a very large and powerful kingdom, partly in Europe and partly in Asia, is bounded on the north by the Northern Ocean, or Frozen Sea; on the east it is washed by the Eastern Ocean, and is divided from America by Behring's (formerly Anian) Straits, which are about 73 versts (A) wide. From thence, towards the south, it extends along the chain of the Aleoutskie islands, which approach the north-west coast of America; and from Kamtchatka, towards the south-west, it extends, by a chain of other islands, called Kourilskie islands, as far as Japan; on the south it borders on the Black Sea, on the nations which dwell at the foot of the Caucasian mountains, on a part of Persia, the Caspian Sea, the hordes of Kirghislaifacki, on Ziumgoria, Chinese Mongolia and Daouria (B); and on the west, on the Danish and Swedish Lapland, the Baltic Sea, Courland, Livonia, Lithuania, Poland, and Turkey in Europe.

Russia occupies more than a seventh part of the known continent, and nearly the 26th part of the whole globe. Its greatest extent from west to east, viz. from the 30° to 207° degree of longitude, is 168 degrees; and if the islands of the Eastern Ocean be included, it will then be 185; so that the continental length of Russia, viz. from Riga to Tchoukotskoy Nos, which is the easternmost promontory, will constitute about 8500 versts. The greatest extent of this empire from north to south, that is, from the 78th to 50° degree of latitude, is 27° degrees. Hence the breadth of Russia, that is, from the Cape Taymour, which is the north-eastern promontory, to Kiakhta, will constitute about 3200 versts.

The greater part of this empire lies in the temperate zone, and a part of it, viz. that which is beyond the 66° degree of latitude, lies in the frigid zone; and the whole surface contains above 2,150,000 square versts. There therefore is not at present, and never has been in any period, an empire, the extent of which could be compared to that of Russia. The length and breadth of this immense empire, taken in a straight line, may be thus discovered. Its furthermost point or spot on the north is the Taymour Cape, which is the most north-eastern promontory in the government of Tobolsk, lying in the 78th degree of latitude; its farthest point on the south is the mouth of the river Soulak, falling into the Caspian Sea in the government of Caucasus, lying in the 43rd degree of latitude; its westernmost point is the island of Oezel in the government of Riga, in the 39° degree of longitude; and the furthermost point of it on the east is the Tchoukotskoy Nos, which is the most eastern cape in the government of Irkoutsk, lying in the 207° degree of longitude.

In ancient times Russia was inhabited by various nations; such as Hunns, Scythians, Sarmatians, Maffa-habitants, Getes, Slavonians, Cimbri, &c. of whom an account is given under the various detached articles in this work. The origin of the Russians themselves, though not prior to the ninth century, is still covered with almost impenetrable obscurity; partly owing to the ignorance and barbarity of the people, and partly to the mistaken

(A) Versta is the usual measure of roads in Russia, 1166 yards and two feet. (B) Daouria is that extent of land which is traversed by the river Amour. It is so called on account of the Daouri, its ancient inhabitants, who were a race of the Toungoois or Manjouri. mistaken policy which yet prevails in the nation, of suppressing all accounts of their origin, and inquiries into their ancient state and situation; of which we have a remarkable instance in the suppression of a work by professor Muller, intitled De Originibus Gentis et Nominis Rurorum.

According to several authors of credit, the Russians derived their origin from the Slavi or Slavonians, corruptly called the Selavonians, who settled first along the banks of the Volga, and afterwards near the Danube, in the countries named Bulgaria and Hungary; but being driven thence by the Romans (whom the Russians call Wolochers, or Wolotaners), they first removed to the river Borysthenes, or Dnieper, then over-ran Poland, and, as is reported, built the city of Kiow. Afterwards they extended their colonies farther north, to the rivers which run into the Ilmen lake, and laid the foundation of the city of Novogorod. The towns of Smolensk and Tfernukow appear also to have been built by them, though the dates of these events cannot be ascertained. The most ancient inhabitants, not only of Russia, but all over Siberia, quite to the borders of China, are called Thudi; for professor Muller, on inquiring in those parts by whom the ancient buildings and sepulchral monuments he saw there, were erected, was everywhere answered, that they were the works of the Thudi, who in ancient times had lived in that country.

In the ninth century, the Scandinavians, that is, the Danes, Norwegians, and Swedes, emigrated from the north, and, crossing the Baltic, went to seek habitations in Russia. They first subdued the Courlanders, Livonians, and Esthonians; and, extending their conquests still farther, they exacted tribute from the Novgorodians, settled kings over them, and traded as far as Kiow, and even to Greece. These new invaders were called Waregers; which, according to professor Muller, signifies "sea-faring people;" or, if derived from the old northern word war, it signifies "warlike men." To these Waregers the name of Russi, or Russians, is thought by the most eminent authors to owe its origin; but the etymology of the word itself is entirely uncertain.

In the dark ages of which we are speaking, it is first divided pretty certain that Russia was divided among a great number of petty princes, who made war upon each other with the ferocity and cruelty of wild beasts; so that the whole country was reduced to the utmost misery; when Gostomisl, chief of the Novgorodians, pitying the unhappy fate of his countrymen, and seeing no other method of remedying their calamities, advised them to offer the government of their country to the Waregers. The proposal was readily accepted, and three princes of great abilities and valour were sent to govern them; namely, Ruric, Sincus, and Truwor, generally supposed to have been brothers. The first took up his residence at Ladoga, in the principality of Great Novgorod; the second at Bielo Osero, or the White Lake; and the third kept his court at Iborfisk, or, according to others, at a small town, then called Twerizog, in the principality of Pleskow. The three brothers reigned amicably, and made considerable additions to their dominions; all of which at length devolved to Ruric by the death of Sincus and Truwor; but what

the conquests of the two brothers were, we have no records to inform us of.

Ruric, to his honour, became zealous for the strict administration of justice; and issued a command to all the boyars who possessed territories under him, to exercise it in an exact and uniform manner. To this end, it was necessary there should be general laws. And this naturally leads us to conjecture, that letters were not entirely unknown in his dominions.

The Roman empire continued to flourish till the end of the reign of Wolodomir, who ascended the throne in the year 976. Having settled the affairs of his empire in peace, he demanded in marriage the princess Anne, sister to the Greek emperor Basilus Porphyrogenitus. His suit was granted, on condition that he should embrace Christianity. With this the Russian monarch complied; and that vast empire was thenceforward considered as belonging to the patriarchate of Constantinople. Wolodomir received the name of Basilus on the day on which he was baptized; and, according to the Russian annals, 20,000 of his subjects were baptized the same day. Michael Syra, or Cyrus, a Greek, sent by Photius the patriarch of Constantinople, was accepted as metropolitan of the whole country. At the same time, Wolodomir put away all his former wives and concubines, of whom he had upwards of 800, and by whom he had 12 sons, who were baptized on the same day with himself. The idols of paganism were now thrown down; churches and monasteries were erected, towns built, and the arts began to flourish. The Slavonian letters were now first introduced into Russia; and Wolodomir sent missionaries to convert the Bulgarians; but only three or four of their princes came to him and were baptized. These events happened in the year 987.

Wolodomir called the arts from Greece, cultivated them in the peaceable periods of his reign, and rewarded his professors with generosity, that he might dispel the clouds of ignorance which enveloped his country, call forth the genius of his countrymen, and render them happy. He also founded public schools, and enacted a law concerning the methods of instructing youth, and directing the conduct of the masters appointed to instruct them. He died in 1008, and, contrary to all rules of sound policy and prudence, divided his empire among his 12 sons. The consequence was, that they fell to making war and destroying one another as soon as their father was dead. Suanepolk, one of the brothers, having destroyed and seized upon the dominions of two others, was himself driven out by Jariflaus, and obliged to fly to Boleslaus king of Poland. This brought on a dreadful war betwixt the Poles and Russians; in which the former were victorious, and the latter lost a great part of their dominions, as has been related under the article Poland.

Jariflaus finding himself unable to oppose the king of Poland, now turned his arms against the rest of his brothers, all of whom he dispossessed of their dominions, and seized them for himself. He next attacked the Cossacks, over whom he gained several advantages. After which he ventured once more to try his fortune with Boleslaus; but in this second expedition he was attended with worse success than before; being now reduced to the condition of a vassal and tributary to the victorious monarch. However, in the reign of Miecz- flaus II., the successor of Boleslaus, the Ruffians again threw off the yoke, and a lasting peace was confirmed by the marriage of Mieczlaus with the sister of Wolo- domir.

Jarislaws now continued to enjoy the empire quietly, and was so much addicted to reading, that he devoted even a part of the night to his studies. He invited men of letters to his court, and caused many Greek books to be translated into the Ruffian language. It was he that in the year 1019, gave the people of No- vogorod several laws, under the title of Gramota Sou- dobiaia, to be observed in the courts of justice. These are the first laws that were reduced to writing in Ruf- fia; and, what renders them remarkable, is the confor- mity they have with those of the other northern na- tions. He founded a public school at Novogorod, where he maintained and educated 300 children at his own expense. His court was the most brilliant of the north, and furnished an asylum to unfortunate princes. He died in 1052; and fell into the same error which his father had committed, by dividing his dominions among his five sons. This produced a repetition of the bloody scenes which had been acted by the sons of Wo- lodomir; the Poles took the advantage of the dis- tracted state of affairs to make continual inroads and invasions; and the empire continued in the most deplo- rable situation till the year 1237, when it was totally subdued by the Tartars. We are not informed of any particulars of this remarkable event, farther than that innumerable multitudes of these barbarians, headed by their khan Batto, or Battus, after ravaging great part of Poland and Silesia, broke suddenly into Ruffia, where they committed the greatest cruelties. Most of the Ruffian princes, among whom was the great duke George Sevolditz, were made prisoners, and racked to death; and, in short, none found mercy but such as ac- knowledged themselves the subjects of the Tartars. The imperious conquerors imposed upon the Ruffians every thing that is most mortifying in slavery; insisting that they should have no other princes than such as he appro- ved of; that they should pay him yearly a tribute, to be brought by the sovereigns themselves on foot, who were to present it humbly to the Tartarian ambassador on horseback. They were also to prostrate themselves before the haughty Tartar; to offer him milk to drink; and, if any drops of it fell down, to lick them up; a singular mark of servility, which continued near 260 years.

George Sevolditz was succeeded by his brother Mi- chael Sevolditz Zernigovski; who opposed the Tar- tars, but was defeated by them, and lost his life. He left three sons, Feodor, Alexander, and Andrew, whose wars with each other ended in the death of them all. A son of Alexander, and of the same name, was then placed on the throne by the Tartars; and his son Da- nilow, or Daniel Alexandrovitz, removed his court from Wolodimir to Moscow, where he first assumed the title of Great duke of Wolodimir and Moscow. Daniel Alexandrovitz left two sons, Gregory and John; the former of whom, named Kalita, from a purse he used always to carry about him filled with money for the poor, ascended the throne; but he was soon assassinated by another prince named Demetri Michaelovitz, who was himself put to death for it by the Tartars; and John, likewise surnamed Kalita, was then made czar. This John left three sons, John, Simon, and Andrew; and the eldest of these, commonly called Ivan Ivanov- ovitz, was made czar, with the approbation of the Tar- tars, on whom he was dependent.

During these several reigns, which fill a space of up- wards of 100 years, and which all historians have passed over for want of records concerning them, the miseries of a foreign yoke were aggravated by all the calamities of intestine discord and war; whilst the knights of Li- vonia, or brothers of the short-sword, as they are some- times called, a kind of military order of religious, on one side, and the Poles on the other, catching at the opportunity, attacked Ruffia, and took several of its towns, and even some considerable countries. The Tartars and Ruffians, whose interests were in this case the same, often united to oppose their common ene- mies; but were generally worsted. The Livonians took Plefskow; and the Poles made themselves masters of Black Ruffia, the Ukraine, Podolia, and the city of Kiow. Casimir the Great, one of their kings, carried his conquests still farther. He asserted his pretensions to a part of Ruffia, in right of his relation to Boleslaus duke of Halitz, who died without issue, and forcibly possessed himself of the duchies of Perzemydia, Halitz, and Luckow, and of the districts of Sanock, Luback- zow, and Trebowla; all which countries he made a province of Poland.

The newly-conquered Ruffians were ill-disposed to brook the government of the Poles; whose laws and customs were more contrary to their own than those of the Tartars had been. They joined the latter to rid themselves of the yoke; and assembled an army nume- rous enough to overwhelm all Poland, but destitute of valour and discipline. Casimir, undaunted by this de- luge of barbarians, presented himself at the head of a few troops on the borders of the Vistula, and obliged his enemies to retire.

Demetrius Ivanovitz, son of Ivan Ivanovitz, who commanded in Moscow, made frequent efforts to rid himself of the galling yoke. He defeated in several battles Maymay khan of the Tartars; and, when con- queror, refused to pay them any tribute, and assumed the title of great duke of Muscovy. But the oppressors of the north returned in greater numbers than before; my cut in and Demetrius, at length overpowered, after a struggle the Tartars, of three years, perished with his whole army, which, if we may credit historians, amounted to upwards of 240,000 men.

Basilus Demetrivitz revenged his father's death. He attacked his enemies, drove them out of his domi- nions, and conquered Bulgaria. He made an alliance with the Poles, whom he could not subdue; and even ceded to them a part of his country, on condition that they should help him to defend the rest against any new incursions of the Tartars. But this treaty was a weak barrier against ambition. The Ruffians found new ene- mies in their allies; and the Tartars soon returned.— Basilus Demetrivitz had a son who was called after his name, and to whom the crown ought naturally to have descended. But the father, suspecting his legiti- macy, left it to his own brother Gregory, a man of a severe and tyrannical disposition, and therefore hated by the people, who asserted the son's right, and proclaim- ed him their sovereign. The Tartars took cognizance of the dispute, and determined it in favour of Basilus; upon which Gregory had recourse to arms, drove his nephew from Moscow to the principality of Uglietz, and forcibly usurped and kept possession of his throne. Upon the death of Gregory, Basilus returned to Moscow; but Andrew and Demetrius, sons of the late usurper, laid siege to that city, and obliged him to retire to the monastery of Troitz, where they took him prisoner, with his wife and son, and put out his eyes: hence the appellation of *jemnoi*, "blind," by which this Basilus is distinguished. The subjects of this unfortunate prince, incensed at the cruel treatment he had received, forced the perpetrators of it to fly to Novgorod, and reinstituted their lawful sovereign at Moscow, where he died.

