one of the most northerly kingdoms of Europe, lying between Lat. 55° 20' and 69° 30' north, and between 12° and 32° east from London. On the south it is bounded by the Baltic, on the north by Danish Lapland, on the east by Muscovy, and on the west by the mountains of Norway, being 800 miles in length and 350 in breadth.

The early history of Sweden is no less involved in fables than that of most other nations. Some historians have pretended to give regular catalogues of the princes who reigned in Sweden in very early times; but they differ so much among themselves, that no credit can be given to them. However, all agree that ancient Scandinavia was first governed by judges elected for a certain time by the voice of the people. Among these temporary princes the country was divided, until, in the year of the world 2054, according to some, or 1951, according to others, Eric, or, if we believe Puffendorf, Suenon was raised to the supreme power, with the prerogatives of all the temporary magistrates united in his person for life, or until his conduct should merit deposition.

From this very early period till the year 1366 of the Christian era, the histories of Sweden present us with nothing but what is common to all nations in their early periods, viz., the endless combats and massacres of barbarians, tending to no other purpose than the effusion of blood. At the time just mentioned, however, Albert of Mecklenburg, having concluded a peace between Sweden and Denmark, which two kingdoms had been at violent war for some time before, was proclaimed king of Sweden. The peace was of short duration, being broken in 1368; on which Albert entered into an offensive and defensive league with the earl of Holstein, the Jutland nobility, the dukes of Salfwick, Mecklenburg, and the Hanse-towns, against the kings of Denmark and Norway. Albert proved very successful War with against Waldemar king of Denmark at that time, driving him entirely out of his dominions; but he himself was defeated by the king of Norway, who laid siege to his capital. Soon after this, a new treaty of peace was concluded, by which Albert was allowed to enjoy the crown of Sweden in peace. However, having formed a design of rendering himself absolute, he fell under the displeasure of his subjects, and Margaret of Norway was proclaimed queen of Sweden by the malecontents. A war immediately ensued, in which Albert was defeated and taken prisoner; but as the princes of Mecklenburg, the earls of Holstein, and the Hanse towns, entered into a league in his favour, the war was so far from being extinguished by this event, that it raged with more fury than ever.

At length, in 1394, the contending parties came to an accommodation. Albert was set at liberty, on condition that he should in three years surrender to Margaret all pretensions to the city of Stockholm; and the Hanse-towns engaged to pay the sum of 60,000 marks of silver in case of Albert's breach of faith. Not long after this, Eric the son of Albert died; and he, having no other child, did not think it worth his while to contend for the kingdom of Sweden; he therefore acquiesced in the pretensions of Margaret, and passed the remainder of his days at Mecklenburg.

Margaret died in 1415, and was succeeded by Eric of Pomerania. This prince's reign was cruel and oppressive, succeeding to the last degree. The people were ruined by taxes; and by Eric a cruel tyranny, the Danes being everywhere preferred to the offices of power, committed the greatest cruelties. The consequence of this was a revolt; and Charles Canutson, grand marshal of Sweden and governor of Finland, having joined the malecontents, was declared commander in chief of their army. Eric was now formally deposed, and commenced pi-pofed. Canutson was chosen regent; but beginning to oppress the people, and aspiring openly at the crown, the Swedes and Danes revolted; in consequence of which a revolution took place, and Christopher duke of Bavaria, nephew to Eric, was chosen king of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, in 1412.

On the accession of the new prince, complaints against Canutson were brought from all quarters; but, through the interest of his friends, he escaped the punishment due to him; and in 1418, Christopher having died after a tyrannical reign of somewhat more than five years, he was raised to the throne at which he had so long aspired. However, the kingdoms of Denmark and Norway refused to own allegiance to him; upon which a war immediately commenced. Sweden. In 1454 peace was concluded, and Denmark for the present freed from the Swedish yoke. Neither did Canutus long enjoy even the crown of Sweden itself. Having quarrelled with the archbishop of Upsal, the latter formed such a strong party that the king could not resist him. Christian king of Denmark was called to the throne of Sweden; and in 1459 once more united the three kingdoms. He enjoyed his dignity but a short time; for having begun to oppress his subjects in an arbitrary manner, he was obliged to retire to Denmark in 1463. Katil bishop of Lincoping, who had driven out the king, took upon himself the office of regent. Next year Christian returned with a powerful army; but was defeated. The people then thought proper to recall Canutus; but he, on his first accession, having offended the warlike Bishop Katil, was by him defeated, and obliged to renounce his right to the crown. After this the kingdom was rent into factions; between whom the most cruel civil wars took place, until the year 1467, when Canutus was again recalled, and enjoyed the kingdom, though not without difficulty and opposition, till his death, which happened in 1470.

The confusion in which the Swedish affairs had been for long involved did not cease on the death of Canutus. Christian again invaded Sweden; but was defeated by Steen Sture, nephew to the late king. After this the kingdom seems to have remained in peace till the year 1487, when the Ruffians invaded Carelia, committing everywhere the greatest ravages. These were soon driven out; but in 1497, a rupture happening betwixt Sture and the senate, an offer was made of the Swedish crown to John king of Denmark. This prince readily accepted the offer, and was crowned accordingly; but no sooner was he seated on the throne than he became odious to the Swedes, from his partiality to the Danes. In a short time he set out for Denmark, leaving his queen, with a strong garrison, in the citadel of Stockholm. He was no sooner gone than the capital was invested; and though the queen made a noble defence, she was at last obliged to capitulate, on condition of being allowed to pass into Denmark. All the garrison were made prisoners of war, and the queen herself was confined in a monastery till the following year.

The Swedish affairs continued to be involved in the same dreadful confusion as we have already related, until the year 1520, when a great revolution was effected by Gustavus Ericson, a nobleman of the first rank, who restored the kingdom to its liberty, and laid the foundation of its future grandeur. The occasion of this great revolution was as follows: In 1518, Christian king of Denmark invaded Sweden, with a design to subdue the whole country; but being defeated with great loss by young Steen Sture, the regent at that time, he set sail for Denmark. But meeting with contrary winds, he made several descents on the Swedish coast, which he ravaged with all the fury of an incensed barbarian. The inhabitants, however, bravely defended themselves, and Christian was reduced to the utmost distress; one half of his forces having perished with hunger, and the other being in the most imminent danger by the approach of a rigorous winter. He then thought of a stratagem, which had almost proved fatal to the regent; for having invited him to a conference, at which he designed either to assassinate or take him prisoner, Sture was about to comply, had not the senate, who suspected the plot, interfered and prevented him. Christian then offered to go in person to Stockholm in order to confer with Sture, upon condition that six hostages should be sent in his room. This was accordingly done; but the wind happening then to prove favourable, he set sail for Denmark with the hostages, of whom Gustavus Ericson was one. Next year he returned; and having drawn Sture into an ambush, the regent received a wound of which he died some time after. The kingdom being thus left without a head, matters soon came to the height of the most desperate crisis. The army disbanded itself; and the royal council, instead of taking proper measures to oppose the enemies, spent their time in idle debates. Christian in the meantime advanced into the heart of the kingdom, destroying every thing with fire and sword; but on his arrival at one Stronghold, he granted a suspension of arms, to give the people time to deliberate on their situation, and to reflect that they might easily get rid of their troubles by electing him chosen king. They accordingly did; and Christian proved kind, one of the most bloody tyrants that ever sat on the throne of any kingdom. Immediately after his coronation, he gave bloody grand entertainments for three days; during which time he projected the diabolical design of extirpating at once all the Swedish nobility, and thus for ever preventing the people from revolting, by depriving them of their proper leaders. As the tyrant had signed articles, by which he promised indemnity to all who had borne arms against him, it became necessary to invent some cause of offence against those whom he intended to destroy. To accomplish his purpose, Gustavus Trolle, formerly archbishop of Upsal, but who had been degraded from that dignity, in an oration before his majesty lamented the demolition of Steckla, his place of residence, and the losses sustained by the see of Upsal, amounting to near a million of money. He then proceeded in a bitter accusation against the widow and the son-in-law of Sture the late regent, comprehending in the same accusation about 15 of the principal nobility, the whole senate, and the burghers of Stockholm. The consequence of this was, that above 60 of the principal nobility and people of the noble rank in Sweden were hanged up as traitors. Innumerable cruelties were committed; part of which are owned by the Danish historians, and minutely related by those created as Sweden. At last he departed for Denmark, ordering gibbets to be erected, and causing the peasants to be hanged on them for the slightest offences, all the way as he passed along; and it is related of him, that at Jencoping he caused two boys, one of seven and the other of nine years of age, to be whipped to death.

This monstrous cruelty, instead of securing him on the throne, exasperated the whole nation against him. It has already been mentioned, that Gustavus Ericson, or, as he is commonly called, Gustavus Vasa, was among the number of the hostages whom Christian had perspicuously carried to Denmark in 1519. Large promises had been made in order to reconcile him to Christian, and threats had been used for the same purpose, but all in vain. Secret orders were given to strangle him in prison; but the officer to whom the affaision was committed remonstrated to the king about the consequences of it, and prevailed on him to change the sentence of death into close confinement in the castle of Copenhagen. Some of the hostages perished in consequence of the rigorous treatment they met with; but Gustavus withstood all hardships. At last one Banner, a Danish nobleman, prevailed on the king to put him into his hands, in order to try whether or not he could prevail upon him to change his sentiments. The king, however, told Banner, that he must pay 6000 crowns in case the prisoner should make his escape. Banner generously affected; and having brought the noble prisoner to his fortress of Calo in Jutland, soon allowed him all the liberty he could desire, and otherwise heaped favours upon him. All this, however, could not extinguish his remembrance of the cruelties of Christian, and the desire he had of being serviceable to his country. He therefore determined to make his escape; he escaped and the liberty he enjoyed soon put him in a capacity of effecting mark. Sweden. effecting it. Having one day mounted his horse, under pretence of hunting as usual in the forest, when he got at a proper distance, he changed his dress to the habit of a peasant; and quitting his horse, he travelled for two days on foot through by-paths, and over mountains almost impassable, arriving on the third at Flensburg. Here no one was admitted without a passport; and Gulltus dreaded presenting himself to the governor or the officer upon guard, for fear of being discovered. Happily for him, it chanced to be on that season of the year when the merchants of Lower Saxony drove a considerable trade in cattle, which they purchase in Jutland. Gulltus hired himself to one of these merchants; and under favour of his disguise escaped out of the Danish territories, and arrived at Lubeck.

Banner was no sooner acquainted with his escape, than he set out after him with the utmost diligence, found him at Lubeck, and reproached him with great warmth as ungrateful and treacherous; but he was soon appeased by the arguments urged by Gulltus, and especially by the promise he made of indemnifying him in the loss of his ransom. Upon this Banner returned, giving out that he could not find his prisoner. Christian was enraged at his escape, apprehending that he might reverse all his designs in Sweden; and gave orders to Otho his general to make the strictest search, and leave no means untried to arrest him. Gulltus applied to the regency for a ship to convey him to Sweden, where he hoped he should be able to form a party against the Danes. He likewise endeavoured to draw the regency of Lubeck into his measures; and reasoned with so much zeal and ability, that Nicholas Gemins, first consul, was entirely gained; but the regency could never be prevailed on to declare for a party without friends, arms, money, or credit. However, before his departure, the consul gave him assurances, that if he could raise a force sufficient to make head against the enemy in the field, he might depend on the services of the republic, and that the regency would immediately declare for him. Gulltus desired to be landed at Stockholm; but the captain of the ship, either having secret orders to the contrary, or business elsewhere, steered a different course, and put him on shore near Calmar; a city hitherto garrisoned by the troops of Christina widow of the regent. In truth, the governor held this place for his own purposes, and only waited to make the best terms he could with the Danes. When Gulltus arrived, he made himself known to him and the principal officers of the garrison, who were mostly Germans, and his fellow-soldiers in the late administrator's army. He flattered himself that his birth, his merit, and connections, would immediately procure him the command. But the mercenary band, seeing him without troops and without attendants, regarded him as a desperate person devoted to destruction, refused to embrace his proposals, and even threatened to kill or betray him, if he did not instantly quit the city.

Disappointed in his expectations, Gulltus departed with great expedition; and his arrival being now publicly known, he was again forced to have recourse to his peasant's disguise to conceal him from the Danish emissaries dispersed over the country to search for him. In a waggon loaded with hay he passed through every quarter of the Danish army, and at last repaired to an old family castle in Sodermania. From hence he wrote to his friends, notifying his return to Sweden, and beholding them to assemble all their forces in order to break through the enemy's army into Stockholm, at that time besieged; but they, too, refused to embark in so hazardous and desperate an attempt.

Gustavus next applied himself to the peasants; but they answered, that they enjoyed salt and herrings under the government of the king of Denmark; and that any attempts to bring about a revolution would be attended with certain ruin, without the prospect of bettering their condition; peasants for peasants they were, and peasants they should remain, whoever was king. At length, after several vain attempts to throw himself into Stockholm, after that city was surrendered to the king, after the horrid massacre of the senate, and after running a thousand dangers, and undergoing hardships and fatigues hardly to be supported by human nature, he formed the resolution of trying the courage and affection of the Dalecarlians. While he was in the deepest obscurity, and plunged in almost unsurmountable adversity, he never relinquished his designs nor his hopes. The news of the massacre had, however, very near sunk him into despondency, as thereby he lost all his friends, relations, and connections, and indeed almost every prospect of safety to himself or deliverance to his country. It was this that inspired the thought of going to Dalecarlia, where he might live with more security in the high mountains and thick woods of that country, if he should fail in the attempt of exciting the inhabitants to revolt.

Attended by a peasant, to whom he was known, he travelled in disguise through Sodermania, Nericia, and Dalecarlia, and, after a laborious and painful journey, arrived in the mountains of Dalecarlia. Scarce had he finished his journey, when he found himself deserted by his companion and guide, who carried off with him all the money he provided for his subsistence. Thus forlorn, destitute, half starved, he entered among the miners, and wrought like a slave under ground, without relinquishing his hopes of one day ascending the throne of Sweden. His whole prospect for the present was to live concealed, and gain a maintenance, until fortune should effect something in his favour; nor was it long before this happened. A woman in the mines perceived, under the habit of a peasant, that the collar of his shirt was embroidered. This circumstance excited curiosity; and the graces of his person and conversation, which had something in them to attract the notice of the meanest of the vulgar, afforded room for suspicion that he was some person of quality in disguise, forced by the tyranny of the government to seek shelter in these remote parts. The story came to the ears of a neighbouring gentleman, who immediately went to the mines to offer his protection to the unfortunate stranger; and was astonished on recognizing the features of Gulltus, whose acquaintance he had been at the university of Upsal. Touched with compassion at the deplorable situation of so distinguished a nobleman, he could scarce refrain from tears; but however had pretence of mind enough not to make the discovery. At night he sent for Gulltus, made him an offer of his house, and gave him the strongest assurances of his friendship and protection. He told him, he would meet with better accommodations, and as much security as in the mines; and that, should he chance to be discovered, he would, with all his friends and vassals, take arms in his defence.

This offer was embraced by Gulltus with joy, and he remained for some time at his friend's house; but finding it impossible to induce him to take part in his designs, he quitted him, and fled to one Peteron, a gentleman whom he had formerly known in the service. By him he was received with all the appearance of kindness; and, on the very first proposal made by Gulltus, offered to raise his vassals. He even named the lords and peasants whom he pretended to have engaged in his service; but in a very few days after, he went secretly to a Danish officer, and gave him information of what had passed. The officer immedi- Sweden. ately caused the house to be surrounded with soldiers, in such a manner that it seemed impossible for Gustavus to make his escape. In the interval, however, he escaped, being warned by Peterson's wife of the treachery of her husband, and by her direction fled to the house of a clergyman, her friend. By him Gustavus was received with all the respect due to his own birth and merit; and left the domestics who conducted him should follow the treacherous example of his master, he removed him to the church, and conducted him to a small closet, of which he kept the key. Having lived for some time in this manner, Gustavus began to consult with his friend concerning the most proper method of putting their schemes in execution. The priest advised him to apply directly to the peasants themselves; told him that it would be proper to spread a report, that the Danes were to enter Dalecarlia in order to establish new taxes by force of arms; and as the annual feast of all the neighbouring villages was in a few days to be held, he could not have a more favourable opportunity: at the same time he promised to engage the principal persons of the diocese in his interest.

Agreeable to this advice Gustavus set out for Mora, espoused by where the feast was to be held. He found the peasants already informed of his designs, and impatient to see him. Being already prepossessed in his favour, they were soon excited to an enthusiasm in his cause, and instantly resolved to throw off the Danish yoke. In this design they were more confirmed by their superstition; some of their old men having observed that the wind had blown from the north while Gustavus was speaking, which among them was reckoned an infallible omen of success. Gustavus did not give their ardour time to cool, but instantly led them against the governor's cattle; which he took by assault, and put the garrison to the sword. This inconsiderable enterprise was attended with the most happy consequences. Great numbers of the peasants flocked to his standard; some of the gentry openly espoused his cause, and others supplied him with money. Christian was soon acquainted with what had passed; but despising such an inconsiderable enemy, he sent only a slender detachment under the command of one Soren Norby, to assist his adherents in Dalecarlia.

Gustavus advanced with 5000 men, and defeated a body of Danes commanded by one Melecn; but he was strenuously opposed by the archbishop of Upsal, who raised numerous forces for king Christian. The fortune of Gustavus, however, still prevailed, and the archbishop was defeated with great loss. Gustavus then laid siege to Stockholm; but his force being too inconsiderable for such an undertaking, he was forced to abandon it with loss.

This check did not prove in any considerable degree detrimental to the affairs of Gustavus; the peasants from all parts of the kingdom flocked to his camp, and he was joined by a reinforcement from Lubeck. Christian, unable to suppress the revolt, wreaked his vengeance on the mother and sisters of Gustavus, whom he put to death with the most excruciating torments. Several other Swedish ladies he caused to be thrown into the sea, after having imposed on them the inhuman task of making the sacks into which they were to be inclosed. His barbarities served only to make his enemies more resolute. Gustavus having assembled the estates at Vadstena, he was unanimously chosen regent, the diet taking an oath of fidelity to him, and promising to assist him to the utmost. Having thus obtained the sanction of legal authority, he pursued his advantages against the Danes. A body of troops appointed to throw succours into Stockholm were totally cut in pieces; and the regent sending some troops into Finland, struck the Danes there with such terror, that the archbishop of Upsal, together with Slabog and Baldenacker the Danish governors, fled to Denmark. Christian received them but very coldly, apprehending that their flight might be prejudicial to his affairs; and in a short time the two governors were put to death, that the king might have an opportunity of charging them with being guilty of the cruelties which they had committed by his order. He then sent express orders to all his governors and officers in Finland and Sweden to massacre the Swedish gentry without distinction. The Swedes made reprisals by massacring all the Danes they could find; so that the whole country was filled with bloodshed and slaughter.

In the mean time Gustavus had laid siege to the towns of Calmar, Abo, and Stockholm; but Norby found means to oblige him to raise all of them with great loss. Gustavus, in revenge, laid siege to the capital a third time, and petitioned the regency of Lubeck for a squadron of ships and other succours for carrying on the siege. This was complied with, but on very hard conditions, viz., that Gustavus should oblige himself, in the name of the estates, to pay 60,000 merks of silver as the expense of the armament; that, until the kingdom should be in a condition to pay that sum, the Lubeck merchants trading to Sweden should be exempted from all duties on imports or exports; that all other nations should be prohibited from trading with Sweden, and that such traffic should be deemed illicit; that Gustavus should neither conclude a peace, nor even agree to a truce, with Denmark, without the concurrence of the regency of Lubeck; and that in case the republic should be attacked by Christian, he should enter Denmark at the head of 20,000 men. Upon these hard terms did Gustavus obtain assistance from the regency of Lubeck; nor did his dear-bought allies prove very faithful. They did not indeed go over to the enemy; but in a sea-fight, where the Danes were entirely in the power of their enemies, they suffered them to escape, when their whole force might have been entirely destroyed. This treachery had well nigh ruined the affairs of Gustavus; for Norby was now making preparations effectually to relieve Stockholm; in which he would probably have succeeded: but at this critical period news arrived that the Danes had unanimously revolted, and driven Christian from the throne; and that the king had retired into Germany, in hopes of being restored by the arms of his brother-in-law the emperor. On hearing this news, Norby retired with his whole fleet to the island of Gothland, leaving but a slender garrison in Calmar. Gustavus did not fail to improve this opportunity to his own advantage, and quickly made himself master of Calmar. Mean time Stockholm continued closely invested; but Gustavus thought proper to protract the siege until he should get himself elected king. Having for this purpose called a general diet, the first step was to fill up the vacancy in the estate occasioned by the massacres of Christian. Gustavus had the address to get such nominated as were in his interest; and of consequence the assembly was no sooner met, than a speech was made, containing the highest encomiums on Gustavus, setting forth in the strongest light the eminent services he had done for his country, and concluding by saying that the estates would show themselves equally grateful and blind to their own interest if they did not immediately elect him king. This proposal was acceded to by such tumultuous acclamations that it was impossible to collect the votes; so that Gustavus himself acknowledged, that their affection exceeded his merit, and was more agreeable to him than the effects of their gratitude. He was urged to have the ceremony of his coronation immediately performed; but the king having some designs on the clergy, did not think proper to comply with their request, as he would have been obliged to take an oath to preserve them in their rights and privileges.—Indeed he had not been long seated on the throne before he incurred the displeasure of that body; for having large arrears due to the army, with several other incumbrances, Gustavus found it necessary to raise large contributions on the clergy. On this he was accused of avarice and heresy before the pope's nuncio.

