once a celebrated city of Sicily, and the capital of the island. It was built, according to Thucydides and Strabo, by Archias, one of the Heraclidae, who came from Corinth into Sicily in the second year of the 11th Olympiad, deriving its name from a neighbouring marsh named Syrao. What form of government first prevailed in the city is not known. Many have supposed it originally to have been governed by kings; but if this was the case, the monarchical government must have continued only for a very short time; since Aristotle, Diodorus Siculus, and Justin, mention it as being very early subject to a democracy. The history, however, is obscure and unimportant till the time of Gelon, when it first began to make a conspicuous figure.

Gelon was born in the city of Gela in Sicily, of the family of Telines, who had been created priests of the infernal gods. He signalized himself in a war carried on by Hippocrates tyrant of Gela against the Syracusans, whom he defeated in a pitched battle, and laid wide nigh taken their city afterwards. Having thus become very powerful among his countrymen, he soon found means to seize on the sovereignty for himself. In a short time, having put himself at the head of some Syracusan exiles, he marched towards that place, where he was received with loud acclamations by the faction to which they belonged; and by their means obtained possession of the city.

Gelon, in order to people the capital of his new dominions, first demolished the neighbouring city of Camarina, and transplanted the inhabitants to Syracuse. Soon after, entering into a war with the Megareans, he defeated them, took and raised their cities, and in like manner transplanted the people. Syracuse thus became very powerful, and full of inhabitants; and the friendship of Gelon was courted both by Athens and Lacedemon at the time of the Persian invasion. His assistance, however, was afterwards rejected, as he insisted upon being made commander in chief either of the fleet or the army. In the meantime the Carthaginians had entered into a treaty with the Persians; by which it was agreed, that the former should attack those of the Greek name in Sicily and Italy, in order to divert them from afflicting one another. Sicily was accordingly invaded by the Carthaginians with a vast army; but they were utterly overthrown by Gelon, as is related under the Carthaginians, article Carthage, no 7-9. After this victory, the people, out of gratitude obliged him to take upon himself the title of king; which till that time he had refused. A decree, also passed without opposition, by which the crown was settled on his two brothers Hiero and Thrasybulus after his death.

The new king, instead of keeping his subjects in greater awe, studied the more to make them happy as he found his power increased; and, according to Diodorus Siculus, was the first man who became more virtuous by being raised to a throne. He was particularly famous for his honesty, truth, and sincerity; is said never to have wronged the meanest of his subjects, nor ever to have promised a thing which he did not perform.

Gelon died in the year 471 B.C. after having reigned three or four years; and was succeeded by his brother Hiero, whose character is differently drawn by different historians. Hiero was twice engaged in a war with the Agrigentines, and drove from their habitations the people of Catana and Naxus, settling in their room a colony of Syracusans and Peloponnesians. He is highly celebrated in the odes of Pindar; and it is certain that his court was the resort of men of wit and learning, to whom he behaved in the most courteous manner and with the greatest liberality.

In 459 B.C. Hiero was succeeded by Thrasybulus; who, proving a tyrant, was in ten months driven out, and a popular government restored; which continued for the space of 55 years. Several persons continued for some time to aspire at the sovereign power; and to rid themselves of these aspiring geniuses, the inhabitants made a law not unlike that of the ostracism at Athens. By this law they were to write on a leaf the names of those whom they suspected to be powerful enough to aspire at the crown; and when the leaves were counted, he who had the most suffrages against him was, without further inquiry, banished for five years. This method of weakening the interests of the overgrown citizens was called petalism, from the Greek word πετάλιον, signifying a leaf; but being found to be productive of great inconveniences, by driving out of the country all those who were most capable of governing the commonwealth, the law was repealed soon after it had been enacted.

About this time the Syracusans entered into a war with the Siculi, which terminated in the total subjection of the latter; after which Syracuse became so powerful, that it in a manner gave law to the whole island. The Greek cities indeed enjoyed a perfect liberty; but they all acknowledged Syracuse as their metropolis: by degrees, however, the latter began to assume such an authority over them as was totally inconsistent with liberty; and this occasioned many wars, which involved them in much distress and danger. They began with the Leontines, whose territory they laid waste, and reduced their city to great straits. Leontini was invaded by an Athenian colony; and this furnished the Athenians, who had already meditated the conquest of Sicily, with a pretence to attack the Syracusans with their whole force. Under colour of afflicting their countrymen, therefore, they sent a fleet of 250 sail to Sicily; but the Leontines, sensible that that their pretended allies aimed at nothing less than the conquest of the whole island, concluded a peace with Syracuse; and the disappointed Athenians vented their rage upon those who had advised and conducted the expedition.