In the midst of this general confusion, John Bafilovitz I. by his invincible spirit and refined policy, became both the conqueror and deliverer of his country, and laid the first foundation of its future grandeur. Observing with indignation the narrow limits of his power at his accession to the throne, after the death of his father Basilus the Blind, he began immediately to resolve within himself the means of enlarging his dominions. Marriage, though he had in reality no regard or inclination for women, seemed to him one of the best expedients he could begin with; and accordingly he demanded and obtained Maria, sister of Michael duke of Tver; whom he soon after deposed, under pretence of revenging the injuries done to his father, and added this duchy to his own territories of Moscow. Maria, by whom he had a son named John, who died before him, did not live long; and upon her death he married Sophia, daughter of Thomas Palologus, who had been driven from Constantinople, and forced to take shelter at Rome, where the pope portioned this princess, in hopes of procuring thereby great advantage to the Roman religion; but his expectations were frustrated, Sophia being obliged to conform to the Greek church after her arrival in Russia. What could induce Bafilovitz to seek a comfort at such a distance, is nowhere accounted for; unless it be, that he hoped by this means to establish a pretension to the empire of the east, to which her father was the next heir: but however that may be, the Russians certainly owed to this alliance their deliverance from the Tartar yoke. Shocked at the servile homage exacted by those proud victors, her husband going to meet their ambassadors at some distance from the city, and standing to hear what they had to say; whilst they were at dinner, Sophia told him, that she was surprized to find that she had married a servant to the Tartars. Nettled at this reproach, Bafilovitz feigned himself ill when the next deputation from the Tartars arrived, and under that pretence avoided a repetition of the stipulated humiliating ceremonial. Another circumstance equally displeasing to this princess was, that the Tartars had, by agreement, within the walls of the palace at Moscow, housetops in which their ministers resided; to show their power, and at the same time watch the actions of the great duke. To get rid of these, a formal embassy was sent to the Tartarian khan, to tell him, that Sophia having been favoured with a vision from above, ordering her to build a temple in the place where those housetops stood, her mind could not be at ease till she had fulfilled the divine command; and therefore his leave was desired to pull them down, and give his people others. The khan consented: the housetops within the Kremlin were demolished; and no new ones being provided, the Tartar residents were obliged to leave Moscow; their prince not being able to revenge this breach of promise, by reason of a war: he was then engaged in with the Poles. Bafilovitz taking advantage of this circumstance, and having in the mean time considerably increased his forces, openly disclaimed all subjection to the Tartars, attacked their dominions, and made himself master of Cazan, where he was solemnly crowned with the diadem of that kingdom, which is said to be the same that is now used for the coronation of the Russian sovereigns. The province of Permia, with great part of Lapland and Asiatic Bulgaria, soon submitted to him; and Great Novgorod, a city then so famous that the Russians used to express its vast importance by the proverbial expression of, *Who can resist God and the Great Novgorod?* was reduced by his generals after a seven years siege, and yielded him an immense treasure; no less, say some writers, than 300 cart loads of gold and silver, and other valuable effects. Alexander Witold, waiwode of Lithuania, was in possession of this rich place, from which he had exacted for some years an annual tribute of 100,000 rubles, a prodigious sum for those days and for that country. When it was taken by John Bafilovitz, he, the better to secure his conquest, put it under the protection of the Poles, voluntarily rendered himself their tributary for it, and accepted a governor from the hand of their king Casimir, a weak and indolent prince, from whom he well knew he had nothing to fear. The Novgorodians continued to enjoy all their privileges till about two years after; when John, ambitious of reigning without control, entered their city with a numerous retinue, under pretence of keeping to the Greek faith, he being accused of an intention to embrace the Roman religion; and with the assistance of the archbishop Theophilus, stripped them all of their remaining riches. He then deposed the treacherous prelate, and established over Novgorod new magistrates, creatures of his own; destroying at once, by this means, a noble city, which, had its liberties been protected, and its trade encouraged, might have proved to him an inexhaustible fund of wealth. All the north beheld with terror and astonishment the rapid increase of the victor's power: foreign nations courted his alliance; and the several petty princes of Russia submitted to him without resistance, acknowledging themselves his vassals.

The Poles, however, complained loudly of his late breach of faith in regard to Novgorod, and threatened revenge; upon which Bafilovitz, elated with his successes, with the riches he had amassed, and with the weak condition of most of his neighbours, sent a body of troops into Lithuania, and soon became master of several of its towns. Casimir applied for assistance to Matthias king of Hungary: but was answered by this offer, that his own soldiers were quite undisciplined; for peace, that his auxiliaries had lately mutinied for want of pay; and that it was impossible for him to raise a new army out of the neighbouring countries. The Polish monarch in this distress was obliged to purchase of John a cessation of arms for two years, during which the Muscovite made new accessions to his dominions.

The dukes of Servia, whose territories were about 500 miles in extent, had long thought themselves insulted by the Lithuanians on account of their religion, which was that of the Greek church; and wanted to withdraw from their subjection to Poland, and put themselves under the protection of Russia. The following accident afforded them the wished-for pretence. Their envoys arriving at Wilna, desired admittance to the king's presence; which being refused, one of them endeavoured to force his way in; but the porter shut the door rudely against him, and in so doing broke one of his fingers. The servant was immediately put to death for this offence; but the Servians, by no means satisfied with that, returned home in great fury, and prevailed upon their countrymen to submit themselves and their country to the Muscovites. Casimir made several attempts to recall them, but to no purpose.

Matthias king of Hungary dying about this time, two of his sons, Vladislavus, then king of Bohemia, and John Albert, contended for the vacant crown. Casimir wanted to give it to the latter, whom he accordingly assisted to the utmost of his power; and to enable him the better to do so, though he was in great want of money as well as men, he purchased a renewal of the truce with the Russians, and thereby gave John Baflovitz time to establish himself in his new acquisitions.

Casimir died in the year 1492, and was succeeded on the throne of Poland by his son John Albert, who, totally disregarding the Russians, involved himself unnecessarily in a war with the brave Stephen duke of Moldavia; and though he had at the same time both the Tartars and Turks against him, his propensity to pleasure, and his lascivious disposition, rendered him so indolent, that he not only did not so much as attempt to molest Baflovitz in any of his possessions, but concluded a peace with him on terms very advantageous to the latter; and even entered into a treaty, by which he stipulated not to assist the Lithuanians, though they had chosen his brother Alexander for their duke, in case the Russians should attack them, as it was supposed they would. Alexander, thinking to parry the inconveniences of this agreement, and to guard against the designs of his enemies, demanded in marriage Baflovitz's daughter, Helena, by his second wife Sophia, and obtained her. The Lithuanians then flattered themselves with a prospect of tranquillity; but the ambitious czar, for Baflovitz had assumed that title since his conquest of Casan, aiming only at the increase of dominion, soon found a pretence to break with his new allies, by alleging, that Polish Russia, as far as the river Berezina, had formerly belonged to his ancestors, and therefore should be his; and that Alexander, by his marriage-contract, had engaged to build a Greek church at Wilna for his Russian consort, which he had not done, but on the contrary endeavoured to force the Polish Russians to embrace the religion of the church of Rome. In consequence of this plea, he sent into the territories of his son-in-law, by different ways, three armies, which reduced several places, destroyed the country about Smolensko, and defeated the Lithuanian field-marshal Oltrotky near the river Wedrafsch, where he fell unawares into an ambush of the Russians.

Alexander raised a new army of Silesians, Bohemians, and Moravians; but they came too late, the Russians having retired with their plunder. Elated by their success against the Lithuanians, they invaded Livonia in the year 1502, with 130,000 men; but Walter Von Plettenberg, grand-master of the knights of the cross, defeated with only 12,000 men, gave them a total overthrow; in Livonia killing 10,000 of his enemies, with scarce any loss on his own side. Baflovitz dispirited by this defeat, and to retire, being then engaged in a war with the Tartars, the Poles, and the city of Pleskow, immediately dispatched an embassy to Plettenberg, and concluded a truce with him for 50 years. At the same time he begged of that general to send to Moscow, that he might see him, one of the iron-dragoons, as he called them, who had performed wonders in the late engagement. Von Plettenberg readily complied; and the czar, struck with admiration, rewarded the courier's accomplishment with considerable honours and presents.

Alexander had been elected king of Poland upon the death of his brother John Albert, which happened in the beginning of this year; but the Poles refused to crown his consort Helena, because she adhered to the Greek religion. Provoked at this affront, and probably still more stimulated by ambition, Baflovitz resolved again to try his fortune with them; and accordingly ordered his son Demetrius, now the eldest, to march against Smolensko, and reduce that city. The young prince did all that could be done; but the vigorous resistance of the besieged, and the arrival of the king of Poland with a numerous army, obliged the Russians to raise the siege and return home; and the czar was glad to make a fresh truce with the Poles for six years, upon the easy terms of only returning the prisoners he had taken. Some writers say, that flying into a violent passion with his son the moment he saw him, and imputing the miscarriage of this expedition to his want of courage or conduct, he gave him a blow which laid him dead at his feet; to which is added, that remorse for this rash action carried his father to his grave; but this account is not confirmed by authors whose authority can be relied on. Certain it is, however, that neither of them long survived this event; and that Demetrius died first: for Sophia, who had gained an absolute ascendancy over her husband, and wanted to give the sovereignty to her own children, persuaded him by various artful insinuations to set aside and imprison his grandson Demetrius, the only child of the late John, whom he had by his first wife Maria, and declare her then eldest son, Gabriel, his successor. Age and infirmities had rendered the czar so weak, that he blindly followed the iniquitous advice; but shortly after finding his end approach, he sent for young Demetrius, expressed great repentance for his barbarity towards him, and on his deathbed declared him his lawful successor. He died in November 1505, after a reign of 55 years; leaving behind him an immense territory, chiefly of his own acquiring.

The czar was no sooner dead, than his son Gabriel Ivanovitz, at the instigation of his mother Sophia Bafilius, put an end to the life of the young Demetrius, by confining him in prison, where he perished with hunger and cold; after which Gabriel was crowned by the name of Bafilius, and took the title of czar, as well as all the other titles belonging to the sovereignty. On his accession to the throne he expected that the Poles would be in confusion about the election of a new sovereign; but his expectations being defeated by their unanimous election election of Sigismund I., a prince of a mild and peaceable disposition, he sent an army into Lithuania, and laid siege to Smolensk. The place made a brave resistance, till news arrived that the crown-troops of Poland were coming to their assistance; with the additional aid of 80,000 Crimean Tartars; on which the Russians returned home with the utmost precipitation.

They were, however, quickly followed by the Poles, who reduced the czar to submit to such terms as they pleased to impose. Basilus remained quiet till he thought himself capable of revenging the injuries he had sustained; after which, pretending to set out upon some other expedition, he marched with a numerous army, and encamped in the neighbourhood of Pleskow, where the Poles, presuming on the late treaty, received him as a friend and ally. But in the meantime, the Muscovite priests of the Greek church preached to their hearers concerning the expediency of having a sovereign of their own religion; and brought them to such a height of enthusiasm, that they murdered their magistrates, and opened their gates to the czar, who made them all slaves, and sent them away to different parts, replacing them with Muscovites, the better to secure his conquest. Soon after he took also the city of Smolenik; and the Swedes, alarmed at his rapid progress, desired a prolongation of the truce, at that time subsisting between the two states, for 60 years longer.

The duchy of Lithuania was the great object of the designs of Basilus; and to accomplish his design, he ordered Ivan Czeldin, a man of great resolution, and enterprising even to rashness, to march thither with 80,000 men. The army of the Poles did not exceed 35,000 men, but was commanded by a most experienced general. The two armies met on the opposite banks of the Dnieper, near Orlova, and the Poles passed that river in sight of their enemies. Czeldin's officers advised him to fall upon the enemy when about half of them had crossed the river; but that general, too confident of success, replied, that the other half would then run away, and he was determined to gain a complete victory. The Lithuanians began the attack, but were repulsed by the Russians; who imprudently following them, lost an advantageous situation, and found themselves at once exposed to the full fire of the enemy's artillery. The Polish cavalry then rushed in among them sword in hand, and made dreadful havoc; the trembling Russians scarce even attempting to defend themselves. Those who endeavoured to fly, fell into the Dnieper and were drowned; and all the rest, including Czeldin himself, were made slaves.

Basilus was at Smolensk when he received the news of this dreadful defeat; on which he immediately fled to Moscow, where his danger increased daily. The Crimean Tartars ravaged his dominions, and the emperor Maximilian, with whom he had been in alliance, deserted him; his troops were utterly defeated in Livonia, where he was obliged to submit to a peace on dishonourable terms; but what these terms were historians do not inform us. In the mean time, the king of Poland stirred up the Tartars to invade Russia, while the Russian monarch in his turn endeavoured to excite them to an invasion of Poland. These barbarians, equally treacherous to both parties, first invaded and ravaged Podolia, a province of Poland; and then having invaded Russia and defeated the armies of the czar in the year 1521, they poured in thither in such incredible multitudes, that they quickly made Moscow themselves masters of Moscow. An army, which had been sent to oppose their progress, was defeated near the Tartar river Oka; and the czar's brother Andrew, who commanded it, was the very first who fled. Basilus with great difficulty made his way to Novgorod; so terrified, that he hid himself by the way under a haystack, to avoid a struggling party of the enemy. The Tartars, however, soon obliged him to sign a writing, by which he acknowledged himself their vassal, and promised to pay them a tribute of so much a head for every one of his subjects. Besides this, Machmetgerci, the commander of the Tartars, caused his own statue to be set up at Moscow, as a mark of his sovereignty; compelled Basilus to return to his capital, to bring thither in person the first payment of this tribute, and, as a token of his submission, to prostrate himself before his statue. Machmetgerci then left Moscow, and returned home with an immense booty, and upwards of 80,000 prisoners, who were made slaves, and sold like cattle to the Turks and other enemies of the Christian name. In his way back he attempted to take the city of Rezan; but was repulsed with considerable loss by Iwan Kowen, who commanded in that place for the Russians. Here the Tartar general narrowly escaped with his life, his coat being shot through with a musket-ball; and the Muscovites pulled down his statue, and broke it to pieces as soon as the conquerors had left them.