Gustavus took the proper methods for defending himself against these accusations; and in a short time after showed a great partiality for the doctrines of Luther, which by this time had been preached and received by many people in Sweden. This emboldened him more than ever with the ecclesiastics; and it soon appeared, that either Gustavus must resign his throne, or the clergy some part of the power they had assumed. Matters were driven to extremes by the king's allowing the scriptures to be translated into the Swedish language. In 1526, the king, finding them entering into a combination against the reformists, went to Upsal, and publicly declared his resolution of reducing the number of oppressive and idle monks and priests, who, under pretence of religion, fattened on the spoils of the industrious people. At last, taking advantage of the war between the pope and Charles V., of Spain, he declared himself to be of the reformed religion, and established it throughout his dominions; and at the same time, to humble the arrogance of the ecclesiastics, he gave the senators the precedence of them, and in many other respects degraded them from the dignities they formerly enjoyed. For some time the states hesitated at supporting the king in his work of reformation; insomuch, that at last he threatened to resign the kingdom, which, he said, was doomed to perpetual slavery either to its temporal or spiritual tyrants. On this the states came into his measures, and retrenched the privileges of the ecclesiastics in the manner he proposed. Several disturbances, however, ensued. An impostor, who pretended to be of the family of Sture the former regent, having claimed the throne, the Dalecarlians revolted in his favour; but on the approach of a powerful army sent by Gustavus, they submitted to his terms. Soon after, Lutheran professors were established in every diocese; upon which a new rebellion ensued. At the head of this was Thure Johanson, who had married the king's sister. Several of the nobility joined him; and the king of Denmark also acceded to their cause, thinking, by means of these disturbances, to reunite the three kingdoms of Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, as they had formerly been. But Gustavus prevailed, and the rebels were obliged to take refuge in Denmark. A fresh accident, however, had like to have embroiled matters worse than before. The subsidy granted to the regency of Lubeck was still due; and for the payment of it the states granted to the king all the useless bells of the churches and monasteries. The people were shocked at the sacrilege; and the Dalecarlians again betook themselves to arms. Intimidated, however, by the courage and vigorous conduct of the king, they again submitted, and were taken into favour. But tranquillity was not yet restored.

Christian having established a powerful interest in Norway, once more made an attempt to recover his kingdoms, and was joined by the Dalecarlians; but being defeated by the Swedish forces, he was forced to return to Norway, where, being obliged to capitulate with the Danish generals, he was kept prisoner all his life.

In 1542, Gustavus having happily extricated himself out of all his troubles, prevailed on the states to make the crown hereditary in his family; after which he applied himself to the encouragement of learning and commerce. A treaty was set on foot for a marriage between his eldest son Eric and Elizabeth queen of England. The prince's brother, duke John, went over to England, and resided for some time at the court of London with great splendour. He returned, full of expectations of success; but bringing with him no sort of proofs in writing, his father soon perceived that he had been the dupe of Elizabeth's superior policy. However, at last he allowed Prince Eric to go in person to England; but before he could embark, the death of Gustavus made him lay aside all thoughts of the voyage and marriage.

Gustavus Vasa died in 1560, and was succeeded by his son Eric XIV. The new king was a man possessed of all the exterior ornaments which give an air of dignity to the person; but he had neither the prudence nor the penetration of his father. He created the first nobility that were ever known imprudent in Sweden; which he had no sooner done than he quarrelled with them, by passing some acts which they thought derogatory to their honour and dignity. The whole court of his reign was disturbed by wars with Denmark, and disputes with his own subjects. In the former he was unfortunate, and towards the latter he behaved with the greatest cruelty. At last, by the torments of his own conscience, it is said, he ran mad. He afterwards recovered his senses, but was thereupon dethroned by his brothers; of whom Duke John, who had been hitherto kept prisoner by Eric, succeeded him in the kingdom.

This revolution took place in the year 1568, but with no great advantage to Sweden. Disputes about religion between the king and his brothers, and wars with Muscovy, threw matters into the utmost confusion. At last prince Sigismund, the king's son, was chosen king of Poland, which proved the source of much trouble to the kingdom. He was elected on the following conditions, viz. That there should be a perpetual peace between the states of Poland and Sweden; that, on the death of his father, prince Sigismund should succeed to the throne of Sweden; that, on urgent occasions, he might, with the consent of the states, return to Sweden; that he should maintain, at his own expense, a fleet for the service of Poland; that he should cancel a debt which had been long due from the crown of Poland to Sweden; that, with the consent of the states, he should build five fortresses on the frontiers of Poland; that he should have liberty to introduce foreign soldiers into the kingdom, provided he maintained them at his own expense; that he should not make use of Swedish counsellors in Poland; that he should have his body-guard entirely of Poles and Lithuanians; and that he should annex to Poland that part of Livonia now subject to Sweden. In 1590 king John died; and as Sigismund was at a distance, everything fell into the utmost confusion: the treasury was plundered, and the wardrobe quite spoiled, before even duke Charles could come to Stockholm to take the administration into his hands until king Sigismund should return. This, however, was far from being the greatest disaster which befell the nation at this time. It was known that the king had embraced the Popish religion; and it was with good reason suspected that he would attempt to restore it upon his arrival in Sweden. Sigismund also was obliged, on leaving Poland, to promise that he would stay no longer in Sweden than was necessary to regulate his affairs. These circumstances tended to alienate the minds of the Swedes from their sovereign even before they saw him; and the universal dissatisfaction was increased, by seeing him attended, on his arrival in Sweden in 1593, by Malafopina the pope's nuncio, to whom he made a present of 30,000 ducats to defray the expenses of his journey to Sweden.

What the people had foreseen was too well verified: the king refused to confirm the Protestants in their religious privileges, and showed such partiality on all occasions to the Papists, that a party was formed against him; at the head of him... of which was duke Charles his uncle. Remonstrances, accompanied with threats, took place on both sides; and at an interview between the king and Charles, the dispute would have ended in blows, had they not been parted by some of the nobility. This, however, made such an impression upon Sigismund, that he was apparently reconciled to his brother, and promised to comply with the inclinations of the people in every respect, though without any inclination to perform what he had promised. The agreement, indeed, was scarce made, before Sigismund conceived the horrid design of murdering his uncle at the Italian comedy acted the night after his coronation. The duke, however, having notice of the plot, found means to avoid it. This enraged the king so much, that he resolved to accomplish his designs by force; and therefore commanded a Polish army to march towards the frontiers of Sweden, where they committed all the ravages that could be expected from an enraged and cruel enemy. Complaints were made by the Protestant clergy to the senate; but no other reply was made them, than that they should abstain from these bitter invectives and reproaches, which had provoked the Catholics, until the king's departure; at which time they would be at more liberty.

In 1595 Sigismund set sail for Dantzig, leaving the administration in the hands of duke Charles. The consequence of this was, that the dissensions which had already taken place being continually increased by the obstinacy of the king, duke Charles assumed the sovereign power; and in 1604 Sigismund was formally deposed, and his uncle Charles IX. raised to the throne. He proved a wise and brave prince, restoring the tranquillity of the kingdom, and carrying on a war with vigour against Poland and Denmark. He died in 1611, leaving the kingdom to his son, the celebrated Gustavus Adolphus.

Though Charles IX. by his wife and vigorous conduct had in a great measure retrieved the affairs of Sweden, they were still in a very disagreeable situation. The finances of the kingdom were entirely drained by a series of wars and revolutions; powerful armies were preparing in Denmark, Poland, and Russia, while the Swedish troops were not only inferior in number to their enemies, but the government was destitute of resources for their payment.

Though the Swedish law required that the prince should have attained his 18th year before he was of age, yet such striking marks of the great qualities of Gustavus appeared, that he was allowed by the states to take upon him the administration even before this early period. His first act was to resume all the crown-grants, that he might be the better able to carry on the wars in which he was unavoidably engaged; and to fill all places, both civil and military, with persons of merit. At the head of domestic and foreign affairs was placed chancellor Oxenstiern, a person every way equal to the important trust, and the choosing of whom impressed mankind with the highest opinion of the young monarch's penetration and capacity.

Soon after his accession, Gustavus received an embassy from James I. of Britain, exhorting him to make peace with his neighbours. This was seconded by another from Holland. But as the king perceived that the Danish monarch intended to take every opportunity of crushing him, he resolved to act with such vigour, as might convince him that he was not easily to be overcome. Accordingly he broke into Denmark with three different armies at once; and though the enemy's superiority at sea gave them great advantages, and the number of the king's enemies distracted his attention, he carried on the war with such spirit, that in 1613 a peace was concluded upon good terms. This war being finished, the king applied himself to civil polity, and made some reformation in the laws of Sweden. In 1615, hostilities were commenced against Russia, on account of the refusal of that court to restore some money which had been formerly lent them. The king entered Ingria, took Ruffia in Kexholm by storm, and was laying siege to Pletzow, when, aided by the mediation of James I., peace was concluded, on condition of the Russians repaying the money, and yielding to Sweden some part of their territory. In this and the former war, notwithstanding the shortness of their duration, Gustavus learned the rudiments of the military art for which he soon became so famous. He is said, indeed, to have caught every opportunity of improvement with a quickness of understanding seemingly more than human. In one campaign, he not only learned, but improved, all the military maxims of La Gardie, a celebrated general, brought the Swedish army in general to a more steady and regular discipline than had formerly been exercised, and formed and fashioned an invincible body of Finns, who had afterwards a very considerable share in the victories of the Swedes.

Peace was no sooner concluded with Russia, than Gustavus was crowned with great solemnity at Upsal. Soon after this, Gustavus ordered his general La Gardie to acquaint the Polish commander Codewowitz, that as the truce between the two kingdoms, which had been concluded for two years, was now expired, he desired to be certainly informed whether he was to expect peace or war from his master. In the mean time, having borrowed money of the Dutch for the redemption of a town from Denmark, he had an interview on the frontiers with Christian the king of that country. At this interview, the two monarchs confirmed the utmost esteem and friendship for each other; and Gustavus obtained a promise, that Christian would not affront Sigismund in any designs he might have against Sweden. War was in the mean time, receiving no satisfactory answer from Poland, Gustavus began to prepare for war. Sigismund entered into a negotiation, and made some pretended concessions, with a view to seize Gustavus by treachery; but the latter having intimation of his design, the whole negotiation was changed into reproaches and threats on the part of Gustavus.

Immediately after this, Gustavus made a tour in disguise through Germany, and married Eleonora the daughter of Eleonora the elector of Brandenburg. He then resolved to enter heartily into a war with Poland; and with this view set sail for Riga with a great fleet, which carried 20,000 men. The place was well fortified, and defended by a body of veterans enthusiastically attached to Sigismund. A dreadful bombardment ensued; the streets were raked by the cannon, and the houses laid in ashes by the bombs; the moat was filled up, one of the half-moons taken by storm, and the strong fortress of Dunamund was reduced. The cannon having now effected a breach in another part of the walls, Gustavus resolved to make a general assault. For this purpose a flying bridge over the moat was contrived by his majesty; for though the ditch was filled with fascines and rubbish, it still contained too much water to admit the passage of a large body of men. The soldiers, however, crowded on to the attack with so much impetuosity, that the bridge gave way, and the attempt proved unsuccessful. Next day the Swedes were repulsed in attempting to storm another half-moon; and the king was obliged to proceed more slowly. By the middle of September, at which time the town had been invested for six weeks, two bridges were thrown over the river together with a strong boom, while the Swedes had formed their mines under the ditch. The garrison being now reduced to extremity, were obliged to capitulate; Sweden capitulate; and Gustavus treated the inhabitants with great clemency.

After the reduction of Riga, the Swedish monarch entered Courland, where he reduced Mitau; but ceded it again on the conclusion of a truce for one year. Sigismund, however, no sooner had time to recover himself, than he began to form new enterprises against the Swedes in Prussia; but Gustavus setting sail with his whole fleet for Danzig, where the king of Poland then resided, so broke his measures, that he was obliged to prolong the truce for another year. Sigismund, however, was not yet apprised of the danger he was in, and refused to listen to any terms of accommodation; upon which Gustavus entering Livonia, defeated the Polish general, and took Derpt, Hockenhausen, and several other places of less importance; after which, entering Lithuania, he took the city of Birsen.

Notwithstanding this success, Gustavus proposed peace on the same equitable terms as before; but Sigismund was still infatuated with the hopes that, by means of the emperor of Germany, he should be able to conquer Sweden. Gustavus finding him inflexible, resolved to push his good fortune. His generals Horn and Thurn defeated the Poles in Semigallia. Gustavus himself with 150 ships set sail for Prussia, where he landed at Pillau. This place was immediately delivered up to him; as were also Braumberg, Fravenberg, Elbing, Marienberg, Mew, Dirichau, Stum, Christburg, &c. Sigismund, alarmed at the great successes of Gustavus, sent a body of forces to oppose him, and to prevent Danzig from falling into his hands. In this he was attended with as bad success as before. His troops were defeated before Marienberg, Mew, and Dirichau; and in May 1627, Gustavus arrived with fresh forces before Danzig, which he would probably have carried, had he not been wounded in the belly by a cannon-shot. The Poles in the mean time recovered Mew; and the States of Holland sent ambassadors to mediate a peace between the two crowns. Sigismund, however, depending upon the affiance of the emperor of Germany and king of Spain, determined to hearken to no terms, and resolved to make a winter-campaign; but Gustavus was so well entrenched, and all his forts were so strongly garrisoned, that the utmost efforts of the Poles were to no purpose (a). The city of Danzig in the mean time made such a desperate resistance as greatly irritated Gustavus. In a sea-engagement the Swedish fleet defeated that of the enemy; after which Gustavus, having blocked up the harbour with his fleet, pushed his advances on the land-side with incredible vigour. He made a surprising march over a morass 15 miles broad, assisted by bridges of a peculiar construction, over which he carried a species of light cannon invented by himself. By this unexpected manoeuvre he got the command of the city in such a manner, that the garrison were on the point of surrendering, when, by a sudden swell of the Vistula, the Swedish works were ruined, and the king was obliged to raise the siege. In other respects, however, the affairs of Gustavus went on with their usual good fortune. His general Wangel defeated the Poles before Brodnitz, of whom 3000 were killed, and 1000 taken prisoners, with five pieces of cannon and 2000 wagons loaded with provisions. At Stum the king gained another and more considerable victory in person. The emperor had sent 5000 foot and 2000 horse under Arnhelm, who joined the main army commanded by the Polish and German general Conicopolski, in order to attack the Swedish army massed encamped at Quiritz. The enemy were so much superior in number, that the friends of Gustavus represented to him the imminent danger of attacking them. But the king, being determined, the engagement began. The Swedish cavalry charged with such impetuosity, contrary to their sovereign's express order, that they were almost surrounded by the enemy; but Gustavus, coming up to their assistance, pushed the enemy's infantry with so much vigour, that they gave way, and retreated to a bridge they had thrown over the Werder. But here they were disappointed; for the Swedes had already taken possession of the bridge. On this a new action ensued more bloody than the former, in which the king was exposed to great danger, and thrice narrowly escaped being taken prisoner; but at last the Poles were totally defeated, with the loss of a great many men, 22 pair of colours, five standards, and several other military trophies. The slaughter of the German auxiliaries was so great, that Arnhelm scarce carried off one half of the troops he brought into the field. This defeat did not hinder the Polish general from attempting the siege of Stum; but here again he was attended by his usual bad fortune. The garrison fell out, and he was defeated with the loss of 4000 men. The blame of this misfortune was laid upon Arnhelm; who was recalled, and succeeded by Henry of Saxe-Lauenburg and Philip count Mansfeldt. The change of general officers, however, produced no good consequences to the Poles; a famine and plague raged in their camp, so that they were at last obliged to consent to a truce for six years, to expire in the month of June 1635. The conditions were, that Gustavus should restore to Sigismund the towns of Brodnitz, Stum, and Dirichau; that Marienberg should remain sequestrated in the hands of the elector of Brandenburg, to be restored again to Sweden in case a peace was not concluded at the end of the six years. Gustavus, on his side, kept the port and citadel of Memel, the harbour of Pillau, the town of Elbing, Brunberg, and all that he had conquered in Livonia.

Gustavus having thus brought the war with Poland to an honourable conclusion, began to think of reënting thereon conduct of the emperor in afflicting his enemies and oppressing the Protestant states. Before embarking in such an important undertaking, it was necessary that he should consult the diet. In this the propriety of engaging in a war with Germany was warmly debated; but, after much altercation, Gustavus in a very noble speech determined the matter, and felt forth in such strong terms the virtuous motives by which he was actuated, that the whole assembly wept, and every thing was granted which he could require.

It was not difficult for Gustavus to begin his expedition. His troops amounted to 60,000 men, hardened by a succession of severe campaigns in Russia, Finland, Livonia, and Prussia. His fleet exceeded 70 sail, carrying from 20 to 40 guns, and manned with 6000 mariners. Embarking his

(a) In this campaign the practice of duelling became so prevalent in the Swedish army, as to engage the king's attention, and to oblige him to suppress it by very rigorous edicts. Soon after these were passed, a quarrel arose between two general officers, who asked his majesty's permission to decide their difference by the laws of honour. The king consented, but wished to be a spectator of their courage. He went to the place appointed, attended by a body of guards; and having ordered the executioner to be called, "Now gentlemen, said he to the officers, fight until one dies;" adding to the executioner, "Do you immediately cut off the head of the other?" On this the quarrel was dropped, and no more challenges were heard in the camp. his troops, he landed at Ufedom on the 24th of June 1630, the Imperialists having evacuated all the fortresses they possessed there; and the island of Rugen had been before reduced by general Lely, in order to secure a retreat if fortune should prove unfavourable. Passing the strait, Gustavus stormed Wolgast and another strong fortress in the neighbourhood, leaving general Banner with a garrison for the defence of these conquests. He then proceeded to Stettin; which was no sooner invested than it consented to receive a Swedish garrison, and the king persuaded the duke of Pomerania to enter into an alliance with him. In consequence of this the Swedish troops were received into several towns of Pomerania; and the most bitter enmity took place between the Imperialists and Pomeranians, each refusing the other quarter.

These successes of Gustavus struck the empire with consternation; for being already overwhelmed with civil divisions, they were in no condition to resist so impetuous an enemy. At this time also the Imperialists were without a general, the command of the army being disputed by a number of candidates of very unequal merit; but at last count Tilly was fixed upon as the most proper person, and invested with the dignity of Veldt Marshal. In the meantime the king being reinforced by a considerable body of troops in Finland and Livonia under the conduct of Gustavus Horn, defeated the Imperialists before Griftenhagen; taking the place soon after by assault. By this and some other conquests he opened a passage into Livonia and Silesia; but in the mean time count Tilly cut off 2000 Swedes at New Brandenburg, owing to the obstinacy of their commander Kniphausen, who had orders to evacuate the place and join the main army. This advantage, however, was soon overbalanced by the conquest of Frankfort on the Oder, which Gustavus took by assault, making the whole garrison prisoners. Thus he commanded the rivers Elbe and Oder on both sides, and had a fair passage not only to the countries already mentioned, but also to Saxony and the hereditary dominions of the house of Austria. Soon after this, Gustavus laid siege to Landshut, which he took by assault; though the number of soldiers he had with him was so inconsiderable, that he had thoughts of sending to the main army for a reinforcement before the prisoners should march out, being apprehensive that they might give him battle in the open field, though they could not defend themselves behind walls.

