a religious society, which took its rise in England about the middle of the last century, and rapidly found its way into other countries in Europe, and into the English settlements in North America.—The members of this society, we believe, called themselves at first seekers, from their seeking the truth; but after the society was formed, they assumed the appellation of friends. The name of quakers was given to them by their enemies; and though an epithet of reproach, seems to be stamped upon them indelibly. Their foun- der is generally believed to have been George Fox, an illiterate shoemaker (see George Fox), but this opinion has been lately controverted. An ingenious writer having found, or fancied, a similarity of sentiments among the ancient Druids and modern Quakers, seems to think that Fox must have been nothing more than a tool employed by certain deists to pave the way for their system of natural religion, by allegorizing the distinguishing articles of the Christian faith.

It must be confessed, for experience will not allow it to be denied, that extremes in religion are very apt to beget each other; and if the deists alluded to reasoned from this fact, they could not have pitched upon a tool fitter for their purpose than George Fox. From his works still extant, he appears to have been one of the most extravagant and absurd enthusiasts that ever lived, and to have fancied himself, in his apostolic character, something infinitely superior to man. In a book called *News coming out of the North* (p. 157), he says of himself, "I am the Door that ever was, the same Chrift yesterday, today, and for ever." And in the introduction to his *Battle-door for Teachers and Professors*, he says, "All languages are to me no more than dust, who was before languages were." But one of the most extraordinary and blasphemous things that he ever wrote, is an answer to the Protector, who had required him to promise not to disturb his government as then established. It is as follows:

"I who am of the world called G: F doth deny the carrying or drawing any carnal sword against any, or against thee O: C: or any man, in the presence of the Lord I declare it, God is my witness, by whom I am moved to give forth for the truth's sake, from him whom the world calls G: Fox, who is the son of God, who is sent to stand a witness against all violence and against the works of darkness, and to turn the people from darkness to light, and to bring them from the occasion of the war and from the occasion of the magistrate's sword, which is a terror to the evil doer, which acts contrary to the light of the Lord Jesus Christ; which is a praise to them that do well; which is a protection to them that do well, and not the evil; and such soldiers as are put in place no false accusers must be, no violence must do, but be content with their wages; and that magistrate bears not the sword in vain, from under the occasion of that sword do I seek to bring people: my weapons are not carnal but spiritual, and my kingdom is not of this world; therefore with carnal weapon I do not fight, but am from thole things dead, from him who is not of this world, called of the world by the name of G: F: and this I am ready to feel with my blood; this I am moved to give forth for the truth's sake, who a witness stands against all unrighteousness, and all ungodliness, who a sufferer is for the righteous seed's sake, waiting for the redemption of it, who a crown that is mortal seeks not, for that faideth away; but in the light dwells which comprehends that crown, which light is the condemnation of all such, in which light I witness the crown that is immortal, which fades not away from him who to all your souls is a friend, for establishing of righteoufness, and clearing the land of evil doers, and a witness against all the wicked inventions of man, and murderer's plots, which anwer shall be with the light in all your consciences, which makes no covenant with death; to which light in you all I speak, and am clear, G: F: who a new name hath, which the world knows not." (a)

The Quakers, however, did not long entrust the defence of their principles to such senseless enthusiasts as George Fox: They were joined by a number of learned, ingenious, and pious men, who new-modelled their creed; and though they did not bring it to what is generally deemed the Christian standard, they so reformed it as that its tenets do not shock common sense, nor the duties prescribed scandalize a man of piety. The chief of these reformers were George Keith, the celebrated Penn, and our countryman Barclay. Keith was indeed excommunicated for the liberties which he took with the great apostle; but we have not a doubt but his writings contributed to the moderation of Penn, and to the elegant and masterly apology of Barclay. From that apology we selected the summary of their opinions which was given in the former edition of this work; but they have lately published such a summary themselves, of which the reader will be pleased with the following abstract:

They tell us, that about the beginning of the 17th century, a number of men, dissatisfied with all the modes of religious worship then known in the world, withdrew from the communion of every visible church to seek the Lord in retirement. Among these was their honourable elder George Fox, who being quickened by the immediate touches of divine love, could not satisfy his apprehensions of duty to God without directing the people where to find the like consolation and instruction. In the course of his travels, he met with many seeking persons in circumstances similar to his own, and these readily received his testimony. They then give us a short account of their sufferings and different settlements; and with a degree of candour which does them infinite credit, they vindicate Charles II. from the character of a persecutor; acknowledging, that though they suffered much during his reign, he gave as little countenance as he could to the severities of the legislature. They even tell us, that he exerted his influence to relieve their friends from the unprovoked and cruel persecutions of the New England fanatics; and they speak with becoming gratitude of the different acts passed in their favour during the reigns of William and Mary, and George I. They then proceed to give us the following account of their doctrine:

"We

(A) We have transcribed this letter from the theological works of Mr Leslie, where it is preserved in its original form. The Quakers, after the death of their apostle, expunged from their edition of it the words which we have printed in Italics; ashamed, as we hope, of the blasphemy imputed to them; but that Mr Leslie's copy is authentic, is thus attested by two of the friends, who saw Fox deliver it to the protector's messenger: "We are witnesses of this testimony, whose names in the flesh are,

Tho. Aldam. Rob. Craven "We agree with other professors of the Christian name, in the belief in one eternal God, the Creator and Preserver of the universe; and in Jesus Christ his Son, the Messiah, and Mediator of the new covenant (Heb. xii. 24).

"When we speak of the gracious display of the love of God to mankind, in the miraculous conception, birth, life, miracles, death, resurrection, and ascension of our Saviour, we prefer the use of such terms as we find in Scripture; and, contented with that knowledge which divine wisdom hath been meet to reveal, we attempt not to explain those mysteries which remain under the veil; nevertheless, we acknowledge and assert the divinity of Christ, who is the wisdom and power of God unto salvation (1 Cor. i. 24).

"To Christ alone we give the title of the Word of God (John i. 1.) and not to the Scriptures; although we highly esteem these sacred writings, in subordination to the Spirit (2 Pet. i. 21.), from which they were given forth; and we hold, with the apostle Paul, that they are able to make wise unto salvation, through faith which is in Christ Jesus (2 Tim. iii. 15).

"We reverence those most excellent precepts which are recorded in Scripture to have been delivered by our great Lord, and we firmly believe that they are practicable, and binding on every Christian; and that in the life to come every man will be rewarded according to his works (Mat. xvi. 27). And farther, it is our belief, that, in order to enable mankind to put in practice these sacred precepts, many of which are contradictory to the unregenerate will of man (John i. 9.), every man coming into the world is endowed with a measure of the light, grace, or good Spirit of Christ; by which, as it is attended to, he is enabled to distinguish good from evil, and to correct the disorderly passions and corrupt propensities of his nature, which mere reason is altogether insufficient to overcome. For all that belongs to man is fallible, within the reach of temptation; but this divine grace, which comes by Him who hath overcome the world (John xvi. 33.), is, to those who humbly and sincerely seek it, an all-sufficient and present help in time of need. By this the snares of the enemy are detected, his allurements avoided, and deliverance is experienced through faith in its effectual operation; whereby the soul is translated out of the kingdom of darkness, and from under the power of Satan, into the marvellous light and kingdom of the Son of God.

"Being thus persuaded that man, without the Spirit of Christ inwardly revealed, can do nothing to the glory of God, or to effect his own salvation; we think this influence especially necessary to the performance of the highest act of which the human mind is capable, even the worship of the Father of lights and of spirits, in spirit and in truth; therefore we consider as obstructions to pure worship, all forms which divert the attention of the mind from the secret influence of this union from the Holy One (1 John ii. 20, 27). Yet, although true worship is not confined to time and place, we think it incumbent on Christians to meet often together (Heb. x. 25.) in testimony of their dependence on the heavenly Father, and for a renewal of their spiritual strength; nevertheless, in the performance of worship, we dare not depend, for our acceptance with Him, on a formal repetition of the words and experiences of others; but we believe it to be our duty to cease from the activity of the imagination, and to wait in silence to have a true sight of our condition bestowed upon us: believing even a single sigh (Rom. viii. 26.) arising from such a sense of our infirmities, and of the need we have of divine help, to be more acceptable to God, than any performances, however ingenious, which originate in the will of man.