The Tartars were no sooner gone, than Basilus began to talk in a high strain of the revenge he intended to take of them; but was never able to execute his threats. He died in 1533; and was succeeded by his son Ivan or John Basilovitz, an infant of five years of age.

During the minority of the young prince, his two uncles Andrew and George endeavoured to deprive him of the crown; but their attempts were defeated by the care and activity of his guardians; and the Poles also immediately commenced hostilities, but could make little progress. The new czar, as soon as he entered the tenth year of his age, showed an inclination for relieving his subjects out of that desperate state of ignorance and barbarism in which they had hitherto immersed. He sent a splendid embassy to the emperor Charles V., who was then at Augsburg, to desire the renewal of the treaty of friendship which had been concluded with his father Maximilian; and offering to enter into a league with him against the Turks, as enemies to the Christian religion; for his farther information in which, particularly in regard to the doctrine and ceremonies of the Latin church, he requested that his ambassador might be allowed to send from Germany to Russia proper priests to instruct him and his subjects. With these he likewise desired to have some wise and experienced statesmen, able to civilize the wild people under his government; and also, the better to help to polish them, he requested that he would send mechanics and artists of every kind; in return for all which he offered to furnish two tons of gold yearly, for 20 years together, to be employed in the war against the Turks. The emperor readily agreed to the desire of the czar; and the Russian ambassador accordingly engaged gaged upwards of 300 German artists, who were directed to repair to Lubec, in order to proceed from thence to Livonia. But the Lubeckers, who were very powerful at that time, and aimed at nothing less than the engrossing of the whole commerce of the north, stopped them, and represented strongly to the emperor, in the name of all the merchants in Livonia, the dangerous consequence of thus affording instructions to the Russians, who would soon avail themselves of it to ruin their trade, and distress the subjects of his imperial majesty. The workmen and others intended for Russia were easily prevailed upon to return to their respective homes; and the czar's ambassador was arrested upon his arrival at Lubec, and imprisoned there at the suit of the Livonians; however, he made his escape shortly after; and the czar, though provoked to the last degree at the behaviour of the Lubeckers, was obliged for some time to suspend his resentment.

The first enterprise of Bafilovitz now was against the Tartars of Cazan, who had hitherto been such formidable enemies. In this he was attended with great success; the whole territory was conquered in seven years; but the capital, named also Cazan, being well fortified and bravely defended, made such resistance as quite disheartened the besiegers, and made them think of abandoning their enterprise. Bafilovitz being informed of this, hastened to them with a considerable reinforcement, endeavoured to revive their drooping courage, and exhorted them to push the siege with redoubled vigour. However, the greater part, deaf to all his remonstrances, after loudly insisting upon a peace with the Tartars, and leave to return home, proceeded to mutiny, and fell upon their comrades who were for continuing the war. Bafilovitz, alarmed at this event, rushed in among the combatants, and with great difficulty parted them; but neither menaces nor intreates, nor even a promise of giving them the whole plunder of the city if they took it, could prevail on them to continue the war. Their rage at last prompted them to threaten the life of their sovereign; who, to provide for his own safety, was obliged to make the best of his way to Moscow; and the mutineers, no longer regarding any command, instantly returned thither.

Bafilovitz, though justly incensed at this insolence, took a method of punishing it which does honour to his humanity. Having selected a guard of 2000 of his best troops, he ordered a great feast, to which he invited his principal nobles and officers, to each of whom, according to the Russian custom, he gave very rich garments. The chief of the seditious were clothed in black velvet; and after the dinner was over, he made a speech to the whole company, setting forth the behaviour of his troops before Cazan, their contempt of his commands, and their conspiracy to take away his life; to which he added, that he was doubly sorry to find the instigators of such wickedness among those who were styled, and who ought to be, his faithful counsellors; and that those who knew themselves to be guilty of such atrocious wickedness could not do better than voluntarily to submit themselves to his mercy. Upon this, most of them immediately threw themselves at his feet, and implored his pardon. Some of the most criminal were executed, but the rest were only imprisoned.

Immediately after this punishment of the rebels, Bafilovitz marched with a fresh army to re-invest Cazan before the Tartars had time to recover themselves. The capital befell still made an obstinate defence, and the Cazan Russians again began to be dispirited; upon which the again beczar ordered his pioneers to undermine the walls of the citadel, a practice then quite unknown to the Tartars. This work being completed, he directed his priests to read a solemn mass to the whole army, at the head of which he afterwards spent some time in private prayer, and then ordered fire to be set to the powder, which acted so effectually, that great part of the foundation was immediately blown up, and the Muscovites rushing into the city, slaughtered all before them; while the astonished Tartars, crowding out at the opposite gate, crossed the river Cazanka, and fled into the forests. Among the prisoners taken on this occasion were Simeon king of Cazan with his queen; both of whom were sent to Moscow, where they were treated with the utmost civility and respect.

Encouraged by this success, Bafilovitz invaded the Astracan country of Astracan, the capital of which he soon re-reduced; after which he prepared to revenge himself on the Livonians for their behaviour in stopping the German artists. John Bafilovitz I. had concluded a truce with this people for 50 years; which being now expired, Iodocus, archbishop of Dorpt and canon of Munster in Westphalia, sensible of the danger to which he was exposed by the vicinity of the Russians, requested the czar to give him a prolongation of the truce. Bafilovitz desired him to choose whether he would have a truce for five years longer, on condition that all the inhabitants of his archbishopric should pay the Livonians the annual tribute of a fifth part of a ducat per man, each person, which the people of Dorpt had formerly agreed to pay to the grand-dukes of Pleskow; or, for 20 years, on this farther condition that he and the Livonians should rebuild all the Russian churches which had been demolished in their territories at the time of the reformation, and allow his subjects the free exercise of their religion. Iodocus evaded an answer as long as he could; but finding at last that the affair grew serious, he levied a considerable sum from his subjects, and fled with it to Munster, where he resigned his prebend and married a wife. His successor, whose name was Herman, and the deputies from Livonia, accepted of the conditions, and swore to observe them; with this additional clause, that the priests of the Roman communion should be exempted from paying tribute.

But though the Livonians swore to the observation of these terms, they were at that very time in treaty with Gustavus Vasa, king of Sweden, to join them in attacking Russia. The king of Sweden very readily complied with their desires; upon which Bafilovitz invaded Finland. Gustavus advanced against him with a powerful army; but as neither the Poles nor Livonians gave him any assistance, he was obliged to conclude a treaty with the czar, and soon after to evacuate the country. Finland was at this time governed by William of Furstenberg grand-master of the Livonian knights, and the archbishop of Riga, with some other prelates; between whom a quarrel happened about this time, which soon facilitated the designs of Bafilovitz on the country. The archbishop, after attempting... tempting to set himself above the grand-master even in civil affairs, and to persecute those who adhered to the confederation of Augsburg, chose for his coadjutor in the archbishopric of Riga Christopher duke of Mecklenburg. From the abilities and haughty temper of this lord, the Livonian knights apprehended that they had reason to fear the same fate which had befallen the Teutonic order in Prussia; and the step itself was, besides, unprecedented, and contrary to the established laws of the country. These discontentments were heightened by letters said to be intercepted from the archbishop to his brother Albert duke of Prussia, inviting this last totally to suppress the order of Livonian knights, and to secularize their possessions, especially in Finland; so that an open war broke out among the contending parties, and the archbishop was seized and made prisoner. He was, however, soon released through the mediation of the emperor of Germany and other potentates, backed by the powerful preparations of the Prussians to avenge his cause; but in the mean time, the strength of their country being totally exhausted, the Livonians were obliged, instead of preparing for war, to sue to the Czar for peace. Bafloivitz replied, that he did not believe their intentions to be sincere while they kept 6000 Germans in pay; and therefore, if they meant to treat of peace, they must begin with diminishing these troops. The Livonians, having no longer any power to resist, did as they were ordered; but it availed them nothing. In 1558 an army of 100,000 Russians entered the district of Dorpt, and laid every thing waste before them with the most shocking cruelty. After this they entered the territories of Riga, where they behaved with equal inhumanity; and having at last satisfied themselves with blood and treasure, they retired with an immense booty and a great number of prisoners.

The Livonians, now thoroughly convinced of their own folly in exposing themselves to the resentment of the exasperated Russians, sent ambassadors to sue for peace in good earnest. These offered the Czar a present of 30,000 ducats, and prevailed upon him to grant their nation a truce for four months, during which they returned home to get the money. But in this interval the Livonian governor of the city of Nerva, out of an idle frolic, fired some cannon against Ivanogorod or Russian Nerva, situated on the opposite side of the river, and killed several of the Czar's subjects who were assembled in an open place quite unarmed. The Russians, out of regard to the truce, did not even attempt to make reprisals; but immediately acquainted Baflovitz with what had happened; which so incensed the Czar, that when the Livonian ambassadors arrived, he told them, he looked upon their nation to be a set of perjured wretches, who had renounced all honesty; that they might go back with their money and proposals, and let their countrymen know that his vengeance would soon overtake them.

The ambassadors were scarce arrived in Livonia, when an army of 30,000 Russians entered the district of Nerva, under the command of Peter Sifegradzki, who had been a famous pirate in the Euxine sea. He took the city of Nerva in nine days, and very speedily made himself master of Dorpt, where he found immense treasures. Several other garrisons, terrified by the approach of such numbers, quitted their posts; so that the Russians became masters of a great part of Livonia almost without opposition. At last, Gothard Kettler, grand-master of the knights of Livonia, intreated Christian III, king of Denmark to take Riga, Revel, and the countries of Garnland, Wirrland, and Ethonia, under his protection; but the advanced age of that monarch, the distance of the places, and the want of sufficient power to withstand so potent an adversary, made him decline the offer. However, he assisted them with some money and powder, of which they stood greatly in need. Having then applied, without success, first to the emperor of Germany, and then to the court of Sweden, Kettler put himself under the protection of the Poles, who had hitherto been such formidable enemies to the Russians. In the mean time the latter pursued their conquests; they took the city of Marienburg, laid waste the district of Riga, destroyed Garnland, and penetrated to the very gates of Revel. Felin, in which was the best artillery of the whole country, became theirs by the treachery of its garrison; and here William of Furtenberg the old grand-master was taken, and ended his days in a prison at Moscow. The distracted situation of the Livonian affairs now induced the bishop of Oefel to sell his bishopric to Ferdinand king of Denmark, who exchanged it with his brother Magnus for a part of Holstein. The districts of Reval and Ethonia put themselves under the protection of Sweden; and then the grand-master, finding himself deserted on all sides, supprest the order of which he was the chief, and accepted of the duchy of Courland, which he held as a fief of the crown of Poland.

The Czar saw with pleasure the division of Livonia between the Swedes and Poles, which, he rightly judged, would produce quarrels between the two nations, and thus give him the fairer opportunity of seizing the whole to himself. Accordingly, in 1564, the Swedes offered him their alliance against the Poles; but he, judging himself to be sufficiently strong without them, attacked the Poles with his own forces, and was twice defeated, which checked his farther operations in Livonia. In 1569 he entered into a treaty of commerce with England, captain Richard Chancellor having a short time before discovered a passage to Archangel in Russia through the White Sea, by which that empire was likely to be supplied with foreign goods, without the alliance either of Poland or Livonia. To the discoverers of this new passage Baflovitz granted many exclusive privileges; and after the death of queen Mary renewed the alliance with queen Elizabeth, and which has been continued without interruption ever since.

In the mean time, however, a prodigious army of Turks and Tartars entered Muscovy, with a design to subdue the whole country. But Zerebrinov, the Czar's general, having attacked them in a defile, put them to flight with considerable slaughter. Then they retired towards the mouth of the Volga, where they expected a considerable reinforcement; but being closely pursued by the Russians and Tartars in alliance with them, they were again defeated and forced to fly towards Azov on the Black Sea. But when they came there, they found the city almost entirely ruined by the blowing up of a powder magazine. The Russians then attacked their ships there, took some, and sunk the rest; by which means almost the whole army perished with hunger or the sword of the enemy.

From this time the empire of Russia became formidable. RUS

avoidable, that none of the neighbouring nations could hope to make a total conquest of it. The Poles and Swedes indeed continued to be very formidable enemies; and, by the instigation of the former, the Crimean Tartars, in 1571, again invaded the country with an army of 70,000 men. The Russians, who might have prevented their passing the Volga, retired before them till they came within 18 miles of the city of Moscow, where they were totally defeated. The Czar no sooner heard this news than he retired with his most valuable effects to a well-fortified citadel; upon which the Tartars entered the city, plundered it, and set fire to several churches. A violent storm which happened at the same time soon spread the flames all over the city; which was entirely reduced to ashes in six hours, though its circumference was upwards of 40 miles. The fire likewise communicated itself to a powder-magazine at some distance from the city; by which accident upwards of 50 rods of the city wall, with all the buildings upon it, were destroyed; and, according to the best historians, upwards of 120,000 citizens were burnt or buried in the ruins, besides women, children, and foreigners. The cattle, however, which was strongly fortified, could not be taken; and the Tartars hearing that a formidable army was coming against them under the command of Magnus duke of Holstein, whom Basilovitz had made king of Livonia, thought proper to retire. The war, nevertheless, continued with the Poles and Swedes; and the Czar being defeated by the latter after some trifling success, was reduced to the necessity of suing for peace.

But the negotiations being somehow or other broken off, the war was renewed with the greatest vigour. The Livonians, Poles, and Swedes, having united in a league together against the Russians, gained great advantages over them; and, in 1579, Stephen Bartori, who was then raised to the throne of Poland, levied an army expressly with a design of invading Russia, and of regaining all that Poland had formerly claimed, which indeed was little less than the whole empire. As the Poles undertook the art of war much better than the Russians, Basilovitz found his undisciplined multitudes unable to cope with the regular forces of his enemies: and their conquests were so rapid, that he was soon obliged to sue for peace: which, however, was not granted; and it is possible that the number of enemies which now attacked Russia might have overcome the empire entirely, had not the allies grown jealous of each other; the consequence of which was, that in 1582 a peace was concluded with the Poles, in which the Swedes were not comprehended. However, the Swedes finding themselves unable to effect any thing of moment after the defection of their allies, were fain to conclude a truce; shortly after which the Czar, having been worsted in an engagement with the Tartars, died in the year 1584.