About this time the Protestant princes held a diet at Leipzig; to which Gustavus sent deputies, and conducted his negotiations with such address, as tended greatly to promote his interests. Immediately after this he reduced Pommerania, Gripswald, and with it all Pomerania. Then marching to Gütrow, he restored the dukes of Mecklenburg to their dominions. Here the Imperialists had tyrannized in such a manner that Gustavus was received as the deliverer of the people; and the ceremony of the duke's inauguration was in a short time performed with great solemnity.

All this time count Tilly was employed in the siege of Magdeburg; but now, being alarmed at the repeated successes of the Swedes, he left Pappenheim with part of the army before that city, while he marched with the rest into Thuringia, to attack the landgrave of Hesse-Cassel and the elector of Saxony. After a most obstinate defence, Magdeburg fell into the hands of Pappenheim, where he committed all imaginable cruelties. Gustavus formed a plan of recovering the city; but was obliged to abandon it, by Pappenheim's throwing himself into the place with his whole army, and by the progress which Tilly was making in Thuringia. Relinquishing this enterprise, therefore, he ordered Banner to attack Havelsburg; which was done with such resolution, that the place was forced in a few hours, and all the garrison made prisoners. Werben was next obliged to submit after an obstinate conflict, in which many fell on both sides.—These successes obliged count Tilly to attempt in person to check the progress of the Swedish army. He detached the vanguard of his army, composed of the flower of the Imperial cavalry, within a few miles of the Swedish camp. An action ensued, in which Bernlén, the Imperial general was defeated and killed, with 1500 of his men. Gustavus, after this advantage, placed himself in the swamps, a situation to much superior to his enemies, that count Tilly was fired with indignation, and marched up to the Swedish lines to give him battle. Gustavus kept within his works, and Tilly attacked his camp, though almost impregnable fortified, keeping up a most terrible fire from a battery of 32 pieces of cannon; which, however, produced no other effect, than obliging the Swedish monarch to draw up his army behind the walls of Werben. Tilly had placed his chief hopes in being able to nail up the enemy's cannon, or by setting fire to their camp in divers quarters; after which he proposed making his grand attack. With this view he bribed some prisoners; but they betrayed him, and told his design to Gustavus. The king ordered fires to be lighted in different parts of his camp, and his soldiers to imitate the noise of a tumultuous disorderly rabble. This had the desired effect. The count led his army to the breach made by the cannon; where he was received with such a volley of grape shot as cut off the first line, and put the whole body in disorder, so that they could never be brought back to the charge. In this confusion the Imperial army was attacked by Banditen, and, after an obstinate conflict, obliged to quit the field.

Soon after this action the queen arrived at the camp with a reinforcement of 8000 men; at the same time a treaty was concluded with Charles I of England, by which that monarch allowed the marquis of Hamilton to raise 6000 men for the service of Gustavus. These auxiliaries were to be conducted directly to the main army by a body of 4000 Swedes; and were in everything to obey the king while he was personally present, but in his absence were to be subject to the orders of the marquis. With these troops the king had resolved to make a diversion in Bremen: but the marquis finding it impossible for him to effect a junction with the Swedish army, resolved, without disembarking his troops, to steer his course for the Oder, and land at Ufedom. Gustavus was very much displeased at finding his project thus disconcerted; however, making the best of the present circumstances, he commanded the British troops to act on the Oder instead of the Weser. The number of this little army was magnified exceedingly by report, insomuch that count Tilly had some thoughts of marching against them with his whole force; but on the departure of the marquis for Silesia, he reinforced the army in that country with a large detachment, which was thought to contribute not a little to the defeat he soon after received.

Ever since the late action Gustavus had kept within his intrenchments, where his army was well provided with every thing. Tilly made several attempts to surprise or draw him to an engagement; but finding all his endeavours fruitless, he marched into Saxony, and laid siege to Leipzig. This precipitate measure proved highly advantageous to the Swedish monarch; as thus the elector, who had been wavering in his resolutions, was now obliged to have recourse to the Swedes, in order to preserve himself from utter destruction. A treaty offensive and defensive was immediately concluded with Gustavus; and the elector willingly promised every thing that was required of him; and among the rest, that not only the prince his son, but he himself should should reside in the Swedish camp, and engage his life and fortune in the common cause. Tilly, in the mean time, carried fire and sword into the unhappy electorate. At the head of an army of 44,000 veterans, he summoned the city of Leipzig to surrender; denouncing the same vengeance against it as had been executed on Magdeburg, in case of a refusal. By this the governor was so much intimidated, that he instantly submitted; and also surrendered the castle of Paffenberg, which was in a condition to have stood out till the arrival of the Swedish army. The elector, enraged at the loss of these valuable places, ordered his army to join the Swedes with all expedition, and pressed the king so warmly to engage, that at last he yielded to his desire.

On the 7th of September 1631, Gustavus led out his army in the most beautiful order, the Swedes forming one column on the right, and the Saxons another on the left; each amounting to 15,000 men. Tilly drew up his men in one vast column, possibly with a view of surrounding the flanks of the king's army; but every officer of experience in his army, from the excellency of the Swedish disposition, prognosticated the event of the engagement. Gustavus led on the troops against that wing of the Imperialists commanded by Pappenheim, whom he drove back to such a distance, that he gained a point of the wind; by which the smoke fell upon their enemies and considerably embarrassed them, at the same time that the Swedes were got without the reach of a battery, which played furiously on their flank. General Banner in the mean time cut in pieces the troops of Holstein, and mortally wounded the duke who commanded them. Pappenheim led on his troops seven times to the charge, in hopes of regaining his former situation; but was as often repulsed by the Swedes. Tilly all this while engaged with the Saxons; but having at last driven them off the field, the whole strength of the Imperial army was turned upon the Swedish left wing commanded by General Horn. The Swedes sustained the attack with the greatest firmness, until the king detached general Teufel with the centre to assist them. The Imperialists then were no longer able to stand their ground; but gave way everywhere except in the centre, which was composed of 18 regiments of veterans accustomed to victory, and deemed invincible. They made incredible efforts to maintain the reputation they had acquired; and, though swept off in great numbers by the Swedish artillery, never shrunk or fell into confusion. Four regiments, after their officers had been killed, formed themselves, and retired to the skirt of a wood; where they were all to a man cut in pieces, without demanding quarter. Tilly retired at the head of 600 men, and escaped by the coming on of the night. Seven thousand Imperialists lay dead on the field of battle; 4000 were taken prisoners; a fine train of artillery was lost, with upwards of 100 standards, ensigns, and other military trophies.—On this occasion it was that the Scots regiment in the Swedish service first practised the method of firing in platoons; to which some attribute the astonishment and confusion that appeared in the Imperial army. It is thought, however, that the conduct of Swedish monarch displayed greater abilities in gaining this victory than improving it afterwards; for had he marched immediately to Vienna, before his enemies had time to recover their consternation, it is supposed that the emperor would have been obliged to abandon his capital, and leave his hereditary dominions to the mercy of the conqueror. But Gustavus apprehended that Tilly might fall upon the Saxons while he was ravaging the Austrian hereditary dominions; which would have deprived him not only of an ally, but of the free quarters which the elector had promised to his troops in case of a retreat. For this and some other reasons he determined to penetrate into Franconia, where he reduced several places, particularly the fortress of Work-

Tilly having collected his scattered troops, which formed an army still superior in number to that of Gustavus, marched to the relief of this place; but came too late. He then directed his march towards Rottenberg, where four regiments were cut in pieces by a Swedish detachment. After this the king reduced Hanau, Frankfort on the Main, and Mentz; destroying a body of Spaniards, whose enemy had thrown themselves in his way to obstruct his passage.

The court of Vienna was now thrown into the utmost confusion; and sent everywhere begging assistance, and soliciting the Catholic princes to arm in defence of their religion. The emperor was most embarrassed in finding out a general capable of opposing Gustavus in the field; for the late misfortunes of count Tilly had entirely sunk his reputation. Wallenstein, an old experienced officer, was made Wallenstein's choice; but as he had formerly been disgraced, it was thought he would not accept of the command of the army, which he had once been deprived. This objection, however, was got over; and Wallenstein not only accepted of the command, but, at his own expense, augmented the army to 40,000 men.

During the whole winter the Swedish army kept the field; and before the approach of summer had reduced Crantzach, Bobenhausen, Kirchberg, Magdeburg, Gozzlar, by the Northeim, Göttingen, and Duderstadt; while the land-Swedes, grave William made great progress in Westphalia. Gustavus Horn was repulsed before Bamberg; but soon had his revenge, by entirely destroying two regiments of Imperialists. To prevent the troops from being affected by the loss before Bamberg, the king resolved to give battle to Tilly, who was marching into Bavaria to prevent the Swedes from gaining a footing in that electorate. He pursued the Imperial general through a vast tract of country, defeated his rear-guard, and, having reduced a variety of towns and fortresses on the Danube, penetrated as far as Ulm. Advancing to the river Leck, count Tilly posted himself in a woody defile on the opposite side, to dispute his passage. Gustavus endeavoured to dislodge him by a regular fire from 70 pieces of cannon. The slaughter was dreadful; and Tilly himself, being wounded by a cannon-ball in the knee, died a few days before he was to have been superseded by Wallenstein. The following night the Imperial army evacuated the post; part retiring to Ingolstadt, and others to Newburg. Gustavus immediately crossed the river, and seized the towns of Rain and Newburg, which the enemy had abandoned. Augsburg next submitted; and from the inhabitants of this place Gustavus exacted an oath of fidelity, not only to himself but to the crown of Sweden. This measure gave the greatest offence to many of the Germanic body, and made them imagine that the king of Sweden had other views than the defense of the Protestant cause.

From Augsburg the Swedes advanced towards Ratibon; but were disappointed in their design of getting possession of that city, by reason of the Bavarians having thrown a very numerous garrison into the place.—In the mean time, ambassadors arrived from Denmark, offering the mediation of that crown for obtaining a lasting peace between the contending parties. Gustavus, however, replied, that no such peace could take place till the Catholic princes thought proper to grant the Protestants full and ample security for their enjoyment of future tranquillity. But the ambassadors had no instructions to propose any thing farther, and thus the negotiation vanished. Gustavus now, resolving to retort upon themselves the cruelties which the Bavarians had inflicted on the Protestants, laid the towns of Moritzburg, Friedingen, and Lauffen, in ashes. The inhabitants of Munich saved themselves by submission; but as the peasants in that neighbourhood had collected themselves into bodies in order to murder the stragglers from the Swedish army, Gustavus burnt their houses, and defeated the forces of the elector, who had been joined by a considerable body of militia.

While Gustavus was thus employed, Wallenstein had assembled a vast army. He was strongly solicited by the elector of Bavaria to come to his assistance; but, in revenge of the elector's having formerly obtained the command for count Tilly in preference to himself, he drew off towards Bohemia to encounter the Saxons. Arnhem, who commanded the Saxon forces in that place, was the enemy of Gustavus, who had formerly rallied him for his cowardice. He therefore permitted Wallenstein to gain an easy victory, in hopes that his master, the elector of Saxony, a prince entirely devoted to his pleasures, might be induced to relinquish the friendship of such a rattle-pan warlike ally as Gustavus; and indeed he used all the eloquence of which he was master to detach him from the Swedish cause. Several advantages, in the mean time, were gained by the Imperialists. Pappenheim defeated the archbishop of Bremen's cavalry at Werden; and three Swedish regiments were cut off near Kadingen. Pappenheim, however, was forced to retire, and withdraw his forces from Stade; of which the Swedes took possession. Wallenstein and the elector of Bavaria, who had now joined their forces, threatened Gustavus with greatly superior numbers. At last, however, the king, being reinforced with 15,000 men, no longer declined the engagement; but Wallenstein was too wise to trust the fate of the empire to a single engagement against such an enemy as the king of Sweden. Gustavus attacked his camp, but was repulsed with the loss of 2000 men; which caused a general murmuring and discontent against his rashness. Several other misfortunes happened to the Swedes; and at last, after various manoeuvres, Wallenstein bent his course towards Misnia, in order to oblige the elector of Saxony to declare against the Swedes, and to draw them out of Bavaria. Gustavus, notwithstanding the inconstancy of Augustus, immediately set out to assist him. With incredible diligence he marched to Misnia, where the Imperialists were assembling their whole strength. Hearing that the enemy were encamped at Wefenfelds, and that Pappenheim had been detached with a strong corps, Gustavus resolved to engage them before they could effect a junction. With this view he marched to Lutzen, where he attacked Wallenstein with incredible fury. The Swedish infantry broke the Imperialists in spite of their utmost efforts, and took all their artillery. The cavalry not being able to pass the river to expediteously as the king thought necessary, he led the way, attended only by the regiment of Smaland and the duke of Saxe-Lauenburg. Here, after charging impetuously, he was killed, as Puffendorf alleges, by the treachery of the duke; who, being corrupted by the emperor, shot him in the back during the heat of the action. The news of his death was in an instant spread over both armies. The courage of the Imperialists revived, and they now made themselves sure of victory. But the Swedes, eager to revenge the death of their beloved monarch, charged with such fury that nothing could resist them. The Imperialists were defeated a second time, just as Pappenheim, with his fresh corps, came up to their assistance. On this the battle was renewed, but the Swedes were still irresistible. Pappenheim was mortally wounded, and his army finally routed, with the loss of 9000 killed in the field and in the pursuit.

The victory of Lutzen proved more unfortunate to Sweden than the greatest defeat. The crown devolved upon Christina, an infant of five years old; the nation was involved in an expensive foreign war, without any person equal to the arduous task of commanding the armies, or regulating domestic affairs, as Gustavus had done. However, Christina the daughter of Gustavus was immediately proclaimed queen. The regency devolved on the grand bailiff, the marischal, the high-admiral, the chancellor, and the treasurer of the crown. Oxenstiern was invested with the chief management of affairs, and conducted himself with the greatest prudence. He was greatly embarrassed indeed by the divisions among the Protestant princes, which became more violent after the death of Gustavus; but, in spite of all difficulties, he went on pursuing the interest of his country, and planning the means of retaining the Swedish conquests. Matters went on pretty successfully till the year 1634, when, through the rashness of the Swedish soldiers, they were defeated at Nordlingen, with the loss of 6000 men killed on the spot, a number of prisoners, and 130 standards, with other military trophies, taken by the enemy. Oxenstiern's confidence was shaken by this dreadful blow; but he applied himself diligently to repair the loss, by recruiting the army, and rendering the allies faithful. The latter proved the most difficult task. The death of Gustavus, and the defeat at Nordlingen, had thrown them into despair; and every one was desirous of making the best terms he could with the emperor. The Saxons not only renounced their alliance with Sweden, but openly commenced a war against it; and though the regency would gladly have consented to an honourable peace, the enemy were now too much flushed with success to grant it. Oxenstiern had no other resource than an alliance with France, and the bravery of his generals. In 1635, he went in person to the court of Louis, and concluded a treaty; which, however, answered no purpose, as it was never observed. The enemy, in the meantime, pushed their good fortune. They impurified Philippsburg, where the French had laid up vast armaments; and reduced Spire, Augsburg, Treves, Wurtzburg, Cobourg, and some other places. To complete the misfortunes of Sweden, it was expected that the Poles would immediately invade Prussia. To prevent this, La Gardie was dispatched thither with a powerful army; but as it was impossible to resist so many enemies at once, the chancellor purchased the friendship of Poland for 26 years by ceding that duchy to the republic. Thus he got rid of a powerful enemy; and the Swedish affairs began to revive by a victory which general Bannier gained over the Saxons, in consequence of which they were driven beyond the Elbe.

Early in the spring of 1636, the Saxons made some motions as if they intended to cut off Bannier's communication with Pomerania. This he prevented by a stratagem; defeated a body of the enemy; and obliged the Saxons to retire. Soon after this he drove them out of their winter-quarters with considerable loss; at which time also a considerable body of Imperialists who came to their assistance were dispersed. In Westphalia general Kniphausen beat the Imperialists with the loss of 1500 men, but he himself was killed in the pursuit, and his army obliged to repulse the enemy. Some advantages were also gained in the neighbourhood of Minden by General Leffly, who had assembled a considerable army. In Alsace, Bernard duke of Saxe-Weymar defeated count Gallas the Imperial general, and duke of Weymar defeated his army. But when every thing seemed thus successful for the Swedes, the city of Magdeburg, contrary to the expectation of everybody, surrendered for want of powder, which the garrison had wantonly consumed. The Saxons also made some conquests on the Elbe, which obliged Bannier to recall general Leffly from Westphalia to march against them. The Saxons fixed on a most convenient situation, whence they hoped to destroy the Swedish army without coming to a battle. But Bannier, resolving to hazard every Sweden. every thing rather than suffer his army to be wasted by famine, advanced towards Perleberg, a place closely blocked up by the enemy. Here he drove from an advantageous post four regiments of Saxon cuirassiers, having killed or taken prisoners 400 men; after which he forced them to a general engagement. The numbers were very unequal, The Saxons entirely defeated by Bannier's army amounting to 9000 horse and 7000 foot, and the Saxons to 15,000 horse and 13 battalions of foot. The battle began with great fury; the right wing of the Swedes was almost oppressed by numbers before the left could come to their assistance. They were ten times driven back, and as often returned to the charge. At last they made such a desperate effort, that the enemy were entirely broken and defeated. Five thousand were killed on the spot, 3000 wounded, and as many taken prisoners, together with 150 colours and standards, and several pieces of cannon.

Thus ended the campaign of 1636, in a manner highly honourable to the Swedes. Some fruitless negotiations were set on foot during the winter; but these coming to nothing, Bannier quitted his winter-quarters very early in the season; and falling upon eight regiments of Saxons cantoned at Eulenburg, pursued them to Tongau, where he obliged them to surrender at discretion. Another party of Saxons was defeated in the neighbourhood of Leipzig; after which he proposed invading that city. But in this project he was disappointed by the Imperialists penetrating into Thuringia. He then called in all his detachments, with a view to prevent them from crossing a river named Sala; but in this also he was disappointed. However, he had the good fortune to defeat 2000 Imperialists near Pegau, and to destroy several detachments that attempted to obstruct his march. Yet, notwithstanding all these successes, Bannier found his situation every day more straitened, from the continual increase of the enemy's forces; which obliged him at last to retreat into Pomerania, out of which he soon drove count Gallas.

The affairs of the Swedes were now once more reduced to the brink of ruin, through the unguarded conduct of general Wrangel, who had also an army in Pomerania. After Bannier had driven count Gallas out of the province as above mentioned, Wrangel, imagining himself perfectly secure, cantoned his troops, and extended his quarters, the better to accommodate his army. But Gallas, being informed of this proceeding, suddenly returned, ravaged all Upper Pomerania, and reduced the towns of Ufedom, Demmin, and Wollin; after which, leaving garrisons in the fortresses, he returned to his winter-quarters in Saxony.

This unfortunate campaign counterbalanced all the advantages of the former. Wrangel was so struck with the suddenness of the blow, that he could take no measures for opposition. Some of the Swedish allies again fell off, and took up arms against them. In 1638, the Swedish affairs again began to revive in this quarter, through the excellent conduct of Bannier, who defeated count Gallas with the loss of 3000 men killed and taken prisoners. Pursuing his good fortune, he so harassed the count, that he obliged him in great haste to repass the Elbe, and take shelter in the hereditary dominions of Austria. Great as Bannier's exploits had been, however, they were eclipsed by those of duke Bernard. That general had to increase his army in the Protestant cantons of Switzerland, and in Franche Comté, that he found himself in a condition to act without the assistance of the French, who indeed were but treacherous allies. Advancing to the Rhine, he seized on Seckingen and Laffenburg, and laid siege to Rheinfelden. The Imperialists, in conjunction with the troops of Bavaria, advanced to the relief of the place. An engagement ensued, in which the victory was disputed: the enemy threw succours into the city, and the duke withdrew his army. Within a month he gave them battle a second time; and so completely defeated them, that only one Imperial officer above the rank of a captain escaped being killed or taken prisoner. He then renewed the siege of Rheinfelden; which he reduced, as well as several other important places. Advancing to Brissac, he blocked it up with a design of forcing the garrison to surrender by famine. General Gotz, with 12,000 men, attempted to throw in 1000 waggons of provisions; but he was defeated, with the loss of all his men except 2500. Duke Charles of Lorraine, with 4000 men, joined the remains of Gotz's army, in order to relieve the town; but being surprised by Bernard, his whole army was cut in pieces. A third attempt was made by Gotz, but it proved as unsuccessful as the former; and the place being reduced to great straits, was obliged to capitulate.

