremity. In the mean time, the czar of Muscovy, thinking the present opportunity favourable for extending his dominions, laid siege to Revel; but, not being able to make himself master of that place, he was obliged to content himself with ravaging Livonia, which he did in a dreadful manner. This did not, however, hinder Batori from laying siege to Dantzig in person, and pursuing the operations with the utmost vigour. Collen made many vigorous sallies, in several of which he defeated the Poles; but happening at last to be killed, nobody was found capable of supplying his place; and the citizens were at last obliged to surrender at discretion; though not till they had obtained a promise from the elector of Saxony and landgrave of Hesse of interfering as mediators in their behalf. The only terms which the king demanded of them were, that they should ask his pardon, dismiss their troops, and rebuild the monastery of Oliva which they had destroyed; while his majesty, on the other hand, confirmed all their privileges, and granted them full liberty of adhering to the confession of Augsburg, for which they had for some time been strenuous advocates.

The war with Dantzig was no sooner ended, than the king directed his whole strength against the czar of Muscovy, who had made himself master of several important cities in Livonia. The czar behaved everywhere with the greatest cruelty, slaughtering all without distinction who were able to bear arms, and abandoning the women and children to the shocking brutality of the Tartars who served in his army. Such was the horror inspired by the perfidy and cruelty of the czar's conduct, that the inhabitants of Wender chose rather to bury themselves in the ruins of their town than to submit to such an inhuman enemy. For a considerable time the Ruffians were allowed to proceed in this manner, till the whole province of Livonia, excepting Riga and Revel, had suffered the barbarities of this insulting conqueror; but at last, in 1578, a body of forces was dispatched into the province, the towns of Wender and Dunnenburg were surprised, and an army sent by the czar to surprise the former was defeated.

At this time the Muscovites were not the only enemies who opposed the king of Poland, and oppressed Livonia. That unhappy province was also invaded by the Swedes, who professed themselves to be enemies equally to both parties, and who were feared inferior in cruelty to the Ruffians themselves. The king, however, was not daunted by the number of his adversaries; but having made great preparations, and called to his assistance Christopher prince of Transylvania, with all the standing forces of that country, he took the field in person against the Muscovites, and laid siege to Polocz, a town of great importance situated on the river Dwina. The Ruffians no sooner heard of the approach of the Polish army, than they resolved to put all the citizens to death, thinking by this means to strike terror into the enemy. When Batori came near the town, the most shocking spectacle presented itself; the river appeared dyed with blood, and a vast number of human bodies fastened to planks, and terribly mangled, were carried down its stream. This barbarity, instead of intimidating the Poles, irritated them to such a degree, that nothing could resist them. Finding that their cannon made little impression upon the walls of the city, which were constructed of wood, they advanced to the assault with burning torches in their hands; and would soon have reduced the fortifications to ashes, had not a violent storm of rain prevented them. The design, however, was put in execution as soon as the rain slackened; and the barbarous Ruffians were obliged to surrender at discretion. It reflects the highest honour on Batori, that notwithstanding the dreadful instances of cruelty which he had before his eyes, he would not suffer his soldiers to retaliate. Indeed the cruelties committed by the Ruffians on this occasion, seem almost to have authorized any revenge that could monstrous possibly have been taken. A number of Germans were barbarities committed in the city, some expiring under the most dreading tortures, and others dead of pains which nature could no longer support. Several of the officers had that city been dipped in cauldrons of boiling oil, with a cord drawn under the skin of the umbilical region, which fastened their hands behind; in which situation their eyes had been torn out from their sockets, or burnt with red-hot irons, and their faces otherwise terribly mangled. The disfigured carcases, indeed, plainly showed the barbarous treatment they had met with; and the dreadful tale was confirmed by the testimony of the few who survived. The Polish soldiers were exasperated almost to madness; so that fear all the authority of Batori could restrain them from cutting in pieces the wretches who had been the authors of such a dreadful tragedy.

After the reduction of Polocz, Batori continued the war with great success. Two detachments from the army penetrated the enemy's country by different roads, waited all before them to the gates of Simolenko, and returned with the spoils of 2000 villages which they had pillaged and destroyed. In the mean time the Swedes and Poles thought proper to come to an accommodation; and though John king of Sweden was at that time prevented from bearing his share of the war, yet Batori reduced such a number of cities, and committed such such devastations in the Russian territories, that the czar was obliged to sue for peace; which he obtained on condition of relinquishing Livonia, after having thrown away the lives of more than 400,000 of his subjects in attempting to conquer it.

Batory, being thus freed from a most destructive and cruel war, applied himself to the internal government of his kingdom. He regulated the Polish cavalry in such a manner as made them become formidable to the Turks and other neighbouring nations; and this is the military establishment to which the Poles have given the name of quartierne; because a fourth part of the revenue is employed in supporting them. Batory sent this body of cavalry towards the frontiers of Tartary, to check the incursions of those barbarians; by which means the Ukraine, a vast tract of desert country, was filled with flourishing towns and villages, and became a strong barrier against the Turks, Tartars, and Russians.

The last memorable action of Batory was his attaching the Cossacks to Poland, civilizing and instructing them in the arts of war and peace. His first endeavour was to gain their affections by his liberality; for which purpose, he presented them with the city of Tchecmeneravia, situated on the Borithenes, which they formed into a magazine, and made the residence of their chieftains. He gave them officers of all degrees, established discipline among them, altered their arms, and formed them into a regular militia, which afterwards performed eminent services to the state. All kinds of manufactures at that time known in Poland were likewise established among the Cossacks; the women were employed in spinning and weaving woollen cloths, while the men were taught agriculture, and other arts proper for their sex.

While Batory was employed in this manner, the Swedes broke the convention into which they had entered with Poland, and were on the point of getting possession of Riga. To this, indeed, Batory himself had given occasion, by attempting to impose the Roman religion upon the inhabitants, after having promised them entire liberty of conscience. This so irritated them, that they revolted, and were on the point of admitting a Swedish garrison into the city, when the king was informed of what was going forward. Upon this he resolved to take a most exemplary vengeance on the inhabitants of Riga; but before he could execute his intention, he died in the year 1586, the 54th of his age, and 10th of his reign.

The death of Batory involved Poland in fresh troubles. Four candidates appeared for the crown, viz. the princes Ernest and Maximilian of the house of Austria; Sigismund prince of Sweden, and Theodore czar of Muscovy. Each of these had a separate party; but Sigismund and Maximilian managed matters so well, that in 1587 both of them were elected. The consequence of this was a civil war; in which Maximilian was defeated and taken prisoner; and thus Sigismund III., surnamed De Vaga, became master of the throne of Poland without opposition. He waged a successful war with the Tartars, and was otherwise prosperous; but though he succeeded to the crown of Sweden, he found it impossible for him to retain both kingdoms, and he was formally deposed from the Swedish throne. In 1610 he conquered Russia, and placed his son on the throne; but the Polish conquests of that country have always been but for a short time. Accordingly the young prince was soon after deposed; and the Russians not only regained their liberty, but began to make encroachments on Poland itself. A very unfortunate war with Sweden, which was now governed by Gustavus Adolphus; the particulars of Adolphus, which, with the other exploits of that renowned warrior, are related under the article Sweden. At last Sigismund, worn out with cares and misfortunes, died in 1629.

After Sigismund's death the affairs of Poland seemed to revive a little under Uladislaus VII.; for he obliged the Russians to sue for peace, and Sweden to restore some of her conquests; but having attempted to abridge the liberty of the Cossacks, they revolted, and gave the Poles several terrible defeats. Nor was the war terminated in the lifetime of Uladislaus, who died in 1648. His successor, John Casimir, concluded a peace with these dangerous enemies; but the war was soon after renewed; and while the kingdom was distracted between these enemies and the discontent of its own inhabitants, the Russians took the opportunity of invading and pillaging Lithuania. In a little after the whole kingdom was subdued by Charles Gustavus, successor to Christina, queen of Sweden.

Happily for Poland, however, a rupture took place between the courts of Sweden and Copenhagen; by which means the Poles were enabled to drive out the Swedes in 1657. This was succeeded by civil wars and contests with Russia, which so much vexed the king, that he resigned the crown in 1668.

For two years after the resignation of Casimir the kingdom was filled with confusion; but on the 17th of September 1670, one Michael Corbut Wiefnowski, collaterally descended from the house of Jagello, but in a very mean situation at that time, was chosen king. His reign continued but for three years; during which time John Sobieski, a celebrated Polish general, gave the Turks a dreadful overthrow, though their army consisted of more than 300,000 men; and had this blow been pursued, the Cossacks would have been entirely subdued, and very advantageous terms might have been obtained from the sultan. Of that vast multitude of Turks no more than 15,000 made their escape, the rest being all either killed or taken; however, the Polish soldiery, being bound by the laws of their country only to stay a certain time in the field, they refused to pursue this signal victory, and suffered the king to make peace on any terms he could procure.

Wiefnowski died before the news of this transaction reached Cracow; and after his death a new scene of confusion ensued, till at last the fortune of John Sobieski prevailed, and he was elected king of Poland in 1674. He was a most magnanimous and heroic prince; who, by his valour and good conduct, retrieved the affairs of Poland, and entirely checked the progress of the Turks westward. These barbarians were everywhere defeated, as is particularly related under the article Turkey; but notwithstanding his great qualities, Poland was now so thoroughly corrupted, and pervaded by a spirit of disaffection, that the latter part of this monarch's reign was involved in troubles, through the ambition and contention of some powerful noblemen.

Sobieski died in 1696; and with him fell the glory of Poland. Most violent contests took place about the succession; the recital of which would far exceed our limits. limits. At last Frederic Augustus, elector of Saxony, prevailed; but yet, as some of the most essential ceremonies were wanting in his coronation, because the primate, who was in an opposite interest, would not perform them, he found it extremely difficult to keep his subjects in proper obedience. To add to his misfortunes, having engaged in a league with Denmark and Russia against Sweden, he was attacked with irresistible fury by Charles XII. Though Augustus had not been betrayed, as indeed he almost always was, he was by no means a match for the ferocious Swede. The particulars of this war, however, as they make great part of the exploits of that northern hero, more properly fall to be related under the article SWEDEN. Here, therefore, we shall only observe, that Augustus was reduced to the humiliating necessity of renouncing the crown of Poland on oath, and even of congratulating his rival Stanislaus upon his accession to the throne: but when the power of Charles was broken by his defeat at Pultowa, the fortune of Augustus again prevailed; Stanislaus was driven out; and the former being absolved from his oath by the pope, resumed the throne of Poland.