In 416 B.C., a dispute happened between the inhabitants of Egina and Selinus concerning some lands which the latter had seized, the Eginites applied for assistance to Agrigentum, Syracuse, and even to Carthage. But as none of these states chose to interject themselves in their quarrel, they applied at last to the Athenians, who joyfully accepted the opportunity of again interfering in the affairs of Sicily. Though the Eginites were but an incon siderable people, they had engaged to pay all the troops that should be employed in the war; but this appearing doubtful to the Athenians, they sent ambassadors to inquire into the state of the island in general, and particularly that of Egina. The Eginites imposed on these ambassadors by producing a great number of gold and silver vessels which they had borrowed for the purpose; so that the populace of Athens, dreaming of nothing but conquests to be made without any expense, became obstinately bent on the war. Nicias, a man of great influence at Athens, attempted to show, that as Athens was then engaged in a dangerous war with Sparta, it was impossible to spare a force sufficient to reduce the island; but the contrary opinion being espoused by Alcibiades, at that time the most eloquent speaker in Athens, Nicias was overruled, and obliged to engage in the expedition. The force he required was only 5000 land forces and 100 galleys, with which, however inadequate to the purpose it may seem, the Athenians were so sure of success, that the officers, before they set sail, had a conference with the senate concerning the disposal of the Sicilians. In this conference it was agreed, that the Selinuntines and Syracusans their supposed allies should be carried off and sold for slaves, and the rest obliged to pay an annual tribute and live according to the Athenian laws.

With these sanguine expectations the Athenian forces embarked to the number of 7000; for such was their eagerness for the expedition, that 2000 more enlisted themselves than Nicias had required. They first sailed to the island of Egina, and from thence to Coreyra, where they had appointed the place of rendezvous for their allies and the transports. On their arrival they set sail again, and landed on the coast of Italy, with a view to engage some of the Italian cities in their quarrel; but finding this impossible, they sent some ships to cruise off the coast of Sicily, in order to find out a proper place for landing, and at the same time to know what treasure the Eginites could contribute towards carrying on the war, which had been undertaken for their sake. There, on their return, acquainted the generals, that the Eginites had imposed on them, and were a poor indigent people, who had only 30 talents in the treasury. On this information a council of war was called, in which Nicias gave it as his opinion that they should sail to Selinua, which had been the first occasion of this expedition; and then, if the Eginites performed their promise, and supplied the army with a month's pay, to oblige the Selinuntines and Eginites to come to an agreement, and then return to Athens without engaging in such an expensive war. Alcibiades, however, again opposed Nicias; thinking it highly dishonourable to return home without doing anything, after having been at the expense of fitting out an armament. He therefore urged, that they should solicit the cities of Sicily to enter into a confederacy against the Syracusans and Selinuntines; and, in case they found them disposed to come into their measures, to attack either Syracuse or Selinus. Another of the Athenian generals was for laying siege immediately to Syracuse; but the opinion of Alcibiades prevailing, they set sail for Sicily. Having accordingly landed in that island, Syracuse, they reduced several places; but Alcibiades in the meantime being recalled, Nicias and Lamachus were left to conduct the war as they best could. At first they were successful, possessing themselves of a strong post, and put the Syracusans to flight; soon after which they received considerable supplies both of men, money, and provisions, from Athens, as well as from their Sicilian allies. The Syracusans also received assistance from the Lacedemonians under the command of an experienced officer named Glyippus. Before these arrived, the Athenians had fortified themselves of an important post named Epipole, which being a very steep hill, stood without the city and commanded it. Immediately after this the city was invested in form. The inhabitants made frequent and vigorous sallies; but were always repulsed with loss. In one of these sallies Lamachus was slain; and thus Nicias became sole commander. He then caused the canals to be cut by which water was conveyed into the city; upon which the Syracusans began to think of capitulating. From this, however, they were soon prevented by the arrival of Glyippus with the Spartan auxiliaries. On this they prepared for making vigorous sallies, in order to facilitate the entrance of Glyippus. While they were making these preparations, Glyippus himself appeared at the head of 3000 foot and 200 horse. Making directly for Epipole, where Nicias had fortified himself in a castle named Labdalon, he drew up his small army under the walls; and sent an herald to Nicias, letting him know that he would allow him only five days to leave Sicily. To this message Nicias returned no answer; but Glyippus soon attacked the fort, carried it by storm, and put to the sword all the Athenians that were in it. This opened for him a way into the city, where he was received with loud acclamations.

The fortune of the war was again changed. The Athenians gained an advantage by land, but were next day defeated with considerable loss. The Syracusans received fresh supplies from Corinth, and the Athenians from their own country. Many engagements both by sea and land took place, in which the success was ultimately in favour of the Syracusans. At last the Athenian affairs were totally ruined by the loss of a sea-fight, in which 60 of their ships totally were taken or destroyed, and the rest left quite unseaworthy. In this desperate situation it was determined to abandon their ships, and retire that very night to the city of their confederates. The Syracusan commander, suspecting that this would be the case, ordered all his forces to be in readiness to prevent them from effecting their purpose. But as the people were then in the height of their rejoicing for the late victory, they refused to take up arms again until they had rested for some days. On this Hermocrates the general sent to the Athenian camp some horsemen, who were to pass for friends, and to advise Nicias not to quit his camp, which was well fortified, since the Syracusans lay in ambush for him, and had seized on all the passes leading to the cities of their allies. To this false advice Nicias gave too easy credit, and did not march out till the third day, when his antagonist Hermocrates had prevailed upon his forces to march out. The Athenians and their allies also marched out to harass in the number of no less than 80,000; but finding themselves shut up on all sides, and being obliged to fight their way through every outlet, they soon sunk into the deepest despair. Nicias did his utmost to encourage them; and at last succeeded so far that they marched out in two bodies, both drawn up in proper order. The vanguard led by Ni-part of the cias continued to keep together, and advanced in good order; but half the rear, commanded by Demosthenes, lost their way in the night, and were obliged to surrender. Syracuse, being informed of this misfortune, offered to pay the whole expense of the war, provided he was allowed to march off with his men. But this being rejected, he set out, tho' galled all the way by showers of darts from his enemies. Arriving at a river called Aesorus, they rushed into it without any order; in which confusion the Syracanian cavalry attacked them so desperately, that 18,000 perished, and the river for many miles was dyed with their blood.