"From what has been said respecting worship, it follows, that the ministry we approve must have its origin from the same source: for that which is needful for a man's own direction, and for his acceptance with God (Jer. xxiii. 30, to 32.) must be eminently so to enable him to be helpful to others. Accordingly, we believe the renewed assistance of the light and power of Christ to be indispensably necessary for all true ministry; and that this holy influence is not at our command, or to be procured by study, but is the free gift of God to his chosen and devoted servants.—From hence arises our testimony against preaching for hire, and in contradiction to Christ's positive command, "Freely ye have received, freely give;" (Mat. x. 8.) and hence our conscientious refusal to support such ministry by tithes or other means.

"As we dare not encourage any ministry but that which we believe to spring from the influence of the Holy Spirit, so neither dare we attempt to restrain this influence to persons of any condition in life, or to the male sex alone; but, as male and female are one in Christ, we allow such of the female sex as we believe to be endued with a right qualification for the ministry, to exercise their gifts for the general edification of the church: and this liberty we esteem to be a peculiar mark of the gospel dispensation, as foretold by the prophet Joel (Joel ii. 28, 29.) and noticed by the apostle Peter (Acts ii. 16, 17).

"There are two ceremonies in use amongst most professors of the Christian name; Water-baptism, and what is termed the Lord's Supper. The first of these is generally esteemed the essential means of initiation into the church of Christ; and the latter of maintaining communion with him. But as we have been convinced, that nothing short of his redeeming power, inwardly revealed, can set the soul free from the thraldom of sin, by this power alone we believe salvation to be effected. We hold that as there is one Lord and one faith (Eph. iv. 5.), so his baptism is one in nature and operation; that nothing short of it can make us living members of his mystical body; and that the baptism with water, administered by his forerunner John, belonged, as the latter confessed, to an inferior and decreasing dispensation (John iii. 30).

"With respect to the other rite, we believe that communion between Christ and his church is not maintained by that nor any other external performance, but only by a real participation of his divine nature (2 Pet. i. 4.) through faith; that this is the supper alluded to in the Revelation (Rev. iii. 20.), "Behold I stand at the door and knock, if any man hear my voice, and open the door, I will come in to him, and will sup with him, and he with me;" and that where the substance is attained, it is unnecessary to attend to the shadow, which doth not confer grace, and concerning which opinions so different, and animosities so violent, have arisen.

"Now, as we thus believe that the grace of God, which comes by Jesus Christ, is alone sufficient for sal- vation, we can neither admit that it is conferred on a few only, whilst others are left without it; nor, thus afflicting its universality, can we limit its operation to a partial cleansing of the foul from sin, even in this life. We entertain worthier notions both of the power and goodness of our heavenly Father, and believe that he doth vouchsafe to assist the obedient to experience a total surrender of the natural will to the guidance of his pure unerring Spirit; through whose renewed assistance they are enabled to bring forth fruits unto holiness, and to stand perfect in their present rank (Mat. v. 48.; Eph. iv. 13.; Col. iv. 12.)

"There are not many of our tenets more generally known than our testimony against oaths and against war. With respect to the former of these, we abide literally by Christ's positive injunction, delivered in his *See Oath. sermon on the mount, "Swear not at all" (Mat.v.34).* From the same sacred collection of the most excellent precepts of moral and religious duty, from the example of our Lord himself (Mat. ch. v. 39., 44., &c. ch. xxvi. 52., 53.; Luke xxii. 51.; John xviii. 11.), and from the correspondent convictions of his Spirit in our hearts, we are confirmed in the belief that wars and fightings are, in their origin and effects, utterly repugnant to the Gospel, which full breathes peace and good-will to men. We also are clearly of the judgment, that if the benevolence of the Gospel were generally prevalent in the minds of men, it would effectually prevent them from oppressing, much more from enslaving, their brethren, (of whatever colour or complexion), for whom, as for themselves, Christ died; and would even influence their conduct in their treatment of the brute creation, which would no longer groan the victims of their avarice, and of their false ideas of pleasure.

