of the Turks, among which the principal were Corinth and Athens. The Greeks, however, still made some faint struggles; but all in vain: for by the year 1459 the whole country was subdued, excepting some maritime places held by the Venetians; and prince Thomas was obliged finally to take up his abode at Rome, where he was lodged in the pope's palace, and had a pension of 3000 livres a-year allowed him for his expenses.

Mohammed now pursued his good fortune; and having made war on the emperor of Trebizond, he subdued his dominions, and put him to death. His career, however, was War with Scanderbeg for some time stopped by Scanderbeg the Epirote. This prince had already defeated an army of 12,000 Turkish horse, of whom only 5000 escaped the slaughter; and dispersed another, with the loss of their general, and 4120 of his men killed on the spot. Encouraged by this success, he laid siege to Belgrade, which it seems was now in the hands of the Turks; but, through the treachery of his scouts, his army was defeated, and 5000 of his men killed; upon which, one of his generals, by name Moses, went over to the Turks.

Scanderbeg, not at all dispirited by this misfortune, prosecuted the war with the utmost vigour. His first enterprise was against his perfidious general Moses, who had been immediately put at the head of an army by the sultan. This army was by Scanderbeg totally destroyed, excepting about 4000 men; upon which Moses fell into such disgrace with the Turks, that he returned to his old master, who forgave his treachery, and reentered him to all his former posts.

The bad success of Moses did not prevent Amefa, the nephew of Scanderbeg, from following his example. Mohammed received him kindly, and sent him with Ishak bashaw of Constantinople; whom he intrusted with an army of 50,000 men against his uncle. Scanderbeg, with only 6000 men, retired towards Lyssa, a maritime city of the Venetians. The Turks pursued, contrary to the advice of Amefa; and being surprised by Scanderbeg, were utterly defeated, with the loss of their camp, 20,000, or, according to others, 30,000 men killed on the spot, and the treacherous Amefa taken prisoner. With the like good fortune Scanderbeg defeated three other Turkish armies, one of 20,000, another of 30,000, and the third of 18,000 men. On this Mohammed sent against him an old experienced commander, at the head of 40,000 chosen troops; but as he likewise was able to achieve nothing, the sultan thought proper to conclude a peace with Scanderbeg in 1461.

Mohammed being thus freed from such a troublesome enemy, completed the conquest of the Greek islands; subdued Wallachia, Bosnia, and Illyria, extending his empire nearly to the confines of Italy. But as it was easy to see that no conquests would satisfy the Turkish ambition, the Venetians, who found themselves ill-treated by their warlike neighbours, entered into an alliance with the Hungarians, to repel the overgrown power of the Turks, and prevent the western parts of the world from being totally overrun by them; and into this alliance Scanderbeg was soon drawn, notwithstanding his treaty with Mohammed already mentioned. The Hungarians invaded the Turkish dominions on the west side, defeated some troops, and carried off 20,000 slaves; the Venetians invaded the Morea, where they made some conquests, but were soon obliged to abandon them; however, they recovered the island of Lemnos; but notwithstanding being defeated in two engagements at land, they were obliged to solicit assistance from France, Germany, and Spain. Having obtained considerable supplies from those parts, they again entered the Morea; but meeting with still worse success than before, they applied for assistance to Matthias the son of John Huniades king of Hungary. Matthias willingly made another incursion into the Turkish dominions, Turkey, ravaged Servia, and carried off a vast number of prisoners, with a great booty.

In the mean time, Mohammed, fearing left Scanderbeg should be declared generalissimo of the Christian forces, sent to him, defining a renewal of the league between them. But this being refused, the war was renewed with the utmost vigour. Many Turkish armies were sent against this hero; but they were utterly defeated and dispersed, till the year 1466, when by his death the sultan was freed from the most formidable enemy he had ever encountered.

The death of Scanderbeg was followed by the entire reduction of Epirus and Albania. The Venetians in 1469 defeated the Turks in a pitched battle; but were driven out of Negropont, at that time the strongest city in Europe; after which they entered into an alliance with Ferdinand king of Naples, Lewis king of Cyprus, and the grand master of Rhodes, at the same time that they sent ambassadors to Uzun Hafsan king of Persia, in order to persuade him to attack the Turkish dominions on the east side. Mohammed did not lose his courage at the number of his enemies; but having defeated the Persians, reduced the Venetians to get to such distress, that they were obliged to conclude a treaty in 1479.

In 1481 the war was renewed, and the city of Rhodes besieged, but without success; however, the city of Cephalonia was taken from the Venetians, Italy invaded, and the city of Otranto taken. This was the last of the exploits of Death of Mohammed II., who died this year of the gout, and was succeeded by his son Bayezid, or Bajazet II. Under this prince a war commenced with the Mamalukes of Egypt, which, under his successor Selim I., ended in the total subjugation of that country. Bajazet, however, greatly facilitated Selim's conquest by the reduction of Circassia, whence the Mamalukes drew their principal resources. Carmania and Croatia were totally reduced; the cities of Le-Turks, Panto, Modon, and Durazzo, taken by the Turks, though the Venetians recovered Cephalonia; Syria on the east, and Moldavia on the west, were invaded and ravaged by the victorious armies of the sultan; till at last a peace was concluded with the European powers in 1503.

The year 1509 is remarkable for a dreadful earthquake at Constantinople, which overturned a great number of houses, and destroyed 13,000 people; being also followed by an epidemic distemper, which carried off great numbers. About this time also the sultan, finding the infirmities of old age drawing on, and being desirous of passing the remainder of his days in quiet, resolved to resign the throne to his eldest son Ahmed. But having engaged in this affair with too great precipitation, and before he had gained over the grandees, his second son Selim, whom he had made governor of Trabzon, hastily crossing the Euxine sea, dethroned and put to death his father, in the year 1512.

