the principal magistrate or governor of the Seven United Provinces. This office is now abolished by the republican influence of France; but as the prince of Orange is in alliance with this country, our readers will probably not be ill pleased with a short account of his several powers and claims. To render that account the more intelligible, we shall trace the office of Stadtholder from its origin.

The Seven Provinces of the Low Countries were long governed by princes invested with the sovereignty, though limited in their powers, and under various titles; as Counts of Holland, Dukes of Guelder, Bishop of Utrecht, &c. When these countries fell to the princes of the house of Burgundy, and afterwards to those of Austria, who had many other dominions, the absence of the sovereign was supplied by a stadtholder or governor, vested with very ample powers. These stadtholders or lieutenants had the administration of the government, and presided in the courts of justice, whose jurisdiction was not at that time confined merely to the trial of causes, but extended to affairs of state. The stadtholders swore allegiance to the princes at their inauguration, jointly with the states of the provinces they governed. They likewise took an oath to the states, by which they promised to maintain their fundamental laws and privileges.

It was upon this footing that William the First, prince of Orange, was made governor and lieutenant-general of Holland, Zealand, and Utrecht, by Philip the Second, upon his leaving the Low Countries to go into Spain. The troubles beginning soon after, this prince found means to bring about an union, in 1576, between Holland and Zealand; the states of which two provinces put into his hands, as far as was in their power, the sovereign authority (for so long time as they should remain in war and under arms), upon the same footing as Holland had intrusted him with in the year before. In 1581 the same authority was again renewed to him by Holland, as it was soon after by Zealand likewise; and in 1584, being already elected count of Holland, upon certain conditions he would have been formally invested with the sovereignty, had not a wretch, hired and employed by the court of Spain, put an end to his life by a horrid assassination.

In the preamble of the instruments by which the states in 1581 conferred the sovereign authority upon prince William the First, we find these remarkable words, which are there set down as fundamental rules: "That all republics and communities ought to preserve, maintain, and fortify themselves by unanimity; which being impossible to be kept up always among so many..." to the money which purchases, and to the materials, tools, and maintenance, which are purchased with it; but only to one or other of those two values, and to the latter more properly than to the former.

"When paper is substituted in the room of gold and silver money, the quantity of the materials, tools, and maintenance, which the whole circulating capital can supply, may be increased by the whole value of gold and silver which used to be employed in purchasing them. The whole value of the great wheel of circulation and distribution is added to the goods which are circulated and distributed by means of it. The operation, in some measure, resembles that of the undertaker of some great work, who, in consequence of some improvement in mechanics, takes down his old machinery, and adds the difference between its price and that of the new to his circulating capital, to the fund from which he furnishes materials and wages to his workmen.

"What the proportion is which the circulating money of any country bears to the whole value of the annual produce circulated by means of it, it is perhaps impossible to determine. It has been computed by different authors at a fifth, at a tenth, at a twentieth, and at a thirtieth part of that value. But how small soever the proportion which the circulating money may bear to the whole value of the annual produce, as but a part, and frequently but a small part, of that produce, is ever destined for the maintenance of industry, it must always bear a very considerable proportion to that part. When, therefore, by the substitution of paper, the gold and silver necessary for circulation is reduced to perhaps a fifth part of the former quantity, if the value of only the greater part of the other four-fifths be added to the funds which are destined for the maintenance of industry, it must make a very considerable addition to the quantity of that industry, and consequently to the value of the annual produce of land and labour.

"That part of his capital which a dealer is obliged to keep by him unemployed, for answering occasional demands, is so much dead stock, producing nothing either to him or to his country. The judicious operations of banking enable him to make it active and productive. The gold and silver money which circulates in any country, and by means of which the produce of its land and labour is annually circulated and distributed to the proper consumers, is, in the same manner as the ready money of the dealer, all dead stock. It is a very valuable part of the capital of the country, which produces nothing to the country. The judicious operations of banking, by substituting paper in the room of a great part of it, enables the country to make a great part of this dead stock active and productive. The gold and silver money which circulates in any country, may very properly be compared to a highway, which, while it circulates and carries to market all the fruits and corn of the country, produces itself not a single pile of either. The judicious operations of banking, by providing, if I may be allowed so violent a metaphor, a fort of waggon-way through the air, enable the country to convert, as it were, a great part of its highways into good pastures and corn-fields, and thereby to increase very considerably the annual produce of its land and labour. The commerce and industry of the country, however, it must be acknowledged, though they may be somewhat augmented, cannot be altogether so secure, when they are thus, as it were, suspended upon the Dædalian wings of paper-money, as when they travel about upon the solid ground of gold and silver.