In January 1639, the two victorious generals Bernard and Bannier prepared to attack the enemy on their own ground. Bannier made an irruption into the territories of Anhalt and Halberstadt. Leaving his infantry behind, he pushed on with his cavalry, and surprized Salis, grand-master of the Imperial artillery. After a bloody conflict, the Swedes gained a complete victory, seven regiments of the enemy being cut in pieces. Next entering Saxony, he defeated four regiments of the enemy, obliging a much larger engagement body to take shelter under the cannon of Dresden. Hearing that the Saxons were encamped near Chemnitz, where they waited to be joined by the Imperialists, he resolved to attack them before this junction could be effected. The same good fortune still attended his arms, and the Saxons were almost all killed or taken. Bannier next entering into Bohemia, laid the country under contribution; after which, returning across the Elbe, he fell on general Hofskirk, who was encamped near Brandeiz with 10 regiments of horse and several battalions of foot. Him he defeated with the loss of 2000 men. The remains of the Imperial forces were pursued to the walls of Prague, and the generals Hofskirk and Montecuculi were taken prisoners. Yet, notwithstanding these constant successes, the enemies of Bannier multiplied daily. He had expected an infraction in his favour in Silea or Bohemia; but no such event took place. The Protestant princes, overawed by the enemy, did not send him the necessary assistance. Undismayed, however, by difficulties or danger, Bannier performed wonders. He defeated a body of Imperialists at Glatz; three times he drove the Saxons from their camp at Firm; and yet was forced to evacuate the place, because he could not spare a garrison. His army being delitute of the means of recruiting, was considerably diminished in number; yet with it he reduced a number of towns, and obtained a variety of other important advantages, when on a sudden all his hopes were blasted by the death of the duke of Saxe-Weymar; poisoned, Death of the duke of Saxe-Weymar, as was supposed, by the French, who were delirious of getting the town of Brissac into their hands, from which the Weymar, duke prevented them.

The difficulties to which Bannier was now reduced proved extreme. The French monarch took upon him to dis-Trustachery poise of the army and conquests of Bernard as he thought of the proper. Brissac, and other places of importance, he kept to French himself; after getting possession of which, the French devoured, as much as possible, to ruin the army. In the mean time, the Imperial army under Piccolomini, in the Netherlands, was prodigiously augmented; and the archduke Leopold-William, in quality of generalissimo, was assembling his whole strength to crush the Swedes at once. Bannier, however, did not despair. George duke of Lunenburg having conceived some disgust at the emperor, Bannier hoped Sweden, to gain him over; he therefore approached nearer to his country; by which also he drew towards the armies of Weymar and Hesse. In his way he cut in pieces a body of Imperialists defeated 3000 Croats. General Konigsmark routed the Imperialists at Gera; a second time at Scholen; and a third time entirely defeated them near Leipzig. Bannier was very pressing on the allies to join him; and at last, in 1640, he was joined by the Weymar army under the dukes of Longueville and Guibien, a body of Ruffians led by general Meander, and the troops of Lunenburg commanded by general Klitzing. The army now amounted to 22 battalions of infantry and 22,000 horse; so that they were much more than a match for their enemies, had they been under the sole direction of Bannier. But unanimity was wanting; every one would be supreme in the command; and Bannier, the best general of them all, had the least influence. Instead of those masterly and decisive strokes by which the Swedes had hitherto distinguished themselves, the armies continued looking at one another, each suffering the rigours of famine. At last Bannier, resolving to expose his troops no longer, set out for Thuringia, through Franconia, to seize an advantageous post on the Maine; but as he advanced to the Sala, he found the Imperialists entrenched on the other side. Finding it impossible to force a passage, he took the road through Hesse, where his troops suffered greatly by famine. Here he proposed to fight the enemy; but the Landgrave and duke of Lunenburg refused their consent. Upon this he threatened to leave them to the mercy of the confederates, and thus obliged them to be somewhat more pliant. None of those brilliant successes, however, now attended the operations of the Protestant allies: the campaigns of 1640 and 1641 were spent in useless marches and counter-marches; serving only to bring the army into the greatest dangers, from which they were as constantly relieved by the active and intrepid Bannier. At last this brave general, worn out with perpetual fatigues, died of a fever in the year 1641, leaving the Swedish army in a worse situation than ever.

The Imperialists were too well acquainted with the abilities of Bannier, not to take advantage of the opportunity offered by his death. A Swedish detachment was cut in pieces at Quillenberg. The Swedish army, accustomed only to be obedient to Bannier, became mutinous, and Piccolomini resolved to fall upon them with his whole force. But the four generals, Wrangel, Konigsmark, Wittenberg, and Pful, having convinced the soldiers of the necessity of defending themselves, made such excellent dispositions, that the Imperialists dared not attack them. Piccolomini then detached part of his army to attack the Hessians in their quarters; but Wrangel and Konigsmark threw themselves in their way, and defeated them with the loss of 2000 men. This victory, however, did not retrieve the Swedish affairs. Difficulties and mutiny began again to take place in the army to such a degree as threatened its dissolution. In 1642 general Torstenson was sent from Sweden, with a large sum of money and a strong reinforcement, to take upon him the supreme command. This general was inferior in abilities to none of his predecessors, and despaired without loss of time to come to an engagement; but the Weymar army separating from him, put an end to that design, and obliged him to remain for a considerable time inactive. He was also confined to his chamber for some time by a dangerous gout; and thus a report of his death being spread, the Imperialists were encouraged to begin a long march through roads scarce passable, in hopes of surprising the Swedish army without a general. Torstenson having intelligence of this, seized an advantageous post, which could not be forced; and thus obliged the enemy to retreat, after having suffered as much by their fatiguing march as if they had fought a bloody battle. Then joining general Stallhagen, who had been driven by the Imperialists out of Silesia, he reduced the town of Great Glogau, with a number of other important places; after which he laid siege to Schweidnitz. The duke of Saxe-Lauenburgh, at the head of all his cavalry, endeavoured to throw in succours; but was defeated with the loss of 3000 men. He himself was taken prisoner, and died of chagrin a few days after. In consequence of this defeat Schweidnitz surrendered at discretion; and Torstenson having sent a detachment to invest the city of Neisse, proceeded with the rest to drive the enemy entirely out of Silesia. This he effectually performed; obliging them to retire over barren mountains, almost famished for want of provisions, and harassed by his light troops; so that this lately formidable army was almost entirely ruined. With his victorious troops the Swedish general then poured into Moravia; where, in five days, he reduced the strong town of Olmutz (which not long ago sustained a siege of as many weeks by the late king of Prussia). Litta and Newtadt shared the same fate; after which, the Swedes, returning suddenly to Silesia, made themselves masters of Oppeln and Brieg, and laid siege to Brielfau. Here the garrison made such an obstinate defence, that the Imperialists had time to assemble under the conduct of the archduke Leopold, and came to their relief. As Torstenson was greatly inferior in number, he raised the siege; but appeared so formidable in his retreat, that the enemy durst neither attack him, nor attempt to prevent his encamping in a very advantageous situation. The Imperialists took this opportunity of laying siege to Glogau; but after having lost a great number of men, they were forced to abandon the enterprise on the junction of Wrangel with Torstenson; by which means the Swedes were once more in a condition to face their enemies in the field.

Torstenson now projected an irruption into Bohemia, and putting his army into winter quarters in that country; but in this he was prevented by the vigilance of the enemy: however, he reduced the city of Zittau, where, for the first time, a cartel for prisoners was established; by which means the Swedish army was considerably augmented. Thus disappointed in his designs on Bohemia, Torstenson directed his course to Leipzig, which he intended to invest. The Imperial generals assembled their whole force, and let out to relieve that important place. The two armies soon came into sight of each other; and a furious cannonading was the prelude to a general engagement. A single bullet had almost proved fatal to the Swedish cause. It carried away the furniture of Torstenson's horse, killed the count Palatine's horse, pierced general Rabenau through the body, took off the head of a celebrated counsellor named Grabbe, and carried away the leg of a private soldier. The Swedes, as soon as the armies came up, behaved with their wonted resolution, and after an obstinate conflict obtained a complete victory; 5000 of the enemy being killed on the spot, 3000 wounded, and as many taken prisoners. This victory was followed by the immediate surrender of Leipzig; and in all probability the Swedes would have finally triumphed over all their enemies, had not a rupture with Denmark ensued. Torstenson and Horn behaved with their usual valour War with Holstein and Schonen, while general Konigsmark distin- guished himself in Germany; but the ruin of the Weymar army, which was totally defeated with the loss of one half its number at Dettingen by the Bavarians, proved a dread- ful blow, from which the Swedes could scarce recover themselves. Indeed, notwithstanding the valour and success of Dettingen, the Swedes, their affairs in Germany must have gone to wreck in the campaigns of 1643 and 1644, had not the French... Sweden under Condé and Turenne made a most powerful diversion, and performed such exploits as immortalized the names of these two generals.

In 1645, the war against Denmark was pushed with such vigour, that a peace, very honourable and advantageous for Sweden, was concluded; and thus Torstenson was again at liberty to act against the Imperialists. He now took measures for carrying the war into the heart of the Austrian dominions. Hatfield assembled a considerable army to oppose the Swedes; and the emperor came in person to Prague to animate his troops. The two armies came in sight at Jancowitz, and both prepared for an engagement. The valour of the Swedes once more prevailed; and they totally defeated their enemies. Four thousand of the Imperialists were killed on the spot, among whom were general Hatfield and a great number of officers; and near 5000 were taken prisoners. No great advantages, however, were derived from this victory. Some towns indeed were reduced; but at last Torstenson was obliged to retire into Moravia, where he put his army into winter-quarters; and in the beginning of the year 1646 resigned the command to Wrangel.

The new general conducted the Swedish affairs with great ability and success; till at last the Imperialists, finding themselves finally unable to drive the Swedes out of Germany, concluded a peace with them in 1648. This was the memorable treaty of Westphalia, by which the Germanic constitution was settled upon its ancient principles, and those implacable disputes which had so long torn the empire were ended; the duchies of Bremen and Verden, all the Upper and part of Lower Pomerania, the city of Wismar and the isle of Rugen, were assigned to Sweden, and a gratification of five millions of crowns was given to the army.

Sweden now enjoyed some years of repose. Charles Gustavus, count Palatine, having gained the favour of Christina, was appointed generalissimo of the forces, and heir apparent to the crown. A marriage was proposed between them; but the queen would never listen to this or any other proposal of the kind. In 1650, the ceremony of the queen's coronation was performed; but in four years thereafter, she resigned the crown in favour of Gustavus. (See the article CHRISTINA.)

The new king found himself involved in considerable difficulties on his accession to the throne. The treasury was quite exhausted; great part of the revenue was appointed for the support of Christina's household; the people were oppressed with taxes; and the nation having been disarmed for several years, began to lose its reputation among foreigners. To remedy these evils, Charles proposed to resume all the crown-lands which had been alienated by grants to favourites during the late reign; to repeal a duty which had been laid upon salt; to put the kingdom in a posture of defence; and to enter upon a war with some neighbouring state. Under a pretence, therefore, that Casimir king of Poland had questioned his title to the throne, he began to make preparations for invading that kingdom. Several embassies were sent from Poland to Stockholm; but some point of ceremony always disappointed them of an audience of the king; so that they were obliged to return without their errand. As soon as matters were readied, General Wittemberg made an irruption into Poland from the side of Pomerania. The Poles opposed him with an army of 15,000 men; but instead of fighting, they began to negotiate, and in a short time entirely dispersed themselves. Charles himself soon followed with a powerful army, and pursued his march without obstruction, all the cities throwing open their gates to him as he approached, and offering to supply him with necessaries. As he advanced to Cracow, Casimir resolved to make one effort to save his capital. His army amounted only to 10,000 men; and there were unfortunately such as had never stood fire. After a feeble resistance, defeated, they fled with precipitation, having lost 1000 men killed and taken prisoners. A few days after this Charles defeated the Poles a second time, about eight leagues from Cracow; upon which Casimir fled with his family to Oppeln in Silesia. The capital was then invested; and though defended with the utmost valour by Stephen Czarniecki, was in a short time obliged to capitulate. Thus in less than three months Charles apparently became master of Poland; but it soon became evident that the Poles had no intention of abandoning their former sovereign.

In 1656 a war took place with the elector of Brandenburg. While Charles was employed in the conquest of Poland, that prince had invaded the Royal and Ducal Prussia, and reduced the most considerable towns with little opposition. The king of Sweden took umbrage at his proceedings; and having marched against him, defeated his forces in several flight encounters, and obliged him to own that he was a vassal of Sweden. These rapid conquests alarmed all Europe; and the different powers sought for means of driving the Swedes out of Poland, which they had so unexpectedly and unjustly seized. The Poles were no sooner assured that they should be assisted, than they everywhere revolted and massacred the Swedes. Casimir returned from Silesia; and those very troops and generals who had before submitted to Charles without opposition, now ranged themselves under the banners of his antagonist. Charles immediately marched from Prussia to chastise the influence of the gains a victory, but is obliged to retire.

Poles, and totally defeated a body of 12,000 men under the command of Czarniecki. This did not hinder all the Poles incorporated with his troops to desert; which considerably reduced his army; and the campaign being performed in the depth of winter, he was at last obliged to retreat to Prussia. In his march he was harassed by the Poles; and a body of 4000 Swedes was surprised and defeated by them at Warka. This loss, however, was soon after recompensed by a complete victory gained by Adolphus the king's brother and General Wrangel over Czarniecki. In the meantime the king was taking measures for laying siege to Danzig; but was prevented by the Dutch, who threatened to oppose him, unless a proper regard was paid to their interest. Charles accordingly granted them advantageous terms; and afterwards gained over the elector of Brandenburg, by ceding to him the sovereignty of Prussia, that he might be at liberty to turn his whole strength against Poland.

By the treaty just concluded with the elector, the latter was to assist Charles in his war with Poland; but the elector had to proclaim matters, that the Poles, having obtained assistance from the Tartars, had reduced the city of Warsaw. The two princes, however, now marched in concert against their enemies, who were encamped in a strong situation in the neighbourhood of the city above-mentioned; their camp being fronted by the Vistula. The Poles were driven from their entrenchments with prodigious slaughter, and a vast number taken prisoners. The Poles and Tartars then laboured to break the alliance; with which view they entered Ducal Prussia, and defeated the electoral army, taking king Radziwil and other persons of distinction prisoners. The Swedes soon had their revenge. General Steinbock attacked the same Polish army at Philippowa, and overthrew it with such slaughter as obliged the Poles for that season to quit the field. A more formidable enemy than the Poles now began to make their appearance. The Russians invaded the provinces of Carelia, Ingemaria, and Livonia; Sweden. Livonia; while the elector of Brandenburg began to waver in his fidelity. To preserve this only ally at such a critical juncture, Charles was obliged to give him more advantageous terms than those already mentioned; while the Ruffians were repulsed in the provinces of Carelia and Ingemania.

But in Livonia they had better success, two important fortresses falling into their hands; after which they laid siege to Riga. For seven months they battered the walls of this city, without once venturing to pass the ditch or storm the practicable breaches. The besieged, under the command of Magnus de la Gardie and Simon Helmfield, defended themselves with the greatest intrepidity; cutting off many thousands of the enemy in the sallies they made. At last they attacked the Ruffian camp, drove them out of it with great slaughter, and obliged them to raise the siege with precipitation.

Charles, notwithstanding the number of his enemies, was now become so formidable by the valour and discipline of his troops, that whole armies often fled on the very news of his approach. At last, in 1657, the Poles, finding they could not resist him in the field, contented themselves with harafting the Swedes on their march, and cutting off the foragers and convoys. This proved much more destructive to the Swedes than their former method; so that Charles was obliged to enter into an alliance with Ragotzki prince of Transylvania, by affording him certain provinces in his neighbourhood, in order to furnish himself with irregular troops, who might fight the Poles in their own way. This, however, proved of no real advantage; for the confederates, after spending a whole campaign in Lithuania, were obliged to return without accomplishing more than the reduction of a single fortress; upon which Charles returned with the Swedish army to Prussia.

Leopold, the young king of Hungary, having beheld for a long time the Swedes with a jealous eye, now resolved to declare for Poland. The more effectually to curb the ambition of the Swedish monarch, he solicited the king of Denmark to come to a rupture with him. This was instantly complied with, and the Danes invaded Bremen. Charles hastened to oppose this new enemy; which gave such offence to Ragotzki, that he neglected to take the proper measures for his own defence in the absence of the Swedes, and suffered his army to be destroyed by the Poles and Tartars. At the same time the Turks invaded Transylvania, under pretence that Ragotzki, being a vassal of the Grand Signior, had no right to invade Poland without his leave. Ragotzki opposed them in the field; where he was defeated and killed, leaving Charles destitute of the only ally on whom he could have depended.

The king, however, not dismayed by this misfortune, traversed Pomerania and the duchy of Mecklenburg; after which he fell upon Holstein, while general Wrangel with another corps entered the duchy of Bremen. The latter executed his measures with the utmost vigour and intrepidity. In 15 days he retook all the towns which the enemy had reduced; defeated and drove the Danish army out of the country, killing 3000 of their best soldiers. In Holstein the king reduced several fortresses, laid Itzehoe in ashes, defeated a body of Danes, and laid siege to Frederic-Udda, into which the Danes had thrown a strong garrison. The conduct of this siege he left to Wrangel, he himself retiring to Wismar in order to observe the situation of affairs in Poland; but no sooner was he gone than Wrangel attacked the place with such fury, that he became master of it in two hours. In the province of Halland the Swedes were defeated; but the enemy derived no advantage from their victory: at sea the fleets met, and maintained a hot engagement for two days, without any considerable advantage on either side. In Poland matters went on much worse. The Swedish house of Austria had now declared for Casimir; a German army entered Poland, and reduced Cracow, though not without great loss to themselves. Czarnocki entered Po-merania, where he butchered the unhappy peasants without mercy; but on the approach of Charles he fled as usual, gaining nothing by his expedition but the character of a cruel barbarian.

The king of Sweden was now surrounded by enemies. The elector of Brandenburg had declared against him; and he had besides to engage the armies of Austria, Poland, Russia, and Denmark, in the field. In this dangerous situation he resolved to attack Denmark, in such a manner as should oblige that power to come to a speedy accommodation. His designs were forwarded by a very early frost, which enabled him to transport his troops without the expense and trouble of shipping. Having passed over on the ice to the island of Funen, he cut in pieces a body of 4000 Danish soldiers and 500 peasants. The whole island was reduced in a few days; after which he passed to Langland, then to Laaland, after that to Falster, and lastly to Zealand. The Danes were terrified at this unexpected invasion, and were giving themselves up to despair, when Charles offered to conclude a peace upon equitable terms. The king of Denmark very gladly consented; but with a design to renew the war as soon as he thought it could be done with safety. By this treaty, called the treaty of Roskilde, concluded on the 12th of March 1658, the provinces of Scho-den, Halland, and Bleking, Lyfter, and Huwen, the isle of Borkholm, the bailiwicks of Bahus and Drontheim in Norway, were yielded to Sweden, and a free passage thro' the Sound was granted to the Swedish ships.

No sooner was Charles retired, than the king of Denmark began to act against him in an underhand manner; on which, resolving to anticipate him in his designs, he appeared unexpectedly with a fleet before Copenhagen. Had he given the assault immediately, before the inhabitants had time to recover from their surprize, it would probably have surrendered at once; but, by landing at the distance of 17 miles, he gave them time to prepare for their defence: the siege proved extremely tedious, and at last the place was relieved by a Dutch fleet. On this Charles converted the siege into a blockade, which continued till the end of the war. Wrangel reduced the strong fortres of Cronenburg; and the Swedish forces were so judiciously posted, that all Denmark was in a manner blocked up; when, in 1660, king Charles died of an epidemical fever; and thus an end was put, for that time, to all the ambitious designs of Sweden.

