by some called Upper, (to distinguish it from the Lower Siam, under which are often included Laos, Cambodia, and Malacca,) is bounded on the north by the kingdoms of Pegu and Laos; on the east by Cambodia and Cochin-China; on the south by Malacca and the bay of Siam; and on the west by the ocean. But as the opinions of geographers are extremely various concerning the situation and extent of most of the inland countries of Asia and Africa, neither the extent nor boundaries of Siam are yet accurately known. By some it is supposed to extend 550 miles in length, and 250 miles in breadth; in some places it is not above 50 miles broad.

The winds blow here from the south upon the coast of Siam, in March, April, and May; in April the rains begin, in May and June they fall almost without ceasing. In July, August, and September, the winds blow from the west, and the rains continuing, the rivers overflow their banks nine or ten miles on each side, and for more than 150 miles up the stream. At this time, and more particularly in July, the tides are so strong as to come up the river Menan as far as the city of Siam, which is situated 60 miles from its mouth; and sometimes as far as Louvo, which is 50 miles higher. The winds blow from the west and north in October, when the rain ceases. In November and December the winds blow dry from the north, and the waters being in a few days reduced to their ancient channels, the tides become so insensible, that the water is fresh at the mouth of the river. At Siam there is never more than one flood and one ebb in the space of 24 hours. In January the wind blows from the east, and in February from the east and south. When the wind is at east, the current sets to the west; and, on the contrary, when the wind is at west, the currents run to the eastward.

As this country is situated near the tropic, it must necessarily be very hot; but yet, as in other places nearly of the same latitude, when the sun is vertical and shines with a most intense heat, the inhabitants are so screened by the clouds, and the air is so refreshed by a deluge of rain that overflows the plains which the people chiefly inhabit, that the heat is very supportable. The coolest wind blows in December and January.

The vegetable produce of this country is chiefly rice and wheat, besides tropical and a few European fruits. The Siamese prepare the land for tillage as soon as the earth is sufficiently moistened by the floods. They plant their rice before the waters rise to any considerable height, and, as they rise slowly, the rice keeps pace with them, and the ear is always above the water. They reap their corn when the water retires, and sometimes go in boats to cut it while the waters are upon the ground. They also sow rice in several parts of the kingdom that are not overflowed, and this is thought better tasted, and will keep longer, than the other; but they are forced to supply these fields constantly with water, while the rice is growing, from basins and ponds that lie about them.

They have no European fruits except oranges, lemons, citrons, and pomegranates. They have bananas, Indian figs, jaques, durions, mangoes, mangoflans, tamarinds, ananas, and cocoa-nuts; they have also abundance of pepper and sugar-canes. The mountains are covered with trees which make good mafts. The vegetable of greatest use in the country is the bamboo, which grows chiefly in marshy soils, and is often found of a prodigious size. Cotton trees are found in great numbers; and others that yield copra, a very fine cotton wool, but so short as to be unfit for spinning, though it answers very well for stuffing mattresses and pillows.

There is no country where elephants abound more animals than in Siam, or where they are held in greater veneration. They have a few horses, sheep, and goats, besides oxen and buffaloes; but they have no good animal food except the flesh of hogs, their beef and mutton being of a very indifferent quality.

The Siamese are of small stature, but well proportioned; their complexions are swarthy: the faces of the inhabitants, both the men and women are broad, and their foreheads, suddenly contracting, terminate in a point, as well as their chins. They have small black eyes, hollow jaws, large mouths, and thick pale lips. Their teeth are dyed black, their noses are short and round at the end, and they have large ears, which they think very beautiful. Their hair is thick and lank, and both sexes cut it so short that it reaches no lower than their ears; the women make it stand up on their foreheads; and the men shave their beards.

People of distinction wear a piece of calico tied about their loins, that reaches down to their knees.—The men bring up this cloth between their legs, and tuck it into their girdles, which gives it the appearance of a pair of breeches. They have also a muslin shirt without a collar, with wide sleeves, no wristbands, and the bottom open. In winter they wear a piece of stuff or painted linen over their shoulders, like a mantle, and wind it about their arms.