This great prince was succeeded by his son Theodore Ivanovitz; a man of such weak understandings, that he was totally unfit for government. Under him, therefore, the Russian affairs fell into confusion; and Boris Gudnov, a nobleman whose sister Theodore had married, found means to assume all the authority. At last, unable to bear even the name of a superior, he resolved to usurp the throne. For this purpose he caused the Czar's brother Demetrius, at that time only nine years of age, to be assassinated; and afterwards, knowing that no trust could be put in an assassin, he caused him also to be murdered lest he should divulge the secret. In 1597 the Czar himself was taken ill and died, not without great suspicion of his being poisoned by Gudnov; of which indeed the Czarina was so well convinced, that she would never afterwards speak to her brother.

With Theodore ended the line of Ruric, who had governed the empire of Russia for upwards of 700 years. Boris, who in reality was possessed of all the power, and would indeed have suffered nobody else to reign, artfully pretended to be unwilling to accept the crown; till compelled to it by the intrigues of the people; and even then he put the acceptance of it on the issue of an expedition which he was about to undertake against the Tartars. The truth of the matter, however, was, that no Tartar army was in the field, nor had Boris any intention of invading that country; but by this pretence he assembled an army of 500,000 men, which he thought the most effectual method of securing himself in his new dignity. In 1600 he concluded a peace with the Poles, but resolved to continue the war against the Swedes; however, being disappointed in some of his attempts against that nation, he entered into an alliance with the Swedish monarch, and even proposed a match between the king's brother and his daughter. But while these things were in agitation, the city of Moscow was desolated by one of the most dreadful famines recorded in history. Thousands of people lay dead in the streets and highways, with their mouths full of hay, straw, or even the most filthy things which they had been attempting to eat. In many houses the fattest person was killed in order to serve for food to the rest. Parents were said to have eaten their children, and children their parents, or to have fed them to buy bread. One author (Petrius) says, that he himself saw a woman bite several pieces out of a child's arm as she was carrying it along; and captain Margaret relates, that four women having ordered a peasant to come to one of their houses, under pretence of paying him for some wood, killed and ate up both him and his horse. This dreadful calamity lasted three years, notwithstanding all the means which Boris could use to alleviate it; and in this time upwards of 500,000 people perished in the city.

In 1604 a young man appeared, who pretended to be Demetrius, whom Boris had caused to be murdered, as we have already seen. Being supported by the Poles, he proved very troublesome to Boris all his lifetime; and after his death deprived Theodore Borisovitch, the new Czar, of the empire; after which he ascended the throne himself, and married a Polish princess. However, he held the empire but a short time, being killed in an insurrection of his subjects; and the unhappy Czarina was sent prisoner to Jaroslav.

After the death of Demetrius, Zoski, who had conspired against him, was chosen Czar; but rebellions continually taking place, and the empire being perpetually harassed by the Poles and Swedes, in 1610 Zoski was deposed, and Uladilafus son of Sigismund king of Poland was elected. However, the Poles representing to the king of Sigismund, that it would be more glorious for him to be the conqueror of Russia, than only the father of its sovereign, he carried on the war with such fury, that the Russians in despair fell upon the Poles, who resided in great numbers at Moscow. The Poles being well armed armed and mostly soldiers, had greatly the advantage; however, they were on the point of being oppressed by numbers, when they fell upon the most cruel method of ensuring their success that could be devised. This was by setting fire to the city in several places; and while the distressed Russians ran to save their families, the Poles fell upon them sword in hand. In this confusion upwards of 100,000 people perished; but the event was, that the Poles were finally driven out, and lost all footing in Russia.

The expulsion of the Poles was succeeded by the election of Theodorovitch Romanov, a young nobleman of 17 years of age, whose posterity, till the accession of the present Empress, continued to enjoy the sovereignty. He died in 1646, and was succeeded by his son Alexis; whose reign was a continued scene of tumult and confusion, being harassed on all sides by external enemies, and having his empire perpetually disturbed by internal commotions.

The sources of these commotions were found in the multiplicity and inconsistency of the laws at that period, and in the jarring claims of the nobles on the borders. An edict or ukase, or personal order, which is an edict of the sovereign, signed with his own hand, is the only law of Russia. These edicts are as various as the opinions, prejudices, passions, or whims of men; and in the days of Alexis they produced endless contentions. To remedy this evil, he made a selection, from all the edicts of his predecessors, of such as had been familiarly current for a hundred years; presuming that those either were founded in natural justice, or during so long a currency had formed the minds of the people to consider them as just. This edict, which he declared to be the common law of Russia, and which is prefaced by a sort of institute, is the standard law-book at this day known by the title of the Ulogeon or Selection; and all edicts prior to it were declared to be obsolete. He soon made his novella, however, more bulky than the Ulogeon; and the additions by his successors are beyond enumeration. This was undoubtedly a great and useful work; but Alexis performed another still greater.

Though there are many courts of judicature in this widely extended empire, the emperor has always been lord paramount, and could take a cause from any court immediately before himself. But as several of the old nobles had the remains of principalities in their families, and held their own courts, the sovereign or his ministers, at a distance up the country, frequently found it difficult to bring a culprit out of one of these hereditary feudal jurisdictions, and try him by the laws of the empire. This was a very disagreeable limitation of imperial power; and the more so, that some families claimed even a right to repledge. A lucky opportunity offered of settling this dispute; and Alexis embraced it with great ability.

Some families on the old frontiers were taxed with their defence, for which they were obliged to keep regiments on foot; and as they were but scantily indemnified by the state, it sometimes required the exertion of authority to make them keep up their levies. When the frontiers, by the conquest of Casan, were far extended, those gentlemen found the regiments no longer burdensome, because by the help of false mutters, the former scanty allowance much more than reimbursed them for the expense of the establishment. The consequence was, that disputes arose among them about the right of guarding certain districts, and law-suits were necessary to settle their respective claims. These were tedious and intricate. One claimant showed the order of the court, issued a century or two back, to his ancestor for the marching of his men, as a proof that the right was then in his family. His opponent proved, that his ancestors had been the real lords of the marches; but that, on account of their negligence, the court had issued an emmanov ukase to the other, only at that particular period. The emperor ordered all the family archives to be brought to Moscow, and all documents on both sides to be collected. A time was set for the examination; a fine wooden court-house was built; every paper was lodged under a good guard; the day was appointed when the court should be opened and the claims heard; but that morning the house, with all its contents, was in two hours consumed by fire. The emperor then said, "Gentlemen, henceforward your ranks, your privileges, and your courts, are the nation's, and the nation will guard itself. Your archives are unfortunately lost, but those of the nation remain. I am the keeper, and it is my duty to administer justice for all and to all. Your ranks are not private, but national; attached to the services you are actually performing. Henceforward Colonel Buturlin (a private gentleman) ranks before Captain Viazemsky (an old prince)."

This constitution, which established the different Alexis's ranks of Russia as they remain to this day, is by constitution Voltaire ascribed to Peter; but it was the work of Alexis; who, when the situation of himself and his ranks in the country is considered, must be allowed to have been a great and a good man. He died in 1676, and was succeeded by his son Theodore Alexiovitch; who after an excellent reign, during the whole of which he exerted himself to the utmost for the good of his subjects, died in 1682, having appointed his brother Peter I. Accesion commonly called Peter the Great, his successor. See of Peter the Great.

Theodore had another brother named John; but as he was subject to the falling-sickness, the Czar had preferred Peter, though very young, to the succession. But through the intrigues of the princess Sophia, sister to Theodore, a strong party was formed in favour of John; and soon after both John and Peter were proclaimed sovereigns of Russia under the administration of Sophia herself, who was declared regent. However, this administration did not continue long; for the princess regent having conspired against Peter, and having the misfortune to be discovered, was confined for life in a convent. From this time also John continued to be only a nominal sovereign till his death, which happened in 1696, Peter continuing to engross all the power.

It is to this emperor that Russia is universally allowed to owe the whole of her present greatness. The His character, private character of Peter himself seems to have been, but very indifferent. Though he had been married in his eighteenth year to a young and beautiful princess, he was not sufficiently restrained by the solemn ties of wedlock; and he was besides so much addicted to feasting and drunkenness, the prevailing vice of his country, that nobody could have imagined him capable of effecting the reformation upon his subjects which he actually accomplished. In spite of all disadvantages, however, he applied himself to the military art and to civil government. He had also a very singular natural defect, which, had it not been conquered, would have rendered him for ever incapable of accomplishing what he afterwards did. This was a vehement dread of water; which is thus accounted for. When he was about five years of age, his mother went with him in a coach, in the spring-season; and passing over a dam where there was a considerable water-fall, whilst he lay asleep in her lap, he was so suddenly awakened and frightened by the rushing of the water, that it brought a fever upon him; and after his recovery he retained such a dread of that element, that he could not bear to see any standing water, much less to hear a running stream. This aversion, however, he conquered by jumping into water; and afterwards became very fond of that element.

Being ashamed of the ignorance in which he had been brought up, he learned almost of himself, and without a master, enough of the High and Low Dutch languages to speak and write intelligibly in both. He looked upon the Germans and Hollanders as the most civilized nations; because the former had already erected some of those arts and manufactures in Moscow, which he was desirous of spreading throughout his empire; and the latter excelled in the art of navigation, which he considered as more necessary than any other. During the administration of the princess Sophia, he had formed a design of establishing a maritime power in Russia; which he accomplished by the means which we have recorded in his life.

Having reformed his army, and introduced new discipline among them, he led his troops against the Turks; from whom, in 1696, he took the fortress of Azov, and had the satisfaction to see his fleet defeat that of the enemy. On his return to Moscow were struck the first medals which had ever appeared in Russia. The legend was, "Peter the first, the august emperor of Russia." On the reverse was Azov, with these words, Victorious by fire and water. Notwithstanding this success, however, Peter was very much chagrined at having his ships all built by foreigners; having besides as great an inclination to have an harbour on the Baltic as on the Euxine Sea. These considerations determined him to send some of the young nobility of his empire into foreign countries, where they might improve. In 1697 he sent 60 young Russians into Italy; most of them to Venice, and the rest to Leghorn, in order to learn the method of constructing their galleys. Forty more were sent out by his direction for Holland, with an intent to instruct themselves in the art of building and working large ships; others were appointed for Germany, to serve in the land-forces, and to learn the military discipline of that nation. At last he resolved to travel through different countries in person, that he might have the opportunity of profiting by his own observation and experience. Of this journey we have given a short account elsewhere; and shall here only add, that in executing his great design, he lived and worked like a common carpenter. He laboured hard at the forges, rope-yards, and at the several mills for the sawing of timber, manufacturing of paper, wire-drawing, &c. In acquiring the art of a carpenter, he began with purchasing a boat, to which he made a mast himself, and by degrees he executed every part of the construction of a ship.

Besides this, Peter frequently went from Sweden to Amsterdam, where he attended the lectures of the celebrated Ruysh on anatomy. He also attended the lectures of burgomaster Witten on natural philosophy. From this place he went for a few days to Utrecht, in order to pay a visit to King William III. of England; and on his return sent to Archangel a 60 gun ship, in the building of which he had assisted with his own hands. In 1698 he went over to England, where he employed himself in the same manner as he had done in Holland. Here he perfected himself in the art of ship-building; and having engaged a great number of artificers, he returned with them to Holland; from whence he set out for Vienna, where he paid a visit to the emperor; and was on the point of setting out for Venice to finish his improvements, when he was informed of a rebellion having broken out in his dominions. This was occasioned by the superstition and obstinacy of the Russians, who having an almost invincible attachment to their old ignorance and barbarism, had resolved to dethrone the Czar on account of his innovations. But Peter arriving unexpectedly at Moscow, quickly put an end to their machinations, and took a most severe revenge on those who had been guilty. Having then made great reforms in every part of his empire, in 1700 he entered into a league with the kings of Denmark and Poland against Charles XII. of Sweden. The particulars of this famous war are related under the article Sweden. Here we shall only observe, that, from the conclusion of this war, Sweden ceased not only to be a formidable enemy to Russia, but even lost its political consequence in a great measure altogether.

Peter applied himself to the cultivation of commerce, arts, and sciences, with equal affluency as to the pursuits of war; and he made such acquisitions of dominion even in Europe itself, that he may be said, at the time of his death, to have been the most powerful prince of his age. He was unfortunate in the Czarevitch his eldest son, whom he contrived to get rid of by the forms of justice (see Peter I. note b), and then ordered his wife Catharine to be crowned with the same magnificent ceremonies as if she had been a Greek empress, and to be recognised as his successor; which she accordingly was, and mounted the Russian throne upon the decease of her husband. She died, after a glorious reign, in 1727, and was succeeded by Peter II., a minor, son to the Czarevitch. Many domestic revolutions happened in Russia during the short reign of this prince; but none was more remarkable than the disgrace and exile of Prince Mensikoff, the favourite general in the two late reigns, and esteemed the richest subject in Europe. Peter died of the small-pox in 1730.

Notwithstanding the despotism of Peter the Great and his wife, the Russian senate and nobility, upon the Courland death of Peter II., ventured to set aside the order of succession which they had established. The male issue of Peter was now extinguished; and the duke of Holstein, son to his eldest daughter, was by the definition of the late empress entitled to the crown; but the Russians, for political reasons, filled their throne with Anne duchess of Courland, second daughter to John, Peter's eldest brother; though her elder sister the duchess of Mecklenburgh was alive. Her reign was extremely prosperous; and though she accepted of the crown under der limitations that some thought derogatory to her dignity, yet she broke them all, asserted the prerogative of her ancestors, and punished the aspiring Dolgorucki family, who had imposed upon her limitations, with a view, as it is said, that they themselves might govern. She raised her favourite Biron to the duchy of Courland; and was obliged to give way to many severe executions on his account. Upon her death in 1740, John, the son of her niece the princess of Mecklenburgh, by Antony Ulric of Brunswic Wolfenbuttel, was, by her will, intitled to the succession; but being no more than two years old, Biron was appointed to be administrator of the empire during his nonage. This definition was disagreeable to the princesses of Mecklenburgh and her husband, and unpopular among the Russians. Count Munich was employed by the princesses of Mecklenburgh to arrest Biron; who was tried, and condemned to die, but was sent in exile to Siberia.