The new emperor, who had not scrupled to sacrifice his father to his ambition, did not hesitate at establishing himself on the throne by the death of his brother also. Accordingly, as Ahmed, knowing he could be nowhere safe, resolved to stand on his defence, Selim with a powerful army marched against him; and having defeated the few forces of his brother, took him prisoner, and put him to death. Having thus secured himself, he marched against the Persians, whom he overthrew in a great battle; after which he took Persia, the city of Taurus; made some other conquests; and having secured tranquillity on the eastern side of his dominions, turned his arms against Sultan Gauri of Egypt. Him he reduced in the manner related under the article Egypt, n. 101. His farther designs of conquest were frustrated by his death, which happened in the year 1519. Slim was succeeded by his son Solyman I., surnamed Kanuni, or The Lawgiver, who proved no less ambitious and warlike than his father. Having defeated and killed the governor of Damascus, who had rebelled against him, he attacked the European princes with a design to extend his dominions as far to the westward as he possessed to the eastward of his capital. In 1520 he set out with a great army to conquer Hungary. The city of Belgrade was immediately invested, and in a short time taken. Rhodes also being attacked by a great force by sea and land, was obliged to submit, after a most desperate resistance, as is related under that article, n° 33, et seq.; and Solyman entered the city in triumph on Christmas day 1522. His conquests for some time were stopped by a rebellion in Egypt; but this being soon quelled, the war with Hungary was renewed in 1525. King Lewis having rashly engaged the Turkish army of 200,000 men with only 25,000, was utterly defeated, himself drowned in a ditch, and his whole army, excepting a few horses, cut in pieces. This defeat was followed by the surrender of Buda, which, however, the Hungarians retook in 1528; but next year it was again taken by the Turks, and soon after both the Moldavias submitted to their jurisdiction. The city of Vienna was then invested; but after being reduced to the greatest straits, the sultan was obliged to abandon the siege by the coming on of the autumnal rains; which, however, he did not without barbarously massacring all his prisoners.

The raising the siege of Vienna was followed by an entire repulse of the Turks from the German territories: on which Solyman, resolving to extend his dominions on the east, subdued the country of Georgia, and made himself master of the city of Bagdad; at the same time that his admiral, the celebrated Barbarossa, ravaged the coasts of Italy, and took the cities of Biferta and Tunis in Africa. But, in 1536, he was obliged to retire before Charles V. of Spain, who retook the city of Tunis. Solyman, to revenge this disgrace, suspended for a time the war in Persia, in order to turn all his forces against Italy; but while this country was in danger of being totally overwhelmed, a Venetian captain having rashly taken and sunk some Turkish vessels, Solyman changed his design of attacking Italy into that of chastising the Venetians. However, after some trifling encounters, a peace was concluded in 1540.

This year the war was renewed in Hungary; the transactions were very unfortunate for the Christians, and ended in the entire reduction of the kingdom to a Turkish province. The kingdom of France, being oppressed by its enemies, entered into an alliance with Solyman, who was now grown so powerful, that the whole European powers seemed scarce able to resist him. However, in 1565, he was baffled by the knights of Malta, as is related under that article; and in 1566 an end was put to his ambition and his conquests by death.

Solyman was succeeded by his son Selim II., surnamed Meli, or "The Drunken." Under him the empire at first lost nothing of its lustre; but in 1571 the maritime power of the Turks was almost entirely destroyed at Lepanto, where one of the most remarkable sea-engagements mentioned in history took place. The Christian fleet was commanded by Doria the Venetian admiral; and consisted of 78 Spanish and 3 Maltese galleys, under Don John of Austria, natural son to the emperor Charles V. Besides these, under Venier, a Venetian officer, were 108 galleys, 6 galleasses, 2 tall ships, and a great many small galliots. Colonna, a kinsman of the pope, had also 12 of his galleys under his command. On board this fleet were 20,000 good soldiers, many of them persons of great quality, who went volunteers in the expedition. Though the Turkish fleet consisted of Turkey, 335 sail, the most experienced officers were against fighting at that time, considering the great strength of the confederates, and that there was no necessity for an engagement. But the opinion of Ali Pasha, the chief admiral, who was for a battle, prevailing, Parteu Pasha, the next in command, took on board 12,000 janizaries and spahis, drawn out of the neighbouring garrisons; besides 4000 other soldiers. Then putting out of the gulf, the fleet steered their course for the isle of Corzalates, of old Echinates, half-way between Lepanto and Patras; and the Christians moving towards them, both fleets came in sight, October 7th afternoon. Hereupon Don John, having ordered the great ensigns of the confederates, which was the signal for engaging, to be hoisted, clad in armour, went in his long boat to encourage the several squadrons of the centre under his command; while Doria did the like in the right wing, and Barbadico, the Venetian proveditor-general, in the left.

The signal was no sooner given, than the Turks, with a hideous cry, fell on six galleasses which lay at anchor near a mile a-head of the confederate fleet; but those ships fired to briskly on them, first from their forecastles and then as they passed by, so galled their galleys with whole broadsides, that several of them were sunk, which made the rest bear farther off. The wind likewise chopped about to the west, and incommode the Turks with the smoke. However, they soon rallied their disordered squadrons, and came on with surprising resolution. The action was continued for several hours with equal bravery on both sides; but victory at last declared for the confederates.

The number of Turks slain in this famous naval fight could not with certainty be known. An author who wrote an account of this war, makes their number 32,000 besides prisoners, who were about 3500. The galleys taken from them amounted to 161. Forty more were sunk or burnt; and of galliots, with other small vessels, about 60 were taken.

Notwithstanding the prodigious loss sustained by the Turks on this occasion, the confederates reaped but little advantage from this victory; and next year Kilij Ali Pasha, the Chirha, who had succeeded to the post of high admiral, fitted fifteen out of a fleet of 250 galleys, with which he ravaged the coasts of Christendom wherever he came, and maintained his ground so well, that the confederates could never gain the least advantage over him.

The Turkish power from this time, however, began to decline. The progress of civilization being much more quick among the western nations, and their improvements in the art of war very considerable, the Turks found it not only impossible to extend their dominion over Germany, but even a matter of some difficulty to withstand the power of the western princes. During the remainder of the reign of Selim, the war was carried on in Hungary with little advantage on either side; but under his successor, Sultan Morad III., the Turks met with several severe checks from the Germans.