On this occasion the Athenians were so pressed with thirst, that, unmindful of their danger, they drank the waters of the river all bloody as they were, which gave their enemies the better opportunity of slaughtering them without resistance. The remainder surrendered, on the single condition of having their lives saved; but the terms were shamefully broken by the Syracusans. The generals were first ignominiously whipt, and then put to death; the common soldiers were thrust down into quarries, where they were allowed only two small measures of flour and one of water a day; and where, being crowded upon one another, they suffered inexpressible miseries for many months. Most of them perished by this cruel treatment, and the few who survived were sold for slaves.

The war was scarce ended, when a new and formidable invasion by the Carthaginians took place; but the event of that expedition was as unfortunate to the Carthaginians as the former had been, of which a particular account is given under the article Carthage, n° 12. et seq.

In the mean time, however, a considerable revolution had happened in Syracuse. The city of Agrigentum had been taken by the Carthaginians, and of the few inhabitants who escaped, some fled to Syracuse, where they accused the Syracanian commanders of having betrayed the city into the hands of the enemy. Dionysius, a man of great valour and address, but who had become very obnoxious to the populace, took this opportunity of attempting to retrieve his credit. He therefore supported the accusations brought against his countrymen by the Agrigentines, and even impeached the magistrates as having a secret intelligence with the enemy, and attempting to introduce an oligarchy. As his speech was entirely levelled against the more wealthy citizens, it was very agreeable to the lower class; the commanders were instantly degraded; and others, among whom was Dionysius, were appointed. Having once gained this point, he began to consider how he might get all his colleagues turned out. For this purpose he never joined in any council of war with the other commanders, nor imparted to them his resolutions, giving out that he could not trust them, and that they had more regard for their own interest than the welfare of their country. But while he was proceeding in this manner, the more prudent part of the citizens, perceiving what he aimed at, complained of him to the senate and magistrates, and fined him as a disturber of the public peace. According to the laws, the fine was to be paid before he could speak in public, and the circumstances of Dionysius did not allow him to discharge it. In this dilemma he was assisted by Phillitus the historian, a man of great wealth, who not only paid this fine for him, but encouraged him to speak his mind freely, as it became a zealous citizen to do, promising to pay all the fines that should be laid upon him.

Being extricated out of this difficulty, Dionysius next proceeded to inveigh, with all the eloquence he was master of, against those who by means of their power or interest were able to oppose his designs, and by degrees brought them into discredit. His next scheme was to get those exiles recalled whom the nobility had banished at different times; as thinking that they would support him with all their power, as well out of gratitude as out of hatred to the opposite party. Having gained this point also, he next found means to ingratiate himself with the soldiery to such a degree, that, under pretence of taking proper measures for resisting the Carthaginians, he was chosen commander in chief, with absolute and unlimited power. This was no sooner done, than, pretending that his life was in danger, he chose out 1000 men for his guard, whom he attached to his interest by great promises. As no person durst now oppose him, he possessed himself of the citadel, where all the arms and provisions were kept; after which he publicly took the title of king of Syracuse in the year 404 B.C.

The Syracusans did not tamely submit to their new master; but Dionysius managed matters so well, that their frequent revolts answered no other purpose than more certainly to entail slavery on themselves; and he was allowed to possess the throne without much opposition till his death, which happened in the year 366 B.C.

On the death of Dionysius, he was succeeded by his son, Dionysius called also Dionysius. He was naturally of a mild and peaceable temper, averse from cruelty, and inclined to learning; but his father, to whom all merit, even in his own children, gave umbrage, stifled as far as possible his good qualities by a mean and obscure education. He no sooner ascended the throne, than Dion, brother to Ariftomache the other wife of Dionysius the Elder, undertook to correct the faults of his education, and to inspire him with thoughts suitable to the high station in which he was placed. For this purpose he sent for the philosopher Plato, under whose care he immediately put the young king. This instantly produced a reformation on Dionysius; but the courtiers, dreading the effects of the philosopher's instructions, prevailed on him to banish Dion, and to keep Plato himself in a kind of imprisonment in the citadel. At last, however, he let him at liberty; upon which Plato returned to his own country.

Dion, in the mean time, visited several of the Grecian cities, and at last took up his residence in Athens; but the honours which were everywhere paid him, raised such jealousies in the breast of the tyrant, that he stopped his revenue, and caused it to be paid into his own treasury. In a short time Dionysius again sent for Plato; but finding it impossible to dissolve the friendship between him and Dion, dispriced, and placed him in a very dangerous situation, in the midst of all those who hated him. Not daring, however, to offer him any violence, he allowed him soon after to depart; revenging himself on Dion, whose estate he sold, and gave his wife Arete in marriage to Timocrates one of his vengeown flatterers.