"The whole paper-money of every kind which can easily circulate in any country, never can exceed the value of the gold and silver, of which it supplies the place, or which (the commerce being supposed the same) would circulate there if there was no paper-money. If twenty-shilling notes, for example, are the lowest paper-money current in Scotland, the whole of that currency, which can easily circulate there, cannot exceed the sum of gold and silver which would be necessary for transacting the annual exchanges of twenty shillings value and upwards, usually transacted within that country. Should the circulating paper at any time exceed that sum, as the excess could neither be sent abroad, nor be employed in the circulation of the country, it must immediately return upon the banks to be exchanged for gold and silver. Many people would immediately perceive that they had more of this paper than was necessary for transacting their business at home, and as they could not send it abroad, they would immediately demand payment of it from the banks. When this superfluous paper was converted into gold and silver, they could easily find a use for it by sending it abroad; but they could find none while it remained in the shape of paper. There would immediately, therefore, be a run upon the banks to the whole extent of this superfluous paper, and if they showed any difficulty or backwardness in payment, to a much greater extent; the alarm which this would occasion necessarily increasing the run." See Bank and Trade.

Paper Office, an office in the palace of Whitehall, in which all the public writings, matters of state and council, proclamations, letters, intelligences, negotiations abroad, and generally all dispatches that pass through the offices of the secretaries of state, are lodged, by way of library.

Papier mache. This is a substance made of cuttings of white or brown paper, boiled in water, and beaten in a mortar, till they are reduced into a kind of paste, and then boiled with a solution of gum arabic or of size, to give tenacity to the paste, which is afterwards formed into different toys, &c., by pressing it into oiled moulds. When dry, it is done over with a mixture of size and lamp black, and afterwards varnished. The black varnish for these toys, according to Dr Lewis, is prepared as follows: Some colophony, or turpentine boiled down till it becomes black and friable, is melted in a glazed earthen vessel, and thrice as much amber in fine powder sprinkled in by degrees, with the addition of a little spirit or oil of turpentine now and then; when the amber is melted, sprinkle in the same quantity of sarcocolla, continuing to stir them, and to add more spirit of turpentine, till the whole becomes fluid; then strain out the clear through a coarse hair-bag, pressing it gently between hot boards. This varnish, mixed with ivory-black in fine powder, is applied, in a hot room, on the dried paper-paste; which is then set in a gently heated oven, next day in a hotter oven, and the third day in Paphlagonia, a very hot one, and let stand each time till the oven grows cold. The paste thus varnished is hard, durable, glossy, and bears liquors hot or cold.

PAPHLAGONIA (anc. geogr.), a country of the Hither Asia, beginning at Parthenius, a river of Bithynia, on the west, and extending in length to the Halys eastward, with the Euxine to the north, and Galatia to the south. Pliny enlarges the limits on the west side to the river Billis, on this side the Parthenius. It is called Pyrenaia by some (Pliny). Paphlagones, the people, mentioned by Homer, and therefore of no small antiquity. A superstitious and silly people (Lucian); a brave people (Homer); taking their name from Phaleg (Dochart).

PAPHOS (anc. geogr.), two adjoining islands on the west side of the island of Cyprus; the one called Hala Paphos (Strabo, Ptolemy, Pliny); the other Nea Paphos; and when mentioned without an adjunct, this latter is always understood. Both dedicated to Venus, and left undistinguished by the poets (Virgil, Horace). Hence Venus is termed Paphia, Paphia, the people, (Coins, Stephanus). It was restored by Augustus, after a shock of an earthquake, and called Augusta (Dio).

The Abbé Mariti, in his Travels through Cyprus, gives the following account of the island of Paphos. "It is situated (says he) on the southern side; it contained the celebrated temple of Venus; which, together with the city, was destroyed by an earthquake, so that the least vestige of it is not now to be seen. A lake in the neighbourhood, which even in summer overflows with stagnant and corrupted water, renders the air in some degree unwholesome. On the western coast is the new Paphos, called by some of the modern geographers Baffos; a name which is unknown in the island of Cyprus. That we may not positively ascribe to the latter every thing that history tells us of Paphos in general, it may not be here improper to mention that it has been several times destroyed. This city had a port, where vessels trading upon that coast still cast anchor; but this happens only in summer; for being exposed to every wind, it is extremely dangerous. The bottom of it is full of sharp rocks; which sometimes destroy the cables so much, that mariners are obliged to keep them afloat on the surface of the water, by means of empty casks fixed to them at certain distances. In the neighbourhood there are two castles; one on the borders of the sea, and the other on the summit of a little hill: but the latter is at present in ruins. The government of Paphos consists of a digdaban or commissary; a cadis; and an aga, who presides over the customhouse. Of all the Christian edifices, there is none remaining but the church of St George, in which service is performed by the Greek ministers. The productions of this part of the island, which are all of an excellent quality, are silk, barley, and other kinds of grain. To discover the origin of the old and new Paphos, would be carrying light into the midst of the thickest darkness. When we have added conjecture to conjecture, we are still in the same situation. As this is an attempt superior to my abilities, I shall leave it to the divining, though uncertain, knowledge of our antiquaries. I must, however, observe, that there was here formerly a temple dedicated to Venus, which was entirely destroyed by an earthquake. In this island St Paul by his eloquence converted Sergius, a Roman proconsul. He here likewise conferred the deaconship on his disciple and colleague Titus, who soon after suffered martyrdom. Paphos was an episcopal city in the time of the Lusignans; and it is still the seat of a bishop, who is a suffragan to the archbishop of Nicosia. On the western side of the island there are a great number of scattered villages; but they are not worthy of notice, being either abandoned or in ruins."