In 1594, Mohammed III., having succeeded his father Morad, destroyed his 19 brethren, in order to secure himself on the throne; and for the same reason caused 10 of his father's wives and concubines to be thrown into the sea, lest any of them should prove with child. The emperor Rodolph II., having entered into a confederation against him with the princes of Transylvania, Walachia, and Moldavia, defeated the Turks and their Tartar auxiliaries in several engagements, and took many cities; while a grievous famine and plague raged in Hungary, that of 85,000 Tartars who had entered the country the year before, scarce 8000 remained alive. This was followed by new misfortunes; for Turks... Turkey, that in the year following the Turks were entirely driven out of Transylvania, Moldavia, and Walachia.

In 1621, under Othman or Osman II, we find the Turks first engaged in a war with Poland; but a peace was concluded the same year; the chief article of which was, that the Poles should have a free trade in the Turkish dominions, and that for this their merchants should pay 10,000 sequins. The Turkish affairs continued pretty much in the same way till the year 1673, when a dreadful war broke out with Germany, Russia, and Poland, whose army was at that time commanded by the celebrated John Sobieski. The year before, hostilities had commenced on account of the Poles having endeavoured to detach the Cossacks from their allegiance to the sultan. At this time the Turks were successful, through the dissensions which reigned among the Poles; and the latter were obliged to pay an annual tribute of 20,000 rixdollars, and to deliver up 48 towns and villages in the territory of Kaminiack. However, the articles of this treaty were never executed; for, in 1673, the states of Poland sent a letter to Kyopilli Ahmed Pasha, the vizir at that time, informing him that they considered as null the conditions of the treaty, being concluded without their consent, and that they would rather suffer death than submit to the infamy of paying one single farthing by way of tribute. On this the sultan, Mohammed IV, determined to take a severe revenge on their perfidy, set out with a great army; but was entirely defeated, with the loss of 20,000 men killed on the spot, all the baggage, 25,000 waggon loads of provision and ammunition, and 2000 purses of money for paying the army. Soon after this victory, John was proclaimed king of Poland; but his subjects, jealous of his glory, refused to support him properly in prosecuting his advantage; so that, four years after, a treaty was concluded, by which the Poles for ever resigned their pretensions to Kaminiack and to the dominion of the Cossacks in Podolia.

But though peace was thus made with Poland, the war was carried on very unsuccessfully with Russia. In 1678, an army of the Tartars was entirely cut in pieces or taken near the city of Chernigov; which so intimidated another army of 40,000 Turks, who had waited for the arrival of these auxiliaries, that they threw away their arms, and fled without stopping till they had crossed the river Bog. This defeat inclined the sultan to peace; but the negotiations proving ineffectual, he, in 1679, again sent a powerful army of 80,000 Turks, 30,000 Tartars, and 4000 Cossacks, under the command of the vizir, to retrieve his lost honour. This army, however, succeeded little better than the former; for the vizir was defeated in several engagements; and at last, according to custom, put to death on account of the bad success of the war. In 1684 the Venetians again declared war, while the Poles and Germans continued their hostilities with the utmost violence. The Turks were forced to yield to the superior fortune and valour of their adversaries; they were defeated in a great number of engagements, and lost many places of importance. In short, their affairs seemed to be totally going to wreck, when, in 1688, they were retrieved by the new vizir Ahmed Kyopilli, a man of great skill and experience in war, as well as of the most upright and blameless character. Having prevailed in the divan to have the war carried on, he applied his whole care to the raising of an army, and providing suitable stores. But finding the people everywhere intimidated and unwilling to oppose the enemy, the treasury exhausted, and an universal languor prevailing, he made a new kind of proclamation, in which he told the people, that "as he found it necessary to trust the command of the army against the haughty Germans to none but himself," so he would not employ in this expedition any soldier forced into the service; knowing that the will was of more value with God than the deed; that he would only put the Mussulmans in mind, that, by the precepts of God and his prophet, every one is commanded neither to avoid martyrdom, nor to despair of success against infidels, &c. Having thus once routed the enthusiasm of the common people, they flocked in great numbers to his standard; after which, having reformed many abuses both in the civil and military departments, he led them against the enemy. The good effects of his reformation were evident. Great numbers of the enemy were cut off, and almost all the important places taken which had been lost before, when, in 1691, he was at last defeated and killed by the Germans at Isaukamen. After his death the Turkish affairs again fell into disorder; and, though the utmost efforts were used by succeeding vizirs, no progress could be made; and, in 1697, a prodigious overthrow was given them by Prince Eugene at Zenta. At Peace concluded, in 1698, all parties being weary of such an expensive and ruinous war, a pacification took place at Carlowitz, but on different terms with the different nations who had been at war with the Turks. The emperor made a truce for 25 Terms years, upon condition that all Transylvania should be restored to him; the city of Temeswar was to be restored to the Turks, and the navigation of the Tisza and Maros rivers be free to both nations; that the country between the Danube and the Tisza, called Bachkak, remain in the emperor's hands; that the boundary of the eastern part of Hungary, belonging to the emperor, should be a right line drawn from the mouth of the Maros towards the banks of the river Tisza to the mouth of the Bofluit, where it falls into the Saave; that towards the south the Saave should part the Turkish from the Imperial limits, till it receives the Unna; and that no new castles besides Belgrade and Peterwaradin should be erected, or old ones fortified, anywhere within these boundaries.