The administration of the princess Anne of Mecklenburgh and her husband was, upon many accounts, but particularly that of her German connections, disagreeable not only to the Russians, but to other powers of Europe; and notwithstanding a prosperous war they carried on with the Swedes, the princess Elizabeth, daughter by Catharine to Peter the Great, formed such a party, that in one night's time she was declared and proclaimed empress of the Russians; and the princesses of Mecklenburgh, her husband, and son, were made prisoners.

Elizabeth's reign may be said to have been more glorious than that of any of her predecessors, her father excepted. She abolished capital punishments, and introduced into all civil and military proceedings a moderation till her time unknown in Russia; but at the same time she punished the counts Munich and Offerman, who had the chief management of affairs during the late administration, with exile. She made peace with Sweden; and settled the succession to that crown, as well as to her own dominions, upon the most equitable foundation. Having gloriously finished a war, which had been flared up against her with Sweden, she replaced the natural order of succession in her own family, by declaring the duke of Holstein-Gottorp, who was descended from her elder sister, to be her heir. She gave him the title of grand duke of Russia; and soon after her accession to the throne, she called him to her court; where he renounced the succession to the crown of Sweden, which undoubtedly belonged to him, embraced the Greek religion, and married a princess of Anhalt-Zerbitz, by whom he had a son, who is now heir to the Russian empire.

Few princes have had a more uninterrupted career of glory than Elizabeth. She was completely victorious over the Swedes. Her alliance was courted by Great Britain at the expense of a large subsidy; but many political, and some private reasons, it is said, determined her to take part with the house of Austria against the king of Prussia in 1756. Her arms alone gave a turn to the success of the war, which was in disfavour of Prussia, notwithstanding that monarch's amazing abilities both in the field and cabinet. Her conquests were such as portended the entire destruction of the Prussian power, which was perhaps saved only by her critical death on January 5, 1762.

Elizabeth was succeeded by Peter III., grand prince of Russia and duke of Holstein; a prince whose conduct has been variously represented. He mounted the throne possessed of an enthusiastic admiration of his character Prussian majesty's virtues; to whom he gave peace, and of her whose principles and practices he seems to have adopted as the directories of his future reign. He might have furredmouted the effects even of those peculiarities, unpopular as they then were in Russia; but it is said, that he aimed at reformation in his dominions, which even Peter the Great durst not attempt; and that he even ventured to cut off the beards of his clergy. He was certainly a weak man, who had no opinions of his own, but childishly adopted the sentiments of any person who took the trouble to teach him. His chief amusement was buffoonery; and he would fit-for-hours looking with pleasure at a merry-andrew singing drunken and vulgar songs. He was a stranger to the country, its inhabitants, and their manners; and suffered himself to be persuaded by those about him, that the Russians were fools and beasts unworthy of his attention, except to make them, by means of the Prussian discipline, good fighting machines. These sentiments regulated his whole conduct, and prepared the way for that revolution which improprieties of a different kind tended to hasten.

Becoming attached to one of the Vorontsoff ladies, Behaviour-fitter to the princess Dalkoff, he disgusted his wife, of the empress's company. Similarity of situations: knit these two illustrious personages in the closest friendship. The princess being a zealous admirer of the French accomplishments, could make her conversation both amusing and instructive. She retailed all her statistical knowledge; and finding the empress a willing hearer, she spoke of her in every company as a prodigy of knowledge, judgment, and philanthropy. Whilst the emperor, by his buffoonery and attachment to foreign manners, was daily incurring more and more the odium of his subjects, the popularity of his wife was rapidly increasing; and some persons about the court expressed their regret, that so much knowledge of government, such love of humanity, and such ardent wishes for the prosperity of Russia, should only furnish conversations with Catharina Romanovna*. The empress and her favourite did not let these expressions pass unobserved; and whilst the former was employed on her famous code of laws for a great empire, the latter always reported progresst, till the middling circles of Moscow and St Petersburg began to speak familiarly of the bleatings which they might enjoy if these speculations could be realized.

Meanwhile Peter III. was giving fresh cause of discontent. He had recalled from Siberia count Munich, who was indeed a sensible, brave, and worthy man; but as he was smarting under the effects of Russian deportment, and had grounds of resentment against most of military, the great families, he did not much discourage the emperor's unpopular conduct, but only tried to moderate it and give it a system. Peter, however, was impatient. He publicly ridiculed the exercise and evolutions of the Russian troops; and hastily adopting the Prussian discipline, without digesting and fitting it for the constitution of his own forces, he completely ruined himself by disgracing the army.

What he lost was soon and easily gained by the emissaries of Catharine. Four regiments of guards, amounting to 8000 men, were instantly brought over by the three brothers Orloff, who had contrived to ingratiate themselves with their officers. The people at large were in a state of indifference, out of which they were roused by the following means. A little manuscript was handed about, containing principles of legislation for Russia, founded on natural rights, and on the claims of the different classes of people which had insensibly been formed, and become so familiar as to appear natural. In that performance was proposed a convention of deputies from all the classes, and from every part of the empire, to converse, but without authority, on the subjects of which it treated, and to inform the senate of the result of their deliberations. It passed for the work of her majesty, and was much admired.

While Catharine was thus high in the public esteem and affection, the emperor took the alarm at her popularity, and in a few days came to the resolution of confining her for life; and then of marrying his favourite. The servants of that favourite betrayed her to her sister, who imparted the intelligence to the empress. Catharine saw her danger, and instantly formed her resolution. She must either tamely submit to perpetual imprisonment, and perhaps a cruel and ignominious death, or contrive to hurl her husband from his throne. No other alternative was left her; and the consequence was what undoubtedly was expected. The proper steps were taken; folly fell before abilities and address, and in three days the revolution was accomplished.

When the emperor saw that all was lost, he attempted to enter Cronstadt from Oranienbaum, a town on the gulf of Finland, 39 versts, or near 26 miles from Petersburg. The sentinels at the harbour presented their muskets at the barge; and though they were not loaded, and the men had no cartridges, he drew back. The English sailors called from ship to ship for some person to head them, declaring that they would take him in and defend him; but he precipitately withdrew. Munich received him again at Oranienbaum, and exhorted him to mount his horse and lead his guards, swearing to live and die with him. He said, "No: I see it cannot be done without shedding much of the blood of my brave Holsteinians. I am not worthy of the sacrifice." The revolution was settled, and Catharine declared autocratrix. The crown was said to be pressed upon her, and her son was proclaimed her heir, and as such great duke of all the Russians.

She behaved with magnanimity and moderation; retained Munich; even pardoned countess Vorontzoff the famous emperor's favourite; and afterwards, on her marriage and mode with Mr Paulotkoff, made a handsome settlement on them. She allowed the expectations of golden days and a philosophical government to become the subject of fashionable conversation; and the princess Dalkhoff (c) was completely happy. The convention of deputies was even resolved on; and as they were not to be elected by the people, except here and there for the show, Prince Galitzin and Count Panin, whom she had completely gained over, and who had the greatest abilities of any Russians about court, were at immense pains in appointing a proper set. In the mean time, a great number of showy patriotic projects were begun. A grave English clergyman was invited over to superintend the institution of schools for civil and moral education; and the empress was most liberal in her appointments. This institution failed, however, to produce the effects expected from it. The clergyman appointed, though a most excellent character and real philanthropist, had views too contracted for the sphere in which he was placed; and Mr Betkoy, the Russian Mezenas, to whom the empress referred him for instructions, preferred declamation, and stage-playing, and ballets, to all other accomplishments.

In the mean time, elegance of all kinds was introduced before the people were taught the principles of morals. The nobles were sent a travelling; and as the Russians more easily acquire foreign languages than the people of most other nations, have great vivacity without flippancy, and in general understand play, these travellers were everywhere well received, especially at Paris, where reasons of state contributed not a little to procure to them that attention with which they were treated. They were ravished with the manners of foreign courts, and imported fashions and fineries without bounds. The sovereign turned all this to her own account, by encouraging a dissipation which rendered court favours necessary, and made the people about her forget their Utopian dreams.

The convention of deputies at last assembled in the capital. The empress's book of instructions (d) came forth; and by some great things were doubtsless expected. The most consequential of the deputies were privately instructed to be very cautious, and informed that the carriages and guards were ready for Siberia. There was a grand procession at their presentation. Each had the honour of kissing her majesty's hand and receiving a gold medal. They met in form to recognize one another,

(c) This lady, during the progress of the revolution, certainly acted either from the most disinterested patriotism or the most generous friendship. She might have taken part with the emperor, and directed the counsels of the empire; for her sister, on whom he doated, acknowledged her superiority, and wanted nothing but pleasure. Between them they could easily have governed such a man as Peter III. But Catharine Romanowa was a theoretical enthusiast, who loved the empress because she thought her a philosopher and philanthropist; and perhaps she might entertain hopes of directing the conduct of Catharine II. as she had formerly assisted her in her patriotic studies.

(d) It is intitled, Instructions for the Deputies to consult about a New Code of Laws, &c. and is a very respectable work, which does honour to the empress, by whom it was undoubtedly composed. RUS

other, then parted, and have never met since. The thing melted away without notice; and the Princess Dakhoff was handsomely given to understand, that her counsels were no longer necessary, and that she could not do better than take the amusements of the tour of Europe. She was liberally supplied, and has ever since been treated with great kindness, but kept amused with something very different from legislation.

In the meantime, many patriotic things were really done. Taxes were frequently remitted where they were burdensome. Every person was declared free who had served government without pay for two years. No man was allowed to send boors from his cultivated estates to his mines in Siberia, nor to any distant estates, but for the purposes of agriculture. Many colonies of German peasants were in various places settled on the crown-lands, to teach the natives the management of the dairy; a branch of rural economy of which the Russians were till that period so completely ignorant, that there is not in their language an appropriated word for butter, or cheese, or even for cream.

The Russians hoped to be likewise instructed in agriculture; but the colonists were poor and ignorant; and this part of the project came to nothing, like the great national schools. Other improvements however took place in favour of commerce; for all barriers were removed, and goods suffered to pass through the empire duty-free. The empress with great liberality encouraged the introduction of arts and manufactures. An academy was instituted of sculpture, painting, and architecture, &c. a magnificent and elegant building was erected for it, and many éleves supported in it at the expense of the crown. Several very promising youths have been educated in that academy; but as the Russians are childishly fond of finery, and cannot be persuaded that any thing fine was ever done by their own countrymen, the students are all, on leaving the academy, suffered to starve.

The empress, who has a very just taste in architecture, has herself designed several buildings equally useful and ornamental to her capital (see NEVA and PETERSBURGH); and while she has thus diligently cultivated the arts of peace, she has not neglected those of war. She put her fleets on the most respectable footing, and procured a number of British officers to instruct her seamen in the science of naval tactics. By land, her successe against the Turks, the Swedes, and the Poles (see TURKEY, SWEDEN, and POLAND), compel us to believe, that her troops are better disciplined, and her generals more skilful, than any whom the greatest of her predecessors could bring into the field; and perhaps it is not too much to say, that the empire of Russia, though the people are but just emerging from a state of barbarism, is at this day the most powerful in Europe.

Russia is divided into two great parts by a range of mountains called Oural, or the Belt, which, through the whole breadth of it, form one continual uninterrupted barrier, dividing Siberia from the remaining Russia.—That part of Russia which lies on this side of the Oural mountains presents a very extensive plain verging westward by an easy descent. The vast extent of this plain has a great variety of different climates, soils, and products. The northern part of it is very woody, marshy, and but little fit for cultivation, and has a sensible declivity towards the White and the Frozen Seas. The other part of this vast plain includes the whole extent along the river Volga as far as the deserts, extending by the Caspian and the Azov Seas, and constitutes the finest part of Russia, which in general is very rich and fruitful, having more arable and meadow land than wood, marshes, or barren deserts.

The part lying on the other side of the Oural mountains, known by the name of Siberia, is a flat tract of land of considerable extent, declining imperceptibly towards the Glacial Sea, and equally by imperceptible degrees rising towards the south, where at last it forms a great range of mountains, constituting the borders of Russia on the side of China. Between the rivers Irtysh, Obe, and the Altay mountains, there is a very extensive plain, known by the name of Barabinskaya Steppe, viz. the deserts of Baraba, the northern part of which is excellent for agriculture; but the southern part, on the contrary, is a desert full of sands and marshes, and very unfit for cultivation. Between the rivers Obe and Enisey there is more woodland than open ground; and the other side of the Enisey is entirely covered with impervious woods, as far as the lake Baikal; but the soil is fruitful everywhere; and wherever the trouble has been taken of clearing it of the wood, and of draining it from unnecessary water, it proves to be very rich, and fit for cultivation; and the country beyond the Baikal is surrounded by ridges of high stony mountains. Proceeding on farther towards the east, the climate of Siberia becomes by degrees more and more severe, the summer grows shorter, the winter longer, and the frosts prove more intense.

With respect to the variety of climates, as well as Variety of the produce of the earth, Russia naturally may be divided into three regions or divisions, viz. into the northern, middle, and southern divisions.

There were about 20 years ago subdivided into different governments, for the better administration of justice.

The northern division, beginning from the 57th degree of latitude, extends to the end of the Russian dominions on the north, and includes the governments of St Petersburg, Riga, Revel, Vyborg, Pskow, Novgorod, Tver, Olonetz, Archangel, Vologda, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Viatka, Perm, and Tobolsk. The middle division is reckoned from the 57th to the 60th degree of latitude, and includes the governments of Moscow, Smolensk, Polotsk, Mogilev, Tchernigov, Novgorod-Sieverskoy, Kharkov, Voronez, Koursk, Orel, Kaluga, Toola, Riazane, Vladimir, Nizhni-Novgorod, Tambov, Saratov, Penza, Sinbirsk, Kazan, Oufa, Kolhivane, and Irkoutsk. The southern division begins at the 60th degree of latitude, and extends to the end of Russia on the south, including the governments of Kiev, Ekatherinoullav, Caucasia, and the province of Taurida. To this may be added the habitations of the Cossacks of the Don.

The northern division, though deficient in grain, Products, fruit, and garden vegetables, has the preference before the northern, middle, and southern, in the abundance of animals, rare and valuable for their skins; in fishes of particular sorts, further divided very useful for different purposes of life; in cattle, and various metals of inferior kinds, &c. The middle division of Russia abounds in different kinds of grain, hemp, flax, cattle, cattle, fish, bees, timber proper for every use, different kinds of wild beasts, metals, both of superior as well as inferior kind, different precious stones, &c. This division is likewise most convenient for the habitation of mankind, on account of the temperature and pleasantness of the air. The fourth division has not that abundance of grain, but has the preference in different delicate kinds of fruit, quantity of fish, cattle, and wild animals, amongst which there are several species different from those which are found in the middle division. It exceeds greatly both the other divisions in plants and roots fit for dying and for medical purposes, as well as for the table; neither is it deprived of precious stones, as well as different metals.