Since that time the Polish nation hath never made any figure. Surrounded by great and ambitious powers, it hath sunk under the degeneracy of its inhabitants; so that it now scarce exists as a nation. This catastrophe took place in the following manner: On the 5th of October 1763, died Augustus III, elector of Saxony, and king of Poland. He was succeeded by Count Poniatowski, a Polish grandee, who was proclaimed September 7th 1764, by the name of Stanislaus Augustus, and crowned on the 25th of November the same year.—During the interregnum which took place between the death of Augustus III, and the election of Stanislaus, a decree had been made by the convocation-diet of Poland, with regard to the dissidents, as they were called, or dissenters from the Popish religion. By this decree they were prohibited from the free exercise of their religion, much more than they had formerly been, and totally excluded from all posts and places under the government. On this several of the European powers interposed, at the application of the dissidents, for their good offices. The courts of Russia, Prussia, Great Britain, and Denmark, made remonstrances to the diet; but notwithstanding these remonstrances, the decree was confirmed by the coronation-diet held after the king's election.

On October 6, 1766, an ordinary diet was assembled. Here declarations from the courts above mentioned were presented to his Polish majesty, requiring the re-establishment of the dissidents in their civil rights and privileges, and the peaceable enjoyment of their modes of worship deemed to them by the laws of the kingdom which had been observed for two centuries. These privileges, it was alleged, had been confirmed by the treaty of Oliva, concluded by all the northern powers, which could not be altered but by the consent of all the contracting parties. The Popish party contended strongly for a confirmation of some decrees made against the dissidents in 1717, 1723, and 1736. The deputies from the foreign powers replied, that those decrees had passed in the midst of intestine troubles, and were contradicted by the formal protestations and express declarations of foreign powers. At last, after violent contests, the matter was referred to the bishops and senators for their opinion. Upon a report from them, the diet came to a resolution, That they would fully maintain the dissidents in all the rights and prerogatives to which they were intitled by the laws of their country, particularly by the constitutions of the year 1717, &c. and by treaties; and that as to their complaints with regard to the exercise of their religion, the college of archbishops and bishops, under the direction of the prince primate, would endeavour to remove those difficulties in a manner conformable to justice and neighbourly love.—By this time, however, the court of Russia seemed determined to make her remonstrances more effectual, and a small body of Russian troops marched to within two miles of the capital of Poland.

These resolutions of the diet were by no means agreeable to the dissidents. They dated the beginning of their sufferings from the year 1717. The referring their grievances to the archbishops and bishops was looked upon as a measure the most unreasonable that could be imagined, as that body of men had always been their opposers, and in fact the authors of all the evils which had befallen them.—Shortly after matters were considered in this view, an additional body of Russians, to the number of about 15,000, entered Poland.

The dissidents, being now pretty sure of the protection of foreign powers, entered, on the 26th of March 1767, into two confederacies, at Thorn and Sluck. One of them was signed by the dissidents of Great and Little Poland, and the other by those of the Great Duchy of Lithuania. The purport of these confederacies was, an engagement to exert themselves in the defence of their ancient privileges, and the free exercise of their religion; professing, at the same time, however, the utmost loyalty to the king, and resolving to send a deputation to him to implore his protection. They even invited those of the Catholic communion, and all true patriots, to unite with them in maintaining the fundamental laws of the kingdom, the peace of religion, and the right of each one jointly with themselves. They claimed, by virtue of public treaties, the protection of the powers who were guarantees of their rights and liberties; namely, the emperors of Russia, and the kings of Sweden, Great Britain, Denmark, and Prussia. Lastly, they protested, that they had no intention of acting to the detriment of the Roman Catholic religion, which they duly respected; and only asked the liberty of their own, and the re-establishment of their ancient rights. The three cities of Thorn, Elbing, and Dantzig, acceded to the confederacy of Thorn on the 10th of April; as did the duke and nobles of Courland to that of Sluck on the 15th of May.

The emperors of Russia and king of Prussia, in the mean time, continued to issue forth new declarations in favour of the dissidents; and the Russian troops in Poland were gradually augmented to 30,000 men. Great numbers of other confederacies were also formed in different parts of the kingdom. These at first took little part in the affairs of the dissidents; they complained only of the administration of public affairs, into which they alleged that innovations had been introduced, and were therefore for some time called confederations of malcontents. All these confederacies published manifestoes, in which they recommended to the inhabitants to quarter and treat the Russian troops as the defenders of the Polish liberties.

The different confederacies of malcontents formed in the 24 districts of Lithuania united at Wilna on the 22d of June; and that general confederacy re-established prince Radziwiłł, who had married the king's sister, in his liberty, estates, and honour, of which he had been deprived in 1764 by the estates of that duchy. On the 23d of June prince Radziwiłł was chosen grand marshal of the general confederacy of all Poland, which then began to be called the national confederacy, and was said to be composed of 72,000 noblemen and gentlemen.

The general confederacy took such measures as appeared most proper for strengthening their party. They sent to the several voivodes of the kingdom, requiring their compliance with the following articles: 1. That all the gentlemen who had not signed the confederacy should do it immediately; 2. That all the courts of justice should subsist as formerly, but not judge any of the confederates; 3. That the marshals of the crown should not pass any sentence without the participation of at least four of the confederates; and, 4. That the marshals of the crown and the treasurers should be immediately restored to the possession of their respective rights. The Catholic party in the mean time were not idle. The bishop of Cracow sent a very pathetic and zealous letter to the diets assembled at Warsaw on the 15th of August, in which he exhorted them to arm their nuncios with courage, by giving them orthodox and patriotic instructions, that they might not grant the diffident's new advantages beyond those which were secured to them by the constitutions of the country, and treaties with foreign powers, &c. The pope also sent briefs to the king, the great chancellors, the noblesse, bishops of the kingdom, and to the prince primate, with such arguments and exhortations as were thought most proper to ward off the impending danger. Councils in the mean time were frequently held at the bishop of Cracow's palace, where all the prelates at Warsaw assembled.

On the 26th of September 1767 the confederacy of diffidents was united with the general confederacy of malcontents in the palace of prince Radziwiłł, who on that occasion expressed great friendship for the diffidents. In a few days after, the Russian troops in the capital were reinforced, and a considerable body of them was posted at about five miles distance.

On the 5th of October an extraordinary diet was held; but the affair of the diffidents met with such opposition, that it was thought necessary to adjourn the meeting till the 12th; during which interval, every expedient was used to gain over those who opposed prince Radziwiłł's plan. This was, to appoint a commission, furnished with full power to enter into conference with prince Repnin, the Russian ambassador, concerning the affairs of the diffidents. Notwithstanding all the pains taken, however, the meeting of the 12th proved exceedingly tumultuous. The bishops of Cracow and Kielow, with some other prelates, and several magnates, declared, that they would never consent to the establishment of such a commission; and at the same time spoke with more vehemence than ever against the pretensions of the diffidents. Some of the deputies answered with great warmth; which occasioned such animosities, that the meeting was again adjourned till the 16th.

On the 13th the bishops of Cracow and Kielow, the violent palatine of Cracow, and the staroste of Dolniski, were proceeded against them, in a declaration published next day by prince Repnin, was, that they had been wanting in respect to the dignity of the empress of Russia, by attacking the purity of her intentions towards the republic; though she was resolved to continue her protection and alliance to the general confederacy united for preserving the liberties of Poland, and correcting all the abuses which had been introduced into the government, &c.

It was probably owing to this violent proceeding of the Russians, that prince Radziwiłł's plan was at last adopted, and several new regulations were made in favour of the diffidents. These innovations, however, soon produced a civil war, which at last ended in the ruin of the kingdom. In the beginning of the year 1768, a new confederacy was formed in Podolia, a province bordering on Turkey, which was afterwards called the confederacy of Bar. The intention of it was, to Confederaboholish, by force of arms, the new constitutions, particularly those in favour of the diffidents. The members of the new confederacy likewise expressed great resentment against the carrying away the bishops of Cracow, &c., and still detaining them in custody.

Podolia was reckoned the fittest place for the purpose of the confederates, as they imagined the Russians could not attack them there without giving umbrage to the Ottoman court. Similar confederacies, however, were quickly entered into throughout the kingdom; the clergy excited all ranks of men to exert themselves in defence of their religion; and so much were their exhortations regarded, that even the king's troops could not be trusted to act against these confederates. The empress of Russia threatened the new confederates as disturbers of the public tranquillity, and declared that her troops would act against them if they persisted. It was, however, some time before the Russian troops were considerably reinforced; nor did they at first seem inclined to act with the vigour which they might have exerted. A good many skirmishes soon happened between these two contending parties, in which the confederates were generally defeated. In one of these the latter being worsted, and hardly pressed, a number of them passed the Niestier, and took refuge in Moldavia. This province had formerly belonged to Poland, but was now subject to the Grand Signior: the Russians, however, pursued their enemies into Moldavia; but in order to prevent any offence being taken by the Porte, prince Repnin wrote to the Russian resident at Constantinople, to intimate there, that the conduct of the Russian colonel who commanded the party was quite contrary to the orders of his court, and that therefore he would be turned out of his post.

Great cruelty in the mean time was exercised against the diffidents where there were no Russian troops to protect them. Towards the end of October 1769, prince Martin Lubomirski, one of the southern confederates, who had been driven out of Poland, and had taken shelter with some of his adherents among the mountains of Hungary, got a manifesto posted up on several of the churches of Cracow, in which he invited... the nation to a general revolt, and assuring them of the assistance of the Ottoman Porte, with whom he pretended to have concluded a treaty. This was the beginning of hostilities between the Turks and Ruffians, which were not terminated but by a vast effusion of blood on both sides.