The Russian ambassador made a truce only for two years, with the upon the foot of each party possessing what he had taken, Russians. The Poles made a truce on the like terms with the sultan; namely, that they should have Kaminiack, Podolia, and Ukraine, restored to them, in the same extent as possessed by them before sultan Mohammed's first expedition into Poland; and, on the other hand, resign Soczava, Nemoz, and Soraka, in Moldavia, to the Turks. The Venetians obtained these conditions: that all the Morea, as far as Hexam, los, should belong to them; and that the firm land, with Naupaktum (or Lepanto), Preveza, and the cattle of Romania, which had been demolished, should be restored to the Turks; that the bay of Corinth should be common to both, and the Venetians possess Lenkade with the adjacent islands. The yearly tribute paid by the islands in the Archipelago to the Venetians was to be abolished; and Zakynthos to be declared free from the like burden by the Turks. In Dalmatia, Knin, Ciniz, Kikluti, Verlika, Duare, and Vengoraz, were to be left to the republic, and fixed as the boundaries of their dominions on that side. The Russians were to continue free, and the Venetians to retain the cattle of Cattelino and Rifaro, with what they possessed in the neighbourhood. Both parties were allowed to fortify their borders with new fortresses; or to repair those which were decayed, excepting Naupaktum, Preveza, and the cattle of Romania before mentioned.

From the conclusion of the peace of Carlowitz to the year 1769, nothing very remarkable occurs in the Turkish history, excepting their recovery of the Morea from the Venetians by the treaty of Passarowitz. (See the article Venice.) Their war with the Russians under Peter the Great has been taken notice of under the article Russia; those afterwards with Persia, under that article. None of these, indeed, Turkey indeed, were of any great consequence; but, in 1769, a war commenced with Russia, which threatened the Ottoman empire with destruction, and which has given it such a severe check as it can scarcely recover. The origin of this war is given under the article Poland, no 101; and during the course of it, an almost uninterrupted train of success attended the Russian arms.—About the end of March 1769, a body of Russian troops made themselves masters of the important fortress of Alop, at the mouth of the river Don. In the end of April, prince Gallitzin, commander in chief of the Russian army on the frontiers of Poland, passed the river Niester, hoping to take the fortress of Chocozim by surprise; but being disappointed, he was obliged to return. Near the beginning of July, however, he again passed that river, and on the 13th attacked and defeated the van of the Turkish grand vizier's army, consisting of about 50,000 or 60,000 men. Thirteen thousand of the fugitives entered Chocozim; which was next day invested by the Russians; but they were at last obliged to raise the siege and repass the Niester; which they could not effect without considerable loss.

In the mean time, both the Ottoman and Russian courts were displeased with the conduct of their generals. The Turkish grand vizier was deprived of his command, and afterwards beheaded; and was succeeded by Moldovani Aga Pasha, a man of a bold and enterprising spirit. On his first taking the command of the army, finding it impossible to subdue where he was, he attempted to force a passage over the Niester; but being three times repulsed with great loss, he made a precipitate retreat towards Bender, at the same time drawing the troops out of Chocozim, which the Russians immediately took possession of.

Prince Gallitzin was now superseded by general Romanzow, who took the command of the army on the 20th of September. Soon after his arrival, he received news of the success of general Elmpf, who, with a body of 10,000 men, had reduced the province of Yaffa. He invested Bender; but finding the season of the year too far advanced, he soon withdrew his troops, and put them into winter quarters.

This first campaign had proved so unprofitable to the Turkish affairs, that the court would gladly have concluded a peace, if they could have obtained it upon honourable terms; but the Russians insisting upon the entire cession of Moldavia and Walachia as a preliminary article, the negotiations came to nothing. A new campaign was therefore resolved on; and this proved still more unsuccessful than before. The grand Russian army under general Romanzow passed the Niester in the month of May 1770; and, having assembled at Chocozim on the 3rd of June, marched towards Pruth; at the same time, their second army, commanded by general Panin, arrived before Bender. The plan of operation was, that the latter should form the siege of Bender, and Romanzow should cover it.

On the 18th of July, general Romanzow attacked an army of 80,000 Turks and Tartars, commanded by the Khan of Crimea, and strongly intrenched on an almost inaccessible mountain, forced their intrenchments, and obliged them to flee in the utmost confusion, leaving an immense quantity of ammunition and provisions, &c., in their camp; which they totally abandoned to the victors.—After this victory, the Russian general pushed on towards the Danube; and on the 2d of August attacked another Turkish army, commanded by the grand vizier in person, and totally defeated it, making himself master of their camp, ammunition, 143 pieces of cannon, and above 7,000 carriages loaded with provisions. The loss of the Turks on this occasion was not reckoned less than 40,000 men, and some accounts raised it to 60,000.—During the course of this summer also, the forts of Kilia Nova, at the most northerly mouth of the Danube, surrendered by capitulation; and likewise that of Ackerman, or Bilgorod, near the mouth of the Niester. Bender was taken by storm on the 27th of November; and the town, and Russians, enraged at the obstinate resistance they had met, with, made a terrible slaughter of their enemies. It was computed that 30,000 Turks perished on this occasion. The forts of Brailow, situated on the northern side of the Danube, was invested on the 26th of September; and the garrison were so much intimidated by the taking of Bender, that they abandoned the place, and most of them were drowned in crossing the river.—During this campaign, it was reported that the Russians took 1,000 pieces of cannon from their enemies.

This year also a Russian fleet of 16 or 18 ships entered a Russian fleet and the Mediterranean, and landed a body of troops on the Morea. These being joined by the Greeks, committed great cruelties on the Turks, and made themselves masters of almost the whole country. At last, however, the Porte, notwithstanding their bad success in other parts, found means to send a force into the Morea sufficient to overpower the Russians. The Greeks now suffered in their turn; and the Russians, hearing that a Turkish fleet had passed the Dardanelles, abandoned the Morea, and failed to meet their antagonists. A battle ensued, in which the Turks were defeated; and they having imprudently retired into a neighbouring harbour, they were next day entirely destroyed by the Russian fire-ships fleet, except one ship of 64 guns, which was taken. This fleet consisted of 15 ships of the line, from 96 to 60 guns, three large frigates, and seven large armed vessels, besides galleys. After this victory, the Russian fleet blocked up the mouth of the Dardanelles, interrupted the Turkish trade, prevented the carrying of provisions to Constantinople by sea, and raised contributions from most of the islands in the Archipelago.