The products of those three divisions constitute the permanent and inexhaustible riches of Russia; for, besides what is necessary for home consumption, there is a great quantity of those products exported yearly into foreign countries to the amount of several millions of rubles. These productions are brought from different places to fairs, established in different parts of Russia, where the merchants buy them up, and forward them to different ports, and other trading towns, for exportation into foreign kingdoms. These fairs are likewise the places where a considerable quantity of goods imported from foreign kingdoms is disposed of. The principal yarmarkas, that is, fairs, are the yarmanka Makarievskaya, Korennaya, and Irbitskaya.

The external commerce of Russia may be divided into two different branches; 1st, The commerce with the European nations, which is carried on by buying and selling goods either for ready money or upon credit. 2nd, The commerce with the Asiatic nations, which is conducted by barter or exchange of goods.

The principal ports belonging to the first part of Russia are, on the Baltic sea, St Peterburgh, Riga, Vyborg, Kevel, Narva, Fredericktown, and the Baltic port; Archangel on the White sea, and Kola on the Northern Ocean; Taganrog on the sea of Azov; Kerch, Sevastopol, Balaklava, Soudaks, Theodosia, Kerche, and Phanagoria on the Black sea, besides others of smaller note. In these ports commerce is carried on, as well as in several trading towns situated on the frontiers of Poland, Sweden, and Turkey.

The products of Russia exported into the different European kingdoms consist chiefly in hemp, flax, different kinds of grain, tallow, hides, sail-cloth, iron, timber, linseed, butter, hemp-oil, train-oil, wax, potashes, tar, tobacco, brittles, linens, peltry, and other goods, the greatest part of which is exported chiefly by way of St Peterburgh, Riga, and Archangel; and in return from the European kingdoms they receive woollen cloths, different kinds of goods made of worsted, silk, cotton, and thread; wines and beer, white and moit sugars, silks, cotton unwrought, and yarn; French brandy, liquors, arrack, shrub, different iron tools, and toys; gold and silver in bars, in foreign money, and in other things; brilliants, pearls, galanterie goods, coffee, colours; peltry, viz. beaver and otter skins; herrings, stock-fish, salt, tobacco, different trees, oil, horses, china and earthen ware, &c. The greatest part of these goods is imported through the ports of St Peterburgh and Riga, but a considerable quantity is likewise admitted by land through different frontier customhouses.

The principal goods exported into Asia are partly the products of Russia, and partly imported from other European kingdoms, and consist of peltry and hides. The other goods are woollen cloths, bays, borax, bottles, printed linens, iron, and different kinds of ironware, calamanco, kerseys, glue, flinglass, cochineal, indigo, laura, tinsel, gold and silver lace, soap; all kinds of arms, as pistols, guns, sabres; different kinds of linens, printed and glazed, striped linen, ticking, pallocks, cloth, &c. From the Asiatic kingdoms they import different silk goods, raw silk, cotton, silk-wove stuffs, gold and silver in bars and in coin, cattle, horses, &c.

The mountains within Russia, as well as those on its frontiers, abound with minerals of various kinds. Gold, &c., silver, quicksilver, copper, lead, iron-ore, very powerful loadstones, mountain-crystal, amethyst, topazes of different sorts, agates, cornelian, beryl, chalcedony, onyx, porphyry, antimony, pyrites, aquamarines, chrysolites, opalites, and lapis lazuli, are found in them, besides marble, granite, trappe, maria or Mulcovy glass, of remarkable size and clearness, bafutes, and coal, &c.; and in every part of Siberia, but particularly in the plains of it, are found bones of animals uncommonly large, mammoth's teeth (see Mammoth), and other foosils.

In the Russian empire are many lakes of very large extent. 1. The Ladoga, anciently called Novo, is the largest lake in Europe, extending in length 175 and in breadth 105 versts; or it is 116 English miles long and near 70 broad. It lies between the governments of St Petersburgh, Olonetz, and Vyborg; and communicates with the Baltic sea by the river Neva, with the Onega lake by the river Swir, and with the Ilmen lake by the river Volkov. Several considerable rivers fall into it, as the Patha, Sias, Oyat, and others. The Ladoga canal is made near this lake. 2. The Onega lake is situated in the government of Olonetz. It is above 200 versts long, and the greatest width of it does not exceed 80 versts. 3. The Tchude lake, or Peipus, lies between the governments of St Petersburgh, Picov, Revel, and Riga. It is near 80 versts long and 60 broad. It joins to the lake of Picov by a large neck of water. The length of this lake is 50 and the width about 40 versts. The river Velikaya flows into it. The river Narova comes out of the lake Peipus, which by the river Embakha communicates with the lake Wirtz-Erve, and from this latter flows the river Fellin, and runs into the bay of Riga. 4. The Ilmen lake, anciently called Mijik, lies in the government of Novogorod. Its length is 40 and width 35 versts. The rivers Mit, Lovate, Shelone, and others, fall into it; and only one river, Volkov, runs out of it, by which it is joined with the Ladoga lake. 5. The Bielo-Ozero, that is, the White Lake, lies in the government of Novogorod. It extends 50 versts in length, and about 30 in width. There are many small rivers which run into it; but only one river, Shekina, comes out of it, and falls into the river Volga. 6. The Altai, or Altay lake, otherwise called the Telyuk lake, is situated in the government of Kolhivane. It extends in length 126 and in width about 84 versts. The river Biya comes out of it, which being joined to the river Katounya, constitute the river Obi. 7. The Baical Lake, otherwise called the Bai- cal Sea, and the Holy Sea, lies in the government of Irkoutsk. Its extent in length is 600, and in width from Rusia boasts likewise of a considerable number of large and famous rivers. Of the Dvina or Dwina, the Neva, Dnieper or Nieper, the Don, the Volga, the Irtis, the Onega, the Oby, and the Lena, the reader of this work will find some account under their respective names; but in this vast empire there are many other rivers worthy of notice, though not perhaps of such minute description. Among these the Bug, or, as it is sometimes written, Beg, rises in Poland; then directing its course to the south-east, it divides the government of Ecatherinoslav from the deserts of Otchakov, now belonging to Rusia, and falls into the Liman, which communicates with the Black sea.

The Kubane consists of many springs or rivulets running out of the Caucasian mountains, and divides itself into two branches, the one of which falls into the Azov Sea, and the other into the Black sea. This river, from its source to the end of it, constitutes the frontier of Rusia.

The Ural, formerly Yaik, takes its rise in the Ural mountains, in the government of Oufa, which it divides from that of Caucasus, and extends its course about 3000 versts. It receives many rivers, the principal of which are the Or, Sakmara, Yleck, and Terkool.

The Kouma rises in the Caucasian mountains, and runs through the plains between Terek and Volga, and at last loses itself in the sands, before it comes to the Caspian sea. The Terek originates in the Caucasian mountains, runs between them, and then coming out, extends its course to the Caspian Sea, and receives several rivers, as the Malka, Soonja, Baksan, and Acklay.

The Bolshaya Petchora, that is, the great Petchora, rises in the Ural mountains, in the government of Vologda, runs across the whole breadth of the government of Archangel, and falls into the Icy sea. It receives in its course several rivers, the principal of which are the Outcha and the Elma. The Enissey is formed by the junction of two rivers, the Oulookema and the Baykema, which rise in the Altay mountains in Mongolia. It runs through the whole extent of Siberia, and falls into the Icy Sea. The extent of the Enissey is about 2500 versts. It receives in its course several rivers, the principal of which are the Abakan, Elogooy, Podkanennaya Tungouska, Niznaya Tungouska, and Tourookhan. The Yana, the Indigirka, and the Kolhima, are likewise no inconsiderable rivers in the government of Irkoutsk. The first rises in the mountains which overshadow the banks of the river Lena on the right hand, and extends its course 800 versts. The two last take their sources in the mountains which extend on the coasts of the Eastern sea. The length of the Indigirka is 1200 and that of Kolhima 1500 versts.

The last, near its mouth, is divided into two branches, and receives the rivers Omolon and Onooy. The Anadir is the easternmost of all the rivers in Siberia. It rises out of the lake Ioanko, in the district of Okhotsk, and runs through the eastern part of it, and then falls into the Eastern ocean. The Amour is formed by the junction of two considerable rivers, the Shilka and Argoonya, which are joined just by the frontiers of China. It runs through the Chinese dominions, and at last falls into the Eastern ocean. The Kamtchatka runs through the peninsula of the same name, extending its course from the Verkhney to Nizney Olrog, that is, from the upper to the lower fort, and falls into the Eastern ocean. The Penjina rises in the Yablonnoy ridge of mountains, and falls into the Penjinikaya Gooba, that is, the gulf or the sea of Penjina.

In such a vast extent of country, stretching from the State of temperate so far into the frigid zone, the climate may vary considerably in different places. In the southern parts of the Rusian empire, the longest day does not exceed fifteen hours and a half; whereas in the most northern, the sun in summer is seen two months above the horizon. The country in general, though lying under different climates, is excessively cold in the winter. Towards the north, the country is covered near three quarters of the year with snow and ice; and by the severity of the cold many unfortunate persons are ruined, or perish. This sort of weather commonly sets in about the latter end of August, and continues till the month of May; in which interval the rivers are frozen to the depth of four or five feet. Water thrown up into the air will fall down in icicles; birds are frozen in their flight, and travellers in their fedges. In some provinces the heats of summer are as scorching as the winter colds are rigorous.

The soil of Muscovy varies still more than the climate, according to the influence of the sun and the situation of the country. In the warmer provinces, the produce of vegetation is so rapid, that corn is commonly reaped in two months after it begins to appear above the surface of the ground. Hence the great variety of mushrooms produced spontaneously in Rusia, which may be considered as a comfortable relief to the poor, while they appear as delicacies at the tables of the rich. Above 1000 waggon-loads of them used to be sold annually in Moscow. Perhaps it is on account of the scarcity of provisions that such a number of fats are instituted in the Muscovite religion.

Besides the productions already mentioned as peculiar to each of the three great natural divisions of the empire, Muscovy yields rhubarb, flax, hemp, pasture for cattle, wax, and honey. Among other vegetables, we find in Rusia a particular kind of rice called rynta, plenty of excellent melons, and in the neighbourhood of Astrakhan the famous zoophyton, or animal plant, which the Muscovites call lamaret, or lambkin, from its resemblance to a lamb. See the article Seybion Lam.

Agriculture in general is but little understood, and State of less prosecuted in this country. The most considerable articles in the economy of a Russian farm are wax and honey. honey, by which the peasant is often enriched. He cuts down a great number of trees in the forest, and sawing the trunks into a number of parts, bores each of these, and stops up the hollow at both ends, leaving only a little hole for the admittance of the bees; thus the honey is secured from all the attempts of the bear, who is extremely fond of it, and tries many different experiments for making himself master of the luscious treasure.

Of this honey the Ruffians make a great quantity of strong mead for their ordinary drink. They likewise extract from rye a spirit, which they prefer to brandy.

The wild beasts in the northern part of Russia are the same with those we have mentioned in the articles of Norway and Lapland: such as rein-deer, bears, foxes, ermines, martens, sables, hares, and squirrels. In the more southern provinces the Mulcovites breed black cattle, small but hardy horses, sheep, goats, and camels. The breed of cattle and horses has been enlarged by the care and under the protection of Peter and succeeding sovereigns. The whole empire abounds with wild-fowl and game of all sorts, and a variety of birds of prey; besides the different kinds of poultry, which are raised in this as well as in other countries. The external parts and provinces of Mulcovy are well supplied with sea-fish from the Northern ocean, the Baltic, or gulph of Finland, the White sea, the Black sea, and the Caspian; but the whole empire is plentifully provided with fresh-water fish from the numerous lakes and rivers, yielding immense quantities of salmon, trout, pike, sturgeon, and beluga: the last being a large fish, of whose roe the best caviare is made. Innumerable insects, like those of Lapland, are hatched by the summer's heat in the land, marshes, and forests, with which this empire abounds; and are so troublesome as to render great part of the country altogether uninhabitable.

The Russian empire is inhabited by no less than 16 different nations, of which our limits will hardly permit us to give the names. The first are the Slavonic nations, comprehending the Ruffians, who are the predominant inhabitants of the whole empire, and the Poles, who besides occupying the countries lately wrested from the republic, live in the governments of Polatsk and Moghilev, as well as in the district of Salenghinik and along the river Irtysh. 2. The Germanic nations, comprehending the Germans properly so called, who inhabit Esthonia and Livonia; the Swedes inhabiting the Russian Finland, as well as some of the islands on the Baltic sea; and the Danes, who inhabit the islands of the Baltic sea, the Worms, and Grofs or Great Roge. 3. The Lettonian or Livonian nations, under which are clasped the original or real Lettonians or Letshii, inhabiting Livonia; and the Lithuanians, who live in the government of Polatsk and Moghilev. 4. The Finns, or Tchudis, nations who inhabit the governments of Viborg and St Petersburgh, with many other districts of the empire, being branched out into no fewer than 12 different tribes. 5. The Tartarian nations, who are all either Mahometans or idolaters. The Mahometan Tartars, commonly called by the Russians Tartare, dwell in Kazane, and the places adjacent; at Kefimov; at Ouse, in the government of Parma; at Tomsk and its neighbourhood, and are in general a sober, industrious, cleanly, and generous people. The other Tartars inhabit different parts of Siberia, and are intermixed with still different races, called after the towns, rivers, and other places to which their habitations are nearest. They are, as we have said, idolaters, and governed by shamans. (See Shamen.) Besides these, there are in the Russian dominions the Nagay Tartars; the Crimean Tartars, inhabiting the Crimea, who, together with the land belonging to them, came under the subjection of Russia in 1783; the Metcheraki; the Bashkir; the Kirghizti or Kirghis-kafikas; the Yakouti; and the white Kalmuks. 6. The Caucasian nations, which are six in number, and are each subdivided into many different tribes, of which it is probable that few of our readers have ever heard the names, except of the Circassians, who live in different settlements bordering on the river Kuban. 7. The Samoyeds or Samoeds, comprehending the Oltiacki*. These inhabit the northernmost part of Russia, along the coast of the Icy sea. 8. The Mongolian nations, comprehending the original Mongals, who are chiefly dispersed in the deserts of Gobey; the Bourati, who live on the banks of the Baikal, and other places in the government of Irkoutsk; and the Kalmuks, consisting of four different tribes. All these hordes speak the Mongolian language, observe the religion of Lama and the Kalmuks live in large tents. 9. The Tongooft, a very populous tribe, dispersed from the river Enisey as far as the sea of Okhotsk, and from the Penjinskaya Gooba beyond the Chineze frontier. They are all idolaters, and live by hunting and fishing. 10. The Kamtchadels. 11. The Koriaki. 12. The Kouriltzi. Of these three nations we have given some account under the article Kamtschatka. 13. The Aleouti, who dwell in the islands between Siberia and America, and very much resemble the Esquimaux and the inhabitants of Greenland. They live in large huts, and seem to be idolaters. 14. The Ariutzi, a very numerous people scattered in the government of Kolhivane. 15. The Yukaghiri, who are dispersed on the coasts of the Glacial sea, about the rivers Yana, Kolhima, and Lena, and as far as the source of the Anadir. 16. The Tchouktchi, who occupy the north-eastern part of Siberia, between the rivers Kolhima and Anadir. Besides these sixteen different nations, there are scattered through the Russian empire vast numbers of Buckharian Tartars, Persians, Georgians, Indians, Greeks, Servians, Albanians, Bulgarians, Moldavians, Vakelians, Armenians, and Jews.