The unhappy kingdom of Poland was the first scene of this war, and in a short time was reduced to the most deplorable situation. In the end of the year 1768, the peasants of the Greek religion in the Polish Ukraine, and province of Kioz, took up arms, and committed the greatest ravages, having, as they pretended, been threatened with death by the confederates unless they would turn Roman Catholics. Against these insurgents the Ruffians employed their arms, and made great numbers of them prisoners. The rest took refuge among the Haidamacks; by whom they were soon joined, and in the beginning of 1769 entered the Ukraine in conjunction with them, committing everywhere the most horrid massacres. Here, however, they were at last defeated by the Polish troops, at the same time that several of the confederacies in Poland were severely chastised. Soon after, the Khan of the Cim Tartars, having been repulsed with loss in an attempt on New Servia, entered the Polish territories, where he left frightful marks of his inhumanity upon some innocent and defenceless persons. This latter piece of conduct, with the cruelties exercised by the confederates, induced the Polish coffers of Braclau and Kiovia, amounting to near 30,000 effective men, to join the Ruffians, in order to defend their country against these destroyers. Matters continued much in the same way during the rest of the year 1769; and in 1770, skirmishes frequently happened between the Ruffians and confederates, in which the latter were almost always worsted; but they took care to revenge themselves by the most barbarous cruelties on the diffident, wherever they could find them. In 1770, a considerable number of the confederates of Bar, who had joined the Turks, and been excessively ill used by them, came to an accommodation with the Ruffians, who took them under their protection on very moderate terms.—Agriculture in the mean time had been to much neglected, that the crop of 1770 was very deficient. This encouraged a number of desperadoes to associate under the denomination of confederates, who were guilty of still greater excesses than those who had been under some kind of regulation. Thus a great part of the country was at last reduced to a mere desert, the inhabitants being either exterminated, or carried off to stock the remote Ruffian plantations, from whence they never could return.

In the year 1771, the confederacies, which seemed to have been extinguished, sprung up afresh, and increased to a prodigious degree. This was occasioned by their having been secretly encouraged and supplied with money by France. A great number of French officers engaged as volunteers in their service; who, having introduced discipline among their troops, they acted with much greater vigour than formerly, and sometimes proved too hard for their enemies. These gleams of success proved at last their total ruin. The Ruffians were reinforced, and properly supported. The Austrian and Prussian troops entered the country, and advanced on different other sides; and the confederates found themselves in a short time entirely surrounded by their enemies, who seemed to have nothing less in view than an absolute conquest of the country, and sharing it among themselves.

Before matters came to this crisis, however, the confederates formed a design of afflicting the king, on account of his supposed attachment to the diffidents. Of this singular occurrence we have the following account in the travels of Mr Coxe, communicated to the author by Mr Wrixall.—“A Polish nobleman, named Pulaski, a general in the army of the confederates, was the person who planned the atrocious enterprise; and the conspirators who carried it into execution were about 40 in number, and were headed by three chiefs, named Lukawski, Strawernski, and Kosinski. These three chiefs had been engaged and hired to that purpose by Pulaski, who in the town of Czetehowok in Great Poland obliged them to swear in the most solemn manner, by placing their hands between his, either to deliver the king alive into his hands, or, in case that was impossible, to put him to death. The three chiefs chose 37 persons to accompany them. On the second of November, about a month after they had quitted Czetehowok, they obtained admission into Warsaw, unsuspected and undiscovered, by the following stratagem. They disguised themselves as peasants who came to sell hay, and artfully concealed their saddles, arms, and clothes, under the loads of hay which they brought in waggons, the more effectually to escape detection.

On Sunday night, the third of September 1771, a few of these conspirators remained in the skirts of the town; and the others repaired to the place of rendezvous, the street of the Capuchins, where his majesty was expected to pass by about his usual hour of returning to the palace. The king had been to visit his uncle prince Czartoriski, grand chancellor of Lithuania, and was on his return from thence to the palace between nine and ten o’clock. He was in a coach, accompanied by at least 15 or 16 attendants, beside an aid-de-camp in the carriage: scarce was he at the distance of 200 paces from prince Czartoriski’s palace, when he was attacked by the conspirators, who commanded the coachman to stop on pain of instant death. They fired several shots into the carriage, one of which passed through the body of a horseman, who endeavoured to defend his master from the violence of the assassins. Almost all the other persons who preceded and accompanied his majesty were dispersed; the aid-de-camp abandoned him, and attempted to conceal himself by flight. Meanwhile the king had opened the door of his carriage with the design of effecting his escape under shelter of the night, which was extremely dark. He had even alighted, when the assassins seized him by the hair, exclaiming in Polish, with horrible execrations, ‘We have thee now; thy hour is come.’ One of them discharged a pistol at him so very near, that he felt the heat of the flint; while another cut him across the head with his sabre, which penetrated to the bone. They then laid hold of his majesty by the collar, and, mounting on horseback, dragged him along the ground between their horses at full gallop for near 500 paces through the streets of Warsaw.

Soon finding, however, that he was incapable of following them on foot, and that he had already almost lost his respiration from the violence with which they had dragged him, they set him on horseback; and then redoubled their speed for fear of being overtaken. When they came to the ditch which surrounds Warsaw, they obliged him to leap his horse over. In the attempt the horse fell twice, and at the second fall broke its leg. They then mounted his majesty upon another, all covered as he was with dirt.

"The conspirators had no sooner crossed the ditch, than they began to rile the king, tearing off the order of the Black Eagle of Prussia which he wore round his neck, and the diamond cross hanging to it. He requested them to leave his handkerchief, which they consented to; his tablets escaped their rapacity. A great number of the assassins retired after having thus blundered him, probably with intent to notify to their respective leaders the success of their enterprise; and the king's arrival as a prisoner. Only seven remained with him, of whom Kofinski was the chief. The night was exceedingly dark; they were absolutely ignorant of the way; and, as the horses could not keep their legs, they obliged his majesty to follow them on foot, with only one shoe, the other being lost in the dirt.

They continued to wander through the open meadows, without following any certain path, and without getting to any distance from Warsaw. They again mounted the king on horseback, two of them holding him on each side by the hand, and a third leading his horse by the bridle. In this manner they were proceeding, when his majesty, finding they had taken the road which led to a village called Burabow, warned them not to enter it, because there were some Russian stationed in that place who might probably attempt to rescue him (a). Finding himself, however, incapable of accompanying the assassins in the painful posture in which they held him kept down on the saddle, he requested them, since they were determined to oblige him to proceed, at least to give him another horse and a boot. This request they complied with; and continuing their progress through almost impassable lands, without any road, and ignorant of their way, they at length found themselves in the wood of Bielany, only a league distant from Warsaw. From the time they had passed the ditch, they repeatedly demanded of Kofinski their chief, if it was not yet time to put the king to death; and these demands were reiterated in proportion to the obstacles and difficulties they encountered, till they were suddenly alarmed by a Russian patrol or detachment. Instantly holding council, four of them disappeared, leaving him with the other three, who compelled him to walk on. Scarce a quarter of an hour after, a second Russian guard challenged them anew. Two of the assassins then fled, and the king remained alone with Kofinski the chief, both on foot. His majesty, exhausted with all the fatigue which he had undergone, implored his conductor to stop, and suffer him to take a moment's repose. Kofinski refused it, menacing him with his naked sabre; and at the same time informed him, that beyond the wood they should find a carriage. They continued their walk, till they came to the door of the convent of Bielany. Kofinski appeared lost in thought, and so much agitated by his reflections, that the king perceiving his disorder, and observing that he wandered without knowing the road, said to him, 'I see you are at loss which way to proceed. Let me enter the convent of Bielany, and do you provide for your own safety.' 'No (replied Kofinski), I have sworn.'

They proceeded till they came to Mariemont, a small palace belonging to the house of Saxony, not above half a league from Warsaw: here Kofinski betrayed some satisfaction at finding where he was, and the king full demanding an instant's repose, he consented at length. They sat down together on the ground, and the king employed these moments in endeavouring to soften his conductor, and induce him to favour or permit his escape. His majesty represented the atrocity of the crime he had committed in attempting to murder his sovereign, and the invalidity of an oath taken to perpetrate so heinous an action: Kofinski lent attention to this discourse, and began to betray some marks of remorse. But (said he), if I should consent and reconduct you to Warsaw, what will be the consequence? I shall be taken and executed! I give you my word (answered his majesty), that you shall suffer no harm; but if you doubt my promise, escape while there is yet time. I can find my way to some place of security; and I will certainly direct your pursuers to take the contrary road to that which you have chosen. Kofinski could not any longer contain himself, but, throwing himself at the king's feet, implored forgiveness for the crime he had committed; and swore to protect him against every enemy, relying totally on his generosity for pardon and preservation. His majesty reiterated to him his assurances of safety. Judging, however, that it was prudent to gain some asylum without delay, and recollecting that there was a mill at some considerable distance, he immediately made towards it. Kofinski knocked, but in vain; no answer was given: he then broke a pane of glass in the window, and intreated for shelter to a nobleman who had been plundered by robbers. The miller refused, supposing them to be banditti, and continued for more than half an hour to persist in his denial. At length, the king approached, and speaking through the broken pane, endeavoured to persuade him to admit them under his roof, adding, 'If we were robbers, as you suppose, it would be very easy for us to break the whole window, instead of one pane of glass.' This argument prevailed. They at length opened the door, and admitted his majesty. He immediately wrote a note to General Cocci, colonel of the foot-guards, informing him of his danger and miraculous escape.

When the messenger arrived with the note, the astonishment and joy was incredible. Cocci instantly rode to the mill, followed by a detachment of the guards. He met Kofinski at the door with his sabre drawn, who admitted him as soon as he knew him. The king had sunk into a sleep, caused by his fatigue; and was stretched on the ground, covered with the miller's cloak. Coceci immediately threw himself at his majesty's feet, calling him his sovereign, and killing his hand. It is not easy to paint or describe the astonishment of the miller and his family, who instantly imitated Coceci's example, by throwing themselves on their knees (b). The king returned to Warsaw in General Coceci's carriage, and reached the palace about five in the morning. His wound was found not to be dangerous; and he soon recovered the bruises and injuries which he had suffered during this memorable night. So extraordinary an escape is scarce to be paralleled in history, and affords ample matter of wonder and surprise.

It is natural to inquire what has become of Kofinski, the man who saved his majesty's life, and the other conspirators. He was born in the palatinate of Cracow, and of mean extraction; having assumed the name of Kofinski (c), which is that of a noble family, to give himself credit. He had been created an officer in the troops of the confederates under Pulaski. It would seem as if Kofinski began to entertain the idea of preserving the king's life from the time when Lukawski and Strawencki abandoned him; yet he had great struggles with himself before he could resolve on this conduct, after the solemn engagements into which he had entered. Even after he had conducted the king back to Warsaw, he expressed more than once his doubts of the propriety of what he had done, and some remorse for having deceived his employers. He was detained under a very strict confinement, and obliged to give evidence against his two companions Lukawski and Strawencki, who were beheaded, his majesty having obtained for them from the diet a mitigation of the horrible punishment which the laws of Poland inflict upon regicides. About a week after the execution of these conspirators, Kofinski was sent out of Poland, after the king had settled upon him an annual pension which he enjoyed at Semigallia in the papal territories."