In 1771, matters did not at first go on so successfully on the part of the Russians. On the side of the Danube, they were obliged to keep on the defensive. Another army, under prince Dolgorucki, had better success; they reduced the whole peninsula of Crim Tartary in less than a month, though defended by an army of 50,000 men.—During these transactions, the Turks made themselves masters of the forts of Giurgevo; which enabled them to become so formidable on the side of Walachia, that prince Repnin durst not attack them. Upon his refusal to do so, he was deprived of his command; which was given to General Effen. On the 17th of August, he attacked the Turkish intrenchments; but, after a desperate engagement of four hours, was defeated, with the loss of upwards of 3,000 men.

This was the only engagement of any consequence in which the Turks had proved victorious since the beginning of the war; and, after it, their usual bad fortune attended them. In consequence of their victory, they determined to winter on the northern side of the Danube, which would have been of the utmost service to them; and with which view they considerably reinforced their army in Walachia. But general Romanzow, by a train of masterly dispositions, not only thwarted all their schemes, but surprised them on their own side of the river. They had divided their army into two great bodies, which were stationed in the nearest and most important posts on the Turkish side of the Danube. On the 20th of October, one of these bodies was surprised at Tuliza by general Weifman, and another at Maczin by general Miloradowitz. The event was the same in both places. The intrenchments were forced, the Turks totally routed, and their artillery, stores, and magazines taken, together with the two towns and their cattle. Next day general Weifman attacked the grand vizier himself, with the like... Turkey. like success. The intrenchments were forged, a vast quantity of artillery taken, and likewise the town and castle of Babadagh; while the vizir, with the remains of his army, fled 30 miles to seek refuge at Mount Hemus. A few days afterwards general Ellen defeated another body of Turks, and retook the forts of Giurgevo, driving the enemy totally out of Walachia. The Russian fleet this year spread ruin and desolation through the defenceless islands of the Archipelago and the coasts of Asia, striking terror into the city of Constantinople itself. A dreadful pestilence raged this year in the Turkish army; and in the autumn broke out at Molcov, where it destroyed vast numbers.

The affairs of the Turks were now in such a desperate condition, that they very eagerly sued for peace. The only conditions on which this could be obtained, however, were, that the Crimea, Budziac Tartary, and all that vast tract of country on the coast of the Black Sea, as far as the north shore of the Danube, should continue forever under the dominion of Russia; that the Russians should enjoy an unlimited freedom of navigation on the Black Sea, together with the possession of the city of Asoph, on the mouth of the Don; and that a sum of money should be paid them by way of indemnification for the expenses of the war. These terms, however, were rejected; and the negotiations, which continued through the whole year 1772, at last came to nothing.

The commissioners on both sides retired from Bucharest, the place where the congress was held, on the 22nd of March 1773. For some time a defunct kind of war was carried on between detachments from the two armies. But as this was very prejudicial to the Russians, who could not be so easily recruited as the Turks, about the middle of June, Romanow made preparations for passing the Danube with the grand Russian army, consisting of 87,000 men; which, however, he did not accomplish till the 24th; and then marched with his army, in large divisions, towards the city of Silistria. He was terribly harassed on his march by large bodies of the Turkish cavalry, of whom the grand vizir had detached 27,000 for this purpose. At last, however, they arrived before the city, which was strongly fortified, and defended by a body of troops consisting of about 24,000 men. On the 29th of June, this body was defeated by general Weifman, who commanded the van of the Russian army, and forced to retire into Silistria. The grand vizir then detached 50,000 men to the relief of the place; upon this the Russians found it necessary to retreat; which was not accomplished without very great difficulty and loss. In this retreat general Weifman was killed, and the army left all their magazines behind them.

Many other severe conflicts happened this campaign, which proved less glorious to the Russians than any of the former ones. In 1774, however, their arms were attended with better success. Romanow's army was reinforced by 40,000 men; and, on the night between the 16th and 17th of June, passed the Danube in spite of all opposition. A continued series of engagements then happened between the Russian generals and different bodies of the Turks. In these the latter were always defeated; and at last became so much dispirited, that a body of 40,000, or, according to some accounts, of 70,000 Turks, fled at the first sight of a body of their enemies greatly inferior in number, leaving behind them all their tents and baggage, with a fine train of brass artillery. From this time, disorder, mutiny, and dismay, seized all the Turkish armies; and they absolutely refused to face their enemies. They plundered the baggage, robbed and murdered their officers, deserted by thousands, taking the road to Constantinople, and committing every kind of outrage by the way. The ministers of state, after having tried all methods to induce this lawless crew to return to their duty, were obliged to furnish them with vessels for their transportation into Asia. According to some accounts, no fewer than 140,000 of the Turkish troops deserted in this manner. Even in the grand vizir's camp at Schunla, matters went on in the same wholesale manner. He was abandoned by his whole cavalry; his European and Asiatic troops quarrelled, and cut one another to pieces before his face; and, in short, the vast army he commanded was reduced almost to nothing. The Russian general did not fail to take advantage of these misfortunes. He placed the different divisions of his army in such advantageous situations, that he totally cut off all communication between the Turkish camp and every means of subsistence. The unfortunate vizir, therefore, was obliged at last to submit to the terms which Romanow dictated to him. The principal articles were, the independence of the Crimea; the absolute cession of Kuburn, Kerche, and Jenickala, and all the country between the Bosphorus and the Nipper; a free navigation in all the Turkish seas, in which was included the passage through the Dardanelles, with all the privileges and immunities which were granted to the most favoured nations. Russia gave up all her conquests, except Asoph and Taganrook. There were, besides, several stipulations in favour of the inhabitants of Moldavia and Walachia, and the Greek islands which were restored by Russia.