The new king Charles XI. was a minor at the time of Charles M. his father's death; and as the kingdom was involved in a dangerous war with so many enemies, the regency determined to conclude a peace, if it could be obtained on reasonable terms. A treaty was accordingly concluded at Oliva; by which Casimir renounced his pretensions to the crown of Poland, and that republic gave up all pretensions to Livonia. Bornholm and Drontheim were ceded to Denmark; and an equivalent in Schonen remained with Sweden. During the minority of the king, nothing remarkable occurs in the history of Sweden. In 1672 he entered into alliance with Louis XIV., which two years after involved him in a war with the elector of Brandenburg. At first the Swedes carried all before them; and general Wrangel having fallen sick, they continued their conquests under another named Mardenfeldt. Almost all the towns in Brandenburg were reduced, when the elector arrived with an army to the relief of his distressed subjects. He retook several towns, defeated Mardenfeldt in a general engagement, and soon after forced them to abandon all their conquests. In conjunction with the Danes, he then invaded the Swedish dominions; many places of importance were reduced; and, in 1676, Sweden received a most destructive blow by the defeat of her fleet in an engagement with the combined fleets of Denmark and Holland. Soon after this the king took the government into his own hands, and in some degree restored the fortune of Sweden; but though matters went on in a more prosperous way where the king commanded in person, the same losses and disgrace attended the Swedish arms in every other quarter. In Pomerania, count Konigsmark lost every place of importance excepting Stralund, Stein, and Gripwald. In 1678, the Swedish fleet was defeated in two engagements. At Landskrona a most obstinate battle was fought from ten in the morning till six at night; when both parties were obliged, by their fatigue, to retire to their respective camps. At Oldevald in Norway, the Swedes were defeated; and the Danes laid desolate the islands of Oeland, Smaland, Unno, and Kuno; while the electoral troops and Imperialists reduced count Konigsmark to the utmost distress in the neighbourhood of Stralund.

In this deplorable situation of affairs count Konigsmark found an opportunity of attacking his enemies to such advantage, that he obtained a complete victory; after which he ravaged the duchy of Mecklenburg. Yet notwithstanding this success, he could not prevent the elector from reducing Stralund; after which he was obliged to evacuate Pomerania; and, to complete his distress, the fleet which transported the Swedish army from Pomerania was wrecked on the coast of Bornholm; by which accident 2000 persons were drowned, and the remainder plundered and taken prisoners by the Danes, though they had been furnished with passports from king Frederic.

In this unprosperous situation of affairs a peace was concluded at St Germain's between France and her enemies, by which the Swedes and Danes were left to decide their quarrel by themselves. Denmark was by no means a match for Sweden, even in the distressed situation to which she was reduced; for which reason a treaty was instantly concluded, on terms much more favourable to Sweden than could have been expected; and the peace was confirmed by a marriage between Charles and Ulrica Eleonora, daughter to the king of Denmark. From this time the Swedish monarch applied himself to the reformation of the state; and by artfully managing the disputes between the nobility and peasants, he obtained a decree of the estates empowering him to alter the constitution as he pleased. Being thus invested with absolute power, he proceeded to take some very extraordinary measures. In 1685 it was projected to liquidate the public debts by raising the nominal value of money, without adding any thing to its intrinsic value. This was put in execution the following year, by which the creditors of the government lost upwards of nine millions of crowns. This, with some other arbitrary steps taken about the same time, disquieted all the nobility, merchants, and crown-creditors. In Livonia they were highly resented; and remonstrances were repeatedly sent by the hands of deputies, who had orders to insist upon their privileges confirmed by many acts of the king's predecessors. The deputies could obtain nothing, so that the diet was assembled. On their report the body of nobility resolved to draw up a stronger remonstrance than any of the former, to be presented to the king by captain Patkul one of the deputies, who had already distinguished himself by his boldness and attachment to liberty. His public spirit, however, produced no other effect than to procure his own destruction. An accusation was drawn up against all the remonstrants, but especially Patkul. He was sentenced to lose his right hand, then to be deprived of his life, honours, and estates; to have the latter confiscated to the crown, and his papers burnt by the hands of the common executioner. The accusation was declared unjust by the university at Leipzig; but notwithstanding this, Patkul was obliged to fly his country, to avoid the execution of his rigorous sentence; which, however, fell upon him with redoubled fury in the subsequent reign, of which an account is given under the article PATKUL.

On the 15th of April 1697, died Charles XI., leaving his crown to his son, the celebrated Charles XII., at that time a minor. On his accession he found himself under the tuition of his grandmother Eleonora, who had governed the kingdom during the minority of the late king. Though Charles was at that time only 15 years of age, he instantly showed a desire of taking the government into his own hands. His counsellors, count Piper and Axel Sparre, informed his desire to the queen-regent. They were by her own referred to the estates; and there all were unanimous: they signed her power with a good grace; and Charles was invested with absolute authority in three days after he had expressed his desire of reigning alone. He was scarce seated on the throne when a powerful combination was formed against him. King Augustus of Poland formed designs against him on Livonia; the king of Denmark revived the disputes he had with the duke of Holstein, as a prelude to a war with Sweden; and Peter the Great of Muscovy began to form designs upon Ingria, formerly a province of Russia. In 1699 the king of Denmark marched an army into Holstein. Charles sent a considerable body of troops to the duke's assistance; but before their arrival the Danes had ravaged Holstein, taken the castle of Gottorp, and laid close siege to Tonningen. Here the king of Denmark commanded in person; and was assisted by the troops of Saxony, Brandenburg, Wolfenbuttle, and Hesse-Cassel. England and Holland, as guarantees of the last treaty with Denmark, in concert with Sweden, joined Charles against this confederacy, and sent fleets to the Baltic. They proposed a termination of the war upon equitable terms; but these were haughtily refused by the Danish monarch, who despised the youth and inexperience of Charles, and relied too much upon the alliance he had formed with Saxony, Brandenburg, Poland, and Russia. The town of Tonningen, however, was relieved of all his efforts; and when he ordered the place to be repulsed, he had the mortification to see his troops driven headlong from the walls by a handful of Swedes under general Banner.

In the year 1700, Charles, having entrusted the affairs of the nation with a council chosen out of the senate, set out from Stockholm, and defeats the fleet of the allies. Having made a descent on the island of Zealand, he defeated a body of cavalry that opposed his march, and then proceeded to invest Copenhagen by sea and land. The king of Denmark then saw the necessity there was either of having his capital destroyed, or of doing justice to the duke of Holstein. He chose the latter; and Charles a treaty was concluded in eleven days, upon much the same terms as formerly. Charles, being thus at liberty to turn peace, his arms against the other princes who had conferred his destruction, resolved to lead his army against Augustus king of Poland; but on his way he received intelligence that the czar of Muscovy had laid siege to Narva with 100,000 men. On this he immediately embarked at Carlceroon, Marches although it was then the depth of winter, and the Baltic searce again the navigable; and soon landed at Pernaw in Livonia with part of his forces, the rest being ordered to Reval. His army did not exceed 20,000 men; but they were the best soldiers in Europe, while the Ruffians were only an undisciplined multitude. multitude. The czar, however, had thrown every possible obstruction in the way of his antagonist. Thirty thousand men were posted in a defile on the road, to oppose his passage; and this corps was flanked by a body of 20,000 others, posted some leagues nearer Narva. The czar himself had set out to hasten the march of a reinforcement of 40,000 men, with whom he intended to attack the Swedes in flank and rear. But the celerity and valour of the Swedes baffled every endeavour. With 4000 foot and an equal number of horse the king set out, leaving the rest of the army to follow him at their leisure. With these he attacked and defeated the Russian armies one after another, pushing his way to the czar's camp, which he gave immediate orders for attacking. This camp was fortified by lines of circumvallation and contravallation, by redoubts, by pieces of brass cannon placed in front; and was defended by an army of 80,000 men: yet so violent was the attack of the Swedes, that in three hours the entrenchments were carried; the king with 4000 men that composed the wing he commanded in person, pursued a flying army of 50,000 to the river Narva. The bridge broke down by the weight of the fugitives, and the river was instantly covered with their bodies. Great numbers returned in despair to their camp, where they defended themselves for a while; but at last the generals Galloway and Fredericowitz, who commanded them, surrendered. Thirty thousand were killed, led in the entrenchments and in the pursuit, or drowned in the river; 20,000 surrendered at discretion, and were dismissed unarmed; while the rest were totally dispersed. An hundred and fifty pieces of fine cannon, 28 mortars, 150 pair of colours, 20 standards, and all the baggage of the enemy, were taken. Among the prisoners were the duke de Croy, the prince of Georgia, and seven other generals.

Charles behaved with the greatest generosity to the conquerors. Being informed that the tradesmen of Narva had refused credit to the officers whom he detained prisoners, he sent 1000 ducats to the duke of Croy, and to every other officer a proportionable sum.

Peter was advancing with 40,000 men to surround the Swedes, when he received intelligence of the dreadful defeat at Narva. He was greatly chagrined; but, comforting himself with the hopes that the Swedes would in time teach the Russians to beat them, he returned to his own dominions, where he applied himself with the utmost diligence to the raising of another army. He evacuated all the provinces which he had invaded, and for a time abandoned all his great projects, thus leaving Charles at liberty to prosecute the war against Poland.

As Augustus had expected an attack, he endeavoured to draw the czar into a closer alliance with him. The two monarchs had an interview at Birken, where it was agreed that Augustus should lend the czar 50,000 German soldiers, to be paid by Muley; that the czar should send an equal number of his troops to be trained up to the art of war in Poland; and that he should pay the king three millions of rix-dollars in the space of two years. Of this treaty Charles had notice, and by means of his minister count Piper entirely frustrated the scheme.

In 1701, as early as the season permitted, Charles, having received a reinforcement from Sweden, took the field, and appeared suddenly on the banks of the Duna, along which the Saxon army was posted to receive him. The king of Poland at that time being sick, the army was commanded by Ferdinand duke of Courland, marischal Stenau, and general Paykel, all officers of valour and experience. They had fortified certain islands in the mouth of the river, and taken every other precaution against an attack; the soldiers were hardly, well disciplined, and nearly equal to the Swedes in number; yet Charles, having passed the river in boats with high sides, to screen the men from the fire of the enemy, attacked them with such fury, that they were entirely defeated, with the loss of 2500 killed on the spot, 1500 taken prisoners. All the Saxon baggage, pieces of cannon, five pair of colours, and six standards, fell into the hands of the Swedes.

This victory was followed by the surrender of all the towns and fortresses in the duchy of Courland. The king then passed into Lithuania, where every town opened its gates to him. At Birken, an army of 20,000 Russians retired with the utmost precipitation on the news of his approach. Here Charles, perceiving that the kingdom of Poland was greatly disaffected to Augustus, began to project schemes for the scheme of dethroning him by means of his own subjects. This scheme he executed with more policy than he ever showed on any other occasion. The manner of putting it in execution was concerted between Radziewicz, cardinal primate of Poland, and count Piper. Intrigues and cabals were held at the house of the treacherous ecclesiastic, while he was publishing circular letters to keep the people in their duty to the king. The diet being filled with Swedish partisans, became tumultuous, and broke up in confusion. The affairs of the kingdom then fell into the hands of the senate; but here the Swedish party was as strong as in the diet. It was agreed that they should send an embassy to Charles; that the polite should mount, and be ready against all events; but the chief regulations respected the king's authority, which it was determined at any rate to retrench.

Augustus, resolving rather to receive laws from the victorious Charles than from his own subjects, sent an embassy to him, committing the management of the whole to the count of Konigsmark, a native of Sweden, and a lady famous for her wit and beauty. But the king refused to see her; on which she returned, charmed and disappointed, to Warsaw. The ambassadors of the senate instantly obtained an audience; and were assured by Charles, that he took arms against the Saxons in defence of the liberties of the Poles, whom he should always regard as his best friends. Conferences were appointed to be held at Kinschin; but Charles soon altered his mind, and told the ambassadors he would hold them at Warsaw.

Augustus, in the mean time, finding his scheme of peace frustrated, had recourse to the senate; but met with such a rough answer from them, that he determined once more to apply to Charles. To him therefore he sent his chamberlain; but a passport being forgot, the ambassador was arrested. Charles continued his march to Warsaw, which surrendered on the first summons; but the citadel held out for some days. Augustus, finding at last that no dependence was to be had on the Poles, determined to trust his fortune wholly to the Saxon army and the nobility of the palatinate of Cracow, who offered to support him to the utmost of their power. The Saxon army was now advanced to the frontiers, and Augustus immediately put himself at the head of it. Being joined by the nobility of Cracow, he found his forces to amount to 30,000 men, all brave and well-disciplined. With these he marched in quest of his enemy; who did not decline the combat, though he had with him only 12,000 men. Though the Saxons were strongly posted, having their front covered by a moat, besides being fortified with palliades and chevaux de frise, they were attacked with irresistible impetuosity, and entirely defeated, with the loss of 4000 killed, 2000 made prisoners, and all their baggage and cannon. This victory was followed by the loss of Cracow; after which Charles set out in pursuit of the flying army, with a design of preventing them from assembling; but his horse falling under him, he had the misfortune... Sweden. fortune to break his thigh, by which he was confined six weeks; and thus Augustus obtained some respite. The interval he made the best use of. Having convoked a diet first at Marienburg, and then at Lublin, from them he obtained the following resolutions; that an army of 50,000 men should be raised by the republic for the service of the prince; that six weeks should be allowed the Swedes to determine whether they were for war or peace; and that the same time should be granted to the turbulent and discontented nobles of Poland to make their concessions. To counteract the effects of these resolutions, Charles assembled another diet at Warsaw; and while the two assemblies disputed concerning their rights and privileges, he recovered of his wound, received a strong reinforcement from Pomerania, and utterly defeated and dispersed the remains of the Saxon army.

The ill fortune of Augustus continued still to persecute him. In 1704 he was formally deposed by the diet, and the crown conferred by Charles on Stanislaus Leszczynski, palatine of Poitou. Augustus, however, did not yet tamely give up his kingdom. His adherents daily skirmished with the Swedes; and Augustus himself, being reinforced by 9000 Russians, retook Warsaw, and was very near surprising the new king, who lived in perfect security in the city where Charles fought in his cause. Count Horn, with 1500 Swedes, vigorously defended the citadel; but at last, finding it no longer tenable, he was obliged to surrender at discretion. The reduction of Warsaw was among the last advantages gained by Augustus in the course of this war. His troops were now composed of Saxon recruits and undisciplined Poles, who had no attachment to his person, and were ready on all occasions to forsake him. Charles and Stanislaus advanced with the victorious army; the Saxons fled before them, and the towns for several miles round sent their submissions. The Poles and Saxons were under the command of Schullemberg, a most sagacious and experienced general, who used every expedient to check the progress of the Swedes, by seizing on the advantageous points, sacrificing small parties to the safety of the whole, and to mislead the enemy, &c. However, with all his conduct and caution, he found himself outwitted, and Charles in the neighbourhood of his camp ready to fall upon him, while he thought him at 50 leagues distance. The Swedish monarch attacked him with a superior army, but entirely composed of horse. Schullemberg had posted his men in such a manner as rendered it impossible to surround them. His first rank being armed with pikes and fusées, presented a kind of rampart of bayonets; the second line flanking over the first who knelt, fired over their heads, while the third rank, who stood upon their feet, kept up an incessant fire, by which the Swedish horse were exceedingly galled and put into disorder. Charles lost the opportunity of cutting off the whole Saxon army, by omitting to order his men to dismount. This was almost the first time that infantry had been regularly opposed to cavalry, and the superiority of the former was evident. After the engagement had continued about three hours, the Saxons retreated in good order; which no enemy had ever done before in any engagement with Charles. The Swedes pursued their enemies towards the Oder, and forced them to retreat through thick woods, almost impervious even to infantry. The Swedish horse, however, pushed their way, and at last inclosed Schullemberg between a wood and the river, where Charles had no doubt of obliging him to surrender at discretion, or die sword in-hand, as having neither boats nor bridges; but the genius of Schullemberg supplied every defect. In the night he ordered planks and floats of trees to be fastened together; upon which he carried over his troops, while the Swedes were employed in dislodging 300 men, which he had placed in a windmill, for the purpose of defending his flank and keeping the enemy in play. Charles spoke of this retreat with admiration, and said he had been conquered by Schullemberg.

No material advantage, however, resulted from this to Augustus; who was again obliged to leave Poland, and forfeited every moment to see invested. In the mean time, however, the Russians having recovered their spirits, fell upon the Swedes in Livonia with the utmost fury. Narva, the Ruffort, and several other towns, were taken, and the inhabitants and garrisons treated with great barbarity. Soon after, an army of 100,000 Russians entered Poland. Sixty thousand Cossacks under Mazeppa entered the country and invaded Livonia, and ravaged everything with the fury of Poland's barbarians. Schullemberg, too, perhaps more formidable than either, advanced with 14,000 Saxons and 7000 Russians, disciplined in Germany, and reputed excellent soldiers. Could numbers have determined the event of war, the Swedes must certainly have been at this time overpowered. Instead of this, however, Charles seemed to triumph over his enemies with more ease the more numerous they were. The Russians were defeated so fast, that they were all dispersed before one party had notice of the misfortunes of another. The defeating an army of 40,000 men scarcely obstructed the march of the Swedes, while their astonished enemies looked upon these actions as the effects of witchcraft, and against imagined that the king of Sweden had dealings with infernal spirits. With these apprehensions they fled beyond the Borithenes, leaving the unhappy Augustus to his ill fate. Schullemberg, with all his skill and experience, succeeded no better. The Swedish general Renchild engaged and defeated him in half an hour, though the Swedes were vastly inferior in number, and their enemies posted in a most advantageous situation. Nothing could be more complete than this victory. Whole regiments of Saxons threw down their arms, and begged their lives in the most suppliant posture. Six thousand were slain in the field, and 7000 taken prisoners. Thirty-five pieces of cannon, 11,000 muskets, 40 pair of colours and standards, with all the Saxon baggage, fell into the hands of the Swedes; and the consequences were still more important; for now a passage was opened into Saxony, and Augustus seemed to be in as great danger of losing his hereditary dominions as he had been of losing Poland. This extraordinary victory, indeed, is said to have been owing to a panic which seized the troops of Schullemberg; however, it was looked upon with admiration, and thought to make the renown of Renchild equal to that of his sovereign. Charles himself was jealous, and could not help exclaiming, "Surely Renchild will not compare himself with me!" But the cruelty of this general fulfilled his reputation; for five hours after the engagement, he caused 1000 Russians to be massacred in cold blood, to revenge, as he said, the cruelties they had committed in Poland.

Soon after this victory, which was gained on the 12th of February 1706, Charles entered Saxony at the head of 24,000 men. The diet at Ratiboon declared him an enemy to the empire if he crossed the Oder. But to this declaration no regard was paid. Charles pursued his march; while Augustus was reduced to the condition of a vagrant in Poland, where he possessed not a single town besides Cracow. Into this city he threw himself with a few Saxon, Polish, and Russian regiments, and began to erect some fortifications for its defence; but the approach of the Swedish general Meyerfeldt, and the news of the invasion of Saxony, disconcerted all his measures, and threw him into despair. The Russians indeed were his faithful allies; but he dreaded... Sweden.

Augustus begs for peace on any terms.

Charles's answer.

Augustus, in conjunction with the Russians, defeats and takes prisoners a whole Swedish army.

Augustus all this time was obliged to continue a show of war, though he had neither ability nor inclination to carry it on. He was joined by prince Menzikoff with 30,000 Russians; which obliged him, contrary to his inclination, to come to an engagement with Meyerfeldt, who commanded 15,000 men, one half of whom were Swedes. As at this time no disparity of numbers whatever was reckoned an equivalent to the valour of the Swedes, Meyerfeldt did not decline the combat, though the army of the enemy was four times as numerous as his own. With his countrymen he defeated the enemy's first line, and was on the point of defeating the second, when Stanislaus, with the Poles and Lithuanians, gave way. Meyerfeldt then perceived that the battle was lost; but he fought desperately, on purpose to avoid the disgrace of a defeat. At last, however, he was opprested by numbers, and forced to surrender; suffering the Swedes, for the first time, to be conquered by their enemies. The whole army were taken prisoners excepting major-general Krafft; who having repeatedly rallied a body of hore formed into a brigade, at last broke through the enemy, and escaped to Polanina. — Augustus had scarce sung Te Deum for this victory, when his plenipotentiary returned from Saxony with the articles of the treaty above-mentioned. The king hesitated and scrupled, but at last signed them; after which he set out for Saxony, glad at any rate to be freed from such an enemy as the king of Sweden, and from such allies as the Russians.

The Czar Peter was no sooner informed of this extraordinary treaty, and the cruel execution of his plenipotentiary Patkul*, than he sent letters to every court in Christendom, complaining of this gross violation of the law of nations. He intreated the emperor, the queen of Britain, and the States-General, to revenge this insult on humanity. He stigmatized the compliance of Augustus with the opprobrious name of pusillanimity; exhorted them not to guarantee a treaty so unjust, but to despise the menaces of the Swedish bully. So well, however, was the prowess of the king of Sweden known, that none of the allies thought proper to irritate him, by refusing to guarantee any treaty he thought proper. At first, Peter thought of revenging Patkul's death by massacring the Swedish prisoners at Molcow; but from this he was soon deterred, by remembering that Charles had many more Russian prisoners than he had of Swedes. Giving over thoughts of revenging himself in this way, therefore, in the year 1707 he entered Poland, at the head of 60,000 men. Advancing to Leopold, he made himself master of that city, where he assembled a diet and solemnly deposed Stanislaus with the same ceremonies which had been used with regard to Augustus. The country was now reduced to the most miserable situation; one party, through fear, adhered to the Swedes; another was gained over, or forced by Peter to take part with him: a violent civil war took place between the two, and great numbers of people were butchered, while cities, towns, and villages, were laid in ashes by the frantic multitude. The appearance of a Swedish army under king Stanislaus and general Lewenhaupt put a stop to these disorders, Peter himself not caring to stand before such enemies. He retired, therefore, into Lithuania, giving as the cause of his retreat, that the country could not supply him with provisions and forage necessary for so great an army.