Mr Bruce informs us, that in the neighbourhood of this place many silver medals of excellent workmanship are dug up; they are, however, but of little estimation among the antiquarians, being chiefly of towns of the size of those found at Crete and Rhodes, and in all the islands of the Archipelago. There are some excellent Greek Intaglios; generally upon better stones than usual in the islands. This illustrious traveller informs us, that he has seen some heads of Jupiter, remarkable for bushy hair and a beard, which were of excellent workmanship, and worthy of any price. All the inhabitants of the island are subject to fevers, but especially those in the neighbourhood of Paphos. The same traveller observes, that Cyprus was very long undiscovered; for though ships had been sailing on the Mediterranean 1700 years before Christ, and though the island is only a day's sailing from the continent of Asia on the north and east, and little more from that of Africa on the south, it was not known at the building of Tyre, a little before the Trojan war, that is, 500 years after the neighbouring seas had been navigated. It was covered with wood at its first discovery; and our author is of opinion, that it was not well known even at the time of building of Solomon's temple; because we do not find that Hiram king of Tyre, though just in its neighbourhood, ever had recourse to it for wood: though the carriage would undoubtedly have been easier from thence, than to have brought it down from the top of Mount Lebanon. Eratothenes informs us, that in ancient times the island was so overgrown with wood, that it could not be tilled; so that they first cut down the timber to be used in the furnaces for melting silver and copper; that after this they built fleets with it; but finding even this insufficient, they gave liberty to all strangers to cut it down for whatever purpose they pleased; and not only so, but they gave them afterwards the property of the ground they had cleared. Matters are now quite altered; and the want of wood is a principal complaint in most parts of the island. About Acamas, however, on the west side of the island, the wood is still thick and impervious, inhabited by large flags and wild boars of a monstrous size. Mr Bruce was informed, that a live elephant had lately been seen there, but gave no credit to the account.

PAPIAS, bishop of Hierapolis, a city of Phrygia, was the disciple of St John the Evangelist, and the companion of Polycarp, as St Jerome observes, and not of John the Ancient, as some other authors have maintained. He composed a work in five books, entitled Exposition of the Discourses of our Lord, of which there are only some fragments now remaining. He it was who introduced the opinion of the Millennium.

PAPILIO, the Butterfly, in zoology; a genus of insects belonging to the order of lepidoptera. It Length of the cave from the rock without, From the pitch of the arch, Breadth of ditto at the mouth, At the farther end, Height of the arch at the mouth, At the end, Height of an outside pillar, Of one at the north-west corner, Depth of water at the mouth, At the bottom,

"The cave runs into the rock in the direction of north-east by east by the compass.

Proceeding farther to the north-west, you meet with the highest ranges of pillars; the magnificent appearance of which is past all description. Here they are bare to their very bases, and the stratum below them is also visible: in a short time, it rises many feet above the water, and gives an opportunity of examining its quality. Its surface is rough, and has often large lumps of stone sticking in it as half immersed: itself, when broken, is composed of a thousand heterogeneous parts, which together have very much the appearance of a lava: and the more so, as many of the lumps appear to be of the very same stone of which the pillars are formed. This whole stratum lies in an inclined position, dipping gradually towards the south-east. As hereabouts is the situation of the highest pillars, I shall mention my measurements of them, and the different strata in this place, premising, that the measurements were made with a line, held in the hand of a person who stood at the top of the cliff, and reaching to the bottom; to the lower end of which was tied a white mark, which was observed by one who stood below for the purpose: when this mark was felt off from the water, the person below noted it down, and made signal to him above, who made then a mark in his rope: whenever this mark passed a notable place, the same signal was made, and the name of the place noted down as before: the line being all hauled up, and the distances between the marks measured and noted down, gave, when compared with the book kept below, the distances, as for instance in the case:

"No. 1. In the book below, was called from the water to the foot of the first pillar in the book above; No. 1. gave 36 feet 8 inches, the highest of that ascent, which was composed of broken pillars.

"No. 1. Pillar at the west corner of Fingal's cave.

| From the water to the foot of the pillar | Feet. In. | |------------------------------------------|-----------| | 1 | 12 | | Height of the pillar | 37 | | Stratum above the pillar | 66 | | "No. 2. Fingal's cave." | | | From the water to the foot of the pillar | 36 | | Height of the pillar | 39 | | From the top of the pillar to the top of the arch | 31 | | Thickness of the stratum above | 34 |

By adding together the three first measurements, we get the height of the arch from the water, 117 feet.

"No. 3. Corner pillar to the westward of Fingal's cave.

Stratum below the pillar of lava-like matter, 11 feet.

Length of pillar, 54 feet.