"Some of our tenets have in former times, as hath been shown, subjected our friends to much suffering from government, though to the salutary purposes of government our principles are a security. They inculcate submission to the laws in all cases wherein conscience is not violated. But we hold, that as Christ's kingdom is not of this world, it is not the business of the civil magistrate to interfere in matters of religion; but to maintain the external peace and good order of the community. We therefore think perfection, even in the smallest degree, unwarrantable. We are careful in requiring our members not to be concerned in illicit trade, nor in any manner to defraud the revenue.

"It is well known that the society, from its first appearance, has disdained those names of the months and days which, having been given in honour of the heroes or false gods of the heathens, originated in their flattery or superstition; and the custom of speaking to a single person in the plural number (b), as having arisen also from motives of adulation. Compliments, superfluity of apparel and furniture, outward shows of rejoicing and mourning, and observation of days and times, we esteem to be incompatible with the simplicity and sincerity of a Christian life; and public diversions, gaming, and other vain amusements of the world, we cannot but condemn. They are a waste of that time which is given us for nobler purposes, and divert the attention of the mind from the sober duties of life, and from the reproofs of instruction, by which we are guided to an everlasting inheritance.

"To conclude, although we have exhibited the several tenets which distinguish our religious society, as objects of our belief, yet we are sensible that a true and living faith is not produced in the mind of man by his own effort; but is the free gift of God (Eph. ii. 8.) in Christ Jesus, nourished and increased by the progressive operation of his spirit in our hearts, and our proportionate obedience (John vii. 17.). Therefore, although, for the preservation of the testimonies given us to bear, and for the peace and good order of the society, we deem it necessary that those who are admitted into membership with us, should be previously convinced of those doctrines which we esteem essential; yet we require no formal subscription to any articles, either as the condition of membership, or to qualify for the service of the church. We prefer the judging of men by their fruits, in a dependence on the aid of Him who, by his prophet, hath promised to be "a spirit of judgment to him that setteth in judgment" (Isaiah xxviii. 6). Without this, there is a danger of receiving numbers into outward communion, without any addition to that spiritual sheepfold, whereof our blest Lord declared himself to be both the door and the shepherd (John x. 7., 11.) that is, such as know his voice, and follow him in the paths of obedience."

Such are the doctrines of this people as we find them stated in a small pamphlet lately presented by themselves to the public; and in the same tract they give the following account of their discipline.

"In the practice of discipline, we think it indispensible that the order recommended by Christ himself be invariably observed: (Matth. xviii. 15. to 17.) 'If thy brother shall trespass against thee, go and tell him his fault between thee and him alone: if he shall hear thee, thou hast gained thy brother; but if he will not hear thee, then take with thee one or two more, that in the mouth of two or three witnesses every word may be established; and if he shall neglect to hear them, tell it unto the church.'

"To effect the salutary purposes of discipline, meetings were appointed, at an early period of the society, which, from the times of their being held, were called quarterly-meetings. It was afterwards found expedient to divide the districts of those meetings, and to meet more often; whence arose monthly-meetings, subordinate to those held quarterly. At length, in 1669, a yearly-meeting was established, to superintend, assist, and provide, rules for the whole; previous to which, general meetings had been occasionally held.

"A monthly-meeting is usually composed of several particular congregations, situated within a convenient distance of each other. Its business is to provide for the subsistence of their poor, and for the education of their offspring; to judge of the sincerity and fitness of persons appearing to be convinced of the religious principles of the society, and desiring to be admitted

(b) Speaking of this custom, Fox says: "When the Lord sent me into the world, he forbade me to put off my hat to any; and I was required to thee and thou all men and women." Journal, p. 24. into membership; to excite due attention to the discharge of religious and moral duty; and to deal with disorderly members. Monthly-meetings also grant to such of their members as remove into other monthly-meetings, certificates of their membership and conduct; without which they cannot gain membership in such meetings. Each monthly-meeting is required to appoint certain persons under the name of overseers, who are to take care that the rules of our discipline be put in practice; and when any case of complaint or disorderly conduct comes to their knowledge, to see that private admonition, agreeable to the gospel rule before-mentioned, be given previously to its being laid before the monthly-meeting.