Dion now resolved to revenge himself on the tyrant for the many injuries he had sustained, and at once to deliver his country from the oppression under which it groaned. He began with raising foreign troops privately, by proper agents, for the better execution of his design. Many Syracusans of distinction entered into his scheme, and gave him intelligence of what passed in the city; but of the exiles, of whom there were upwards of 1000 dispersed up and down Greece, only 25 joined him; so much were they awed by the dread of the tyrant. The troops were assembled at the island of Zacynthus, in number only about 800; but every leader who had all been tried on many occasions, were well disposed, and capable of animating by their example the forces which Dion hoped to find in Sicily. When they were about to fail, Dion acquainted them with his design, the boldness of which at first occasioned no small consternation among them; but Dion soon removed their fears, by telling them that he did not lead them as soldiers, but as officers, to put them at the head of the Syracusans and all the people of Sicily, who were ready to receive them with open arms. Syracuse. Having then embarked in two small trading vessels, they arrived in 12 days at Cape Pachynum near Syracuse. Their pilot advised them to land immediately, lest they should be overtaken by a violent storm, which he perceived was approaching; but Dion, judging it improper to land so near the enemy, commanded him to put to sea again, and double the Cape. This was no sooner done than the storm came on; and the two vessels were driven on the coast of Africa, where they were in great danger of being lost. At last they arrived at the port of Minoa, not far from Agrigentum. Here they received intelligence that Dionysius had set sail for Italy, attended by a fleet of 80 galleys. On this Dion resolved to take advantage of the tyrant's absence; and immediately set sail for Syracuse. On his march he prevailed upon the inhabitants of Agrigentum, Gela, Camarina, and other cities, to join him. As soon as he entered the territories of Syracuse, multitudes flocked to him; and as nobody appeared to oppose him, he boldly entered the city, where he quickly found himself at the head of 50,000 men. As soon as he had landed in Sicily, Timocrates, to whom his wife Arete had been given by Dionysius, and to whom the care of the city had been left, dispatched a courier to let the tyrant know the danger in which he was. The messenger, when almost at his journey's end, found himself so much oppressed by fatigue, that he could not help lying down on the ground to take some rest. In the meantime, a wolf, smelling some meat which he had in his wallet, came to the place, and carried off the bag in which was the meat, together with the dispatches. By this means Dionysius was prevented from receiving a timely account of Dion's arrival; so that when he entered the citadel by sea, seven days after Dion's arrival, he found his affairs in a desperate situation. Upon this he had recourse to artifice; and having amused the Syracusans by a feigned negotiation, until he observed that they kept a negligent guard, he attacked them all at once with such fury, that he had almost taken the city. But Dion encouraged the soldiers by his example so much, that he at last obtained a complete victory; for which they presented him with a crown of gold.

It was not long, however, before the ungrateful Syracusans began to think of conferring quite different rewards on their benefactor. Dionysius had the address to render him suspected by the multitude; at the same time that Heraclides, an excellent officer, but a secret enemy to Dion, did all that lay in his power to sink his credit. In a short time Dionysius was obliged to fly into Italy; after which Heraclides, in order to ingratiate himself with the populace, proposed a new division of lands; intimating, that they could never enjoy perfect liberty as long as there was so much inequality in wealth and power among the citizens. This scheme was opposed by Dion, in consequence of which a general combination was formed against him; and he was deserted by all excepting the foreign troops whom he had brought with him into the island. The Syracusans solicited even these to abandon the cause of their general; but their offers were rejected with disdain; and Dion, with his faithful adherents, getting clear of the tumultuous and riotous populace, took the road to Leontini. The rabble pursued him, but were soon driven back; and Dion resided for some time at Leontini, where he was received with all the respect due to his character.

In the mean time, the citadel still continued in the hands of the adherents of Dionysius. Being blocked up on all sides, they were reduced to great straits, and were actually making proposals of capitulation, when Nypius, an experienced general, and greatly attached to Dionysius, appeared with a numerous squadron of galleys, and a large fleet of transports laden with provisions. The general landed his men, and got them into the citadel; but almost all his galleys and ships laden with corn were sunk or taken. This victory proved the ruin of the Syracusans; for, giving themselves up to feasting and debauchery, the enemy fell out in the night-time from the citadel, and massacred the citizens without mercy. Being thus made sensible of the traitor they had committed, an embassy was sent to Dion, charged by treasuring him to return and save the city a second time. To this he agreed without hesitation, and instantly set out on his march; but in the mean time, as the soldiers of Dionysius, fatigued with slaughter, had retired into their forts, the ungrateful Syracusans began to repent of their having sent an embassy to Dion. The chief commanders, therefore, sent messengers to stop his march; but as some of his friends sent deputies to him at the same time, desiring him to pay no regard to the former message, he proceeded on his journey. The infatuated multitude seized the gates in order to dispute his entrance; but they paid dear for their frenzy. The Dionysians again fell out upon them, and made such slaughter, that one would have thought they had left none alive in the city. As the troops of the tyrant well knew that Dion was hastening to the relief of the city, they fired their utmost endeavours to destroy it entirely before his arrival; for, after they had murdered all the inhabitants they could find, they let fire to the houses, by which great numbers perished. During this confusion Dion unexpectedly arrived; and having briskly attacked the enemy, at last defeated them with great slaughter, driving the remainder into the citadel. During the rest of the night, instead of refreshing themselves after their fatigues, they assisted in extinguishing the fire; which was not done without great danger and difficulty. The citadel soon after surrendered; and Dion allowed Apollocrates the tyrant's son, who commanded there, to retire with five galleys to his father. As soon as Dion entered the citadel, he was met by his sister and wife Arete, whom he received with affection, notwithstanding her having lived so long with Timocrates. He then left the Syracusans in possession of the citadel, rewarded his followers, dismissed his guards, and continued to live like a private citizen.

