a covering for the foot, usually of leather.
Shoes, among the Jews, were made of leather, linen, rush, or wood; those of soldiers were sometimes of braids or iron. They were tied with thongs which passed under the soles of the feet. To put off their shoes was an act of veneration; it was also a sign of mourning and humiliation: to bear one's shoes, or to untie the latches of them, was considered as the meanest service.
Among the Greeks shoes of various kinds were used. Sandals were worn by women of distinction. The Lacedemonians wore red shoes. The Grecian shoes generally reached to the middle of the leg. The Romans used two kinds of shoes; the calceus, which covered the whole foot somewhat like our shoes, and was tied above with latches or strings; and the solea or slipper, which covered only the sole of the foot, and was fastened with leathern thongs. The calceus was always worn along
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(a) An ingenious mechanic would probably construct this machine to better advantage in many respects. The author only meant to suggest the principle; experience alone can point out the best method of applying it. He is sensible of at least one deficiency, viz., that the little index R, fig. 4, will not be strong enough to retain the palate D in an oblique position when the ship is sailing by the wind; more especially as the compass plate S, in whose notched rim the index R is to fall, is not fixed to, but only fitted tight on the socket N. Many means, however, might be contrived to remedy this inconvenience. along with the *toga* when a person went abroad; slippers were put on during a journey and at feasts, but it was reckoned effeminate to appear in public with them. Black shoes were worn by the citizens of ordinary rank, and white ones by the women. Red shoes were sometimes worn by the ladies, and purple ones by the coxcombs of the other sex. Red shoes were put on by the chief magistrates of Rome on days of ceremony and triumphs. The shoes of senators, patricians, and their children, had a crescent upon them which served for a buckle; these were called *calcei lunati*. Slaves wore no shoes; hence they were called *cretati* from their dirty feet. Phocion also and Cato Uticensis went without shoes. The toes of the Roman shoes were turned up in the point; hence they were called *calcei rostrati*, *repondi*, &c.
In the 9th and 10th centuries the greatest princes of Europe wore wooden shoes, or the upper part of leather and the sole of wood. In the reign of William Rufus, a great beau, Robert, surnamed the horned, used shoes with long sharp points, stuffed with tow, and twisted like a ram's horn. It is said the clergy, being highly offended, declaimed against the long-pointed shoes with great vehemence. The points, however, continued to increase till, in the reign of Richard II., they were of so enormous a length that they were tied to the knees with chains sometimes of gold, sometimes of silver. The upper parts of these shoes in Chaucer's time were cut in imitation of a church window. The long-pointed shoes were called *crackowes*, and continued in fashion for three centuries in spite of the bulls of popes, the decrees of councils, and the declamations of the clergy. At length the parliament of England interposed by an act A.D. 1463, prohibiting the use of shoes or boots with pikes exceeding two inches in length, and prohibiting all shoemakers from making shoes or boots with longer pikes under severe penalties. But even this was not sufficient; it was necessary to denounce the dreadful sentence of excommunication against all who wore shoes or boots with points longer than two inches. The present fashion of shoes was introduced in 1633, but the buckle was not used till 1670.
In Norway they use shoes of a particular construction, consisting of two pieces, and without heels; in which the upper leather fits close to the foot, the sole being joined to it by many plaiting or folds.
The shoes or slippers of the Japanese, as we are informed by Professor Thunberg, are made of rice-straw woven, but sometimes for people of distinction of fine flips of ratan. The shoe consists of a sole, without upper leather or hind-piece; forwards it is crossed by a strap, of the thickness of one's finger, which is lined with linen; from the tip of the shoe to the strap a cylindrical string is carried, which passes between the great and second toe, and keeps the shoe fast on the foot. As these shoes have no hind-piece, they make a noise, when people walk in them like slippers. When the Japanese travel, their shoes are furnished with three strings made of twisted straw, with which they are tied to the legs and feet, to prevent them from falling off. Some people carry one or more pairs of shoes with them on their journeys, in order to put on new, when the old ones are worn out. When it rains, or the roads are very dirty, these shoes are soon wetted through, and one continually sees a great number of worn out shoes lying on the roads, especially near the brooks, where travelers have changed their shoes after walking their feet. Instead of these, in rainy or dirty weather they wear high wooden clogs, which underneath are hollowed out in the middle, and at top have a band across like a stirrup, and a string for the great toe; so that they can walk without loosing their feet. Some of them have their straw shoes fastened to these wooden clogs. The Japanese never enter their houses with their shoes on; but leave them in the entry, or place them on the bench near the door, and thus are always barefooted in their houses, so as not to dirty their neat mats. During the time that the Dutch live at Japan, when they are sometimes under an obligation of paying visits at the houses of the Japanese, their own rooms at the factory being likewise covered with mats of this kind, they wear, instead of the usual shoes, red, green, or black slippers, which on entering the house they pull off; however, they have stockings on, and shoes made of cotton stuff with buckles in them, which shoes are made at Japan, and can be washed whenever they are dirty. Some have them of black satin, in order to avoid washing them.