"When a case is introduced, it is usual for a small committee to be appointed to visit the offender, to endeavour to convince him of his error, and to induce him to forsake and condemn it. If they succeed, the person is by minute declared to have made satisfaction for the offence; if not, he is disowned as a member of the society.

"In disputes between individuals, it has long been the decided judgment of the society that its members should not sue each other at law. It therefore enjoins all to end their differences by speedy and impartial arbitration, agreeable to rules laid down. If any refuse to adopt this mode, or, having adopted it, to submit to the award, it is the direction of the yearly-meeting that such be disowned.

"To monthly-meetings also belongs the allowing of marriages; for our society hath always scrupled to acknowledge the exclusive authority of the priests in the solemnization of marriage. Those who intend to marry, appear together and propose their intention to the monthly-meeting; and if not attended by their parents or guardians, produce a written certificate of their consent, signed in the presence of witnesses. The meeting then appoints a committee to inquire whether they are clear of other engagements respecting marriage; and if at a subsequent meeting, to which the parties also come and declare the continuance of their intention, no objections are reported, they have the meeting's consent to solemnize their intended marriage. This is done in a public meeting for worship; towards the close whereof the parties stand up, and solemnly take each other for husband and wife. A certificate of the proceedings is then publicly read, and signed by the parties, and afterwards by the relations and others as witnesses. Of such certificates the monthly-meeting keeps a record; as also of the births and burials of its members. A certificate of the date, of the name of the infant, and of its parents, signed by those present at the birth, is the subject of one of these last-mentioned records; and an order for the interment, countersigned by the grave-maker, of the other. The naming of children is without ceremony. Burials are also conducted in a simple manner. The body, followed by the relations and friends, is sometimes, previously to interment, carried to a meeting; and at the grave a pause is generally made; on both which occasions it frequently falls out that one or more friends present have somewhat to express for the edification of those who attend; but no religious rite is considered as an essential part of burial.

"Several monthly-meetings compose a quarterly-meeting. At the quarterly-meeting are produced written answers from the monthly-meetings, to certain queries respecting the conduct of their members, and the meeting's care over them. The accounts thus received are digested into one, which is sent, also in the form of answers to queries, by representatives, to the yearly-meeting.—Appeals from the judgment of monthly-meetings are brought to the quarterly-meetings; whose business also it is to assist in any difficult case, or where remittances appears in the care of the monthly-meetings over the individuals who compose them.

"The yearly-meeting has the general superintendence of the society in the country in which it is established (c); and therefore, as the accounts which it receives discover the state of inferior meetings, as particular exigencies require, or as the meeting is impressed with a sense of duty, it gives forth its advice, makes such regulations as appear to be requisite, or excites to the observance of those already made; and sometimes appoints committees to visit those quarterly-meetings which appear to be in need of immediate help. Appeals from the judgment of quarterly-meetings are here finally determined; and a brotherly correspondence, by epistles, is maintained with other yearly-meetings.

"In this place it is proper to add, that as we believe women may be rightly called to the work of the ministry, we also think, that to them belongs a share in the support of our Christian discipline; and that some parts of it, wherein their own sex is concerned, devolve on them with peculiar propriety. Accordingly they have monthly, quarterly, and yearly-meetings of their own sex, held at the same time and in the same place with those of the men; but separately, and without the power of making rules; and it may be remarked, that during the persecutions, which in the last century occasioned the imprisonment of so many of the men, the care of the poor often fell on the women, and was by them satisfactorily administered.