As soon as Dion had got possession of the city, Heraclides had submitted to him, and been received into favour; but as his seditions and turbulent behaviour still continued, Dion at last gave orders to put him to death. This action, however necessary, so affected the mind of Dion, that he became melancholy; and ever after imagined himself haunted by a frightful spectre, resembling a woman of gigantic stature, with the haggard looks and air of a fury. In a short time after he lost his life, through the base treachery of Calippus, or Glyppus, who pretended to be his intimate friend, and who immediately after caused his wife and sister to be carried to prison.

Calippus having thus removed Dion, soon made himself master of Syracuse, where he committed all manner of cruelties; but was driven out, and forced to fly to Rhegium, where he was murdered with the same dagger which had killed Dion. In 350 B.C. Dionysius again made himself master of Syracuse; and being exasperated by his past misfortunes, tyrannized worse than ever. The Syracusans first had recourse to Ictas, tyrant of Leontini; but as the Carthaginians took this opportunity to invade them with a powerful fleet and army, they were obliged to apply to the Corinthians. By them Timoleon, a celebrated commander, was sent to the affluence of the Syracusans, whom he found in a very distressed situation; Ictas being master of the city, the Carthaginians of the harbour, and Dionysius of the citadel. As all parties were equally the enemies of Dionysius, Syracuse, he found it impossible to hold out, and therefore surrendered himself to Timoleon, by whom he was sent to Corinth; where at last he was reduced to the necessity of teaching a school for his support.

After the expulsion of the tyrant, Timoleon withdrew to Catana, leaving only 400 Corinthians, under the command of an experienced officer named Leon, to guard the citadel. These were immediately besieged by Icetas and the Carthaginians, but Timoleon found means to relieve them in spite of all opposition; and having dispersed emissaries through the army of Magro the Carthaginian general, exhorting the mercenary Greeks to forsake him, he was so much intimidated, that in spite of all the remonstrances Icetas could make, he set sail for Africa, leaving his colleague to carry on the war in the best manner he could.

The day after the departure of Magro, Timoleon assaulted the city so briskly, that the troops of Icetas were driven from the walls, and the Corinthians became masters of the place. Timoleon, by sound of trumpet, invited the inhabitants to come and assist in demolishing the citadel and other castles, which he called the nests of tyrants; after which he caused edifices to be erected in the place where the citadel had stood, for the administration of justice. He found the city in a most miserable situation: for many having perished in the wars and seditions, and others having fled to avoid the oppression of tyrants, Syracuse, once so wealthy and populous, was now become almost a desert; insomuch that the horses were fed on the grass which grew on the market-place. Timoleon supplied the city with inhabitants from Corinth and other cities of Greece, at the same time that great multitudes from Italy and the other parts of Sicily resorted thither. Timoleon distributed the lands among them gratis; but sold the houses, and with the money arising from the sale established a fund for the support of the poor. Having thus restored Syracuse, he in like manner delivered all the Greek cities of Sicily from the tyrants who had taken possession of them, all of whom he put to death. After this he resigned his authority, and led a retired life, honoured in the highest degree by the Syracusans, and by all the cities in Sicily. After his death he was honoured as a god; the expense of his funeral was defrayed by the public; sports, with horse-races and gymnastic exercises, were held annually on the day of his death; and it was decreed, that whenever the Syracusans were at war with the barbarians, they should send to Corinth for a general.