The empire of Russia is so widely extended, that notwithstanding the number of nations which it comprehends, it must be considered as by no means populous. At the last revision it was found to contain 26 millions of souls; but it is to be observed, that the nobility, clergy, land as well as sea forces, different officers, servants belonging to the court, persons employed under government in civil and other offices; the students of different universities, academies, seminaries, and other schools; hospitals of different denominations; likewise all the irregular troops, the roving hordes of different tribes, foreigners and colonists, or settlers of different nations—are not included in the above-mentioned number; but with the addition of all these, the population of Russia, of both sexes, may be supposed to come near to 28 millions. To such a vast variety of people, nations, and languages, it is needless to observe, that no general character can with truth be applied. The native Russians are stigmatized by their neighbours as ignorant and brutal, totally resigned to sloth, and addicted to drunkenness, even in the most beastly excess; nay, they are accused of being arbitrary, perfidious, inhuman, and destitute of every social virtue. There is not a phrase in their language analogous to ours, "the manners or the sentiments of a gentleman;" nor does gentleman with them express any thing moral. Indeed they have no such distinction. Cunning is professed and gloried in by all; and the nobleman whom you detect telling a lie is vexed, but not in the least ashamed. In the whole regiment of the marine by Peter the Great, there is not one word addressed to the honour, or even to the propriety, of his officers. Hopes of reward, and the constant fear of detection and punishment, are the only motives touched on. In every ship of war, and in every regiment, there is a fiscal or authorized spy, a man of respectable rank, whose letters must not be opened but at the risk of the great knout (see Knout); and he is required by express statute to give monthly reports of the behaviour of the officers and privates.

Such regulations we cannot think well adapted to improve the morals of the people; yet we believe they have been improved by the care, affluence, and example of some of their late sovereigns. Certain it is, the vice of drunkenness was so universally prevalent among them, that Peter I. was obliged to restrain it by very severe edicts, which, however, have not produced much effect. They numbered in the city of Moscow no fewer than 4000 brandy-shops, in which the inhabitants used to fill away their time in drinking strong liquors and smoking tobacco. This last practice became so dangerous, among persons in the most beastly state of intoxication, that a very severe law was found necessary to prevent the pernicious consequences, otherwise the whole city might have been consumed by conflagrations. The nobility were heretofore very powerful, each commanding a great number of vassals, whom they ruled with the most despotic and barbarous authority; but their possessions have been gradually circumscribed, and their power transferred in a great measure to the czar, on whom they are now wholly dependent.

At present there is no other degree of the nobility but that of the boyars: these are admitted to the council, and from among them the waiwodes, governors, and other great officers, are nominated, and their ranks with respect to each other are regulated by the importance of their respective offices.

Alexis, who introduced this order of precedence, abhorred the personal abasement of the inferior classes to their superiors, which he would not accept of when exhibited to himself; and it may appear surprising that Peter, who despised mere ceremonials, should have encouraged every extravagance of this kind. In a few years of his reign, the beautiful simplicity of delegation and address which his father had encouraged was forgotten, and the cumbersome and almost ineffable titles which disgrace the little courts of Germany were crowded into the language of Russia. He enjoined the lowest order of gentlemen to be addressed by the phrase, your respectable birth; the next rank, by your high good birth; the third, your excellency; the fourth, your high excellency; then came your brilliancy and high brilliancy. Highnesses and majesties were reserved for the great duke and the czar.

These titles and modes of address were ordered with all the regularity of the manual exercise; and the man who should omit any of them when speaking to his superior might be lawfully beaten by the offended boyar. Before this period, it was polite and courtly to speak to every man, even the heir apparent, by adding his father's name to his own; and to the great duke, Paul Petrovitz was perfectly respectful, or a single word signifying dear father, when he was not named. Those pompous titles were unknown among them before the era of Peter, the subordination of ranks was more complete than in any other European nation; but with this simplicity peculiar to them and the Poles, that they had but three ranks, the sovereign, the noblest or gentry, and the serfs. It was not till very lately that the mercantile rank formed any distinction; and that distinction is no more than the freedom of the person, which was formerly a transferable commodity belonging to the boyar. Notwithstanding this simplicity, which put all gentlemen on a level, the subscription of a person holding an inferior office was not servant, but slave; and the legal word for a petition in form was tschelobitni, which signifies, "a beating with the forehead," i.e., striking the ground with the forehead; which was actually done. The father of Alexis abolished the practice; but at this day, when a Russian petitions you, he touches his forehead with his finger; and if he be very earnest, he then puts his finger to the ground.

The Russian nobles formerly wore long beards, and long robes with short sleeves dangling down to their ankles: their collars and shirts were generally wrought with silk of different colours: in lieu of hats, they covered their heads with furred caps; and, instead of shoes, wore red or yellow leathern buckles. The dress of the women nearly resembled that of the other sex; with this difference, that their garments were more loose, their caps fantastical, and their shift-sleeves three or four ells in length, gathered up in folds from the shoulder to the fore-arm. By this time, however, the French fashions prevail among the better sort throughout all Muscovy.

The common people are generally tall, healthy, and robust, patient of cold and hunger, insured to hard andships, and remarkably capable of bearing the most sudden transition from the extremes of hot or cold weather. Nothing is more customary than to see a Russian, who is over-heated and sweating at every pore, strip himself naked, and plunge into a river; nay, when their pores are all opened in the hot bath, to which they have daily recourse, they either practise this immersion, or subject themselves to a discharge of some pailfuls of cold water. This is the custom of both men and women, who enter the baths promiscuously, and appear naked to each other, without scruple or hesitation.

A Russian will subsist for many days upon a little oatmeal and water, and even raw roots: an onion is a regale; but the food they generally use in their journeys is a kind of rye-bread, cut into small square pieces, and dried again in the oven: these, when they are hungry, they soak in water, and eat as a very comfortable Both sexes are remarkably healthy and robust, and accustom themselves to sleep every day after dinner.

The Russian women are remarkably fair, comely, strong, and well-shaped, obedient to their lordly husbands, and patient under discipline; they are even said to be fond of correction, which they consider as an infallible mark of their husband's conjugal affection; and they pout and pine if it be withheld, as if they thought themselves treated with contempt and disregard. Of this neglect, however, they have very little cause to complain; the Russian husband being very well disposed, by nature and inebriation, to exert his arbitrary power. Some writers observe, that, on the wedding-day, the bride presents the bridegroom with a whip of her own making, in token of submission; and this he fails not to employ as the instrument of his authority. Very little ceremony is here used in match-making, which is the work of the parents. Perhaps the bridegroom never sees the woman till he is joined to her for life. The marriage being proposed and agreed to, the lady is examined, stark-naked, by a certain number of her female relations; and if they find any bodily defect, they endeavour to cure it by their own skill and experience. The bride, on her wedding-day, is crowned with a garland of wormwood, implying the bitterness that often attends the married state. When the priest has tied the nuptial knot at the altar, his clerk or sexton throws upon her head a handful of hops, wishing that she may prove as fruitful as the plant thus scattered. She is muffled up, and led home by a certain number of old women, the parish-priest carrying the cros before; while one of his subalterns, in a rough goat-skin, prays all the way that she may bear as many children as there are hairs on his garment. The newly-married couple, being seated at table, are presented with bread and salt; and a chorus of boys and girls sing the epithalamium, which is always grossly obscene. This ceremony being performed, the bride and bridegroom are conducted to their own chamber by an old woman, who exhorts the wife to obey her husband, and retires. Then the bridegroom desires the lady to pull off one of his buckles, giving her to understand, that in one of them is contained a whip, and in the other a jewel or a purse of money. She takes her choice; and if she finds the purse, interprets it into a good omen; whereas should the light on the whip, she construes it into an unhappy presage, and instantly receives a lash as a specimen of what she has to expect. After they have remained two hours together, they are interrupted by a deputation of old women, who come to search for the signs of her virginity; if these are apparent, the young lady ties up her hair, which before consummation hung loose over her shoulders, and visits her mother, of whom she demands the marriage portion. It is generally agreed, that the Muscovite husbands are barbarous even to a proverb; they not only administer frequent and severe correction to their wives, but sometimes even torture them to death, without being subject to any punishment for the murder.

The canon law of Muscovy forbids the conjugal commerce on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays; and whoever transgresses this law, must bathe himself before he enters the church-door. He that marries a second wife, the first being alive, is not admitted farther than the church-door; and if any man espouses a third, he is excommunicated; so that though bigamy is tolerated, they nevertheless count it infamous. If a woman is barren, the husband generally persuades her to retire into a convent; if fair means will not succeed, he is at liberty to whip her into condescension. When the czar, or emperor, has an inclination for a wife, the most beautiful maidens of the empire are presented to him for his choice.

The education of the czarowitz, or prince royal, is intrusted to the care of a few persons, by whom he is strictly kept from the eyes of the vulgar, until he hath attained the 15th year of his age; then he is publicly exposed in the market-place, that the people, by viewing him attentively, may remember his person, in order to ascertain his identity; for they have more than once been deceived by impostors.

Such is the slavery in which the Muscovites of both Authority sexes are kept by their parents, their patrons, and the emperor, that they are not allowed to dispute any match that may be provided for them by these directors, however disagreeable or odious it may be. Officers of the greatest rank in the army, both natives and foreigners, have been saddled with wives by the sovereign in this arbitrary manner. A great general some time ago deceased, who was a native of Britain, having been pressed by the late czarina to wed one of her ladies, saved himself from a very disagreeable marriage, by pretending his constitution was so unsound, that the lady would be irreparably injured by his compliance.

In Russia, the authority of parents over their children is almost as great as it was among the ancient Romans, and is often exercised with equal severity. Should a father, in punishing his son for a fault, be the immediate cause of his death, he could not be called to account for his conduct; he would have done nothing but what the law authorized him to do. Nor does this legal tyranny cease with the minority of children; it continues while they remain in their father's family, and is often exerted in the most indecent manner. It is not uncommon, even in St Peterburgh, to see a lady of the highest rank, and in all the pomp and pride of youthful beauty, standing in the court-yard with her back bare, exposed to the whip of her father's servants. And so little disgrace is attached to this punishment, that the same lady will sit down at table with her father and his guests immediately after she has suffered her flogging, provided its severity has not confined her to bed.

The Muscovites are fond of the bagpipe, and have a kind of violin, with a large belly like that of a lute; but their music is very barbarous and defective. Nevertheless, there are public schools, in which the children are regularly taught to sing. The very beggars ask alms in a whining cadence, and ridiculous sort of recitative. A Russian ambassador at the Hague, having been regaled with the best concert of vocal and instrumental music that could be procured, was asked how he liked the entertainment? he replied, "Perfectly well; the beggars in my country sing just in the same manner." The warlike music of the Russians consists in kettle-drums and trumpets; they likewise use hunting horns; but they are not at all expert in the performance. formance. It has been said, that the Russians think it beneath them to dance, and that they call in their Polish or Tartarian slaves to divert them with this exercise in their hours of dissipation. Such may have been the case formerly, or may be so now, in the distant and most barbarous provinces of the empire; but at St Petersburg dancing is at present much relished, and a minuet is nowhere so gracefully performed in Europe as by the fashionable people in that metropolis.

We have elsewhere observed, that the Russian language is a dialect of the Slavonic, and the purest perhaps that is now anywhere to be found (see Philology, Sect. ix. § 3.); but they have nothing ancient written in it, except a translation of Chrysostom's Offices for Easter, which are at this day good Russian, and intelligible to every boor, though certainly not less than 800 years old. There is no Russian poetry which there is reason to believe 200 years old; and the oldest translation of the Scriptures into that language is but a late thing, and come to them from Konigsberg. Science has made but a very small progress among them; and the reputation of the imperial academy at St Petersburg has been hitherto supported by the exertions of foreigners. For antiquarian research they have as little relish as for scientific investigation. Everything, to please, must be new; and the only elucidations which we have of their antiquities are the performances of Germans and other foreigners, such as professors Bayer, Muller, and Gmelin. One native has indeed shown some desire to recover and preserve what he can of their most ancient poetry; but in his researches, he seems more indebted to an exquisitely nice ear than to any erudition. Erudition indeed they hold in the most sovereign contempt. No gentleman is ever taught Latin or Greek; and were a Russian stranger in company to give any hint of his possessing such knowledge, every man with a sword would draw away his chair, and set him down for a charity-boy. Peter the Great and the present emperors have done what sovereigns could do to dispel these clouds of ignorance, by instituting schools and colleges, and giving the masters and professors military rank; but all in vain. One of the most accomplished scholars of the age, after having made himself extremely agreeable to a company of ladies, by means of his taste in music, and a sword at his side, was instantly deserted by them upon some person's whispering through the room that he was a man of learning; and before his fair companions would be reconciled to him, he was obliged to pretend that he was a lieutenant-colonel, totally illiterate.