"In order that those who are in the situation of ministers may have the tender sympathy and counsel of those of either sex, who, by their experience in the work of religion, are qualified for that service; the monthly-meetings are advised to select such, under the denomination of elders. These, and ministers approved by their monthly-meetings (d), have meetings peculiar to themselves, called meetings of ministers and elders;

(c) "There are seven yearly meetings, viz. 1st, London, to which come representatives from Ireland; 2nd, New-England; 3rd, New-York; 4th, Pennsylvania and New-Jersey; 5th, Maryland; 6th, Virginia; 7th, the Carolinas and Georgia."

(d) "Those who believe themselves required to speak in meetings for worship, are not immediately acknowledged as ministers by their monthly-meetings; but time is taken for judgment, that the meeting may be satisfied of their call and qualification. It will also sometimes happen, that such as are not approved, will obtrude themselves as ministers, to the grief of their brethren; but much forbearance is used towards these, before the disapprobation of the meeting is publicly testified." in which they have an opportunity of exciting each other to a discharge of their several duties, and of extending advice to those who may appear weak, without any needless exposure. These meetings are generally held in the compass of each monthly, quarterly, and yearly-meeting. They are conducted by rules prescribed by the yearly-meeting, and have no authority to make any alteration or addition to them. The members of them unite with their brethren in the meetings for discipline, and are equally accountable to the latter for their conduct.

"It is to a meeting of this kind held in London, called the second-day morning-meetings, that the revival of manuscripts concerning our principles, previously to publication, is intrusted by the yearly-meeting held in London; and also the granting, in the intervals of the yearly-meeting, certificates of approbation to such ministers as are concerned to travel in the work of the ministry in foreign parts. When a visit of this kind doth not extend beyond Great Britain, a certificate from the monthly-meeting of which the minister is a member is sufficient; if to Ireland, the concurrence of the quarterly-meeting is also required. Regulations of similar tendency obtain in other yearly-meetings.

"The yearly-meeting held in London, in the year 1675, appointed a meeting to be held in that city, for the purpose of advising and afflicting in cases of suffering for conscience sake, which hath continued with great use to the society to this day. It is composed of friends under the name of correspondents, chosen by the several quarterly-meetings, and who reside in or near the city. The same meetings also appoint members of their own in the country as correspondents, who are to join their brethren in London on emergency. The names of all these correspondents, previous to their being recorded as such, are submitted to the approbation of the yearly-meeting. Those of the men who are approved ministers are also members of this meeting, which is called the meeting for sufferings; a name arising from its original purpose, which is not yet become entirely obsolete.

"The yearly-meeting has intrusted the meeting for sufferings with the care of printing and distributing books, and with the management of its stock; and considered as a standing committee of the yearly-meeting, it hath a general care of whatever may arise, during the intervals of that meeting, affecting the society, and requiring immediate attention: particularly of those circumstances which may occasion an application to government.

"There is not in any of the meetings which have been mentioned any president, as we believe that Divine Wisdom alone ought to preside; nor hath any member a right to claim pre-eminence over the rest. The office of clerk, with a few exceptions, is undertaken voluntarily by some member; as is also the keeping of the records. Where these are very voluminous, and require a house for their deposit (as is the case in London, where the general records of the society in Great Britain are kept), a clerk is hired to have the care of them; but except a few clerks of this kind, and persons who have the care of meeting-houses, none receive any stipend or gratuity for their services in our religious society."

It is remarkable, that all the settlements of the Europeans in America, except the Quaker settlement of Pennsylvania, were made by force of arms, with very little regard to any prior title in the natives. The kings of Spain, Portugal, France, and Britain, together with the States of Holland, then the only maritime powers, gave grants of such parts of America as their people could lay hold on, studying only to avoid interference with their European neighbours. But Mr Penn, being a Quaker, did not think his power from King Cha. II., a sufficient title to the country since called Pennsylvania. He therefore assembled the sachems or princes then in that country, and purchased from them the extent of land that he wanted. The government of this province is mostly in the hands of the Quakers, who never have any quarrels with the natives. When they desire to extend their settlements, they purchase new lands of the sachems, never taking anything from them by force. How unlike is this conduct to that of the Spaniards, who murdered millions of the natives of Mexico, Terra Firma, Peru, Chili, &c.