Upon the king's return to Warsaw he was received with the utmost demonstrations of joy. Every one exclaimed with rapture, "The king is alive!" and all struggled to get near him, to kiss his hand, or even to touch his clothes. But neither the virtues nor the popularity of the sovereign could allay the factious spirit of the Poles, nor prevent the dismemberment of his kingdom.

"The partition of Poland was first projected by the king of Prussia. Polish or Western Prussia had long been an object of his ambition: exclusive of its fertility, commerce, and population, its local situation rendered it highly valuable to that monarch; it lay between his German dominions and Eastern Prussia, and while possessed by the Poles, cut off at their will all communication between them." The period was now arrived when the situation of Poland seemed to promise the easy acquisition of this valuable province. "Frederic pursued it, however, with all the caution of an able politician. On the commencement of the troubles, he showed no eagerness to interfere in the affairs of this country; and although he had concurred with the emperors of Russia in raising Stanislaus Augustus to the throne of Poland, yet he declined taking any active part in his favour against the confederates. Afterwards, when the whole kingdom became convulsed throughout with civil commotions (1769), and desolated likewise by the plague, he, under pretence of forming lines to prevent the spreading of the infection, advanced his troops into Polish Prussia, and occupied that whole district.

"Though now completely master of the country, and who gains by no means apprehensive of any formidable resistance from the disunited and distracted Poles, yet, as he was well aware that the security of his new acquisition depended upon the acquiescence of Russia and Austria, he has planned the partition of Poland. He communicated the project to the emperor, either upon their interview at Nies in Silesia in 1769, or in that of the following year at Neufadt in Austria; from whom the overture met with a ready concurrence. To induce the emperors of Russia to acquiesce in the same project, he dispatched his brother Henry to Petersburg, who suggested to the emperors that the house of Austria was forming an alliance with the Porte, with which she was then at war; that if such alliance took place, it would create a most formidable combination against her; that, nevertheless, the friendship of that house was to be purchased by acceding to the partition; that upon this condition the emperor was willing to renounce his connection with the Grand Signior, and would suffer the Russians to prosecute the war without interruption. Catharine, anxious to push her conquests against the Turks, and dreading the interposition of the emperor in that quarter; perceiving likewise, from the intimate union between the courts of Vienna and Berlin, that it would not be in her power, at the present juncture, to prevent the intended partition - claimed with the proposal, and selected no inconsiderable portion of the Polish territories for herself. The treaty was signed at Petersburg in the beginning of February 1772, by the Russian, Austrian, and Prussian plenipotentiaries. It would be tedious to enter into a detail of the pleas urged by the three powers in favour of their several demands; it would be no less uninteresting to lay before the reader the answers and remonstrances of the king and senate, as well as the appeals to the other states which had guaranteed the polities of Poland. The courts of London, Paris, Stockholm, and Copenhagen, remonstrated against the usurpations; but remonstrances without assistance could be of no effect. Poland submitted to the dismemberment not without the most violent struggles, and now for the first time felt and lamented the fatal effects of faction and discord.

A diet being demanded by the partitioning powers, in order to ratify the cession of the provinces, it met on the 16th of April 1773; and such was the spirit of the members, that notwithstanding the deplorable situation

(b) "I have been (says Mr Wraxall) at this mill, rendered memorable by so singular an event. It is a wretched Polish hovel, at a distance from any house. The king has rewarded the miller to the extent of his wishes in building him a mill upon the Vistula, and allowing him a small pension."

(c) His real name was John Kutima. of their country, the threats and bribes of the three powers, the partition-treaty was not carried through without much difficulty. For some time the majority of the nuncios appeared determined to oppose the dismemberment, and the king firmly persisted in the same resolution. The ambassadors of the three courts enforced their requisitions by the most alarming menaces, and threatened the king with deposition and imprisonment. They also gave out by their emissaries, that in case the diet continued refractory, Warsaw should be pillaged. This report was industriously circulated, and made a sensible impression upon the inhabitants. By menaces of this sort, by corrupting the marshal of the diet, who was accompanied with a Russian guard; in a word, by bribes, promises, and threats, the members of the diet were at length prevailed on to ratify the dismemberment.

Of the dismembered countries, the Russian province is the largest, the Austrian the most populous, and the Prussian the most commercial. The population of the whole amounts to near 5,000,000 souls; the first containing 1,500,000, the second 2,500,000, and the third 860,000. Western Prussia was the greatest loss to Poland, as by the dismemberment of that province the navigation of the Vistula entirely depends upon the king of Prussia: by the loss consequently of this district a fatal blow was given to the trade of Poland; for his Prussian majesty has laid such heavy duties upon the merchandize passing to Danzig, as greatly to diminish the commerce of that town, and to transfer a considerable portion of it to Memel and Königsberg.

The partitioning powers, however, did less injury to the republic by dismembering its fairest provinces, than by perpetuating the principles of anarchy and confusion, and establishing on a permanent footing that exorbitant liberty which is the parent of faction, and has proved the decline of the republic. Under pretence of amending the constitution, they have confirmed all its defects, and have taken effectual precautions to render this unhappy country incapable of emerging from its present deplorable state, as has been lately seen in the failure of the most patriotic attempt that was perhaps ever made by a king to reform the constitution of his kingdom.

The kings of Poland were anciently hereditary and absolute; but afterwards became elective and limited, as we find them at this day. In the reign of Louis, towards the end of the 14th century, several limitations were laid on the royal prerogative. In that of Casimir IV., who ascended the throne in 1446, representatives from the several palatinates were first called to the diet; the legislative power till then having been lodged in the estates, and the executive in the king and senate.

On the decease of Sigismund Augustus, it was enacted by law, "That the choice of a king for the future should perpetually remain free and open to all the nobles of the kingdom;" which law has accordingly been hitherto observed.

"As soon as the throne is vacant, all the courts of justice, and other ordinary springs of the machine of government, remain in a state of inaction, and all the authority is transferred to the primate, who, in quality of interrex, has in some respects more power than the king himself; and yet the republic takes no umbrage at it, because he has not time to make himself formidable.

He notifies the vacancy of the throne to foreign princes, which is in effect proclaiming that a crown is to be disposed of; he issues the universalia, or circular letters for the election; gives orders to the staroits (a sort of military officers who have great authority, and whose proper business it is to levy the revenue) to keep a strict guard upon the fortified places, and to the grand-generals to do the same upon the frontiers, towards which the army marches.

"The place of election is the field of Wola, at the gates of Warsaw. All the nobles of the kingdom have manner of a right of voting. The poles encamp on the left side of the Vistula, and the Lithuanians on the right, each under the banners of their respective palatinates, which makes a sort of civil army consisting of between a hundred and fifty and two hundred thousand men, assembled to exercise the highest act of freedom. Those who are not able to provide a horse and a sabre stand behind on foot, armed with scythes, and do not seem at all less proud than the rest, as they have the same right of voting.

"The field of election is surrounded by a ditch with three gates, in order to avoid confusion, one to the east for Great Poland, another to the south for Little Poland, and a third to the west for Lithuania. In the middle of the field, which is called Kaluza, is erected a great building of wood, named the Szoda or hall for the senate, at whose debates the deputies are present, and carry the result of them to the several palatinates. The part which the marshal acts upon this occasion is very important; for, being the mouth of the nobility, he has it in his power to do great service to the candidates; he is also to draw up the instrument of election, and the king elect must take it only from his hand.

"It is prohibited, upon pain of being declared a public enemy, to appear at the election with regular troops, in order to avoid all violence. But the nobles, who are always armed with pistols and sabres, commit violence against one another, at the time that they cry out 'liberty!'

"All who aspire openly to the crown are expressly excluded from the field of election, that their presence may not constrain the voters. The king must be elected nemine contradicente, by all the suffrages without exception. The law is founded upon this principle, that when a great family adopts a father, all the children have a right to be pleased. The idea is plausible in speculation; but if it was rigorously kept to, Poland could have no such thing as a lawful king. They therefore give up a real unanimity, and content themselves with the appearance of it; or rather, if the law, which prescribes it, cannot be fulfilled by means of money, they call in the assistance of the sabre.

"Before they come to this extremity, no election can possibly be carried on with more order, decency, and appearance of freedom. The primate in few words recapitulates to the nobles on horseback the respective merit of the candidates; he exhorts them to choose the most worthy, invokes heaven, gives his blessing to the assembly, and remains alone with the marshal of the diet, while the senators disperse themselves into the several palatinates, to promote an unanimity of sentiments. If they succeed, the primate goes himself to collect the votes, naming once more all the candidates. 'Szoda (answer the nobles), that is the man we choose,' and..." and instantly the air resounds with his name, with cries of vivat, and the noise of pistols. If all the palatines agree in their nominations, the primate gets on horseback; and then the profoundest silence succeeding to the greatest noise, he asks three times if all are satisfied? and after a general approbation, three times proclaims the king; and the grand-marshal of the crown repeats the proclamation three times at the three gates of the camp. How glorious a king this, if endowed with royal qualities! and how incontestable his title in the suffrages of a whole people! But this sketch of a free and peaceable election is by no means a representation of what usually happens. The corruption of the great, the fury of the people, intrigues and factions, the gold and the arms of foreign powers, frequently fill the scene with violence and blood."