**Shoe of an Anchor**, a small block of wood, convex on the back, and having a small hole, sufficient to contain the point of the anchor fluke, on the foreside. It is used to prevent the anchor from tearing or wounding the planks on the ship's bow, when ascending or descending; for which purpose the shoe slides up and down along the bow between the fluke of the anchor and the planks, as being pressed close to the latter by the weight of the former.
To Shoe an Anchor, is to cover the flukes with a broad triangular piece of plank, whose area or superficies is much larger than that of the flukes. It is intended to give the anchor a stronger and surer hold of the bottom in very soft and oozy ground.
**Horse-Shoe.** See Farriery, Sect. 47.
**SHOOTING,** in the military art. See Artillery, Gunnery, and Projectiles.
**SHOOTING,** in sportsmanlike, the killing of game by shooting in the gun, with or without the help of dogs.
Under this article we shall lay down all the rules which are necessary to be observed in order to render one accomplished and successful in the art of shooting.
The first thing which the sportsman ought to attend to is the choice of his fowling-piece. Convenience requires that the barrel be as light as possible, at the same time it ought to possess that degree of strength which will make it not liable to burst. Experience has proved, that a thin and light barrel, which is of equal thickness in every part of its circumference, is much less liable to burst than one which is considerably thicker and heavier, but which, from being badly filled or bored, is of unequal strength in different places.
It is also of importance to determine of what length the barrel ought to be, in order to acquire that range which the sportsman has occasion for. On this subject we have received the following information from an experienced sportsman. We have, at different times, compared barrels of all the intermediate lengths between 28 and 40 inches, and of nearly the same caliber, that is to say, from 22 to 26; and these trials were made made both by firing the pieces from the shoulder, and from a firm block, at an equal distance, and with equal weights of the same powder and of the same shot.
To avoid every possibility of error, the quires of paper at which we fired were fixed against planks instead of being placed against the wall. From these trials frequently repeated, we found that the shot pierced an equal number of sheets, whether it was fired from a barrel of 28, 32, 34, 36, 38, or 40 inches in length. Nay more, we have compared two barrels of the same caliber, but one of them 33, and the other 66 inches long, by repeatedly firing them in the same manner as the others, at different distances, from 45 to 100 paces, and the results have always been the same, i.e., the barrel of 33 inches drove its shot through as many sheets of paper as that of 66 did. The conclusion from all this is, that the difference of 10 inches in the length of the barrel, which seems to be more than is ever inflicted upon among sportsmen, produces no sensible difference in the range of the piece; and therefore, that every one may please himself in the length of his barrel, without either detriment or advantage to the range.
It may appear as an objection to this, that a duck-gun which is five or six feet long kills at a greater distance than a fowling-piece; but this is not owing to its length, but to its greater weight and thickness, which give it such additional strength, that the shot may be increased, and the charge of powder doubled, trebled, and even quadrupled. But a barrel of five or six feet length would be very inconvenient for fowling. Those who consult the appearance of the piece, lightness, and the ease with which it is managed, will find that a barrel from 32 to 38 inches will answer best.
The next thing to be considered is, of what dimensions the caliber or bore of a fowling-piece ought to be. This matter has been subjected to experiment, and it has been found, that a barrel of 22 or 24, which is the largest caliber usually employed in fowling-pieces, throws its shot as closely as one of the smallest caliber, viz. of 30 or 32 (A).