For 20 years the Syracusans enjoyed the fruits of Timoleon's victories; but new disturbances arising, in a short time another tyrant started up, who exceeded all that had gone before him in cruelty and other vices. This was the celebrated Agathocles, of whose exploits against the Carthaginians a full account is given under the article Carthage, p. 33—53. He was poisoned by one Monom in the year 289 B.C., after having reigned 28 years, and lived 95. A succession of tyrants followed, till at last the city, being held by two rivals, Temon and Sofistratus, who made war within the very walls, Pyrrhus king of Epirus was invited into Sicily, in order to put an end to these distractions. He willingly complied with the invitation; and was everywhere received with loud acclamations, as the deliverer not only of Syracuse, but of all Sicily. As he had a fine army of 30,000 foot and 5000 horse, with a fleet of 200 sail, he drove the Carthaginians from place to place, till he left them only the two strong posts of Eryx and Lilybeum. The former of these he took by assault, and was himself the first man who mounted the walls, after having killed a great number of Africans with his own hand. The Mamertines likewise, who had conquered a considerable part of the island, were everywhere defeated and driven out, till at last they were shut up in the city of Messana. The Carthaginians, alarmed at the rapidity of his conquests, sent ambassadors with proposals of peace upon very advantageous terms; but Pyrrhus, puffing up with the expectation of reducing the whole island, refused to hearken to any terms unless they would instantly abandon it. So firm was he in the belief of this, that he caused his son take upon him the title of king of Sicily; but a haughty in the meantime, having displeased the Sicilians by his arbitrary behaviour, they deserted from him in such numbers and so obstinately that he was glad to get out for Italy, for which retreat the general embassies he received from the Samnites, Tarentines, and Italy, other Italians, furnished him with an honourable pretext. He embarked in the ships which he had brought with him from Italy; but was met at sea by the Carthaginians, who sunk 70 of his vessels, and dispersed or took the rest; so that he saved himself in Italy only with 12 vessels, the poor remains of a fleet of 200 sail. No sooner were the Mamertines apprised of his departure, than they dispatched a body of Mamertines of 18,000 men to harass him after his landing. These, having passed the straits before him, posted themselves in the road which Pyrrhus must take in marching by land to Tarentum; and concealing themselves among woods and rocks, attacked him unexpectedly, and with great resolution. But Pyrrhus behaved on this occasion with his usual bravery. The attack being made on his rear, he hastened thither, and made a dreadful slaughter of the enemy, till a wound on his head obliged him to retire. As he was supposed to be disabled by this wound, a proud Mamertine, of an extraordinary size, and shining in bright armour, advanced, and with a loud voice challenged the king of Epirus, if he was yet alive, to a single combat. Pyrrhus immediately turned about, and making a dreadful appearance by the exploit of the blood which ran down his face, flew at this new champion, on whose head he discharged such a furious blow, that he left his body flounder; one half falling to the right, and the other to the left. This incredible feat, which has since been ascribed to other warriors, perhaps with as much truth as to Pyrrhus, so much intimidated the Mamertines, that they allowed his troops to continue their march un molested.

After the departure of Pyrrhus, Hiero the son of Hiero, a descendant of Gelon the first king of Syracuse, was chosen general of the forces, along with another named Archimedes. The two generals had nothing more at heart than to put an end to the confusion and disorder which reigned in the city; for which reason they entered it at the head of their forces. On this occasion Hiero discovered extraordinary talents for government. By mere dint of influence and address, without shedding blood, or hurting a single citizen, he calmed the minds of the people; reconciled the factions; and so gained the affections of all, that he was invested with the whole civil as well as military power in the state. Soon after this, he married the daughter of one of the first citizens; and having distinguished himself by his exploits against the Mamertines, was unanimously elected king of Syracuse, in the year 265 B.C.

Some time after Hiero's accession to the throne, he again defeated the Mamertines, and reduced them to such straits, that they were obliged to call in the Romans to their assistance. The consequences of this have been fully related under the articles Rome and Carthage. Hiero, who had lived in alliance with the Carthaginians, being himself defeated by the Romans, and finding his allies unable to protect him against the power of that republic, concluded an alliance with them; and continued faithful to them even in the time of the second Punic war, when they were in the greatest distress. In his reign flourished the celebrated mathematician Archimedes, whose genius he employed in fortifying... the city of Syracuse, by innumerable machines, in such a manner as rendered it absolutely impregnable to every method of attack known at that time.

Hieron died about 211 B.C. and was succeeded by his grandson Hieronymus; but he imprudently forsook the counsels of his grandfather, and entered into an alliance with the Carthaginians. Soon after this he was murdered, in consequence of his tyranny and cruelty, and the greatest disorders took place in the city; which Hannibal, though then in Italy, found means to foment, in hopes of keeping the Syracusans in his interest. This indeed he effected; but as his own affairs in Italy began to decline*, he could not prevent Marcellus from landing in Sicily with a formidable army, which the Sicilians could by no means resist. Syracuse was soon invested; but the machines invented by Archimedes baffled all attempts to take it by assault. It was 22 miles in compass, and consisted properly of five cities in one, viz. Ortigia, Acradina, Tyche, Neapolis, and Epipole.—Ortigia was a small island very near the continent, and might be called the citadel of Syracuse, being joined to Acradina by a bridge. The immense preparations which the consul had made for taking the city by storm, could not have failed to accomplish his purpose, had the place been otherwise defended than by the contrivance of Archimedes. The Roman fleet consisted of 60 quinqueremes, besides a far greater number of other ships. The decks were covered with soldiers armed with darts, slings, and bows, to drive the besieged from the ramparts, which on the side of Acradina were washed by the sea, and to facilitate the approach to the walls. But a machine of Marcellus's own invention was what he chiefly depended on. He had fastened together sidewise eight galleys of different lengths, which made but one large body, and were rowed only by the oars of the outermost galleys. These eight galleys thus joined, served only as a basis for a machine, which was raised up higher than the highest towers of the walls, and had at the top a platform guarded with parapets in front and on each side. This machine was called a fambuca, from its resemblance to a musical instrument of that name, not unlike an harp. The consul's design was to bring his fambuca to the foot of the walls of Acradina; but, while it was at a considerable distance (and it advanced very slow, being moved only by two ranks of rowers), Archimedes discharged from one of his engines a vast stone, weighing, according to Plutarch's account, 1250 pounds, then a second, and immediately after a third; all which, falling upon the fambuca with a dreadful noise, broke its supports, and gave the galleys upon which it stood such a violent shock that they parted, and the machine which Marcellus had raised upon them at a vast trouble and expense was battered to pieces. At the same time, several other machines, which were not visible without the walls, and consequently did not lessen the confidence of the Romans in the assault, played incessantly upon their ships, and overwhelmed them with showers of stones, rafers, and beams pointed with iron; insomuch that Marcellus, being at a loss what to do, retired with all possible haste, and sent orders to his land-forces to do the same; for the attack on the land-side was attended with no better success, the ranks being broken and thrown into the utmost confusion by the stones and darts, which flew with such noise, force, and rapidity, that they struck the Romans with terror, and dashed all to pieces before them.