The king of Siam is distinguished by wearing a vest of brocaded satin, with straight sleeves that reach down to the wrist, under such a shift as we have just described, and it is unlawful for any subject to wear this dress unless he receives it from the king. They wear slippers with piked toes turned up, but no stockings. The king oftentimes prefers a military vest to the generals; this is buttoned before, and reaches to the knees; but the sleeves are wide, and come no lower than the elbows. All the retinue of the king, either in war or in hunting, are clothed in red. The king wears a cap in the form of a sugar-loaf, encompassed by a coronet or circle of precious stones, and those of his officers have a circle of gold, silver, or of vermilion gilt, to distinguish their quality; and these caps are fastened with a tay under the chin; they are only worn when they are in the king's presence, or when they preside in courts of justice, and on other extraordinary occasions. They have also hats for travelling; but, in general, few people cover their heads notwithstanding the scorching heat of the sun.

The women also wrap a cloth about their middle, which hangs down to the calf of their legs. They cover their breasts with another cloth, the ends of which hang over their shoulders. But they have no garment corresponding to a shift, nor any covering for their heads but their hair. The common people are almost naked, and wear neither shoes nor slippers. The women wear as many rings on the three last fingers of each hand as they can keep on, and bracelets upon their wrists and ankles, with pendants in their ears shaped like a pear.

For an inferior to stand before a superior is deemed insolent; and therefore slaves and people of inferior rank fit upon their heels, with their heads a little inclined, and their joined hands lifted up to their foreheads. In passing by a superior they bend their bodies, joining their hands, and lifting them toward their heads in proportion to the respect they would show. When an inferior pays a visit, he enters the room flopping, prostrates himself, and then remains upon his knees, fitting upon his heels without speaking a word till he is addressed by the person whom he visits; for he that is of the highest quality must always speak first. If a person of rank visits an inferior, he walks upright, and the master of the house receives him at the door, and waits on him so far when he goes away, but never farther.

The highest part of the house is esteemed the most honourable, and no person cares to lodge under another's feet. The Siamese indeed have but one story, but the rooms rise gradually, and the innermost, which are the highest, are always the most honourable. When the Siamese ambassador came to the French court, some of his retinue were lodged in a floor over the ambassador's head; but they no sooner knew it, than they were struck with the greatest consternation, and ran down tearing their hair at the thoughts of being guilty of what they considered as so unpardonable a crime.

The Siamese never permit such familiarities as are practised by gentlemen in Europe. Easiness of access, and affability to inferiors, is in that part of the world thought a sign of weakness, and yet they take no notice of some things which would be looked upon as ill breeding among us; such as belching in company, which no man endeavours to prevent, or so much as holds his hand before his mouth. They have an extraordinary respect for the head, and it is the greatest affront to stroke or touch that of another person; nay, their cap must not be used with too much familiarity; for when a servant carries it, it is put on a stick and held above his head; and when the master stands still the stick is set down, it having a foot to stand upon. They also show their respect by raising their hands to the head; and therefore, when they receive a letter from any one for whom they have a great respect, they immediately hold it up to their heads, and sometimes lay it upon their heads.

They are esteemed an ingenious people, and though rather indolent than active in disposition, they are not addicted to the voluptuous vices which often accompany a state of ease, being remarkably chaste and temperate, and even holding drunkenness in abhorrence.—They are, however, accounted insolent towards their inferiors, and equally obsequious to those above them; the latter of which qualities appears to be particularly inculcated from their earliest youth. In general, their behaviour is extremely modest, and they are averse to loquacity. Like the Chinese, they avoid speaking in the first person; and when they address a lady, it is always with some respectful epithet, infusing personal accomplishments.

No man in this country learns any particular trade, but has a general knowledge of all that are commonly practised, and every one works six months for the king by rotation; at which time, if he should be found perfectly ignorant of the business he is set about, he is doomed to suffer the battinado. The consequence of this burdensome service is, that no man endeavours to excel in his business, lest he should be obliged to practise it as long as he lives for the benefit of the crown.

The government of this country is extremely oppressive, the king being not only sovereign but proprietor of all the lands, and chief merchant likewise; by which means he monopolizes almost the whole traffic, to the great prejudice of his subjects. The crown is said to be hereditary, but it is often transferred by revolutions, on account of the exorbitant abuse of power in those who exercise the royal office. In his palace, the king is attended by women, who not only prepare his food, and wait on him at table, but even perform the part of valets, and put on all his clothes, except his cap, which is considered as too sacred to be touched by any hand but his own. He shows himself to the people only twice a-year, when he distributes his alms to the talapoin or priests; and on those occasions he always appears in an elevated situation, or mounted on the back of an elephant. When he takes the diversion of hunting, he is as usual attended by his women on foot, preceded by a guard of 200 men, who drive all the people from the roads through which they are to pass; and when the king stops, all his attendants fall upon their faces on the ground.