As to the length and form of the stock, it may be laid down as a principle, that a long stock is preferable to a short one, and at the same time rather more bent than usual; for a long stock fits firmer to the shoulder than a short one, and particularly so when the shooter is accustomed to place his left hand, which principally supports the piece, near to the entrance of the ramrod into the stock.
It is certain, however, that the stock may be so formed as to be better suited to one man than another. For a tall, long-armed man, the stock of a gun should be longer than for one of a less stature and shorter arm. That a straight stock is proper for him who has high shoulders and a short neck; for, if it be much bent, it would be very difficult for him, especially in the quick motion required in shooting at a flying or running object, to place the butt of the gun-stock firmly to the shoulder, the upper part alone would in general be fixed; which would not only raise the muzzle, and consequently shoot high, but make the recoil much more sensibly felt, than if the whole end of the stock were firmly placed on his shoulder. Besides, supposing the shooter to bring the butt home to his shoulder, he would scarcely be able to level his piece at the object. On the contrary, a man with low shoulders, and a long neck, requires a stock much bent; for if it is straight, he will, in the act of lowering his head to that place of the stock at which his cheek should rest in taking aim, feel a constraint which he never experiences, when by the effect of the proper degree of bent, the stock lends him some assistance, and, as it were, meets his aim halfway.
Having now described the fowling-piece which has been found to answer best, it will next be proper to give some instructions for the choice of gunpowder, shot, and wadding.
The various kinds of gunpowder are well known; but, in the opinion of some experienced sportsmen, powder Hervey's battle-powder is the best. Those who wish to examine the strength of powder, may determine it by drying some of it very well, and then trying how many sheets of paper it will drive the shot through, at the distance of 10 or 12 yards. In this trial we should be careful to employ the same sized shot in each experiment, the quantity both of the shot and the powder being regulated by exact weight; otherwise we cannot, even in this experiment, arrive to any certainty in comparing the strength of different powders, or of the same powder at different times.
Powder ought to be kept very dry, for every degree of moisture injures it; and if considerable, the saltpetre dry, is dissolved, and the intimate combination of the several ingredients is entirely destroyed. It is observed, that after firing with damp powder the piece becomes very foul, which seems to arise from the diminution of the activity of the fire in the explosion. Flasks of copper or tin are much better for keeping powder in than those made of leather, or than small castles. Their necks ought to be small and well stopped with cork.
The patent milled shot is now very generally used, and is reckoned superior to any other. The size of the shot must vary according to the particular species of game which is the object of the sportsman's pursuit, as well as be adapted to the season. In the first month of partridge shooting, No. 1. is most proper; for since at this time the birds spring near at hand, and we seldom fire at more than the distance of 40 paces, if the shooter takes his aim but tolerably well, it is almost impossible for a bird at this distance to escape in the circle which the shot forms.
As hares sit closer, and are thinly covered with fur at this season, they may easily be killed with this shot at 30 or 35 paces. No. 1. is equally proper for shooting jays or quails. About the beginning of October, when the partridges are stronger, No. 3. is the most proper shot to be used. Many sportsmen use no other during the whole season. The directions which have now been given refer only to the patent shot.
We shall now subjoin a table, which will show at one view the number of pellets composing an ounce weight of each sort of shot, the patent and the common, beginning with the smallest size.
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(A) In speaking of the size of the caliber, we mean by 22 or 24, that so many balls exactly fitting it weigh just one pound; and every caliber is marked in the same way. For a fowling-piece of a common caliber, which is from 24 to 30 balls to the pound weight, a dram and a quarter, or at most a dram and a half, of good powder and shot in a quarter of shot, is sufficient. But when shot of a larger size is used, such as No. 5, the charge of shot may be increased one-fourth, for the purpose of counterbalancing in some degree what the size of the shot loses in the number of pellets, and also to enable it to garnish more. For this purpose the sportsman will find a measure marked with the proper gauges very convenient to him. An instrument of this nature has been made by an ingenious artist of London, Egg, of the Haymarket.
A consequence of overloading with shot, is the powder has not sufficient strength to throw it to its proper distance; for if the object fired at be distant, one-half of the pellets composing the charge, by their too great quantity and weight, will strike against each other, and fall by the way; and those which reach the mark will have small force, and will produce but little or no effect.