Marcellus, surprised, though not discouraged, at this artificial storm, which he did not expect, held a council of war, in which it was resolved, the next day before sunrise, to come up close under the wall, and keep there. They were in hopes by this means to secure themselves against the terrible storm of stones and darts which fell on the ships when at a distance. But Archimedes had prepared engines which were adapted to all distances. When the Romans therefore had brought their ships close under the wall, and thought themselves well covered, they were unexpectedly overwhelmed with a new shower of darts and stones, which fell perpendicularly on their heads, and obliged them to retire with great precipitation. But they were no sooner got at some distance, than a new shower of darts overtook them, which made a dreadful havoc of the men, while stones of an immense weight, discharged from other machines, either disabled or broke in pieces most of their galleys. This loss they sustained, without being able to revenge it in the least on the enemy. For Archimedes had placed most of his engines behind the walls, and not only out of the reach, but even out of the sight, of the enemy; so that the Romans were repulsed with a dreadful slaughter, without seeing the hand that occasioned it; as if they had been fighting, to use Plutarch's expression, not with men, but with the gods themselves. What most harassed the Romans in the attack by sea, was a sort of crown with iron claws, fastened to a long chain, which was let down by a kind of lever. The weight of the iron made it fall with great violence, and drove it into the planks of the galleys. Then the besieged, by a great weight of lead at the other end of the lever, weighed it down, and consequently raised up the iron of the crown in proportion, and with it the prow of the galley to which it was attached, sinking the poop at the same time into the water. After this the crown letting go its hold all of a sudden, the prow of the galley fell with such force into the sea, that the whole vessel was filled with water, and sunk. At other times, the machines, dragging ships to the shore by hooks, dashed them to pieces against the points of the rocks which projected under the walls. Other vessels were quite lifted up into the air, there whirled about with incredible rapidity, and then let fall into the sea, and sunk, with all that were in them. How these stupendous works were effected, few, if any, have hitherto been able to comprehend.

The troops under the command of Appius suffered no less in this second attack than the fleet. In the whole space of ground which the army, when formed, took up, the last files as well as the first were overwhelmed with showers of darts and flints, against which they could not possibly defend themselves. When they had with infinite trouble brought the mantlets and covered galleries, under which they were to work the rams, near the foot of the wall, Archimedes discharged such large beams and stones upon them as crushed them to pieces. If any brave Roman ventured to draw too near the wall, iron hooks were immediately let down from above, which, taking hold of his clothes or some part of his body, lifted him up in the air and dashed out his brains with the fall. Marcellus, though at a loss what to do, could not however forbear expressing himself with pleasantry: Shall we perish, said he to his workmen, in making war upon this Briareus, upon this giant with an hundred hands? But the soldiers were so terrified, that if they saw upon the walls only a small cord, or the least piece of wood, they immediately turned their backs and fled, crying out, that Archimedes was going to discharge some dreadful machine upon them.

The consul, finding themselves thus defeated in every attempt, turned the siege into a blockade, reduced most of the other places in the island, and defeated the forces which were sent against them; and at last Marcellus made himself master of Syracuse itself, of which the following account is given by Mr Hooke. "He took the opportunity of a festival, when the soldiers and citizens had drunk plentifully, to make a detachment scale the walls of Tyche, in that part of Syracuse..." Syracuse, of which was nearest to Epipole, and which was ill guarded. He presently after possessed himself of Epipole; whereupon the inhabitants of Neapolis, as well as Tyche, sent deputies to him, and submitted. Marcellus granted life and liberty to all of free condition, but gave up those quarters of the city to be plundered.

Notwithstanding this, there was a great deal yet to do. Acradina and Ortigia, which were strongly fortified, still held out; Hippocrates and Himilco arrived with their troops to the relief of the besieged; and the Romans were forced to exert all their bravery and skill to maintain the advantages they had gained.

But now a plague made terrible havoc in both armies. At the first breaking out of the pestilence, the Sicilians, who served under Hippocrates and Himilco, disbanded themselves, and returned to their respective homes; but all the Carthaginian soldiers perished, together with those two generals. The Romans suffered least by the infection; because, having been a long time before Syracuse, they were accustomed to the air and water of the country.