In the mean time Charles had taken up his residence in imperious Saxony, where he gave law to the court of Vienna, and in a behaviour manner intimidated all Europe. He declared himself the protector of the Protestant interest in Germany, particularly of the emperor's Protestant subjects in Silesia. He desired, or rather commanded, the emperor to renew and confirm to them all the liberties granted by the treaties of Westphalia, but since that time reclaimed or eluded at the treaty of Ryswick. The emperor durst not refuse; and upon him, wards of 100 churches were given to the Protestants. On this occasion the emperor is reported to have said, that "had Charles desired him to become a Lutheran, he did not know whether he could have refused." One would indeed have imagined that Charles had some thoughts of converting, or at least dethroning, the Pope himself; for being incensed at the constant opposition of the court of Rome, whose weaknesses and intrigues he despised, he one day told the emperor's minister, that "the Swedes had conquered Rome before now, and he might one day demand an inventory of the effects left there by queen Christina." At last, satiated with the glory of having dethroned one king, let up another, and struck all Europe with terror and admiration, Charles began to evacuate Saxony, in pursuit of his great plan, the dethroning Czar Peter, and conquering the vast empire of Russia. While the army was on full march in the neighborhood of Drefden, he took the extraordinary resolution of visiting king Augustus with no more than five kings attendants. Though he had no reason to imagine that Augustus either did, or could entertain any friendship for him, he was not uneasy at the consequences of thus putting himself entirely in his power. He got to the palace door of Augustus before it was known that he had entered the city. General Fleming, having seen him at a distance, had only time to run and inform his master. What might be done in the present case immediately occurred to the minister; but Charles entered the elector's chamber in his boots before the latter had time to recover from his surprise. He breakfasted with him in a friendly manner, and then expressed a desire of viewing the fortifications. While he was walking round them, a Livonian, who had formerly been condemned in Sweden, and served in the troops of Saxony, thought he could never have a more favourable opportunity of obtaining pardon. He therefore begged of king Augustus to intercede for him, being fully assured that his majesty could not refuse so flight a request to a prince in whose power he then was. Augustus accordingly made the request; but Charles refused it in such a manner, that he did not think proper to ask it a second time. Having passed some hours in this extraordinary visit, he returned to his army, after having embraced and taken leave of the king he had dethroned.

The armies of Sweden, in Saxony, Poland, and Finland, March now exceeded 70,000 men; a force more than sufficient to have conquered all the power of Muscovy, had they met them on equal terms. Peter, who had his army dispersed in small parties, instantly assembled it on receiving notice of the king of Sweden's march, was making all possible preparations. tions for a vigorous resistance, and was on the point of attacking Stanislaus, when the approach of Charles struck his whole army with terror. In the month of January 1728 he passed the Niemen, and entered the south gate of Grodno just as Peter was quitting the place by the north gate. Charles at this time had advanced to some distance before the army at the head of 650 l. r. The Czar having intelligence of his situation, sent back a detachment of 2000 men to attack him; but they were utterly defeated; and this disappointment was followed by the total evacuation of Lithuania. The king pursued his flying enemies in the midst of snow and ice, over mountains, rivers, marshes, and through almost every obstacle that could be surmounted by human power. He had foreseen all difficulties, and determined to surmount them all. As he knew that the country could not furnish provisions sufficient for the subsistence of his army, he had provided a great quantity of biscuit, on which his men chiefly subsisted till they came to the banks of the Beresthe, in view of Borodino. Here the Czar was posted, and Charles determined to bring him to a battle; after which he could penetrate with the greater ease into Russia. Peter, however, did not think proper to come to an action; but retreated towards the Borodinian, whither he was pursued by Charles as soon as he had refreshed his army. The Russians had destroyed the roads and defoliated the country; nevertheless the Swedish army advanced with great celerity, and in their way defeated 20,000 of the enemy, though entrenched to the teeth. This victory, considering the circumstances in which it was gained, was one of the most glorious the Swedes ever obtained. The memory of it is preserved by a medal struck in Sweden, with this inscription, *Sylvae, Poludae, Aggerus, Hyste, vihi.*

When the Russians had repelled the Borodinian, which separates Poland from Moscow, the Czar, finding himself closely pursued by an enemy with whom he was not able to cope, determined at last to propose peace. Proposals were accordingly made; but Charles returned no other answer than that he would treat at Moscow; which being reported to Peter, he coolly replied, "My brother Charles affects to play Alexander, but he will not find me a Darius." However, he did not think proper to venture an engagement, but continued his retreat; and Charles pursued so close, that he was daily skirmishing with the rear of the enemy.

In these actions the Swedes had generally the advantage, though in the main these victories proved detrimental, by weakening the army in a country where it was impossible to recruit. Near Smolensk, the king, with only five regiments, defeated a body of 10,000 horse and 6000 Calmucks. In this engagement he was exposed to the utmost danger, the enemy having separated him from his troops. With one regiment only, he fought with such fury as dispersed the enemy, and drove them before him, at the time they thought themselves sure of taking him prisoner. Two aides-de-camp that fought near him were killed; his horse was killed, as was also an equerry while he presented another. The enemy had broken through the regiment, and got quite up to the king; who is said to have on this occasion killed 12 men with his own hand without receiving a wound.

By the 3rd of October 1708 Charles was within 100 leagues of Moscow; but the Czar had made the roads impassable, either by laying them under water, digging deep ditches, or covering them with the wood of whole forests. He had also destroyed the villages on every side, and taken away every possibility of subsisting an army. The season was also far advanced; the intense fever weather was approaching; so that the Swedes were threatened with all the miseries of cold and famine, at the same time that they were exposed to the attacks of an enemy greatly superior in number, who, from their knowledge of the country, had almost constant opportunities of harassing and attacking them by surprise. For these reasons the king resolved to pass thro' the Ukraine, where Mazeppa, a Polish gentleman, was general and chief of the nation. Mazeppa having been affronted by the Czar, readily entered into a treaty with Charles, whom he promised to afford with 30,000 men, great quantities of provisions and ammunition, and with all his treasures, which were immense. The Swedish army advanced towards the river Dniester, where they had to encounter the greatest difficulties; a forest above 40 leagues in extent, filled with rocks, mountains, and marshes. To complete their misfortunes, they were led 30 leagues out of the right way; all the artillery was sunk in bogs and marshes; the provision of the soldiers, which consisted of biscuit, was exhausted; and the whole army spent and emaciated when they arrived at the Dniester. Here they expected to have met Mazeppa with his reinforcement; but instead of that, they perceived the opposite banks of the river covered with a hostile army, and the passage itself almost impracticable. Charles, however, was still undaunted; he let his soldiers by ropes down the steep banks; they crossed the river either by swimming or on rafts hastily put together; drove the Russians from their post, and continued their march. Mazeppa soon after appeared, having with him about 6000 broken remains of the army he had promised. The Russians had got intelligence of his designs, defeated and dispersed his adherents, laid his towns in ashes, and taken all the provisions collected for the Swedish army. However, he still hoped to be useful by his intelligence in an unknown country; and the Cossacks, out of revenge, crowded daily to the camp with provisions.

Greater misfortunes still awaited the Swedes. When Charles entered the Ukraine, he had sent orders to General Lewenhaupt to meet him with 15,000 men, 6000 of whom were Swedes, and a large convoy of provisions. General Lewenhaupt now bent his whole force, and marched against him with an army of 65,000 men. Lewenhaupt had received intelligence that the Russian army was confined only of 24,000; a force to which he thought Swedes superior, and therefore disdained to entrench himself. A furious contest ensued; in which the Russians were defeated with the loss of 15,000 men. The Swedes continued their march; but, by the treachery of their guide, were led into a marshy country, where the roads were made impassable by deep ditches and trees laid across. Here he was again attacked by the Czar with his whole army. Lewenhaupt had sent a detachment of two battalions to dispute the passage of the enemy over a morass; but finding they were likely to be overpowered, he marched at the head of the whole infantry to their relief. Another desperate battle ensued; when at last the Russians were put in disorder, and on the point of being totally defeated, when the Czar gave orders to the Cossacks and Calmucks to fire upon all the Russians who fled. "Even kill me (said he) if I should be so cowardly as to turn my back." On this the battle was renewed with great vigour; but notwithstanding these positive orders, and the example of the Czar himself, the Russians were a third time put in disorder, after losing 6000 men, when General Bauer arrived with a strong reinforcement of fresh Russian troops. The engagement was again renewed, and continued without intermission till night. The Swedes took possession of an advantageous post; but were next morning attacked by the Russians. Lewenhaupt had formed a kind of rampart of his wagons, but was obliged Swedish to set fire to them, in order to prevent their falling into the hands of the enemy, and at the same time to cover his retreat by the smoke. The Russians, however, came soon the Ruffians, enough. Sweden.

enough to save 5000 waggons of those provisions designed for the distressed Swedes. A strong detachment was sent to pursue Lewenhaupt; but so terrible did he appear, that the Russian general offered him an honourable capitulation. This was refused with disdain; and the battle renewed with the same vigour as before. The Swedes, though reduced to 4000, again defeated their enemies, and killed 3000 on the spot. After this, Lewenhaupt was suffered to pursue his march without molestation, but also without cannon or provisions. Prince Mensikoff, indeed, was detached to harass him; but such was the formidable appearance of the Swedes even in their distress, that he was afraid to attack them: so that at last the 4000 arrived safe in the camp of Charles, after having killed upwards of 30,000 of the enemy on their march.

This, we may say, was the last effort of Swedish valour. The difficulties they had now to undergo exceeded what human nature could bear; yet still they hoped, by constancy and courage, to overcome every obstacle. In the severest winter known for a long time even in Russia, they made long marches, clothed like savages in the skins of wild beasts; all the draught-horses perished; thousands of soldiers dropped dead with cold and hunger: so that by the month of February 1709, the whole army was reduced to 18,000 Swedes. Amidst numberless difficulties these penetrated at last to Pultowa, a town on the eastern frontier of the Ukraine, where the Czar had laid up magazines; and of these Charles resolved to get possession. Mazepa advised the king to invest the place, in consequence of his having correspondence with some of the inhabitants, by whose means he hoped it would be surrendered. However, he was deceived; the besieged made an obstinate defence, the Swedes were repulsed in every assault, and 8000 of them were defeated, and almost entirely cut off, in an engagement with a party of Russians. To complete his misfortunes, Charles received a shot from a carbine in his head, which shattered the bone. For six hours after he continued calmly on horseback, giving orders, till he fainted with the loss of blood; after which he was carried into his tent. It was imagined that amputation would be necessary, as the wound had already begun to mortify; but one Newman undertook to save the limb. It was told the king that deep incisions would be necessary. "Fall to work then (said he), cut boldly, and fear nothing." He held out his leg while the operation was performing; never changed countenance; and while the dressing was laid on, ordered an assault for the next morning.

For some days the Czar, with an army of 70,000 men, had lain at a small distance, harassing the Swedish camp, and cutting off the convoys of provision; but new intelligence was received, that he was advancing as if with a design of attacking the lines. In this situation, Charles, wounded, distracted, and almost surrounded by enemies, is said to have, for the first time, assembled a grand council of war; the result of which was, that it was expedient to march out and attack the Russians. Voltaire, however, totally denies that the king relaxed one jot of his wonted obstinacy and arbitrary temper; but that, on the 7th of July, he sent for general Renchild, and told him, without any emotion, to prepare for attacking the enemy next morning.

The 8th of July 1709 is remarkable for the battle which decided the fate of Sweden. Charles having left 8000 men in the camp to defend the works and repel the fallies of the besieged, began to march against his enemies by break of day with the rest of the army, consisting of 26,000 men, of whom 18,000 were Cossacks. The Russians were drawn up in two lines behind their intrenchments, the horse in front, and the foot, in the rear, with chains to suffer the horse to fall back in case of necessity. General Slippenbach was dispatched to attack the cavalry; which he did with such impetuosity, that they were broken in an instant. However, they rallied behind the infantry, and returned to the charge with such vigour, that they disordered the Swedes in their turn, and took Slippenbach prisoner. Charles was now carried in his litter to this scene of confusion. The troops were animated by his presence, and returned to the charge; the battle became doubtful, when general Creuk was dispatched by Charles to attack the enemy in flank. Creuk mistook his way, or, according to others, who had the best opportunities of information, was bribed by Russian gold, which occasioned the loss of the battle. Peter now dispatched prince Mensikoff with a strong detachment, to post himself between the Swedes and Pultowa, to cut off their communication with their camp, and to fall upon their rear. He executed his orders with great success; cut off a corps de reserve of 3000 men; and thus decided the fortune of the day. The king, however, had ranged his remaining troops in two lines; the foot in the centre, and the horse in the two wings. They had already been twice rallied, and were now attacked with fury on all sides. Charles, in his litter, with his sword drawn in one hand, and a pistol in the other, seemed to be everywhere present. New misfortunes, however, awaited him. A cannon ball killed both horses in the litter; and scarce were others put in their place, when a second broke the litter itself in pieces, and overturned the king. The soldiers now believing him killed, fell back in consternation. The first line was broke, and the second fled. Charles did everything in his power to restore order; but the Russians pressed so hard, that rallying was impossible, especially as powder lasted was also wanting. Renchild and several other general officers were taken prisoners; and the king himself must have fallen into the hands of the enemy, had not count Poniatowski drawn up 500 horse, surrounded the royal person, and with desperate fury broke through ten regiments of the enemy. With these the king arrived on the banks of the Borithenes. The Russians forced the Swedish camp, where they found six millions in specie; but could not hinder Lewenhaupt, with 4000 foot and all the remaining cavalry, the Swedish from retreating to the banks of the Borithenes. This army, however, availed them but little; for being pursued by prince Mensikoff, they were obliged, for want of boats or bridges, to surrender at discretion. Charles fled in a mean calash, attended by a little troop inviolably attached to his person, some on foot, and some on horseback. They were obliged to cross a sandy desert, where neither herb nor tree was to be seen, and where the burning heat and want of water were more intolerable than the extremities of cold they had formerly suffered. The whole had almost perished for want of water, when a spring was fortunately discovered; after which they reached Oczakow, a town in the Turkish dominions, the bashaw of which supplied the king with every necessary. It was some time, however, before boats could be got ready for transporting the whole of the king's attendants; by which accident 500 Swedes and Cossacks fell into the hands of the enemy. This loss affected him more than all his other misfortunes. He shed tears at seeing across the river Bog the greater part of his few remaining friends carried into captivity, without having it in his power to afflit them. The bashaw waited upon him to apologize for the delay, and was severely reprimanded by Charles, as if he had been his own subject.

The king remained but a few days at Oczakow, when the sarsaquier of Bender sent an aga to compliment him on his arrival in the Turkish dominions, and to invite him to that city. city. Here he was treated with the utmost hospitality; the Turks profited to its utmost extent their generous maxim of regarding as sacred the persons of unfortunate princes who had taken shelter in their dominions; and perhaps regarded him, notwithstanding his misfortunes, as an ally that might be useful to themselves against the Ruffians. Every one, indeed, regarded him in his distress. The French king offered him a late passage from the Levant to Marfils, from whence he might easily return to his own dominions. But Charles was too obstinate to receive advice. Puffed up with the notion of imitating Alexander the Great, he disdained to return except at the head of a numerous army; and he yet expected, by means of the Turks, to dethrone his adversary the Czar. Negotiations for this purpose, indeed, were carried on in the Turkish divan; and it was proposed to escort Charles with a numerous army to the frontiers of Poland; but the revolution which took place there quickly put an end to all such projects. Augustus thought himself no longer bound to observe the treaty which he had made, than Charles was at hand to force him to it.

After the battle of Pultowa, therefore, he entered Poland, and took every measure, in concert with the Czar, for the recovery of his kingdom. Stanislaus was not able to stand before such enemies, but was obliged to leave his dominions and fly to Bender, in the disguise of a Swedish officer, in order to share the fortune of Charles.—It was not in Poland alone that the Swedish affairs began to suffer in consequence of the defeat at Pultowa. The Danes quickly invaded the province of Schonen with an army of 13,000 foot and 250 horse. Only 15,000 Swedish forces remained to defend all the territories policed by Charles in Germany; and of these only a small part were allotted for the defence of Schonen. The regency of Sweden, however, exerted themselves to the utmost to repel this ungenerous invasion; and having collected an army of 12,000 militia and 8000 regulars, dispatched them under general Steenbock into Schonen. Some Saxon troops were incorporated in this army; and among them a prodigious detraction took place, which the general found it impossible to prevent; and thus the Danes gained several advantages, and at last took Christiania. Their influence on this success was so great, that the Swedes demanded to be instantly led against them. Here the good fortune of Sweden seemed once more to revive. The Danes were driven from a very strong situation, with the loss of 8000 killed and taken prisoners, besides a vast number wounded. The king received the intelligence of this victory with the greatest exultation; and could not help exclaiming, "My brave Swedes, should it please God that I once more join you, we shall conquer them all!"

In the mean time, Charles, by means of his agents the count Poniatowski and the Sieur Neugebar, used his utmost efforts to procure a rupture between the Porte and Russia. For a long time the money bestowed by Peter on the vizir and janissaries prevailed; but at last, in 1711, the grand signior, influenced by his mother, who was strongly in the interest of Charles, and had been wont to call him her lion, determined to avenge his quarrel with Peter. He therefore gave orders to the vizir to fall upon the Russians with an army of 200,000 men. The vizir promised obedience; but at the same time professed his ignorance in the art of war, and dislike to the present expedition. The khan of Crime Tartary, who had been gained over by the reputation and presents of the king of Sweden, had orders to take the field with 40,000 of his men, and had the liberty of assembling his army at Bender, that Charles might see that the war was undertaken upon his account. The Czar, on these news, left the siege of Riga, where he had continued for some months; and with 24,000 men entered Moldavia, where he was joined by Cantemir a vassal of the Porte. The vizir marched against him with a prodigious army, and, through the negligence of the Czar, cooped him up in such a manner that he could neither advance nor retreat. In this desperate situation, he perceived that he was now in as bad a state as Charles at Pultowa; and gave orders for breaking through the enemy with fixed bayonets. The despotic, but inspiring spirit of soldiers, however, were little disposed to execute these orders; when Catharine, wife to the czar, without his knowledge, set on foot a treaty with the vizir; and having obtained his consent, had the peace signed in six hours; by which means, in all probability, the whole Russian army was saved.

The new treaty was most violently opposed by count Poniatowski and the khan of Tartary. The former had made the king acquainted with the situation of both armies; on which he instantly set out from Bender, filled with the hopes of defeating the Russians, and taking ample vengeance. Having ridden 50 leagues post, he arrived at the camp just as the czar was drawing off his half-amused troops. He alighted at Poniatowski's tent; and being informed of particulars, instantly flew into a rage to the vizir, whom he loaded with reproaches, and accused of treachery. Recollecting himself, however, he proposed a method by which the fault might be remedied; but finding his proposal rejected, he pouted back to Bender, after having by the grossest insults showed his contempt of the vizir.

The violent behaviour of Charles did not promote his interest. The vizir perceived that his stay in Turkey might prove fatal to himself; and therefore determined to get him out of the country as soon as possible, either by fair means or foul. Successive vizirs adopted the same plan; and at last the grand signior himself wrote a letter to the king, in which he desired him to depart by next winter, promising to supply him with a sufficient guard, with money, and every thing else necessary for his journey. Charles gave an evasive answer, and determined to procrastinate his journey, as well to gratify his own stubborn temper, as because he discovered a correspondence between Augustus and the khan of Tartary, the object of which, he had reason to believe, was to betray him to the Saxons. When he was therefore again pressed to fix the day of his departure, he replied, that he could not think of going before his debts were paid. Being asked how much was necessary for this purpose, he replied, 1,000 purses (A). Twelve hundred purses were instantly sent to the fersafquier at Bender, with orders to deliver them to the king of Sweden, but not before he should have begun his journey. By fair promises, however, Charles persuaded him to part with the money; after which, instead of setting out, he squandered away his treasure in presents and gratifications, and then demanded 1000 purses more before he would set out. The fersafquier was astonished at this behaviour. He shed tears; and, turning to the king, told him, that his head would be the forfeit of having obliged him with the money. The grand signior, on being acquainted with this shameful behaviour of Charles, flew into a rage, and called an extraordinary divan, where he himself spoke, a thing very unusual for the Turkish monarchs. It was unanimously agreed that such a troublesome

(A) Each purse contained 30 sequins. The Turks refused to force him to depart.