The use of the wadding is to carry the shot in a body to a certain distance from the muzzle of the piece. It ought to be of soft and pliable materials. The best kind of wadding, in the opinion of an experienced fowler, is a piece of an old hat; but this cannot be obtained in sufficient quantity. Next to it nothing is better than soft brown paper, which combines suppleness with confidence, moulds itself to the barrel, and never falls to the ground within 12 or 15 paces from the muzzle of the piece. Tow answers very well, and cork has been extolled for possessing the peculiar virtue of increasing the range and closeness of the shot.
The wadding ought to be quite close in the barrel, but not rammed too hard; for if it be rammed too close, or be of a rigid substance, the piece will recoil, and the shot will spread too much. On the other hand, if the wadding be very loose, or is composed of too soft materials, such as wool or cotton, the discharge will not possess proper force.
In loading a piece, the powder ought to be slightly rammed down by only pressing the ramrod two or three times on the wadding, and not by drawing up the ramrod and then returning it into the barrel with a jerk of the arm several times. For when the powder is violently compressed, some of the grains must be bruised, which will prevent the explosion from being quick, and will spread the shot too wide. In pouring the powder into the barrel, the measure ought to be held so as that the powder may fall most readily to the bottom. That no grains may adhere to the sides of the barrel, the butt-end of the piece may be struck against the ground. The shot ought never to be rammed down with force; it is sufficient to strike the butt-end of the gun against the ground as before. Then the wadding is to be put down gently. A sportsman ought never to carry his gun under his arm with the muzzle inclined downwards, for this practice loosens the wadding and charge too much.
Immediately after the piece is fired it ought to be re-directed loaded; for while the barrel is still warm, there is no danger of any moisture lodging in it to hinder the powder from falling to the bottom. As it is found that the coldness of the barrel, and perhaps the moisture condensed in it, diminishes the force of the powder in the first shot; it is proper to fire off a little powder before the piece is loaded. Some prime before loading, but this is not proper unless the touch-hole be very large. After every discharge the touch-hole ought to be pricked, or a small feather may be inserted to clear away any humidity or foulness that has been contracted.
The sportsman having loaded his piece, must next prepare to fire. For this purpose he ought to place his hand near the entrance of the ramrod, and at the same time grasp the barrel firmly. The muzzle should be a little elevated, for it is more usual to shoot low than high. This direction ought particularly to be attended to when the object is a little distant; because shot as well as ball only moves a certain distance point blank, when it begins to describe the curve of the parabola.
Practice soon teaches the sportsman the proper distance at which he should shoot. The distance at which he ought infallibly to kill any kind of game with patent shot, No. 3, provided the aim be well taken, is from 25 to 35 paces for the footed, and from 40 to 45 paces for the winged game. Beyond this distance even to 50 or 55 paces, both partridges and hares are sometimes killed; but in general the hares are only slightly wounded, and carry away the shot; and the partridges at that distance present so small a surface, that they frequently escape untouched between the spaces of the circle. Yet it does not follow that a partridge may not be killed with No. 3 patent shot at 60 and even 70 paces distance, but then these shots are very rare.
In shooting at a bird flying, or a hare running across, how it is necessary to take aim before the object in proportion to its distance at the time of firing. If a partridge taken flies across at the distance of 30 or 35 paces, it will be sufficient to aim at the head, or at most but a small space before it. If it be 50, 60, or 70 paces distant, it is then requisite to aim at least half a foot before the head. The same practice ought to be observed in shooting at a hare, rabbit, or fox, when running in a cross direction; at the same time making due allowance for... for the distance and swiftness of the pace. Another thing to be attended to is, that the shooter ought not involuntarily to stop the motion of the arms at the moment of pulling the trigger; for the instant the hand stops in order to fire, however inconsiderable the time be, the bird gets beyond the line of aim, and the shot will miss it. A sportsman ought therefore to accustom his hand while he is taking aim to follow the object. When a hare runs in a straight line from the shooter, he should take his aim between the ears, otherwise he will run the hazard either of missing, or at least not of killing dead, or as it is sometimes called clean.