Soon after this period an extraordinary alarm was excited at the Porte by the sudden appearance of a new prophet in Upper Asia. This man, whose name was Sheik Mansour, pretended that he was predestined by the eternal and immutable decrees of Heaven to fill up the measure of Divine revelation to mankind; and that as he was to be the last, so he was the greatest of the prophets. The scene of his military was in the wide and desolate regions on the borders of the Caspian Sea; and though the first rumour of his proceedings represented him as at the head of a multitude of armed enthusiasts ready to overturn the established government and the religion of Mahomet, it was soon discovered that all the military fury of his zeal was directed against the Christians. He had even influence enough to form a combination of all the nations of Caucasian Tartars against the Russians, which was certainly of some service to the Turks in that war, which the empress Catherine was now meditating against them.

In the mean time, while this war was impending, the most formidable rebellion broke out in Egypt, the granary of the Turkish empire (see Egypt, No. 125); but it was, after a long, bloody, and dangerous war, almost suppressed by the wise conduct and intrepid bravery of Hassan Bey, the Captain Pacha or Grand Admiral, who, at the age of 70, fought with all the ardour of youth, and all the skill of the most consummate general. That veteran, however, was recalled before he was able to carry all his patriotic designs into execution, that he might aid the divan with his counsel, in the new critical situation into which the empire was brought by the arrogant claims of the court of Russia. The result of the deliberations was a precipitate declaration of war against that court, contrary to the better judgment of the old Pacha.

The war commenced in autumn 1787, and the hordes of Tartars which were first brought into the field, headed by the new prophet, were everywhere defeated by the superior discipline of the Russian troops commanded by Prince Potemkin. Some enterprises which were undertaken by the Turks against the island of Taman and the Crimea were attended with as little success as the attempts of the Tartars; while the Emperor Joseph declared to the Porte that he would assist his ally the empress of Russia with an army of 80,000 men. Four Austrian armies were accordingly assembled; one at Carlstadt in Croatia, under the command of general de Vins; another at Peterwaradin in Hungary, commanded by general Langlois; a third on the borders of Lithuania, Turkey. Thuania, under general Febris; and the fourth in the Buccowine, under the orders of the prince of Saxe-Cobourg. Two other generals, ten lieutenant-generals, and thirty major-generals, were all ordered to prepare for active service in the frontier armies. If any thing had been yet wanting to show the fixed determination of the court of Vienna, the measure of sending general Alvinzi to act in and observe the conduct of the Russian armies during the war, and the receiving a Russian officer of equal rank to act the same part in the Austrian, would have been alone a sufficient explanation.

The war between the Turks and Austrians was carried on with various success. At first the advantage was evidently on the side of the Ottomans, and the imperial Joseph acquired no warlike renown. His declared purpose was to get possession of Belgrade; from which however his enemies repulsed him with disgrace. The prince of Saxe-Cobourg in his department of the war displayed indeed prodigies of valour; but being opposed to a superior force, he was long obliged to act only on the defensive. At length, being joined by a body of Russian forces under general Soltikow, preparations were made for commencing in form the siege of Choczim, which was surrendered to the allied armies on Michaelmas day 1788, after a defence which would have done honour to the ablest general in Europe. Still, however, success seemed to lean to the Turks. The grand vizir made a sudden incursion into the Bannat, and spread consternation and dismay to the very gates of Vienna. The Austrian affairs seemed approaching to a very alarming crisis; not only the splendid views of conquest which were beheld in the imagined partition of a tottering empire had totally disappeared, but had left in their place the sad and gloomy reverse of a discontented and impoverished people, an exhausted treasury, and an army thinned by pestilence and defection. The first campaign of an invasive war had already produced an impression on the territory of the invader.

In this situation of affairs Marshal Laudohn was with some difficulty drawn from his retirement to take the command of the army in Croatia; and under his auspices fortune began to smile on the Austrian arms. He quickly reduced Dubica and Nevi, though they were both defended with the most obstinate bravery. He then sat down before Turkish Gradisca; but the autumnal rains coming on with such violence that the Saava overflowed its banks, he was compelled to raise the siege. During this period the war in the Bannat raged with the utmost violence; torrents of blood were shed on both sides; much desperate valour displayed on the one side, and many brave actions performed on the other; while a very great part of that fine but unfortunate country suffered all the desolation and ruin that fire and sword, under the dominion of vengeance and animosity, could inflict. The inhabitants were objects of commiseration; but the injustice with which the emperor had commenced the war made his personal losses be considered as nothing more than the due reward of his conduct.

Hitherto the Russians had hardly entered into the war; but at last they began to act with vigour both by sea and land. They experienced however a very general coldness with respect to their claims, pretensions, and designs, in almost all the courts of Europe. The court of London prohibited British seamen from entering into foreign service, and declared its resolution to observe the strictest neutrality. The united provinces of Holland pursued the same line of conduct; and some of the ambitious views of Russia were thus blasted. In the mean time a vast Russian army, estimated at 150,000 men, appeared on the banks of the river Bog, adjoining to the confines of Poland, Turkey, and Tartary, and on the way to the Black Sea, under the orders of prince Potemkin and general Romanzow; these being assisted by prince Repnin, general Soltikow, and other commanders of note. This great force was supported by a field train of 137 pieces of artillery, besides a vast park of heavy battering cannon and mortars, destined for the siege of Oczakow; and furnished with that exuberance of powder, ball, shells, and all manner of military machines, which are the usual concomitants of a Russian army. After the most obstinate defence, Oczakow was taken on the 17th of December 1788, and the governor baha graced the triumphant return of prince Potemkin to Petersburgh. In the mean time Russia found herself attacked by a new and formidable enemy in the Swedish monarch, of whose exploits we have given an account elsewhere (see Sweden, no 246); and by his interference her conquests were certainly retarded.

Marshal Laudohn renewed his attempts upon Gradisca as soon as the season would permit, and after a brave defence it fell into his hands. This with some other successes roused the emperor from his inactivity, and made him feriously determine upon the attack which he had long meditated upon Belgrade. The enterprise was entrusted to Laudohn, who, with that good fortune which seemed constantly to attend him, made himself master of the place in less than a month. The rest of the campaign was little else than a succession of the most important successes; and a circumstance that did not a little contribute to this, was the system adopted by the Austrians and Russians, of suffering the Turkish troops to march out of the several places they garrisoned without molestation. Accordingly, while one detachment of general Laudohn's forces took possession of Czernitz in Walachia, another made itself master of Cladova in Servia. Bucharest, the capital of the former of these provinces, fell without opposition into the hands of prince Cobourg; while Akerman on the Black Sea was reduced by the Russians; and Bender surrendered to prince Potemkin, not without suspicion of sinister practices, on the 15th of November.