The two first sentences of Prince Shtcherbatoff's dedication of his History of Russia, which was printed in three volumes 4to, in 1770, afford an admirable specimen of Russian literature: "The history of the human understanding (says this dedicator) affords us, that everywhere the sciences have followed the progress of the prosperity and the strength of kingdoms. When the Grecian arms had overthrown the greatest monarchy then in the world, when they had the famous generals Miltiades, Themistocles, Arthides, Conon, and Alcibiades, at the same time flourished among them Anaximander, Anaxagoras, Archytas, Socrates, and Plato. And when Augustus had conquered the world, and had shut the gates of the temple of Janus, and the proud Romans, under his happy government, cheerfully obeyed his commands, then did Titus Livius, Thucydides, Virgil, and Horace, adorn his court, and celebrate his glory." A passage so replete as this with blunders and anachronisms it would surely be difficult to find in any other author.

The Russians were converted to the Christian religion towards the latter end of the tenth century, as has been already related. Since that period they have confessed the articles of the Greek church, mingled with certain superstitious ceremonies of their own. They do not believe in the pope's infallibility or supremacy, or even hold communion with the see of Rome; they use auricular confession, communicate in both kinds, adopt the Athanasian creed, and adhere to the established liturgy of St Basil. They worship the Virgin Mary, and other saints; and pay their adorations to crosiers and relics. They observe four great fasts in the year, during which they neither taste flesh, flesh, nor any animal production; they will not drink after a man who has eaten flesh, nor use a knife that has cut meat in less than 24 hours after it has been used; nor will they, even though their health is at stake, touch anything in which hawthorn or any animal substance has been infused. While this kind of Lent continues, they submit upon cabbage, cucumbers, and rye-bread, drinking nothing stronger than a sort of small beer called quaffi. They likewise fast every Wednesday and Friday. Their common penance is to abstain from every species of food and drink, but bread, salt, cucumbers, and water. They are ordered to bend their bodies, and continue in that painful posture, and between whiles to strike their head against an image.

The Muscovites at all times reject as impure, horse-flesh, elk, veal, hare, rabbit, ass's milk, mare's milk, and Venice-treacle, because the flesh of vipers is an ingredient; also every thing that contains even the smallest quantity of milk, civet, and caffo: yet they have no aversion to swine's flesh; on the contrary, the country produces excellent bacon. They celebrate 15 grand festivals in the year. On Palm-Sunday there is a magnificent procession, at which the czar attends in person and on foot. He is apparelled in cloth of gold; his train is borne up by the prime of the nobility, and he is attended by his whole court. He is immediately preceded by the officers of his household, one of whom carries his handkerchief on his arm, lying upon another of the richest embroidery. He halts at a sort of platform of free-stone, where, turning to the east, and bending his body almost double, he pronounces a short prayer: then he proceeds to the church of Jerusalem, where he renewes his devotion. This exercise being performed, he returns to his palace, the bridle of the patriarch's horse resting upon his arm. The horse's head being covered with white linen, is held by some nobleman; while the patriarch, sitting fiddewise, and holding a crofs in his hand, distributes benedictions as he moves along: on his head he wears a cap edged with ermin, adorned with loops and buttons of gold and precious stones; before him are displayed banners of consecrated stuff, in a variety of colours. Above 500 priests walk in the procession; those who are near the patriarch bearing pictures of the Virgin Mary, richly ornamented with gold, jewels, and pearls, together with crosiers, relies, and religious books, including a copy of the Gospele, which they reckon to be of inestimable RUS

estimable value. In the midst of this procession is borne a triumphal arch; and on the top an apple-tree covered with fruit, which several little boys inclosed in the machine endeavour to gather. The lawyers and laity carry branches of willow; the guards and the spectators prostrate themselves on the ground while the procession halts; and after the ceremony, the patriarch presents a purse of 100 rubles to the czar, who perhaps invites him to dine at his table. During the season of Easter, the whole empire is filled with mirth and rejoicing; which, however, never fails to degenerate into heat and debauchery; even the ladies may indulge themselves with strong liquors to intoxication without scandal. When a lady fends to inquire concerning the health of her guests whom she entertained over-night, the usual reply is, "I thank your mistress for her good cheer: by my troth, I was so merry that I don't remember how I got home."

During these carnivals, a great number of people, in reeling home drunk, fall down and perish among the snow. It is even dangerous to relieve a person thus overtaken; for, should he die, the person who endeavoured to assist him is called before the judge, and generally pays dear for his charity.

The Muscovite priests use exorcisms at the administration of baptism. They plunge the child three times over head and ears in water, and give it the sacrament of the Lord's Supper in one species, until it hath attained the age of seven; after which the child is indulged with it in both kinds. They likewise administer the sacrament to dying persons, together with extreme unction; and if this be neglected, the body is denied Christian burial. Soon as the person expires, the body is deposited in a coffin, with a luncheon of bread, a pair of shoes, some few pieces of money, and a certificate signed by the parish-priest, and directed to St Nicholas, who is one of their great patrons. They likewise hold St Andrew in great veneration, and ridiculously pretend they were converted by him to Christianity. But next to St Nicholas, they adore St Anthony of Padua, who is supposed to have sailed upon a milk-boat through the Mediterranean and Atlantic, and over the lakes Ladoga and Onega, as far as Novgorod. Every house is furnished with an image of St Nicholas, carved in the most rude and fantastic manner; and when it becomes old and worm-eaten, the owner either throws it into the river with a few pieces of coin, saying, "Adieu, brother;" or returns it to the maker, who accommodates him with a new image for a proper consideration. The good women are very careful in adorning their private St Nicholases with rich clothes and jewels; but on any emergency, these are refused, and the saint left as naked as he came from the hand of the carpenter.

There are monasteries in Russia; but neither the monks nor the nuns are subject to severe restrictions. The friars are either horse-jockeys, or trade in hops, wheat, and other commodities; the fitters are at liberty to go abroad when they please, and indulge themselves in all manner of freedoms.

Heretofore liberty of conscience was denied, and every convicted heretic was committed to the flames; but since the reign of Peter, all religions and sects are tolerated throughout the empire. Roman Catholics, Lutherans, Calvinists, Armenians, Jews, and Mahometans, enjoy the free exercise of their respective forms of worship; though it was not without great difficulty, and by dint of extraordinary solicitation from different powers, that the Romish religion was allowed. Peter knowing the dangerous tenets of a religion that might fet the spiritual power of the pope at variance with the temporal power of the emperor, and being well acquainted with the meddling genius of its professors, held out for some time against the intercession of Germany, France, and Poland; and though at length he yielded to their joint interposition, he would by no means suffer any Jesuit to enter his dominions.

The government of Russia is mere despotism. The whole empire is ruled by the arbitrary will and pleasure of the sovereign, who is styled the czar or tsar, a title which is probably a corruption of Cæsar. Heretofore he was styled grand duke of Muscovy; but since the reign of Peter, he is dignified with the appellation of emperor of Russia; and the present sovereign is styled empress of all the Russias. The emperor is absolute lord, not only of all the estates in the empire, but also of the lives of his subjects; the greatest noblemen call themselves his slaves, and execute his commands with the most implicit obedience. The common people revere him as something supernatural; they never mention his name, or anything immediately belonging to him, without marks of the most profound respect and awful veneration. A man asking a carpenter at work upon one of the czar's warehouses, what the place was intended for? answered, "None but God and the czar knows."

The nobility of Russia were formerly rich and powerful, and ruled despotically over their inferiors; but we have seen how the father of Peter the Great contrived to strip them of their privileges, and they are now venal dependants on the court. They still retain the titles of their ancestors, though many of them are in the most abject poverty and contempt.

All the peasants in the empire are considered as immediate slaves belonging to the czar, to the boyars, or to the monasteries. The value of estates is computed, not by the extent or quality of the land, but from the number of those peasants, who may be sold, alienated, or given away, at the pleasure of their masters. The number of these husbandmen, whether living in villages or in the open country, being known, the czar, by requiring a certain proportion of each lord or proprietor, can raise 300,000 men in less than 40 days.

The administration is managed by a grand council, called dumnoy boyaren, or "council of the boyars," who are the grandees of the empire, and act as privy counsellors. To this are subfervient fix inferior chambers and courts of judicature, provided each with a president. The first regulates everything relating to ambassadors and foreign negotiations; the second takes cognizance of military affairs; the third manages the public revenues of the empire; the business of the fourth is to encourage, protect, and improve trade and commerce. The two last hear and determine in all causes, whether civil or criminal.

Peter divided the empire into the eight governments of Moscow, Archangel, Afoph, Casan, Astracan, Chioff and the Ukraine, Siberia, Livonia, comprehending Ingria, Plefsow, and Novgorod, Smolensko, and Veronitz. The governors or waivodes were vested with power to dispose of all employments civil and military, and receive the revenues. They were directed to defray all expenses in their respective governments, and send a certain yearly sum to the great treasury. In a word, they enjoyed absolute power in everything but what related to the regular troops, which, though quartered in their jurisdiction, were neither paid nor directed by them, but received their orders immediately from the czar or his generals.

In 1775 the present empress made a complete new-modelling of the internal government in a form of great simplicity and uniformity. By that regulation she divided the whole empire into 43 governments, as we have already mentioned, placing over each, or where they are of less extent, over two contiguous governments, a governor-general with very considerable powers. She subdivided each government into provinces and districts; and for the better administration of justice erected in them various courts of law, civil, criminal, and commercial, analogous to those which are found in other countries. She established likewise in every government, if not in every province, a tribunal of conscience, and in every district a chamber for the protection of orphans. Amidst so many wise institutions a chamber for the administration of her imperial majesty's revenues was not forgotten to be established in each government, nor a tribunal of police in each district. The duty of the governor-general, who is not properly a judge, but the guardian of the laws, is to take care that the various tribunals in his government discharge their respective duties, to protect the oppressed, to enforce the administration of the laws; and when any tribunal shall appear to have pronounced an irregular sentence, to stop the execution till he make a report to the senate and receive her majesty's orders: It is his business likewise to see that the taxes be regularly paid; and, on the frontiers of the empire, that the proper number of troops be kept up, and that they be attentive to their duty.

This regulation contains other institutions, as well as many directions for the conducting of law-suits in the different courts, and the administration of justice, which do her majesty the highest honour; but the general want of morals, and what we call a sense of honour, in every order of men through this vast empire, must make the wisest regulations of little avail. Russia is perhaps the only nation in Europe where the law is not an incorporated profession. There are no seminaries where a practitioner must be educated. Any man who will pay the fees of office may become an attorney, and any man who can find a client may plead at the bar. The judges are not more learned than the pleaders. They are not fitted for their offices by any kind of education; nor are they necessarily chosen from those who have frequented courts and been in the practice of pleading. A general, from a successful or an equivocal campaign, may be instantly set at the head of a court of justice; and in the absence of the imperial court from St Petersburg, the commanding officer in that city, whoever he may be, presides ex officio in the high court of justice. The other courts generally change their presidents every year. Many inconveniences must arise from this singular constitution; but fewer, perhaps, than we are apt to imagine. The appointment to so many interior governments makes the Russian nobility acquainted with the grots of the ordinary business of law-courts; and a statute or imperial edict is law in every case. The great obstacles to the administration of justice are the contrariety of the laws and the venality of the judges. From inferior to superior courts there are two appeals; and in a great proportion of the causes the reverential of the sentence of the inferior court subjects its judges to a heavy fine, unless they can produce an edict in full point in support of their decision. This indeed they seldom find any difficulty to do; for there is hardly a case so simple but that edicts may be found clear and precise for both parties; and therefore the judges, sensible of their safety, are very seldom incorruptible. To the principle of honour, which often guides the conduct of judges in other nations, they are such absolute strangers, that an officer has been seen sitting in state and distributing justice from a bench to which he was chained by an iron collar round his neck, for having the day before been detected in conniving at smuggling. This man seemed not to be ashamed of the crime, nor did any one avoid his company in the evening.

Few crimes are capital in Russia: murder may be atoned by paying a sum of money; nay, the civil magistrate takes no cognizance of murder, without having previously received information at the suit of some individuals. Criminals were punished with torture and the most cruel deaths till the reign of the illustrious Catharine I., when a more merciful system took place, and which the present empress has since confirmed by law. See the articles CATHARINE I. of Russia, and ELIZABETH PETROWNA.

We have already mentioned the traffic of the Russians with the different nations both of Asia and Europe, and specified iron as one of the articles which they export. We may here add, that in 1792 there were in the government of Parma alone, which lies in the northern division of the empire, 88 copper and iron works belonging to the government and private persons, and three gold works. The metals extracted in these works are chiefly conveyed to St Petersburg by water-carriage on the river Tchulovaya, which falls into the Kama. With respect to the revenue of Russia, it continually fluctuates, according to the increase of commerce or the pleasure of the czar, who has all the wealth of the empire at his disposal. He monopolizes all the best furs, mines, minerals, and the trade by land to the East Indies; he farms out all the tobacco, wine, brandy, beer, mead, and other liquors; the inns, taverns, public houses, bath, and sweat-houses. The customs upon merchandize, the imposts upon corn, and toll exacted from cities, towns, and villages, are very considerable. He pollutes deneiges to a very great value; inherits the effects of all those that die intestate, or under accusation of capital crimes; derives a duty from all law-suits; and to sum up the whole, can command the fortunes of all his subjects. All these articles produce a large revenue, which was three years ago estimated at upwards of 40,000,000 rubles, or L.6,333,333:6:8 Sterling; but then the intrinsic value of money is at least three times greater in Russia than in Britain. The expenses in time of peace never exceed 33,000,000 rubles: the remainder is not treasured up, but is employed by her imperial majesty in constructing public edifices, making harbours, canals, roads, and other useful works, for the glory of the empire and the benefit of her subjects.

The standing army of Russia is computed at 250,000 men; besides these, the Russians can assemble a body RUT, the flower or calyx of any metal, procured by corroding and dissolving its superficial parts by some menstruum. Water is the great instrument or agent in producing rust; and hence oils, and other fatty bodies, secure metals from rust; water being no menstruum for oil, and therefore not able to make its way through it. All metals except gold are liable to rust; and even this also if exposed to the fumes of sea-salt.

For remedies against rust, see IRON, par. ult.