About this time Bomilcar arrived on the coast of Sicily from Carthage, with a fleet of 130 galleys and 700 ships of burden; but was long hindered by contrary winds from doubling the cape of Pachynum. Epicydes, fearing the Carthaginian might fail back to Africa, left the command of Acradina to the generals of the mercenaries, and went to Bomilcar, in order to persuade him to fight the Roman fleet. The admiral would not engage, but sailed away to Tarentum with all his galleys, ordering his ships of burden to return to Africa. Epicydes, thus frustrated of his hopes, and knowing himself unable to defend a city already half taken, retired to Agrigentum; whereupon the Syracusians massacred the commanders appointed by him, chose new praetors to govern in the town, and sent deputies to Marcellus to treat of peace. In the mean time, the deserters, fearing to be given up to the vengeance of the Romans, persuaded the mercenaries that they also would have the same fate. Instantly the soldiers ran to arms, put to death the new praetors, together with many of the Syracusians, and plundered part of the city. After this slaughter they chose five generals, three to command in Acradina, and three in Ortigia. Upon the return of the deputies from Marcellus, the mercenaries finding that their cause was different from that of the deserters, and that there was no design against their lives, became perfectly satisfied, and the negotiation went on. During the course of the treaty, Marcellus found means to corrupt Mericus, a Spaniard, one of the five generals chosen by the soldiers, and engaged him to admit the Romans into that part of the city where he commanded. Mericus, the better to accomplish this design, feigned an extraordinary zeal for the preservation of that place; pretended not to like that deputies should have leave to go out and in at pleasure; and proposed, that for the greater security of the town, each general should have a distinct quarter assigned him, and be responsible for any neglect of duty in it. The motion was agreed to; and upon the division, that district of Ortigia which extended from the fountain of Arethusa to the mouth of the great port fell to his care. Marcellus, informed of what was done, took his measures accordingly. He sent a body of troops to that side where Mericus commanded, and the Spaniards admitted them at the gate of Arethusa. At the same time, the proconsul ordered a false attack to be made on Acradina; which drawing almost all the soldiers of the garrison thither, Ortigia was in a manner left defenceless. Foreseeing this, he had detached another party of soldiers to take advantage of it. These entered Ortigia almost without fighting; upon which the deserters made their escape, the Romans giving them way; and the Syracusians in Acradina, thus delivered from the fear of the deserters, immediately opened their gates to Marcellus, who thereby became master of the whole city.

And now the conqueror, who is said to have wept during the siege with compassion for the inhabitants, gave plundered up both Ortigia and Acradina to be plundered by his army, after he had secured the late king's treasures for the use of his republic, and the statues, paintings, and principal ornaments of Syracuse to illustrate his triumph. The soldiers had orders to spare the lives of the citizens; but they were cruel in their avarice, slew many of them, and among the rest the incomparable Archimedes. He was very intent on a demonstration in geometry, and calmly drawing his lines, when a soldier entered the room, and clapped a sword to his throat. "Hold! (said Archimedes) one moment, and my demonstration will be finished." But the soldier, equally regardless of his prayer and his demonstration, killed him instantly. There are different accounts of the manner of his death; but all agree that Marcellus regretted it extremely, and showed a singular favour to his relations for his sake.

The city of Syracuse continued subject to the western empire till its declension, when the island of Sicily, being by the Saracens destroyed various revolutions; till at last, in the 9th century, it was so destroyed by the Saracens, that very few traces of its ancient grandeur are now to be seen. The ancient city of Syracuse was of a triangular form, and consisted of five parts or towns. The circuit, according to Strabo, amounted to 180 stadia, or 22 English miles, and four furlongs. An account (says Mr Swinburne) which I once suspected of exaggeration; but, after spending two days in tracing the ruins, and making reasonable allowances for the encroachments of the sea, I was convinced of the exactness of his measurement.

At present it is strongly fortified towards the land, and the ditches of the bastions form the communications between the two havens. It is very weak towards the sea, but the shelves render it hazardous to debar on that side. The garrison is one of the best appointed in the kingdom, but the heights of Acradina command the works.

About eighteen thousand inhabitants are now contained in it. The dwellings are far from being memorials of ancient Syracusan architecture or opulence. In any other situation they might be thought tolerable; but to observers who reflect on the style of those buildings that probably once covered the same ground, the present edifices must have a mean appearance. The ancient temple of Minerva is now turned into a cathedral. The walls of the cella are thrown down, and only as much left in pillars as is necessary to support the roof; the intercolumniations of the peristyle are walled up. This temple is built in the old Doric proportions used in the rest of Sicily; its exterior dimensions are 185 feet in length and 75 in breadth. There are also some remains of Diana's temple, but now scarcely discernible. Besides these, there are few ruins in the island; and one is surprized that any should exist in a place which has been so often laid waste by enemies, and so often shaken by earthquakes.

Every object here imprints a melancholy sensation on the mind, while it draws a comparison between the present humble state of things and their once flourishing condition. The ancients have left pompous descriptions of the traffic carried on in this well situated port, the almost incredible wealth possessed by its citizens, and the splendid edifices upon which they lavished a great part of their riches. I had already viewed (says Mr Swinburne) the desert sites of of many great ancient cities, and had as often mourned over their remains, but never did I feel the impression of pity and regret so strong as in wandering among the ruins of Syracuse."