Soon after this, the emperor Joseph died, and his successor Leopold showed a desire for peace. After the reduction of Orlova, therefore, which happened on the 16th of April 1792, the war was carried on with languor on the part of Austria; and in the month of June a conference was agreed upon at Rieichenbach, at which the ministers of Prussia, Austria, England, and the United Provinces, assisted, and at which also an envoy from Poland was occasionally present. After a negotiation, which continued till the 17th of August, it was agreed that a peace should be concluded between the king of Hungary and the Ottoman Porte; that the basis of this treaty should be a general surrender of all the conquests made by the former, retaining only Choczim as a security till the Porte should accede to the terms of the agreement, when it was also to be restored. Catherine was thus deprived of an ally, but still she continued the war. On the 22nd of December 1790, the fortress of Ilmail was taken by storm by general Suwa-row; and it is said that the siege and the capture did not cost the Russians less than 10,000 men. The success of most shocking part of the transaction is, that the garrison of the Russian army (whole bravery merited, and would have received from a generous foe, the highest honours) were massacred in cold blood by the merciless Russians, to the amount of, by their own account, upwards of 30,000 men; and the place was given up to the unrestrained fury of the brutal soldiery. After this bloody scene, the Russians went into winter quarters; the vizir retired towards Constantinople, and on his return fell a sacrifice to the sanguinary policy which has long disgraced the Ottoman councils.

The campaign of 1791 opened on the part of Russia with the taking of Maczin, on the 4th of April, by prince Galitzin; and in a subsequent victory on the 12th by the same general, in the neighbourhood of Brailow, the Turks lost not Turkey.

less than 4000 men and upwards of 150 officers, besides many pieces of cannon. On the 14th the Russian arms experienced a check, by which they lost about 700 men, and were obliged to relinquish the intention of besieging Brailow. After reinforcing this place, the vizir proceeded to the banks of the Danube near Silistra; and, by means of a bridge which he threw across the river, his advanced posts were enabled to make incursions on the opposite side. The ability of the vizir and the valour of the Turks were however exerted in vain against the discipline and experience of European armies. In the month of June, 1500 Turks were defeated by a party of cavalry under general Kutulow. On the 3d of July the fortress of Anapa was taken by general Gudowitch, and the garrison, to the amount of 600 men, made prisoners. This event was followed, on the 9th of the same month, by a signal victory which prince Repnin obtained near Maccin over a body of 70,000, the flower of the Turkish army. The Ottomans left upwards of 4000 dead upon the field of battle, and lost their entire camp equipage, colours, and 30 pieces of cannon. The Russians are said to have lost only 150 men killed, and between 200 and 300 wounded. At last peace was restored between the Porte and Russia, principally through the mediation of Great Britain and the northern powers. Catherine, who talked high at first, confined her views at length to the possession of Oczakow, with the district extending from the Boz to the Niefter, and even then providing for the free navigation of the latter river. These terms, considering the ill success of the war, cannot be accounted very disadvantageous to the Porte, who has lost a fortress more useful for the purpose of annoying Russia than for defending their own territories; but certainly of considerable importance to Russia, which, by this cession, has secured the peaceable enjoyment of the Crimea.

The Turkish empire comprehends several countries in Europe, Asia, and Africa. In Europe it is bounded on the south by the Mediterranean; on the north by Croatia, Scylavonia, and Transylvania; on the east by Poland, Russia, and Asia; and on the west by the Adriatic and Dalmatia. The principal countries of Turkey in Europe are Romania, Bulgaria, Servia, Walachia, Moldavia, Bessarabia, Greece, Macedonia, Albania, Thessaly, Levedia, Morea, and the Archipelago islands. Turkey in Asia is divided into Eastern and Western. The Eastern comprehends Georgia, Turcomania, and Dearbekr; and the Western, Anatolia, or Asia Minor, Syria, and Palestine.—In Africa the Turkish dominions are Egypt, and some districts of Barbary. But for an account of these different countries, see the articles as they occur in the order of the alphabet.

The grand signior, or emperor of the Turks, is restrained by no laws or compacts, the government being purely monarchical; but if he indulges not the humours of the people, and especially of the mutinous janizaries, he is in danger not only of being deposed, but also of being put to death. Those who have offices under the government he squeezes, disgraces, and puts to death, upon the least suspicion of their disaffection or misconduct, without giving them an opportunity of answering for themselves, they being looked upon as more immediately his slaves: but others seem to enjoy almost as great a degree of security, both in their persons and properties, as the subjects of other absolute monarchies. Indeed, in all such there is a gradation of governors and officers, of which the higher fleece and oppresses those below them, and the lowest make reprisals upon the common people. In the succession to the empire, no regard is paid to age or birthright; the Turks thinking it sufficient if, in their elections, they keep to the family. Women are excluded from the throne. The emperor's council is either ordinary or extraordinary. The first, meeting every Sunday and Thursday, consists of the great officers of state, and is called the galibe divani. To the other, which is called ajack divani, are summoned all the great personages and officers of the empire, and even the oldest and most experienced soldiers. The sultan hears what passes from an adjoining chamber. At the head of the ministry is the grand vizir, who is as it were his lieutenant-general, with whom he divides, or rather to whom he leaves, the care of the whole empire; he being entrusted not only with the finances, with foreign affairs, and the administration of justice in civil and criminal matters, but also with the conduct of the war, and the command of the army. Great and dangerous as this charge is, there have been men who have executed it with safety and success both in peace and war, and have died quietly in their beds; but that is not the case with the most of them, it being the usual policy of the emperors to shelter themselves from the clamours of the people by throwing the whole blame of any mal-administration upon him, and giving him up to the public resentment. His income, without any breach of probity, may amount to 600,000 dollars, exclusive of presents and other perquisites. Notwithstanding his high dignity, his palace is open to every one, and he gives audience to the meanest of the poor. When the sultan names a grand vizir, he puts into his hand the seal of the empire; and when he honours him with the command of an army, he takes out one of the plumes of his own turban at the head of the troops, and delivers it to him to place it in its own. The other great officers of state are the kaimakan, or vizir's deputy, not to be confounded with the governor of Constantinople, who is also called kaimakan; the vizirs of the bench, or bashas of three horse-tails, because three horse-tails are carried before them when they march, and who sit in the divan or courts of justice with him; the kadinalaquiers, or chief justices of provinces; the beiglerbeys or viceroys, of which the chief are those of Romelia, Nato- lla, and Damalcaus; the ordinary bashas or governors of towns and districts under the beiglerbeys; the reis effendi, or lord chancellor and secretary of state; the teitterer or high treasurer; the aga of the janitaries; the aga of the spahis; the aga of the fluides, &c. The chief officers of the seraglio are the kilfaragai, who is superintendent of the women, and has the command of all the black eunuchs; the capi aga, who has the command of all the white eunuchs, and to whom all petitions to be presented to the prince are delivered. Both these are also eunuchs, and of the same complexion as those of whom they have the command. Besides the women and eunuchs, there are in the seraglio the ichoglans and azamoglans, mutes, dwarfs, and buffoons. The ichoglans are young men bred up in the seraglio, not only to serve about the prince, but to fill in time the first posts of the empire. The azamoglans are trained up there for inferior employments.