Charles became the more obstinate, the more desperate his affairs seemed to be. With 40 menial servants only, and the generals Hord and Dardoff, he determined to defend himself to the last extremity. Seeing his soldiers lay down their arms, he told the generals, "We must now defend the house. Come, (adds he with a smile), let us fight pro aris et focis." The house had been already fortified by the Tartars, all but a hall which was near the door, and where his domestics had assembled themselves. Charles forced his way through the janizaries, attended by the generals Hord and Dardoff, joined his people, and then barricaded the door. The moment he entered, the enemy, who were in the house, threw down their booty, and endeavoured to escape at the windows. Charles pursued them from room to room with much bloodshed, and cleared the house in a few minutes. He then fired furiously from the windows, killed 200 of the Turks in a quarter of an hour, so that the bafhaw who commanded them was at length forced to set the house on fire. This was done by arrows with lighted matches shot into the roof; but Charles, instead of quitting it, gave orders for extinguishing the fire, in which he himself affixed with great diligence. All efforts, however, were vain: the roof fell in; and Charles, with his few faithful companions, was ready to be buried in the ruins. In this extremity one called out, that there was a necessity for surrendering. "What a strange fellow!" (cries the king), who would rather be a prisoner with the Turks than mix his affections with those of his sovereign." Another had the presence of mind to cry out, that the chancery was but 50 paces off, had a stone roof, and was proof against fire. Pleased with the thoughts of again coming to blows, the king exclaimed, "A true Swede! Let us take all the powder and ball we can carry." He then put himself at the head of his troops, and fell out with such fury that the Turks retreated 50 paces; but falling down in the hurry, they rushed upon him, and carried him by the legs and arms to the bafhaw's tent.

This extraordinary adventure, which favours not a little of insanity, happened on the 12th of February 1713. He was now kept prisoner, with all his retinue; and in this situation he was visited by the unfortunate Stanislaus. The latter, as we have already observed, came in the disguise of a Swedish officer, and had indeed served in the Swedish army in Pomerania, for which reason he was arrested in the Turkish dominions; but being known at Bender, notice was sent to the bafhaw who was conducting the king of Sweden to Adrianople. The bafhaw communicated the news to Baron Fabricius, a favourite of Charles, who immediately imparted it to the king. "Dear Fabricius, (says this inflexible monarch), run and tell him never to make peace with Augustus; we shall soon have a change in our affairs."

Such were the considerations that still occurred to the mind of Charles; however, at last he seemed inclined to submit to his fate, and began seriously to think of returning to his kingdom, now reduced to the most deplorable situation. His habitation was now fixed at Demotica, a small town about six leagues from Adrianople. Here he was allowed provisions for his own table and those of his retinue, receiving but only 25 crowns a day in money, instead of 500 which he had received at Bender. During his residence here, he received a deputation from Hofe-Caffel, soliciting his consent to the marriage of the landgrave with Eleonora princess royal of Sweden; to which he readily agreed; a deputation was also sent him by the regency of Sweden, requesting that he would prepare for returning to his own dominions, which were ready to sink under a ruinous war in his absence. What determined him, however, more than anything to hasten his return, was the following accident. The new grand vizir Ibrahim Molla, having for private reasons determined to come to a rupture with the czar, invited Charles to a conference, in the style and with the familiarity of an equal. Charles was so much charmed at this indignity, that he sent his chancellor Mullern to meet the vizir, but with a pretence that he was sick. To avoid giving offence to this minister, Charles was obliged to keep his bed during his residence at Demotica, which was for 10 months after.

At last, this vizir being strangled, and the Swedish interests at the Porte thereby entirely ruined, he determined to quit Turkey at all events. His departure was to be negotiated by his favourite Grothufen, whom he veiled with the character of ambassador extraordinary; sending him to Adrianople with a train of 14 persons richly dressed. To equip this retinue the king was reduced to the most mortifying shifts, and to the necessity of borrowing money from others at 50 per cent. The great object was, to obtain from the vizir money and a passport. Grothufen was received with all the respect due to his rank; but the vizir started difficulties. With regard to the passport, he said, it could be of no use until the consent of the court of Vienna was first obtained; and as to money, he said, "his matter knew how to give when he thought proper, but it was beneath his dignity to lend; that the king should have every necessary provided for his journey, and possibly the Porte might make some pecuniary present, but he would not have it expected."

The imperial minister, however, removed every difficulty with regard to the passport, by granting it in the most full and ample manner, in the name of the emperor, the princes and states of Germany. He sent also a present to the king, consisting of a tent of scarlet richly embroidered with gold; a sabre, the handle of which was studded with jewels; and eight fine horses richly caparisoned. Money, the article most wanted, was entirely forgotten; however, the day was fixed for Charles's departure, and the vizir appointed 60 carriages loaded with all kinds of provisions, and several companies of janizaries and other troops to attend him to the frontiers of Transylvania.

On the 14th of October 1714, Charles quitted his bed at Demotica, and set out for Sweden. All the princes through whose territories he was to pass, had given orders for his entertainment in the most magnificent manner; but the king, perceiving that these compliments only rendered his imprisonment and other misfortunes more conspicuous, suddenly dismissed his Turkish attendants, and assembling his own people, bid them take no care about him, but make his exit the best of their way to Stralsund. After this he set out with post, in the habit of a German officer, attended only by Colonel Düring. Keeping the by-roads through Hungary, Moravia, Austria, Bavaria, Württemberg, the Palatinate, Westphalia, and Mecklenburg, he arrived on the 21st of November at midnight before the gates of Stralsund. Being unknown, he was admitted with difficulty; but being soon recognized by Sweden was now in the greatest distress. We have already mentioned, that on the news of the defeat at Pultowa, the Danes had invaded Schonen, but were defeated by General Steenbock. This victory, however, did not put an end to the war. On the contrary, the kings of Denmark and Poland, with the czar of Muscovy, entered into stricter bonds of alliance than ever. They dreaded the return of Charles to his own dominions, and apprehended that numberless victories would soon efface the remembrance of Pultowa. They determined, therefore, to make the best use of their time; and perhaps Charles never took a more imprudent resolution than obstinately to remain so long in the Turkish dominions. The kings of Denmark and Poland invaded Pomerania; but after laying siege in vain to Stralsund, Wismar, and other places, they were obliged to retire with disgrace into winter quarters. In 1712, the king of Denmark invaded and reduced Bremen and Verden; but the same year met with a terrible defeat from Steenbock, with the loss of a vast number killed and wounded, and almost all their artillery taken. The following year, however, this general being pursued, and surrounded by the united forces of the Russians, Danes, and Saxons, was obliged to throw himself into the neutral town of Tommingen; where he was besieged, and obliged to surrender at discretion, with his whole army. The consequence of this disaster was an invasion of Finland by the czar; which province he totally reduced, after defeating the Swedes in several engagements. Indeed, the Swedish forces were now so much reduced, that they were unable to cope with almost any enemy. The return of Charles, however, seemed to give new life to the whole nation. Though the number of inhabitants was visibly diminished, the levies he had ordered were completed in a few weeks; but the hands left to cultivate the earth consisted of the infirm, aged, and decrepid; so that a famine was threatened in consequence of the military rage which had seized all the youth of the kingdom.

The presence of Charles did not now produce those consequences which the allies had feared. The kingdom was too much reduced to be able to furnish the necessary supplies of men and money; and though the king's courage and military skill were not in the least diminished, the efforts he made, instead of restoring Sweden to its splendour, served entirely to ruin it. In 1715, Prussia declared against him, on account of his demanding back the town of Stein, which that monarch had seized. To complete his embarrassment, the elector of Hanover, George I., of Britain, also became his enemy. The forces of Denmark, Prussia, Saxony, and Hanover, joined to invest Wismar, while a body of 36,000 men formed the siege of Stralsund; at the same time that the czar, with a fleet of 20 large ships of war, and 150 transports, carrying 30,000 men, threw every part of the Swedish coast into the greatest consternation. The heroism of Charles could not prevail against so many enemies; yet he was still so dreadful, that the prince of Anhalt, with 12,000 brave troops, did not think himself a match for this furious enemy when at the head of only 2000, till he had entrenched his army behind a ditch, defended by chevaux de frise. It appeared, indeed, that his precaution was not unnecessary; for in the night Charles with his men clambered up the ditch, and attacked the enemy in his usual manner. Numbers, however, at last prevailed; and Charles was obliged to retire, after having seen his favourite Grothusen, General Dardorff and During, the companions of his exile, killed by his side, he himself being wounded in the breast.

This rash attempt was made in order to save Rugen, Stralsund from whence the town of Stralsund was supplied with provisions. The place was well fortified, and garrisoned with 9000 men, with Charles himself at their head; but nothing could resist the efforts of the enemy. The houses were laid in ashes by the bombs; the walls miserably shattered, and large breaches made in them by the cannon; so that by the 17th of December it was proposed to give the assault. The attack on the horn-work was desperate: the enemy was twice repulsed; but at last, by dint of numbers, effected a lodgment. The next day Charles headed a rally, in which he dealt terrible destruction among the besiegers, but was at length overpowered and obliged to retreat into the town. At last his officers, apprehending that he must either fall into the hands of the enemy, or be buried in the ruins of the place, intreated him to retire. A retreat, however, was now almost as dangerous as to remain in the town, in spite of the fleets of the enemy with which the sea was covered; and it is thought that this very circumstance induced the king to consent to it. Setting out, therefore, in a small boat with sails and oars, he passed all the enemy's ships and batteries, and arrived safe at Ytledt in Schonen.

To revenge himself for these losses, Charles invaded Norway with an army of 25,000 men. The Danes were everywhere defeated and pursued with that vigour for which the king of Sweden was so remarkable; but strong reinforcements arriving from Denmark, and provisions failing, he was at last obliged to retire, and evacuate the country. Soon after this the Swedes lost Wismar; but when everything seemed to go to wreck, Baron Goertz the chief minister and favourite of Charles found means to set on foot a treaty with the czar of Muscovy, by which the most formidable of all Charles's enemies was taken off. The minister found means to work upon the inflexible and stubborn temper of Charles, by representing to him that the cession of certain provinces to Peter would induce him to assist him in his projected projects of again dethroning Augustus, and of replacing James on the throne of Britain; which last scheme he had projected out of revenge for the elector of Hanover having feigned on the duchies of Bremen and Verden. In consequence of the conferences between the czar and Goertz, the former engaged to send into Poland an army of 80,000 men, in order to dethrone that prince whom he had so long defended. He engaged also to furnish ships for transporting 30,000 Swedes to Germany and 10,000 into Denmark. This treaty, however, was not fully ratified; and the king's death, which happened in 1718, put a final stop to all the great projects of Sweden.

The king had resolved on the conquest of Norway before he dethroned Augustus; and as no difficulties ever delayed Norway again, he marched his army into that cold and barren country in the month of October, when the ground was covered with frost and snow. With 18,000 men he formed the siege of Frederickshald, though the severity of the frost rendered it almost impossible to break ground. Charles, however, resolved to form trenches; and his soldiers cheerfully obeyed, digging into the ground with the same labour as if they had been piercing a rock. On the 11th of December the king visited the trenches in the midst of a terrible fire from the enemy, imagining that his men might be animated by His extreme rashness. He took his post in the most dangerous situation he could choose, standing upon a gabion and leaning his arm over the parapet, while the enemy were firing which he chain-shot at the very spot where he stood. He was killed. treated to change his station; but he remained steadfast as if he had been proof against cannon-bullets. At last he was seen to fall on the parapet with a deep groan. A small cannon-ball had struck him on the temple, beat in the left eye, and forced the right eye quite out of its socket; his right hand in the mean time grasped the hilt of his sword, as if he had meant to revenge the blow (c).

Charles XII. was succeeded by his sister the princess Ulrica Eleonora, wife to the hereditary prince of Hesse. On this occasion the states took care to make a previous stipulation for the recovery of their liberties, and obliged the princesses to sign a paper to this purpose before entering on the government. Their first care was to make a peace with Great Britain, which the late king intended to have invaded. The Swedes then, to prevent their farther losses by the progress of the Russian, the Danish, the Saxon, and other arms, made many great sacrifices to obtain peace from those powers. The French, however, about the year 1738, formed a dangerous party in the kingdom, under the name of the Hottis; which not only broke the internal quiet of the kingdom, but led it into a ruinous war with Russia, by which the province of Finland was lost. Their Swedish majesties having no children, it was necessary to settle the succession; especially as the duke of Holstein was descended from the queen's eldest sister, and was, at the same time, the presumptive heir to the empire of Russia. Four competitors appeared; the duke of Holstein Gottorp, prince Frederic of Hesse-Cassel nephew to the king, the prince of Denmark, and the duke of Deux-Ponts. The duke of Holstein would have carried the election, had he not embraced the Greek religion, that he might mount the throne of Russia. The czarina interposed, and offered to restore all the conquests she had made from Sweden, excepting a small district in Finland, if the Swedes would receive the duke of Holstein's uncle, Adolphus Frederic bishop of Lubeck, as their hereditary prince and successor to their crown. This was agreed to; and a peace was concluded at Abo, under the mediation of his Britannic majesty. This peace was so firmly adhered to by the czarina, that his Danish majesty thought proper to drop all resentment for the indignity done his son. The prince-successor married the princess Ulrica, third sister to the king of Prussia; and in 1751 entered into the possession of his new dignity, which proved to him a crown of thorns. Through a strange medley of affairs and views of interest, the French had acquired vast influence in all the deliberations of the Swedish senate, who of late have been little better than pensioners to that crown. The intrigues of the senators forced Adolphus to take part in the late war against Prussia; but as that war was disagreeable not only to the people, but also to the king of Sweden, the nation never made so mean an appearance; and upon Russia's making peace with the king of Prussia, the Swedes likewise made their peace, upon the terms of trading things as they stood at the beginning of the war.

Adolphus died dissipated in 1771, after a turbulent reign of twenty years; and was succeeded by his son Gustavus. The most remarkable transaction of this reign is the revolution which took place in the government in the year 1772, by which the king, from being the most limited became one of the most despotic monarchs in Europe. Ever since the death of Charles XII. the whole power of the kingdom had been lodged in the states; and this power they had on all occasions most grievously abused. Gustavus was therefore determined either to seize on that power or in which they made such a bad use, or perish in the attempt. The revolution was effected in the following manner. On the morning of the 19th of August 1772, a considerable number of officers, as well as other persons known to be attached to the royal cause, had been summoned to attend his majesty. Before ten he was on horseback, and fitted the regiment of artillery. As he passed through the streets he was more than usually courteous to all he met, bowing familiarly to the lowest of the people. On the king's return to his palace, the detachment which was to mount guard that day being drawn up together with that which was to be relieved, his majesty retired with the officers into the guard-room. He then addressed them with all that eloquence of which he is said to have been a perfect master; and after intimating to them that his life was in danger, he exposed to them in the strongest colours the wretched state of the kingdom, the shackles in which it was held by means of foreign gold, and the sufferings and troubles arising from the same cause which had distracted the diet during the course of fourteen months. He assured them that his only design was to put an end to these disorders; to banish corruption, restore true liberty, and revive the ancient lustre of the Swedish name, which had been long tarnished by a venality as notorious as it was disgraceful. Then assuring them in the strongest terms that he disclaimed for ever all absolute power, or what the Swedes call sovereignty, he concluded with these words: "I am obliged to defend my own liberty and that of the kingdom, against the aristocracy which reigns. Will you be faithful to me, as your forefathers were to Gustavus Vasa and Gustavus Adolphus? I will then risk my life for your welfare and that of my country."

The officers, most of them young men, of whose attachment the king had been long secure, who did not thoroughly perhaps see into the nature of the request his majesty made them, and were allowed no time to reflect upon it, immediately conformed to every thing, and took an oath of fidelity to him.

Three only refused. One of these, Frederic Cederstrom, captain of a company of the guards, alleged he had already sworn and very lately taken an oath to be faithful to the states, and consequently could not take that which his majesty then exacted.

(c) Such is the account given by Voltaire of the untimely death of this northern hero. Many persons, however, who had the best opportunities of procuring authentic information at the time, have declared that they believed he was assassinated by a Frenchman who was among his attendants. The famous earl of Peterborough, who, in his rapid marches and fearless intrepidity, bore no small resemblance to Charles XII., assured Bishop Berkeley, that he had no doubt of the Swedish monarch's having been assassinated; and Mr Wraxall, in the account of his Travels through Sweden, gives such arguments for the truth of that opinion as leave very little doubt in our minds. It must be confessed, however, that Mr Coxe reasons plausibly in support of the other opinion; and perhaps at this distance of time nothing can be said with certainty on this question, but what has been said by Johnson:

His fall was destined to a barren strand, A petty fortress, and a dubious land. He left the name, at which the world grew pale, To paint a moral, or adorn a tale.

Vanity of Human Wishes. Sweden, excepted of him. The king, looking at him sternly, answered, "Think of what you are doing?" "I do," replied Cederstrom; and what I think today, I shall think tomorrow: and were I capable of breaking the oath by which I am already bound to the states, I should be likewise capable of breaking that your majesty now requests me to take."

The king then ordered Cederstrom to deliver up his sword, and put him in arrest.

His majesty, however, apprehensive of the impression which the proper and resolute conduct of Cederstrom might make upon the minds of the other officers, shortly afterwards softened his tone of voice; and again addressing himself to Cederstrom, told him, that as a proof of the opinion he entertained of him, and the confidence he placed in him, he would return him his sword without insisting upon his taking the oath, and would only defer his attendance that day. Cederstrom continued firm; he answered, that his majesty could place no confidence in him that day, and that he begged to be excused from the service.

While the king was shut up with the officers, Senator Ralling, to whom the command of the troops in the town had been given two days before, came to the door of the guard-room, and was told that he could not be admitted. The senator insisted upon being present at the distribution of the orders, and sent to the king to desire it; but was answered, he must go to the senate, where his majesty would speak to him.

The officers then received their orders from the king; the first of which was, that the two regiments of guards and of artillery should be immediately assembled, and that a detachment of 36 grenadiers should be posted at the door of the council-chamber to prevent any of the senators from coming out.

But before the orders could be carried into execution, it was necessary that the king should address himself to the soldiers; men wholly unacquainted with his designs, and accustomed to pay obedience only to the orders of the senate, whom they had been taught to hold in the highest reverence.

As his majesty, followed by the officers, was advancing from the guard-room to the parade for this purpose, some of them more cautious, or perhaps more timid than the rest, became, on a short reflection, apprehensive of the consequences of the measure in which they were engaged: they began to express their fears to the king, that unless some persons of greater weight and influence than themselves were to take a part in the same cause, he could hardly hope to succeed in his enterprise. The king stopped a while, and appeared to hesitate. A sergeant of the guards overheard their discourse, and cried aloud,—"It shall succeed—Long live Gustavus!" His majesty immediately said, "Then I will venture;"—and stepping forward to the soldiers, he addressed them in terms nearly similar to those he had made use of to the officers, and with the same success. They answered him with loud acclamations: one voice only said, No; but it was not attended to.

In the meantime some of the king's emissaries had spread a report about the town that the king was arrested. This drew the populace to the palace in great numbers, where they arrived as his majesty had concluded his harangue to the guards. They testified by reiterated shouts their joy at seeing him safe; a joy which promised the happiest conclusion to the business of the day.

The senators were now immediately secured. They had from the window of the council-chamber beheld what was going forward on the parade before the palace; and, at a

loft to know the meaning of the shouts they heard, were coming down to inquire into the cause of them, when 30 grenadiers, with their bayonets fixed, informed them it was his majesty's pleasure they should continue where senators they were. They began to talk in a high tone, but were answered only by having the door shut and locked upon them.

The moment the secret committee heard that the senate power in was arrested, they separated of themselves, each individual providing for his own safety. The king then mounting his horse, followed by his officers with their swords drawn, a large body of soldiers, and numbers of the populace, went to the other quarters of the town where the soldiers he had ordered to be assembled were posted. He found them all equally willing to support his cause, and to take an oath of fidelity to him. As he passed through the streets, he declared to the people, that he only meant to defend them, and save his country; and that if they would not confide in him, he would lay down his sceptre, and surrender up his kingdom. So much was the king beloved, that the people (some of whom even fell down upon their knees) with tears in their eyes implored his majesty not to abandon them.