Before the king is proclaimed, the poëta conventa is read aloud to him, which on his knees at the altar he swears to observe. As this contract, which is drawn up, methodized, and approved, by the senate and nobility, may be deemed the great charter of Poland, we shall enumerate the principal articles of which it consists. These are, that the king shall not attempt to encroach on the liberty of the people, by rendering the crown hereditary in his family; but that he shall preserve all the customs, laws, and ordinances, respecting the freedom of election; that he shall ratify all treaties subsisting with foreign powers which are approved by the diet; that it shall be his chief study to cultivate peace, preserve the public tranquillity, and promote the interest of the realm; that he shall not coin money except in the name of the republic, nor appropriate to himself the advantages arising from coinage; that in declaring war, concluding peace, making levies, hiring auxiliaries, or admitting foreign troops upon any pretext within the Polish dominions, the consent of the diet and senate shall be necessary; that all offices and preferments shall be given to the natives of Poland and Lithuania; and that no pretence shall excuse or palliate the crime of introducing foreigners into the king's council or the departments of the republic; that the officers of his majesty's guards shall be Poles or Lithuanians; and that the colonel shall absolutely be a native of Poland, and of the order of nobility; that all the officers shall be subordinate to the authority of the marshal; that no individual shall be vested with more employments than the law allows; that the king shall not marry without the approbation of the senate; and that the household of the queen shall be determined and regulated by the republic; that the sovereign shall never apply his private signet to acts and papers of a public nature; that the king shall dispose of the offices both of the court and of the republic; and regulate with the senate the number of forces necessary for the defence of the kingdom; that he shall administer justice by the advice of the senate and his council; that the expenses of his civil list shall be the same with those of his predecessors; that he shall fill up all vacancies in the space of six weeks; that this shall be his first business in the diet, obliging the chancellor to publish his appointments in due form; that the king shall not diminish the treasure kept at Cracow; but, on the contrary, endeavour to augment that and the number of the crown-jewels; that he shall borrow no money without the consent of the diet; that he shall not equip a naval force without the consent and full approbation of the republic; that he shall profess the Roman Catholic faith, promote, maintain, and defend it, through all the Polish dominions; and finally, that all their several liberties, rights, and privileges, shall be preserved to the Poles and Lithuanians in general, and to all the districts and provinces contained within each of these great divisions, without change, alteration, or the smallest violation, except by the consent of the republic.

To these articles a variety of others are added, according to circumstances and the humour of the diet; but what we have recited form the standing conditions, which are scarce ever altered or omitted.

The diet of Poland is composed of the king, the senate, bishops, and the deputies of the nobility or gentry of every palatinate, called, in the collective capacity, comitia togata; that is, when the states assemble in the city without arms and horses; or comitia paludata, when they meet in the fields armed, as during an interregnum, at the diet of election. It is a prerogative of the crown to assemble the diet at any particular place, except on occasion of a coronation, which the custom of the country requires should be celebrated at the capital. For a number of years, indeed, the diet regularly assembled at Warsaw; but, on complaint made by the Lithuanians, it was agreed, that every third diet should be held at Grodno. "When it is proposed to hold a general diet, the king, or, in case of an interregnum, the primate, issues writs to the palatinates of the several provinces, specifying the time and place of the meeting. A sketch likewise is sent of the business to be deliberated on by the assembly; the senate is consulted in this particular, and six weeks are allowed the members to prepare themselves for the intended session. It is remarkable, that the diet never sits more than six weeks in the most critical conjunctures and pressing emergencies; they have been known to break up in the middle of an important debate, and to leave the business to a future meeting. This custom hath been justly esteemed one of the greatest defects of the Polish constitution, which probably owes its origin to convenience, but is now superstitiously observed from whim and caprice. On receipt of the king's writ, the palatine communicates the meeting of the diet to all the castellans, starostas, and other inferior officers and gentry within his jurisdiction, requiring them to assemble on a certain day to elect deputies, and take into consideration the business specified in the royal summons. These meetings are called petty diets, dietines, or lantoge, in the language of the country; every gentleman possessing three acres of land having a vote, and matters being determined by a majority; whereas in the general diet decrees are only valid when the whole body is unanimous. Every palatinate has three representatives, though the business devolves on one called a nuncio, who is elected for his ability and experience; and the other two are added only to give weight to this leading member, and do honour by their magnificent appearance to the palatinate they represent. As these deputies, since the reign of Casimir III., have seats in the diet, it naturally divides the general assembly into two bodies, the upper and lower; the one being composed of the senate, the superior clergy, and the great officers; the other of the representatives of the palatinates, who prepare all business for the superior body." The first business of the assembly is to choose a marshal; upon which occasion the debates and tumults run so high, that the whole time for the session of the diet is often consumed in altercation and wrangling about the election of a speaker, who has now nothing farther to do than return quietly to his own home. After his election, he kisses the king's hand; and the chancellor, as the royal representative, reports the matters to be deliberated by the diet. Then the marshal acquaints the king with the instructions of the deputies from their constituents, the grievances which they would have redressed, and the abuses they require to be remedied. He likewise requests his majesty to fill up the vacant offices and benefices, according to law; and he is answered by a fet speech from the chancellor, who reports the king's inclination to satisfy his people, as soon as he hath consulted his faithful senate. There is something very peculiarly absurd in some of the customs observed by the Polish diet; one in particular merits attention. Not only an unanimity of voices is necessary to pass any bill, and constitute a decree of the diet, but every bill must likewise be attested to unanimously, or none can take effect. Thus, if out of twenty bills one should happen to be opposed by a single voice, called "liberum veto," all the rest are thrown out, and the diet meets, deliberates, and debates, for six weeks to no purpose.

To add to the other inconveniences attending the constitution of the diet of Poland, a spirit of venality in the deputies, and a general corruption, hath seized all ranks and degrees in that assembly. Here, as in some other countries, the cry of liberty is kept up for the sake of private interest. Deputies come with a full resolution of profiting by their patriotism, and not lowering their voice without a gratification. Determined to oppose the most salutary measures of the court, they either withdraw from the assembly, protest against all that shall be transacted in their absence, or else excite such a clamour as renders it necessary for the court to silence them by some lucrative pension, donation, or employment. Thus not only the business of the assembly is obstructed by its own members, but frequently by largesses from neighbouring powers, and sometimes by the liberality of an open enemy, who has the art of distributing his money with discretion.

Perhaps the most respectable department of the Polish government is the senate, composed of the bishops, palatines, castellans, and ten officers of state, who derive a right from their dignities of fitting in that assembly; in all amounting to 144 members, who are styled senators of the kingdom or counsellors of the state, and have the title of excellency, a dignity supported by no pension or emoluments necessarily annexed. The senate presides over the laws, is the guardian of liberty, the judge of right, and the protector of justice and equity. All the members, except the bishops, who are senators ex officio, are nominated by the king, and they take an oath to the republic before they are permitted to enter upon their functions. Their honours continue for life; at the general diet they sit on the right and left of the sovereign, according to their dignity, without regard to seniority. They are the mediators between the monarch and the subject, and, in conjunction with the king, ratify all the laws passed by the nobility. As a senator is bound by oath to maintain the liberties of the republic, it is thought no disrespect to majesty that they remind the prince of his duty. They are his counsellors, and this freedom of speech is an inseparable prerogative of their office.

Such was the constitution of Poland before it was new-modelled by the partitioning powers. That it was a very bad constitution needs no proof; but those foreign reformers did not improve it. For two centuries at least, the Poles have with great propriety denominated their government a republic, because the king is so exceedingly limited in his prerogative, that he resembles more the chief of a commonwealth than the sovereign of a powerful monarchy. That prerogative, already too confined to afford protection to the peasants, groaning under the aristocratic tyranny of the nobles, was, after the partition treaty, still further restrained by the establishment of the permanent council, which was vested with the whole executive authority, leaving to the sovereign nothing but the name. The permanent council consists of 25 persons, elected by the diet out of the different orders of nobility; and though the king, when present, presides in it, he cannot exert a single act of power but with the consent of the majority of persons, who may well be called his colleagues.

That the virtuous and accomplished Stanislaus should labour to extricate himself and the great body of the people from such unparalleled oppression, and that the more respectable part of the nation should wish to give to themselves and their posterity a better form of government, was surely very natural and very meritorious. The influence of the partitioning powers was indeed exerted to make the king contented with his situation. His revenues, which before did not exceed £100,000, were now increased to three times that sum. The republic likewise agreed to pay his debts, amounting to upwards of £400,000. It bestowed on him also, in hereditary possession, four staroches, or governments of castles, with the districts belonging to them; and reimbursed him of the money he had laid out for the state. It was also agreed, that the revenues of the republic should be enhanced to 33 millions of florins (near two millions Sterling), and the army should consist of 30,000 men. Soon after the conclusion of the peace with Turkey, the empress of Russia also made the king a present of 250,000 rubles, as a compensation for that part of his dominions which fell into her hands.

These bribes, however, were not sufficient to blind the eyes of Stanislaus, or to cool the ardour of his patriotism. He laboured for posterity, and with such accomplished parent successe, that on the 3rd of May 1791, a new constitution of the government of Poland was established by the king, together with the confederate states assembled in double number to represent the Polish nation. That this was a perfect constitution, we are far from thinking; but it was probably as perfect as the inveterate prejudices of the nobles would admit of. It deviated as little as possible from the old forms, and was drawn up in 11 articles, respecting the government of the republic; to which were added 21 sections, regulating the diets or primary assemblies of Poland.

Of this constitution, the first article established the substance Roman Catholic faith, with all its privileges and immunities, as the dominant national religion; granting to all other people, of whatever persuasion, peace in matters of faith, and the protection of government. The second second article guaranteed to the nobility or the eques- trian order, all the privileges which it enjoyed under the kings of the house of Jagellon. The third and fourth articles granted to the free royal towns internal jurisdictions of their own; and exempted the peasants from slavery, declaring every man free as soon as he sets his foot on the territory of the republic. The fifth ar- ticle, after declaring, that in civil society all power should be derived from the will of the people, enacted that the government of the Polish nation should be com- posed of three distinct powers, the legislative, in the states assembled; the executive, in the king and the council of inspection; and the judicial power, in the ju- risdictions existing, or to be established. The sixth and seventh articles, as being of more importance, we shall give in the words of the constitution itself.

VI. The Diet, or the legislative power, shall be divid- ed into two houses, viz. the house of nuncios, or depu- ties, and the house of senate, where the king is to pre- side. The former being the representative and central point of supreme national authority, shall possess the pre- eminence in the legislature; therefore all bills are to be decided first in this house.

1. All General Laws, viz. constitutional, civil, cri- minal, and perpetual taxes; concerning which matters, the king is to issue his propositions by the circular let- ters sent before the diets to every palatinate and to every district for deliberation, which coming before the house with the opinion expressed in the instructions given to their representatives, shall be taken the first for decision.

2. Particular Laws, viz. temporal taxes; regulations of the mint; contracting public debts; creating nobles, and other casual recompenses; reparation of public ex- penses, both ordinary and extraordinary; concerning war; peace; ratification of treaties, both political and commercial; all diplomatic acts and conventions relative to the laws of nations; examining and acquitting diffe- rent executive departments, and similar subjects arising from the accidental exigencies and circumstances of the state; in which the propositions, coming directly from the throne into the house of nuncios, are to have prece- dence in discussion before the private bills.