A fowling-piece should not be fired more than 20 or 25 times without being washed; a barrel when foul neither shoots so ready, nor carries the shot so far as when clean. The flint, pan, and hammer, should be well wiped after each shot; this contributes greatly to make the piece go off quick, but then it should be done with such expedition, that the barrel may be reloaded whilst warm, for the reasons we have before advanced. The flint should be frequently changed, without waiting until it misses fire, before a new one is put in. Fifteen or eighteen shots, therefore, should only be fired with the same flint; the expense is too trifling to be regarded, and by changing it thus often much vexation will be prevented.
A gun also should never be fired with the prime of the preceding day; it may happen that an old priming will sometimes go off well, but it will more frequently contract moisture and fuse in the firing; then the object will most probably be missed, and that because the piece was not fresh primed.
For the information of the young sportsman we shall add a few more general directions. In warm weather he ought to seek for game in plains and open grounds; and in cold weather he may march little hills exposed to the sun, along hedges among heath, in stubbles, and in pastures where there is much furze and fern. The morning is the best time of the day, before the dew is exhaled, and before the game has been disturbed. The colour of the shooters dress ought to be the same with that of the fields and trees; in summer it ought to be green, in winter a dark grey. He ought to hunt as much as possible with the wind, not only to prevent the game from perceiving the approach of him and his dog, but also to enable the dog to scent the game at a greater distance.
He should never be discouraged from hunting and ranging the same ground over and over again, especially in places covered with heath, brambles, high grass, or young coppice wood. A hare or rabbit will frequently suffer him to pass several times within a few yards of its form without getting up. He should be still more patient when he has marked partridges into such places, for it often happens, that after the birds have been sprung many times, they lie so dead that they will suffer him almost to tread upon them before they will rise. Pheasants, quails, and woodcocks do the same.
He ought to look carefully about him, never passing a bush or tuft of grass without examination; but he ought never to strike them with the muzzle of his gun for it will loosen his wadding. He who patiently beats and ranges his ground over again, without being dis-
couraged, will always kill the greatest quantity of Shooting game; and if he is shooting in company, he will find game where others have passed without discovering any.
When he has fired he should call in his dog, that he may not have the mortification to see game rise which he cannot shoot. When he has killed a bird, instead of being anxious about picking it up, he ought to follow the rest of the covey with his eye till he see them settle.
Three species of dogs are capable of receiving the proper instruction, and of being trained. These are for sport, the smooth pointer, the spaniel, and the rough pointer. The last is a dog with long curled hair, and seems to be a mixed breed of the water-dog and the spaniel. The smooth pointer is active and lively enough in his range, but in general is proper only for an open country.
The greatest part of these dogs are afraid of water, brambles, and thickets; but the spaniel and the rough pointer are easily taught to take the water, even in cold weather, and to range the woods and rough places as well as the plain. Greater dependence may therefore be had on these two last species of dogs than on the smooth pointer.
The education of a pointer may commence when he is only five or six months old. The only lessons which for training he can be taught at this time are to fetch and carry anything when desired; to come in when he runs far off, and to go behind when he returns; using, in the one case, the words here, come in, and in the other back or behind. It is also necessary at this period to accustom him to be tied up in the kennel or stable; but he ought not at first to be tied too long. He should be let loose in the morning, and fastened again in the evening. When a dog is not early accustomed to be chained, he disturbs every person in the neighbourhood by howling. It is also of importance that the person who is to train him should give him his food.
When the dog has attained the age of 10 or 12 months, he may be carried into the field to be regularly trained. At first he may be allowed to follow his own inclination, and to run after every animal he sees. His indiscriminating eagerness will soon abate, and he will pursue only partridges and hares. He will soon become tired of following partridges in vain, and will content himself after having flushed them to follow them with his eyes. It will be more difficult to prevent him from following hares.
All young dogs are apt to rake; that is, to hunt with their noses close to the ground, to follow birds rather by the track than by the wind. But partridges lie much better to dogs that wind them, than to those that follow them by the track. The dog that winds the scent approaches the birds by degrees and without disturbing them; but they are immediately alarmed when they see a dog tracing their footsteps. When you perceive that your dog is committing this fault, call to him in an angry tone hold up; he will then grow uneasy and agitated, going first to the one side and then to the other, until the wind brings him the scent of the birds. After finding the game four or five times in this way, he will take the wind of himself, and hunt with his nose high. If it be difficult to correct this fault, it will be necessary to put the puzzle peg upon him. This is of very simple construction, consisting