The king proceeded in his course, and in less than an hour made himself master of all the military force in Stockholm. In the mean time the heralds, by proclamation in the several quarters of the city, summoned an assembly of the States for the ensuing morning, and declared all members traitors to their country who should not appear. Thither his majesty repaired in all the pomp of royalty, surrounded by his guards, and holding in his hand the silver sceptre of Gustavus Adolphus. In a very forcible speech, he lamented the unhappy state to which the country was reduced by the conduct of a party ready to sacrifice every thing to its ambition, and reproached the states with adapting their actions to the views of foreign courts, from which they received the wages of perjury. "If any one dare contradict this, let him rise and speak."—Conviction, or fear, kept the assembly silent, and the secretary read the new form of government, which the king submitted to the approbation of the states. It consisted of fifty-seven articles; of which the following five were the chief:

1. The king has the entire power of convoking and dissolving the assembly of the states as often as he thinks proper. 2. His majesty alone has the command of the army, fleet, and finances, and the disposal of all offices civil and military. 3. In case of an invasion, or of any pressing necessity, the king may impose taxes, without waiting for the assembly of the states. 4. The diet can deliberate upon no other subjects than those proposed by the king. 5. The king shall not carry on an offensive war without the consent of the states. When all the articles were gone through, the king demanded if the states approved of them, and was answered by a general acclamation. He then dismissed all the senators from their employments, adding, that in a few days he would appoint others; and concluded this extraordinary scene by drawing out of his pocket a small book of psalms, from which, after taking off the crown, he gave out Te Deum. All the members very devoutly added their voices to his, and the hall resounded with thanksgivings, which it is to be feared never rose to heaven, if sincerity was necessary to their passport.

The power thus obtained the king employed for the good of his subjects. He took care that the law should be administered with impartiality to the richest noble and the poorest peasant, making a severe example of such judges as were proved to have made justice venal. He gave particular attention and encouragement to commerce, was a liberal Liberal and enlightened patron of learning and science, and laboured strenuously to introduce into his kingdom the most valuable improvements in agriculture that had been made in foreign countries.

But while thus active in promoting the arts of peace, he was not inattentive to those of war. The fleet, which he found decayed and feeble, he in a few years restored to a respectable footing; and, besides changing the regulations of the navy, he raised a new corps of sailors, and formed them to the service by continual exercise. The army, which, as well as the navy, had been neglected during the aristocracy, was next to be reformed. The king began by giving cloaks, tents, and new arms to all the regiments. Afterwards, under the direction of Field Marshal Count de Hessenstein, a new exercise was introduced, and several camps were formed, in which the soldiery were manoeuvred by the king himself. The sale of military offices, which had been permitted for many years, was entirely suppressed; and the king provided not only for the re-establishment of discipline and good order in the army, but for the future welfare of the individuals which composed it. These warlike preparations were necessary to a plan which he had formed for entirely abolishing the power of the aristocracy, and freeing Sweden from the factions which had long been formed in it by the court of St Petersburgh. The change which he had introduced into the constitution was very imminent to the intrigues of that court; and the Russian ambassador exerted himself openly to bring about a rupture between the king and the discontented nobles. Gustavus ordered him to quit the kingdom in eight days, and immediately prepared for war with Russia. To this apparently rash enterprise he was incited by the Ottoman Porte, at that time unable to oppose the armies of the two empires; and his own ambition, together with the internal state of his kingdom, powerfully concurred to make him lend every assistance to his ancient ally. It is needless for us to enter into a detail of the particulars of that war, which, as well as the astonishing activity and military skill displayed by the Swedish monarch, are fresh in the memory of all our readers. Suffice it to say, that neither Gustavus Adolphus nor Charles XII. gave greater proofs of undaunted courage and military conduct in their long and bloody wars than were given by Gustavus the III. from the end of the year 1787 to 1796, when peace was restored between the courts of St Petersburgh and Stockholm. Had his army remained faithful, it seems in a high degree probable that he would have penetrated to the metropolis of the Russian empire in the first campaign; and when he was defeated by that army, and his councils distracted by new hostilities commenced against him by the Danes, the vigour and resources of his mind never forsook him. When the court of Copenhagen was compelled, by the means of England and Prussia, to withdraw its troops from the territories of Sweden, the king attacked Russia with such vigour both by sea and land, displayed such address in retrieving his affairs when apparently reduced to the last extremity, and renewed his attacks with such pertinacious courage, that the emperors lowered the haughtiness of her tone, and was glad to treat with Gustavus as an equal and independent sovereign.

The king of Sweden was now at liberty to cherish again the arts of peace, and to humble the haughty spirit of the nobles. For his attempting to deprive those men of that power which they had for many years employed against their country, he has been held up to the world as a delpot who trampled on the liberties of his subjects; as a man without sincerity or patriotism; and, in one word, as a perjured tyrant, who overthrew the constitution which he had sworn to maintain. That he was not troubled with a scrupulous conscience, when so artfully conducting the revolution of Sweden, must be acknowledged; nor can it be denied, that in his treaties with other powers he sometimes endeavoured to overreach them; but if the necessities of state could in any case be an apology for falsehood, they would sufficiently apologize for the duplicity of Gustavus. He was engaged in the arduous enterprise of freeing his subjects from an aristocratic tyranny supported by a foreign power the most formidable in the north; he had been forced into a war with that power, and, as there is reason to believe, promised assistance which he never received; and it cannot excite wonder nor great indignation, that, as soon as he could make an honourable peace, he embraced the opportunity without paying much regard to the interests of an alliance, which tamely looked on while he was struggling with difficulties apparently unsurmountable. That the revolution which he effected in his own country was calculated to promote the general good of the people, is unquestionable; and to gain such an object he might surely restore the crown to its ancient splendour, without bringing upon his government the odious epithet of despotism.

The nobles, however, continued discontented, and a conspiracy was planned against Gustavus under his own roof. He had entered into the alliance that was formed against the revolutionary government of France; and to raise an army which he was to lead in person to co-operate with the emperor and the king of Prussia, he was obliged to negotiate large loans, and to impose upon his subjects heavy taxes. The nobles took advantage of that circumstance to prejudice the minds of many of the people against the sovereign who had laboured so long for their real good. On the 16th of March 1792 he received an anonymous letter, warning him of his immediate danger from a plot that was laid to take away his life, requesting him to remain at home, and avoid balls for a year; and assuring him that, if he should go to the masquerade for which he was preparing, he would be assassinated that very night. The king read the note with contempt, and at a late hour entered the ball-room. After some time he sat down in a box with the comte D'Ellen, and observed that he was not deceived in his contempt for the letter, since had there been any design against his life, no time could be more favourable than that moment. He then mingled, without apprehension, among the crowd; and just as he was preparing to retire in company with the Prussian ambassador, he was surrounded by several persons in masks, one of whom fired a pistol at the back of the king, and loaded the contents in his body. A scene of dreadful confusion immediately ensued. The conspirators, amidst the general tumult and alarm, had time to retire to other parts of the room; but one of them had previously dropped his pistols and a dagger close by the wounded king. A general order was given to all the company to unmask, and the doors were immediately closed; but no person appeared with any particular distinguishing marks of guilt. The king was immediately conveyed to his apartment; and the surgeon, after extracting a ball and some flings, gave favourable hopes of his majesty's recovery.

Suspicions immediately fell upon such of the nobles as had been notorious for their opposition to the measures of the court. The anonymous letter was traced up to colonel Liljehorn, major in the king's guards, and he was immediately apprehended. But the most successful clue that seemed to offer was in consequence of the weapons which had fallen from the assassin. An order was issued, directing all the armourers, gunsmiths, and cutlers in Stockholm, to give every information in their power to the officers of justice concerning the weapons. A gunsmith who had repaired the pistols readily recognized them to be the same which he he had repaired some time since for a nobleman of the name of Ankarstrom, a captain in the army; and the cutler who had made the dagger referred at once to the same person.

The king languished from the 17th to the 29th of March. At first the reports of his medical attendants were favourable; but on the 28th a mortification was found to have taken place, which terminated his existence in a few hours. On opening his body, a square piece of lead and two rusty nails were found unextracted within the ribs.

During his illness, and particularly after he was made acquainted with the certainty of his approaching dissolution, Gustavus continued to display that unhaken courage which he had manifested on every occasion during his life. A few hours before his decease he made some alterations in the arrangement of public affairs. He had before, by his will, appointed a council of regency; but convinced, by recent experience, how little he could depend on the attachment of his nobles, and being also aware of the necessity of a strong government in difficult times, he appointed his brother, the duke of Sodermania, sole regent, till his son, who was then about fourteen, shall have attained the age of eighteen years. His last words were a declaration of pardon to the conspirators against his life. The actual murderer alone was excepted; and he was excepted only at the strong instance of the regent, and those who surrounded his majesty in his dying moments. Immediately on the death of the king, the young prince was proclaimed by the title of Gustavus IV.

Ankarstrom was no sooner apprehended, than he confronted with an air of triumph, that he was the person "who had endeavoured to liberate his country from a monarch and a tyrant." Suspicions at the same time fell on the counts Horn and Ribbing, baron Pechlin, baron Ehrenvardt, baron Hartsmannsdorf, Von Engerstrom the royal secretary, and others; and these suspicions were confirmed by the confession of Ankarstrom. After a very fair and ample trial, this man was condemned to be publicly and severely whipped on three successive days, his right hand and his head to be cut off, and his body impaled; which sentence he suffered not till the 17th of May, long after the death of the king. —His property was given to his children, who, however, were compelled to change their name.

The counts Horn and Ribbing were condemned to lose their right hands, and to be decapitated. Col. Liljehorn and lieutenant Ehrenwerdt were also to be beheaded.—All these conspirators were degraded from the rank of nobles, and their property declared to be confiscated. Major Hartsmannsdorf was to forfeit his rank in the army, and to be imprisoned for one year. Engerstrom was to suffer perpetual imprisonment, and baron Pechlin and secretary Lilletrahle to be imprisoned during pleasure. Four others, accused of being concerned in the conspiracy, were pardoned, and some were acquitted.

The kingdom of Sweden, in its present state, is divided into the following provinces: 1. Sweden Proper. 2. Gothland. 3. Finland. 4. Swedish Lapland. And, 5. The Swedish islands. Great abatements must be made for the lakes and uninhabited parts of Sweden, which are so extensive that the habitable part is confined to narrow bounds.

The face of Sweden is pretty similar to those of its neighbouring countries; only it has the advantage of navigable rivers.

The same may be said with regard to its climate, soil, &c. Summer bursts from winter; and vegetation is more speedy than in southern climates. Stoves and warm furs mitigate the cold of winter, which is so intense, that the noses and extremities of the inhabitants are sometimes mortified. The Swedes, since the days of Charles XII., have been at incredible pains to correct the native barrenness of their country, by erecting colleges of agriculture, and in some places with great success. The soil is much the same with that of Denmark and some parts of Norway, generally very bad, but in some valleys surprisingly fertile. The Swedes, till of late years, had not industry sufficient to remedy the one, nor improve the other. The peasants now follow the agriculture of France and England; and some late accounts say, that they rear almost as much grain as maintains the natives. Gothland produces wheat, rye, barley, oats, peas, and beans; and in case of deficiency, the people are supplied from Livonia and the Baltic provinces. In summer, the fields are verdant, and covered with flowers; and produce strawberries, raspberries, currants, and other small fruits. The common people know, as yet, little of the cultivation of apricots, peaches, nectarines, pine-apples, and the like highly-flavoured fruits; but melons are brought to great perfection in dry seasons.

Sweden produces crystals, amethysts, topazes, porphyry, lapis-lazuli, agate, cornelian, marble, and other trifles. The chief wealth of the country, however, arises from her mines of silver, copper, lead, and iron. The last-mentioned metal employs no fewer than 450 forges, hammering-mills, and smelting-houses. A kind of a gold mine has likewise been discovered in Sweden; but so inconsiderable, that from the year 1741 to 1747, it produced only 2398 gold ducats, each valued at 9s. 4d. sterling. The first gallery of one silver mine is 100 fathoms below the surface of the earth; the roof is supported by prodigious oaken beams, and from thence the miners descend about 40 fathoms to the lowest vein. This mine is said to produce 20,000 crowns a-year. The product of the copper mines is uncertain; but the whole is loaded with vast taxes and reductions to the government, which has no other resources for the exigencies of state. Those subterraneous mansions are astonishingly spacious, and at the same time commodious for their inhabitants, so that they seem to form a hidden world. The water-falls in Sweden afford excellent conveniency for turning mills for forges; and for some years the exports of iron from Sweden brought in 300,000l. sterling. Dr. Buching thinks that they constituted two-thirds of the national revenue. It must, however, be observed, that the extortions of the Swedish government, and the importation of American bar-iron into Europe, and some other causes, have greatly diminished this manufacture in Sweden; so that the Swedes very soon must apply themselves to other branches of trade and improvements, especially in agriculture.

The animals differ little from those of Norway and Denmark, only the Swedish horses are known to be more ferocious in war than the German. The fishes found in the rivers and lakes of Sweden are the same with those in other northern countries, and taken in such quantities, that their pikes (particularly) are salted and pickled for exportation. The train-oil of the seals, taken in the gulf of Finland, is a considerable article of exportation.

There is a great diversity of characters among the people of Sweden; and what is peculiarly remarkable among them, is that they have been known to have different characters in different ages. At present, their peasants seem to be a heavy plodding race of men, strong and hardy; but without any other ambition than that of subsisting themselves and their families as well as they can: they are honest, simple, and hospitable; and the mercantile classes are much of the same cast; but great application and perseverance is discovered among them all. One could form no idea that the modern Swedes are the descendants of those who, under Gustavus Adolphus and Charles XII., carried terror in their names. names through the most distant countries, and shook the foundations of the greatest empires. The principal nobility and gentry of Sweden are naturally brave, polite, and hospitable; they have high and warm notions of honour, and are jealous of their national interests. The dress of the common people is almost the same with that of Denmark: the better sort are infatuated with French modes and fashion. The common diversions of the Swedes are, skating, running races in sledges, and sailing in yachts upon the ice. They are not fond of marrying their daughters when young, as they have little to spare in their own life-time. The women go to plough, thresh out the corn, row upon the water, serve the brick layers, carry burdens, and do all the common drudgeries in husbandry.

Christianity was introduced here in the 9th century. Their religion is Lutheran, which was propagated among them by Gustavus Vasa, about the year 1523, as we have already related. The Swedes are surprisingly uniform and unremitting in religious matters; and have such an aversion to Popery, that schism is the fate of every Roman Catholic priest discovered in their country. The archbishop of Upsal has a revenue of about 400l. a-year; and has under him thirteen suffragans, besides superintendents, with moderate stipends. No clergyman has the least direction in the affairs of state; but their morals, and the sanctity of their lives, endear them so much to the people, that the government would repent making them its enemies. Their churches are neat, and often ornamented. A body of ecclesiastical laws and canons direct their religious economy. A conversion to Popery, or a long continuance under excommunication, which cannot pass without the king's permission, is punished by imprisonment and exile.

The Swedish language is a dialect of the Teutonic, and resembles that of Denmark. The Swedish nobility and gentry are, in general, more conversant in polite literature than those of many other more flourishing states. They have of late exhibited some noble specimens of their munificence for the improvement of literature and science, particularly natural history.

The Swedish commonalty subsists by agriculture, mining, grazing, hunting, and fishing. Their materials for traffic are the bulky and useful commodities of masts, beams, and other sorts of timber for shipping; tar, pitch, bark of trees, potash, wooden utensils, hides, flax, hemp, peltry, furs, copper, lead, iron, cordage, and fish.

Even the manufacturing of iron was introduced into Sweden so late as the 16th century; for till that time they sold their own crude ore to the Hanse-towns, and bought it back again manufactured into utensils. About the middle of the 17th century, by the affluence of the Dutch and Flemings, they set up some manufactures of glaifs, starch, tin, woollen, silk, soap, leather-dressing, and saw-mills. Bookfelling was at that time a trade unknown in Sweden. They have since had sugar-baking, tobacco-plantations, and manufactures of sail-cloth, cotton, fustian, and other stuffs; also of linen, alum, brimstone, paper-mills, and gunpowder-mills. Vast quantities of copper, brass, steel, and iron, are now wrought in Sweden, dug from mines, some of them more than 1100 feet deep. The iron mine of Dannemora, which is the most profitable of any of those with which every part of Sweden abounds, is said to yield 60lb. of metal in a 100lb. of ore, and the others about 30lb. The iron extracted from this is known in Europe under the name of Oregrund; which name is derived from a sea-port on the Baltic. A large portion of it is employed by different nations for making the best steel. The mine was discovered in 1470. The unwrought ore was first sold to the merchants of Lubeck. It was not until the reign of Gustavus Vasa that the Swedes worked it themselves. It is asserted, Sweden, that the mine of Dannemora yields about 40,000 stones of bar-iron per year, which is supposed to be one tenth part of the quantity which all the iron-mines of Sweden produce. Of this product, amounting to 400,000 stones, 300,000 are annually exported; the remainder is manufactured at home. It is calculated that no less than 25,000 men are employed in mining, and the branches immediately connected with it, viz. 4000 for breaking the rocks, either by explosion or manual labour; 10,800 to hew timber and burn it into charcoal; 2000 are employed in melting; 1800 in transporting the metal from the furnaces to the forges; 600 in transporting fuel, &c.; 4000 for transporting the charcoal, and 2400 at the forges. They have also foundries for cannon, forges for fire-arms and anchors, armories, wire and flatting-mills, mills also for fulling, and for boring and flanging; and of late they have built many ships for sale.

There are likewise in Sweden some silver mines, of which that of Salta, or Salkberg, is the richest as well as the most ancient. It existed so early as 1188, and, during the whole of the 14th century, it yielded 24,000 marks of silver per annum. In the 15th century the quantity was diminished to 20,000. In the reign of Charles X. it gave only 2000, and it furnishes at present still less, the ore yielding only one ounce of pure metal per quintal. The chief gallery where the purest silver was obtained having fallen in, is not yet cleared, notwithstanding their incessant labour. They are also digging pits in a perpendicular direction, in order to arrive at the principal vein, which extends itself from the north to the south-east. Formerly lead employed in separating the metal was imported from England; but the mine furnishes at present a sufficient quantity for the purpose.

Certain towns in Sweden, being 24 in number, are called Staple-towns, where the merchants are allowed to import and export commodities in their own ships. Those towns which have no foreign commerce, though lying near the sea, are called land-towns. A third kind are termed mine-towns, as belonging to mine-districts. The Swedes, about the year 1752, had greatly increased their exports, and diminished their imports, most part of which arrive or are sent off in Swedish ships; the Swedes having now a kind of navigation act like that of the English. Those promising appearances were, however, blasted by the madness and jealousies of the Swedish government; and the people so oppressed with taxes, that some important revolution was daily expected in that kingdom.

The revenue of Sweden, since the unfortunate wars of Charles XII. has been greatly reduced. Her gold and silver species, in the reign of Ad. Frederic, arose chiefly from the king's German dominions. Formerly, the crown-lands, poll-money, tithes, mines, and other articles, are said to have produced a million sterling. The payments that are made in copper, which is here the chief medium of commerce, is extremely inconvenient; some of those pieces being as large as tiles; and a cart or wheelbarrow is often required to carry home a moderate sum. The Swedes, however, have gold ducats, and eight-mark pieces of silver, valued each at 5s. 2d., and the subsidies paid them by France help to increase their currency.

No country in the world has produced greater heroes or braver troops than the Swedes; and yet they cannot be afraid to maintain a standing army, as their forces consist of a regulated militia. The cavalry is clothed, armed, and maintained, by a rate raised upon the nobility and gentry, according to their estates; and the infantry by the peasants. Each province is obliged to find its proportion of soldiers, according according to the number of farms it contains; every farm of 60l. or 70l. per annum is charged with a foot-soldier, furnishing him with diet, lodging, and ordinary clothes, and about 20s. a-year in money; or else a little wooden house is built him by the farmer, who allows him hay and pasture for a cow, and ploughs and sows land enough to supply him with bread. When embodied, they are subject to military law, but otherwise to the civil law of the country. It may therefore literally be said, that every Swedish soldier has a property in the country he defends. This national army is thought to amount to above 50,000 men. Sweden formerly could have fitted out 40 ships of the line.