In regard to the house of senate, it is to consist of bishops, palatines, castellans, and ministers, under the presidency of the king, who shall have but one vote, and the casting voice in case of parity, which he may give either personally, or by a message to the house. Its power and duty shall be,

1. Every general law that passes formally through the house of nuncios, is to be sent immediately to this, which is either accepted, or suspended till farther na- tional deliberation, by a majority of votes, as prescribed by law. If accepted, it becomes a law in all its force; if suspended, it shall be resumed at the next diet; and if it is then agreed to again by the house of nuncios, the senate must submit to it.

3. Every particular law or statute of the diet in mat- ters above specified, as soon as it has been determined by the house of nuncios, and sent up to the senate, the votes of both houses shall be jointly computed, and the majority, as described by law, shall be considered as a decree and the will of the nation. Those senators and ministers who, from their share in executive power, are accountable to the republic, cannot have an active voice in the diet, but may be present, in order to give necessa- ry explanations to the states.

These ordinary legislative diets shall have their unin- terrupted existence, and be always ready to meet; re- newable every two years. The length of sessions shall be determined by the law concerning diets. If conven- ued out of ordinary session upon some urgent occasion, they shall only deliberate on the subject which occasion- ed such a call, or on circumstances which may arise out of it.

No law or statute enacted by such ordinary diet can be altered or annulled by the same. The complement of the diet shall be composed of the number of persons in both houses to be determined hereafter.

The law concerning the diets or primary elections, as established by the present diet, shall be regarded as a most effectual foundation of civil liberty.

The majority of votes shall decide every thing, and everywhere; therefore we abolish, and utterly annihi- late, liberum veto, all sorts of confederacies and confede- rate diets, as contrary to the spirit of the present con- stitution, as undermining the government, and as being ruinous to society.

Willing to prevent, on one hand, violent and fre- quent changes in the national constitution, yet, consider- ing on the other, the necessity of perfecting it, after experiencing its effects on public prosperity, we deter- mine the period of every 25 years for an extraordinary Extraor- constitutional diet, to be held purposely for the revisionary diet, and such alterations of the constitution as may be found the confi- rate law thereafter:

VII. The most perfect government cannot exist or lack without an effectual executive power. The hap- piness of the nation depends on just laws, but the good effects of laws flow only from their execution. Ex- perience has taught us, that the neglecting this effec- tual part of government has overwhelmed Poland with disasters.

Having, therefore, secured to the free Polish nation the right of enacting laws for themselves, the supreme inspection over the executive power, and the choice of their magistrates, we entrust to the king and his coun- cil the highest power of executing the laws. This council shall be called stara, or the council of inspec- tion.

The duty of such executive power shall be to watch over the laws, and to see them strictly executed accord- ing to their import, even by the means of public force, should it be necessary. All departments and magistra- cies are bound to obey its directions. To this power we leave the right of controlling such as are refractory, or of punishing such as are negligent in the execution of their respective offices.

This executive power cannot assume the right of mak- ing laws, or of their interpretation. It is expressly forbidden to contract public debts; to alter the repart- ition of the national income, as fixed by the diet; to declare war; to conclude definitively any treaty, or any diplomatic act; it is only allowed to carry on negotia- tions with foreign courts, and facilitate temporary oc- currences, always with reference to the diet.

The crown of Poland we declare to be elective in re- gard to families, and it is settled for ever.

Having experienced the fatal effects of interregna, families, periodically periodically subverting government, and being desirous of preventing for ever all foreign influence, as well as of infusing to every citizen a perfect tranquillity, we have, from prudent motives, resolved to adopt hereditary succession to our throne: therefore we enact and declare, that, after the expiration of our life, according to the gracious will of the Almighty, the present elector of Saxony shall reign over Poland, and in his person shall the dynasty of future kings of Poland begin. We reserve to the nation, however, the right of electing to the throne any other house or family, after the extinction of the first.

Every king, on his accession to the throne, shall take a solemn oath to God and the nation, to support the present constitution, to fulfill the pacta conventa, which will be settled with the present elector of Saxony; as appointed to the crown, and which shall bind him in the same manner as former ones.

The king's person is sacred and inviolable; as no act can proceed immediately from him, he cannot be in any manner responsible to the nation; he is not an absolute monarch, but the father and the head of the people; his revenues, as fixed by the pacta conventa, shall be sacredly preserved. All public acts, the acts of magistracies, and the coin of the kingdom, shall bear his name.

The king, who ought to possess every power of doing good, shall have the right of pardoning those that are condemned to death, except the crimes be against the state. In time of war, he shall have the supreme command of the national forces; he may appoint the commanders of the army, however, by the will of the states. It shall be his province to patentee officers in the army, and other dignitaries, conformant to the regulations hereafter to be expressed, to appoint bishops, senators, and ministers, as members of the executive power.

The king's council of inspection is to consist, 1. Of the primate, as the head of the clergy, and the president of the commission of education, or the first bishop in ordine. 2. Of five ministers, viz. the minister of police, minister of justice, minister of war, minister of finances, and minister for the foreign affairs. 3. Of two secretaries to keep the protocols, one for the council, another for the foreign department; both, however, without decisive vote. The hereditary prince coming of age, and having taken the oath to preferve the constitution, may assist at all sittings of the council, but shall have no vote therein. The marshal of the diet, being chosen for two years, has also a right to sit in this council, without taking any share in its resolves; for the end only to call together the diet, always existing, in the following case: should he deem, from the emergencies hereunder specified, the convocation of the diet absolutely necessary, and the king refusing to do it, the marshal is bound to issue his circular letters to all nuncios and senators, aducing real motives for such meeting.

The cases demanding such convocation of the diet are the following: 1. In a pressing necessity concerning the law of nations, and particularly in case of a neighbouring war. 2. In case of an internal commotion, menacing with the revolution of the country, or of a collision between magistratures. 3. In an evident danger of general famine. 4. In the orphan state of the country, by demise of the king, or in case of the king's dangerous illness. All the resolutions of the council of inspection are to be examined by the rules above mentioned. The king's opinion, after that of every member in the council has been heard, shall decisively prevail. Every resolution of this council shall be issued under the king's signature, counter signed by one of the ministers sitting therein; and thus signed, shall be obeyed by all executive departments, except in cases expressly exempted by the present constitution.

Should all the members refuse their countersign to any resolution, the king is obliged to forego his opinion; but if he should persist in it, the marshal of the diet may demand the convocation of the diet; and if the king will not, the marshal himself shall send his circular letters as above. Ministers composing this council cannot be employed at the same time in any other commission or department.

If it should happen that two thirds of secret votes in both houses demand the changing of any person, either in the council, or any executive department, the king is bound to nominate another. Willing that the council of inspection should be responsible to the nation for their actions, we decree, that when these ministers are denounced and accused before the diet (by the special committee appointed for examining their proceedings) of any transgression of positive law, they are answerable with their persons and fortunes. Such impeachments being determined by a simple majority of votes, collected jointly from both houses, shall be tried immediately by the comital tribunal, where the accused are to receive their final judgment and punishment, if found guilty; or to be honourably acquitted on sufficient proof of innocence.

In order to form a necessary organization of the executive power, we establish hereby separate commissions, connected with the above council, and subjected to obey its ordinances. These commissions are, 1. of education; 2. of police; 3. of war; 4. of treasury. It is through the medium of these four departments that all the particular orderly commissions (n), as established by the present diet, in every palatinate and district, shall depend on, and receive all orders from, the council of inspection, in their respective duties and occurrences.

The eighth article regulates the administration of justice, beginning with a very sensible declaration, that the division of judicial power is incompatible with the legislative, and that it cannot be administered by the king. It therefore constitutes primary courts of justice for each palatinate or district, composed of judges chosen at the dietine; and appoints higher tribunals, erected one in each of the three provinces into which the kingdom is divided, with which appeals may be lodged from the primary.

(n) Orderly commissions are newly instituted; each palatinate and district chooses a certain number of commissioners; their office lasts two years; their principal duty is to maintain police and good order in their district; to put into execution decrees and regulations of supreme departments; to collect taxes; to keep cash; to make such payments as assigned by the commission of finances; to protect citizens from the military oppression; to furnish recruits, besides many other duties of internal management. It appoints likewise for the trial of persons accused of crimes against the state, one supreme general tribunal for all classes, called a comital tribunal or court, composed of persons chosen at the opening of every diet. The ninth article provides a regency during the king's minority, in case of his settled alienation of reason, or upon the emergency of his being made a prisoner of war. This regency was to be composed of the council of inspection, with the queen at their head, or, in her absence, the primate of the kingdom. The tenth article enjoins, that the education of the king's sons shall be entrusted to the king with the council, and a tutor appointed by the states; and the eleventh regulates the army in such a manner, as to prevent it from being employed to overturn the constitution.

The regulation of the diets contains nothing that can be interesting to a British reader, except what relates to the election and duties of nuncios or representatives to the general diet. And here it is enacted, that persons having a right to vote are all nobles of the equitrian order; i.e., 1. All hereditary proprietors of landed property, or possessors of estates by adjudication for a debt, paying territorial tax to government; sons also of such proprietors during the life of their parents, before the ex-division of patrimony. 2. Brothers inheriting estates before they have shared their succession. 3. All mortgages who pay 100 florins (50 shillings) of territorial tax per year from their possessions. 4. All life-holders of lands paying territorial tax to the same amount. 5. All nobles in the army possessed of such qualifying estates have a vote in their respective districts in time of peace, and properly furloughed by their commanders. 6. Legal possession is understood to be qualifying when it has been formerly acquired and actually enjoyed for twelve calendar months previously.

Persons who have no right to vote are, 1. Those of the equitrian order that are not actually possessed of a property, as described in the foregoing article. 2. Such as hold royal, ecclesiastical, or noble lands, even with right of inheritance, but on condition of some duty or payment to their principals, consequently dependent thereon. 3. Gentry possessing estates on feudal tenure, called ordynackie, as being bound to certain personal service thereby. 4. All renters of estates that have no other qualifying property. 5. Those that have not accomplished 18 years of age. 6. Crimine notati, and those that are under a decree passed in default, even in the first instance, for having disobeyed any judicial court.

Every person of the equitrian order that pays territorial tax to government for his freehold, let it be ever so small, is eligible to all elective offices in his respective district.

Gentlemen actually serving in the army, even possessed of landed hereditary estate, must have served five complete years before they are eligible to the office of a nuncio only. But this condition is dispensed with in favour of those that have filled before some public function.