All their proceedings in law are committed to writing, and none is suffered to exhibit a charge against another, without giving security to prosecute it, and answer the damages if he does not prove the fact against the person accused. When a person intends to prosecute another, he draws up a petition, in which he sets forth his complaint, and presents it to the majesty, or head of the band to which he belongs, who transmits it to the governor; and if the complaint appears frivolous, the prosecutor, according to the laws of the country, should be punished; but the magistrates generally encourage prosecutions on account of the perquisites they bring to their office.

Every thing being prepared for hearing, the parties are several days called into court, and persuaded to agree; but this appears to be only a matter of form. At length the governor appoints a day for all parties to attend; and being come into court, the clerk reads the process and opinion of his associates, and then the governor examines upon what reasons their opinions are founded; which being explained to him, he proceeds to pass judgment.

When sufficient proofs are wanting, they have recourse to an ordeal trial, like that of our Saxon ancestors; both the plaintiff and the defendant walk upon burning coals, and he that escapes unhurt is adjudged to be in the right; sometimes the proof is made by putting their hands in boiling oil; and in both these trials, by some peculiar management, one or the other is said to remain unhurt. They have also a proof by water, in which he who remains longest under it is esteemed innocent. They have another proof, by swallowing pills, which their priests administer with severe imprecations; and the party who keeps them in his stomach without vomiting is thought to be innocent.

All these trials are made in the presence of the magistrates and people; and the king himself frequently directs them to be performed, when crimes come before him by way of appeal. Sometimes he orders both the informer and prisoner to be thrown to the tigers; and the person that escapes by his not being seized upon by those beasts, is sufficiently justified.

They maintain the doctrine of transmigration, believing in a pre-existent state, and that they shall pass into other bodies till they are sufficiently purified to be received into paradise. They believe likewise that the soul is material, but not subject to the touch; that it retains the human figure after quitting a body of that species; and that when it appears to persons with whom it was acquainted, which they suppose it to do, the wounds of one that has been murdered will then be visible. They are of opinion that no man will be eternally punished; that the good, after several transmigrations, will enjoy perpetual happiness; but that those who are not reformed will be doomed to transmigration to all eternity. They believe in the existence of a Supreme Being; but the objects of their adoration are departed saints, whom they consider as mediators or intercessors for them; and to the honour of this numerous tribe both temples and images are erected.

The men of this country are allowed a plurality of women; but excepting one, who is a wife by contract, the others are only concubines, and their children deemed incapable of any legal inheritance. Previous to every nuptial contract, an astrologer must be consulted, who calculates the nativity of the parties, and determines whether their union is likely to prove fortunate or otherwise. When his prognostication is favourable, the lover is permitted to visit his mistress three times, at the last of which interviews the relations being present, the marriage portion is paid, when, without any religious ceremony performed, the nuptials are reckoned complete, and soon after consummated. A few days after the talisman visits the married couple, sprinkles them with water, and repeats a prayer for their prosperity.

The practice in Siam respecting funerals, is both to burn and bury the dead. The corpse being laid upon the pile, it is suffered to burn till a considerable part is consumed, when the remainder is interred in a burying-place contiguous to some temple. The reason which they give for not burning it entirely to ashes is, that they suppose the deceased to be happy when part of his remains escapes the fire. Instead of a tombstone, they erect a pyramid over the grave. It formerly was the custom to bury treasure with the corpse; but longer experience evincing, that the sacrilegious light in which robbing the graves was considered did not prevent the crime, they now discontinue the ancient practice, and instead of treasure bury only painted papers and other trifles.

The two principal rivers are the Menan and the Mekong, which rise in the mountains of Tartary, and run to the south; the former passing by the city of Siam, falls into the bay of the same name, in the 13th degree of north latitude; and the latter running through Laos and Cambodia, discharges itself into the Indian ocean in the 9th degree of north latitude.

The capital of the country is Siam, called by the natives Siyothaya, situated in the 101st degree of east longitude, and in the 14th degree of north latitude, being almost encompassed by the branches of the river Menan. It is about 10 miles in circumference within the walls, but not a sixth part of the ground is occupied by buildings. In the vacant spaces there are near 300 pagodas or temples, round which are scattered the convents of the priests and their burying-places. The streets of the city are spacious, and some have canals running through them, over which is a great number of bridges. The houses stand on pillars of the bamboo cane, and are built of the same materials; the communication between different families, during the winter season, being carried on as in other tropical countries by means of boats. The grounds belonging to the several tenements are separated by a palliado, within which the cattle are housed in barns, erected likewise upon pillars, to preserve them from the annual inundation.