Whoever is not personally present at the diet; whoever has not completed 23 years of age; whoever has not been in any public function, nor passed the biennial office of a commissary in the orderly commission; those that are not exempted by law from obligations of scarta bellatae, which subjects all newly-nobilitated persons to certain civil restrictions until the next generation; and, lastly, all those against whom may be objected a decree in contumacia in a civil cause; are not eligible.

During the business of election, the president who opened the meeting, with the rest of the committee, except those who are afflators, shall prepare instructions for procedure; and in regard to the propositions sent by the king and the council of inspection, these instructions shall be worded thus: "Our nuncios shall vote affirmative to the article N;" or, "Our nuncios to the nuncio shall vote negative to the article N," in case it is found contrary to the opinion of the dietine: and should any amendment or addition be deemed necessary and agreed on, it may be inserted in the instructions at the end of the relative proposition.

At the meeting of the dietines, after the diet has sat, the nuncios are bound to appear before their constituents, and to bring their report of the whole proceedings of that assembly; first, respecting the acts of legislature; next, with respect to the particular projects of their palatinate or district recommended to them by the instructions.

It is at these dietines that nuncios, after they have rendered to their constituents a clear account of their proceedings and of the diet, may be either confirmed or changed, and new ones elected in their stead till the general election for the following ordinary diet.

New nuncios are chosen, 1. In the room of the deceased. 2. In the room of those that are become senators or ministers of state. 3. In case of resignation. 4. In the room of such as are disqualified by the diet. 5. When any of the afflators defines a new election, to substitute another nuncio in the room of one expressly pointed out, which request must be made in writing, signed by 12 members besides, and be delivered to the marshal of the dietine. In this last case, the marshal is to read the name of the nuncio objected to, and to make the following proposition: "Shall the nuncio N be confirmed in his function? or, Shall there be a new election made in his stead?" The opinion of the meeting being taken by a division, the majority shall decide the question, and be declared by the marshal. If the majority approves the conduct of the nuncio; the marshal and the afflators shall certify this confirmation on the diploma; and in case of disapprobation, the marshal shall declare the vacancy, and begin the form of a new election.

Such are the outlines of the Polish constitution established by the king and the confederates in 1791. It will not bear a comparison with that under which Britons have the happiness to live; but it is surely infinitely superior to that motley form of government which, for a century past, has rendered Poland a perpetual scene of war, tumult, tyranny, and rebellion. Many of the corrupt nobles, however, perceiving that it would curb their ambition, deprive them of the base means which they had long enjoyed of gratifying their avarice by setting the crown to sale, and render it impossible for them to continue with impunity their tyrannical oppression of the peasants, protested against it, and withdrew from the confederates. This was nothing more than what might have been expected, or than what the king and his friends undoubtedly did expect. But the malcontents were not satisfied with a simple protest; they preferred their complaints to the empress of Russ. Poland.

Of the progress of the Russians in this work of darkness, our readers will be pleased with the following manly and indignant narrative, taken from a periodical work* of acknowledged merit.

"It was on the 21st of April 1792, that the diet received the first notification from the king, of the inimical and unjust intentions of Russia. He informed them that, without the shadow of pretence, this avowed enemy of the rights of mankind had determined to invade the territory of the republic with an army of 60,000 men. This formidable banditti, commanded by generals Soltikow, Michelon, and Kofakowski, was afterwards to be supported by a corps of 20,000, and by the troops then acting in Moldavia, amounting to 70,000. The king, however, professed that he was not discouraged, and declared his readiness to put himself at the head of the national troops, and to terminate his existence in a glorious contest for the liberties of his country. Then, and not before, the diet decreed the organisation of the army, and its augmentation to 100,000. The king and the council of inspection were invested with unlimited authority in everything that regarded the defence of the kingdom. Magazines were ordered to be constructed when it was too late, and quarters to be provided for the army.

"The diet and the nation rose as one man to maintain their independence. All private animosities were obliterated, all private interests were sacrificed; the greatest encouragements were held forth to volunteers to enroll themselves under the national standard, and it was unanimously decreed by the diet, that all private losses should be compensated out of the public treasury.

"On the 18th of May, the Russian ambassador delivered a declaration, which was worthy of such a cause. It was a tissue of falsehood and hypocrisy. It asserted, that this wanton invasion, which was evidently against the sense of almost every individual Pole, was meant entirely for the good of the republic. It censured the precipitancy with which the new constitution was adopted, and ascribed the ready consent of the diet to the influence of the Warlaw mob. It represented the constitution as a violation of the principles on which the Polish republic was founded—complained of the licentiousness with which the sacred name of the empire was treated in some speeches of the members; and concluded by professing, that on these accounts, and in behalf of the emigrant Poles, her imperial majesty had ordered her troops to enter the territories of the republic.

"At the moment this declaration was delivered to the diet, the Russian troops, accompanied by Counts Potocki, Rzewuski, Branicki, and a few Polish apostates, appeared upon the frontiers, and entered the territories of the republic in several columns, before the close of the month. The spirit manifested by the nobility was truly honourable. Some of them delivered in their plate to the mint. Prince Radzvil engaged voluntarily to furnish 10,000 stand of arms, and another a train of artillery. The courage of the new and hastily embodied soldiers corresponded with the patriotism of their nobles. Prince Poniatowski, nephew to the king, was appointed commander in chief; and though his force was greatly inferior to the enemy, it must be confessed that he made a noble stand. On the 24th of May, the enemy's Cossacks were repulsed, and pursued by the patrols of the republic to the very entrenchments. On the 26th, about one o'clock, the piquets of the republic discovered a large body of Don Cossacks approaching the outposts; and a squadron of cavalry, commanded by Lieutenant Kwafiewski, supported by Lieutenant Goliejowski with two squadrons more, in all about 300, marched out to meet them. They attacked the Cossacks with success, but pursued them with more valour than prudence to the side of a wood, where they found themselves drawn into an ambuscade, and surrounded by 2000 horse, two battalions of chasseurs, and six pieces of cannon. The intrepid Poles bravely fought their way through the Russian line, and killed upwards of 200 of the enemy. The Poles in this engagement lost 100 men and two officers; one of whom, Lieutenant Kwafiewski, was wounded and made prisoner. The remainder of the detachment reached their quarters in safety.

"Perhaps the history of man can scarcely furnish an instance of perfidy, meanness, and duplicity, equal to that which was manifested by Prussia on this occasion. By the treaty of defensive alliance, solemnly contracted between the republic of Poland and the king of Prussia, and ratified on the 23d of April 1792, it is expressly stipulated, 'That the contracting parties shall do all in their power to guarantee and preserve to each other reciprocally the whole of the territories which they respectively possess: That, in case of menace or invasion from any foreign power, they shall assist each other with their whole forces, if necessary:'—and by the fifth article, it is further stipulated, 'that if any foreign power whatever shall presume to interfere in the internal affairs of Poland, his Prussian majesty shall consider this as a case falling within the meaning of the alliance, and shall assist the republic according to the tenor of the fourth article,' that is, with his whole force. What then is the pretext for abandoning this treaty? It is, that the emprefs of Russia has shown a decided opposition to the order of things established in Poland on the third of May 1791, and is provoked by Poland presuming to put herself into a posture to defend it.—It is known, however, by the most authentic documents, that nothing was effected on the third of May 1791, to which Prussia had not previously assented, and which she did not afterwards sanction; and that Prussia, according to the assertion of her own king, did not imagine a single doubt respecting the revolution till one month (and according to the Prussian minister till six months) after it had taken place; in short, to use the monarch's own words as fully explanatory of his double politics, "not till the general tranquillity of Europe permitted him to explain himself."—Instead, therefore, of afflicting Poland, Prussia insultingly recommended to Poland to retrace her steps; in which case, she said that she would be ready to attempt an accommodation in her favour. This attempt was never made, and probably never intended; for the emprefs pursued her measures.

The duchy of Lithuania was the great scene of action in the beginning of the war; but the Russians had made little little progress before the middle of the month of June. On the 10th of that month, General Judycki, who commanded a detachment of the Polish troops, between Mire and Swierzna, was attacked by the Russians; but, after a combat of some hours, he obliged them to retire with the loss of 500 men dead on the field. The general was desirous of profiting by this advantage, by pursuing the enemy, but was prevented by a most violent fall of rain. On the succeeding day, the Russians rallied again to the attack; and it then too fatally appeared, that the Poles were too young and undisciplined to contend with an inferior force against experienced troops and able generals. By a masterly manoeuvre, the Russians contrived to surround their antagonists, at a moment when the Polish general supposed that he had obliged the enemy to retreat; and though the field was contested with the utmost valour by the troops of the republic, they were at length compelled to give way, and to retire towards Niezwiecz.

On the 14th another engagement took place near Lubar, on the banks of the river Sluez, between a detachment of the Russian grand army and a party of Polish cavalry, dispatched by Prince Joseph Poniatowski, to intercept the enemy. The patriotic bravery of the Poles was victorious in this contest; but upon reconnoitering the force of the enemy, the prince found himself incapable of making a successful stand against such superior numbers. He therefore gave orders to strike the camp at Lubar, and commenced a precipitate retreat. During their march, the Polish rear was harassed by a body of 4000 Russians, till arriving at Boruszkowce, the wooden bridge unfortunately gave way, under the weight of the cavalry. The enemy, in the mean time, brought their artillery to play upon the rear of the fugitives, who lost upwards of 250 men. The Polish army next directed its course toward Zielime, where meeting, on the 17th, with a reinforcement from Zadlow, it halted to give battle to the enemy. The Russians were upwards of 17,000 strong, with 24 pieces of cannon, and the force of the republic much inferior. After a furious contest from seven in the morning till five in the afternoon, the Russians were at length obliged to retreat, and leave the field of battle in possession of the patriots. The Russians were computed to have lost 4000 men in this engagement, and the Poles about 1100.

Notwithstanding these exertions, the Poles were obliged gradually to retire before their numerous and disciplined enemies. Niezwiecz, Wilna, Minsk, and several other places of less consequence, fell into their hands one after another. On a truce being proposed to the Russian general Kochiowski, the proposal was haughtily rejected; while the defection of vice brigadier Rudnicki and some others, who preferred dishonour to personal danger, proclaimed a tottering cause. The progress of the armies of Catharine was marked with devastation and cruelty, while, such was the aversion of the people both to the cause and the manner of conducting it, that, as they approached, the country all around became a wilderness, and scarcely a human being was to be seen.

In the mean time, a series of little defeats, to which the inexperience of the commanders, and the intemperate valour of new raised troops, appear to have greatly contributed, served at once to distress and to dispirit these defenders of their country. Prince Poniatowski continued to retreat, and on the 17th of July, his rear being attacked by a very superior force, it suffered a considerable loss; though the skill and courage of General Kofciukko enabled him to make a most respectable defence. On the 18th, a general engagement took place between the two armies. The Russian line extended opposite Dubienka, along the river Bogs, as far as Opalin. The principal column, consisting of 14,000 men, was chiefly directed against the division of General Kofciukko, which consisted of 5000 men only. After a most vigorous resistance, in which the Russians lost upwards of 4000 men, and the troops of the republic only some hundreds, the latter was compelled to give way before the superior numbers of the enemy, and to retire further into the country.

This unequal contest was at last prematurely terminated. The king, whose benevolent intentions were perhaps, overpowered by his mental imbecility, and whose age and infirmities, probably, rendered him unequal to the difficulties and dangers which must attend a protracted war, instead of putting himself, according to his first resolve, at the head of his army, determined, at once, to surrender at discretion. On the 23rd of July, he summoned a council of all the deputies at that moment in Warsaw. He laid before them the last dispatches from the empress, which insisted upon total and unrevealed submission. He pointed out the danger of a dismemberment of the republic, should they delay to throw themselves upon the clemency of the empress, and to intreat her protection. He mentioned the fatal union of Austria and Prussia with Russia; and the disgraceful supineness manifested by every other court in Europe.

Four citizens, the intrepid and patriotic Malachowski, the princes Sapieha, Radzivil, and Soltan, vehemently protested against these dastardly proceedings; and the following evening a company of gentlemen from the different provinces assembled for the same purpose. The assembly waited immediately on these four distinguished patriots, and returned them their acknowledgements for the spirit and firmness with which they had resisted the usurpations of despotism. The submission of the king to the designs of Russia was no sooner made known, than Poland was bereft of all her best and most respectable citizens. Malachowski as marshal of the diet, and Prince Sapieha grand marshal of Lithuania, entered strong protests on the journals of the diet against these hostile proceedings, and declared solemnly that the diet legally assembled in 1788 was not dissolved.

On the second of August a confederation was formed at Warsaw, of which the grand apostate, Potocki, was chosen Marshall. The acts of this confederation were evidently the despotic dictates of Russia, and were recalculated only to restore the ancient abuses, and to place the country under the aggravated oppression of a former foreign yoke.

It is remarkable, that at the very moment when Poland was surrendering its liberties to its despotic invaders, the generous sympathy of Great Britain was evinced by a liberal subscription, supported by all the most respectable characters in the nation, of every party and of every sect, for the purpose of afflicting the king and the republic to maintain their independence. Though the benevolent design was frustrated, the fact remains on record as a noble testimony of the spirit of Britons in the cause of freedom, of the indignation which fills every British heart at the commission of injustice, and of the liberality with which they are disposed to assist those who suffer from the oppression of tyrants.

Not satisfied with restoring the old wretched constitution, the empress of Russia seized upon part of the territory which, at the last partition, she and her coadjutors had left to the republic; and her ambassador entering into the diet with a crowd of armed ruffians, compelled the king and that assembly to grant the form of legality to her usurpations. The nation, however, did not submit. General Kościuszko kept together a few retainers, whom he soon enabled to augment to the number of an army; and seizing on the person of the king, he has ever since waged against Russia a war, of which, it must be confessed, the object is doubtful. His enemies accuse him of cherishing in the republic the principles of the French Jacobins; and some late occurrences give a countenance to the accusation. Yet it is known he professed at first that his aim reached no farther than to restore the constitution of 1791; and if public report may be credited, an insurrection has lately taken place in Great Poland, or South Prussia, in favour of that constitution. If other Poles have been driven to democracy, they have only, with the common weakness of human nature, run from one extreme to another; and in fleeing from the tyranny of their invaders, have fallen into the horrors of anarchy. That Kościuszko will succeed against the powerful empire of Russia, there is not the smallest probability; and if there were, the court of Berlin, to complete its character, has withdrawn from the most honourable alliance in which it was ever engaged, and seems to have employed the subsidy which it received from Great Britain for the maintenance of that alliance, to cooperate with the empress in annihilating the kingdom and republic of Poland. What will be the ultimate fate of that unhappy country, and its amiable sovereign, it is impossible to say; but appearances at present indicate a division of the whole territory among the three hostile powers who formerly robbed it of some of its most valuable provinces; and when that division is made, the virtuous Stanislaus may be removed to a better world by the dagger, by the bowl, by the gripe of a giant, or by a red-hot spit!

The air of this kingdom is cold in the north, but temperate in the other parts both in summer and winter, and the weather in both more settled than in many other countries. The face of the country is for the most part level, and the hills are but few. The Carpathian mountains separate it from Hungary on the south. The soil is very fruitful both in corn and pastureage, hemp and flax. Such is the luxuriance of the pastures in Podolia, that it is said one can hardly see the cattle that are grazing in the meadows. Vast quantities of corn are yearly sent down the Vistula to Danzig, from all parts of Poland, and bought up chiefly by the Dutch. The eastern part of the country is full of woods, forests, lakes, marshes, and rivers; of the last of which, the most considerable in Poland are, the Vistula, Nieper, Niester, Duna, Bog, Warta, and Memel. The metals found in this country are iron and lead, with some tin, gold, and silver; but there are no mines of the two last wrought at present. The other products of Poland are most sorts of precious stones, ochre of all kinds, fine rock-crystal; Muscovy glass, tale, alum, saltpetre, amber, pitch, quicksilver, spar, fal-gem, lapis calaminaris, and vitriol. In Lesser Poland are salt-mines, which are the chief riches of the country, and bring most money into the exchequer. In the woods, which consist mostly of oak, beech, pine, and fir-trees, besides the more common wild beasts, are elks, wild asses, wild oxen or urus, lynxes, wild horses, wild sheep with one horn, 'bisons,' hyenas, wild goats, and buffaloes. In the meadows and fenny ground is gathered a kind of manna; and the kermesberries produced in this country are used both in dying and medicine.

The inhabitants consist of nobles, citizens, and peasants. The first possess great privileges, which they enjoy partly by the indulgence of their kings, and partly by ancient custom and prescription. Some of them have the title of prince, count, or baron; but no superiority or pre-eminence on that account over the rest, which is only to be obtained by some public post or dignity. They have the power of life and death over their vassals; pay no taxes; are subject to none but the king; have a right to all mines and salt-works on their estates; to all offices and employments, civil, military, and ecclesiastic; cannot be cited or tried out of the kingdom; may choose whom they will for their king, and lay him under what restraints they please by the Pacta Conventa; and none but they and the burgesses of some particular towns can purchase lands. In short, they are almost entirely independent, enjoying many other privileges and prerogatives besides those we have specified; but if they engage in trade, they forfeit their nobility.

The Polish tongue is a dialect of the Slavonic: (see Language, Philology, p. 222.). It is neither copious nor harmonious. Many of the words, as they are written, have not a single vowel in them; but the High Dutch and Latin are understood and spoken pretty commonly, though incorrectly. The language in Lithuania differs much from that of the other provinces. True learning, and the study of the arts and sciences, have been little attended to in Poland, till of late they began to be regarded with a more favourable eye, and to be not only patronized, but cultivated by several of the nobles and others, both laymen and ecclesiastics.

There are two archbishops in the kingdom, viz., archbishop of Gniezno and Lepel, and about a dozen bishops. The archbishop of Gniezno is always a cardinal, and primate of the kingdom. The prevailing religion is Popery, but there are great numbers of Lutherans, Calvinists, and Greeks, who are called Diffidentes, and by the laws of the kingdom were entitled to toleration; but were much oppressed till very lately. The Jews are indulged with great privileges, and are very numerous in Poland; and in Lithuania, it is said there are a multitude of Mahometan Tartars. We may judge of the numbers of Jews in this country by the produce of their annual poll-tax, which amounts to near 57,000 rixdollars.

There are few or no manufactures in the kingdom, if we except some linen and woollen clothes, and hardware; and the whole trade is confined to the city of Danzig, and other towns on the Vistula or Baltic.

Before the present troubles the king's revenue was Revenue. all clear to himself; for he paid no troops, not even his own guards; but all the forces, as well as the officers of state, were paid by the republic. The public revenues arose chiefly from the crown-lands, the salt-mines in the palatinate of Cracow, from the rents of Marienburg, Dirfau, and Regenhus, from the government of Cracow, and district of Niepolomiecz, and from ancient tolls and customs, particularly those of Elbing and Danzig. From what sources these revenues now arise, it is difficult to say; but Prussia has got possession of the most lucrative customs.

The order of the White Eagle was instituted by Augustus II. in the year 1705. Its ensign is a cross of gold enamelled with red, and appendant to a blue ribbon. The motto, *Pro fide, regis, et lege*.

The standing forces of Poland are divided into the crown-army, and that of Lithuania, consisting of horse and foot, and amounting to between 20,000 and 30,000 men. These troops are mostly cantoned on the crown-lands, and in Poland are paid by a capitation or poll-tax; but in Lithuania other taxes are levied for this purpose. Most of the foot are Germans. On any sudden and imminent danger, the whole body of the nobility, with their vassals, are obliged to appear in the field on horseback; and the cities and towns furnish a certain number of foot-soldiers, with carriages, and military stores: but for want of proper arms, provisions, subordination, and discipline, and by being at liberty after a few weeks to return home, this body has proved but of little advantage to the republic. Dantzig is the only place in the Polish dominions that deserves the name of a fortress, and it is now in the possession of Prussia. Foreign auxiliaries are not to be brought into the kingdom, nor the national troops to march out of it, without the consent of the states.

Such was the military establishment of Poland before the partition treaty. What it has been since, and is at present, we cannot positively say.

The Poles are personable men, and have good complexions. They are esteemed a brave, honest people, without dissimulation, and exceedingly hospitable. They clothe themselves in furs in winter, and over all they throw a short cloak. No people keep grander equipes than the gentry. They look upon themselves as so many sovereign princes; and have their guards, bands of music, and keep open houses: but the lower sort of people are poor abject wretches, in the lowest state of slavery. The exercises of the gentry are hunting, riding, dancing, vaulting, &c. They reside mostly upon their estates in the country; and maintain themselves and families by agriculture, breeding of bees, and grazing.