No children are admitted into the seraglio of Constantinople, Pera, or Adrianople, till they are first reviewed and approved of by the grand signior. They are generally the most beautiful, well-made, and sprightly, that can be met with. They are first taught, after being circumcised, silence and a modest humble behaviour. Then they are instructed in the Mohammedan religion, to speak and write the Turkish language, and afterwards the Persian and Arabic. As they grow up, they are taught many exercises, and whatever is thought requisite to qualify them for state-employments; but they are seldom preferred out of the seraglio until the age of 40.

The ladies of the haram are a collection of young beautiful virgins, either the presents of governors, purchased, or captives taken in war; most of them being the children of Christian parents. They are taught music, dancing, and other accomplishments, and furnished with the richest clothes and... Turkey and ornaments. Some of them frequently play and dance before the grand signior, while others divert him with their conversation. They have a great many female slaves to wait on them; but are scarce ever suffered to go abroad, except when the grand signior changes his place of residence; when a troop of black eunuchs convey them to the boats, which are enclosed with lattices: and when they go by land, they are put into close chariots, and signals made at certain distances, to give notice that none may approach the road through which they are to pass.

The Turks are generally robust and well-fitted, of a good mein, and patient of hardships, which render them fit for war. They shave their heads; but wear their beards long, except the military and those in the seraglio, who wear only whiskers. They cover their heads with a white linen turban of an enormous size, and never pull it off but when they sleep. None but Turks must presume to wear a white turban. Their breeches or drawers are of a piece with their stockings; and they have slippers instead of shoes, which they pull off when they enter a temple or house. They wear shirts, with wide sleeves, not gathered at the wrists, and over them a vest tied with a sash; their upper garment being a loose gown, something shorter than the vest.

The women's dress pretty much resembles that of the men; only they have a stiffened cap with horns, something like a mitre, on their heads instead of a turban, and wear their hair flowing down. When they go abroad, they are so wrapped up, that their faces cannot be seen.

The Turks sit, eat, and sleep, according to the custom of the east, on sofas or cushions, matrasses, and carpets. Rice is their most general food, and coffee their common drink. Their most usual salutation is to bow the head a little, laying the right-hand on their breasts; but to persons of rank they stoop so low as to touch the border of their vest. The women are kept under a rigorous confinement. They have generally delicate skins, regular features, black hair and eyes, with an admirable cheek. Many of them are complete beauties. Their cleanliness is extraordinary; for they bathe twice a-week, and suffer not the smallest hair or the least filth to be upon their bodies. As to the qualities of their minds, they are said to want neither wit, vivacity, nor tenderness; and to be exceedingly amorous. It is no doubt for this reason that the men never suffer their wives faces to be seen, not even by the dearest friend they have in the world.

There is no need of much wit to behave one's self well here; for a good mein and gravity supply the place of merit in the east, and much gaiety would spoil all. Not that the Turks want wit; but they speak little, and pride themselves in sincerity and modesty more than eloquence. The Turks use no unnecessary words, whereas the Greeks talk incessantly. Though these two nations are born under one climate, their tempers are more different than if they lived in the most distant countries. The Turks make profession of candour and faithfulness, and are a charitable good-natured people, jealously excepted, and very sober. On the other hand, they are extremely proud, insolent, indolent, superstitious, and covetous. They are also much addicted to unnatural lusts; and despise all other nations in general, especially those which are not of their religion. The common appellation that they give the Christians is that of dogs. An uniformity runs through all the actions of the Turks, and they never change their manner of living. They seem to have no kind of genius for the improvement of the arts and sciences, though they live under the influence of the same heaven, and possess the same countries, as the ancient Grecians did. They generally loiter away their time, either among the women in the haram, or in smoking or taking opium; and though they herd together, you will observe as little conversation among them as amongst so many horses in a stable. They seldom travel, or use any exercise or rural sports; and discover little or no curiosity to be informed of the state of their own or any other country: but Turkey, after all, is not without men of parts, probity, and honour; nor without benevolent, liberal, convertible, and ingenious people. They behave very commendably to their slaves and servants, and frequently better than the Christians do to theirs. There are no hereditary governments or titles of nobility in Turkey; and indeed the commonalty there enjoys the greatest liberty.

The languages spoken in Turkey in Europe are the Turkish and Tartarian, which have a great affinity to one another; the modern Greek, which differs widely from the ancient; the Slavonian, and Walachian. The Arabic is the language of the learned. Learning is at a very low ebb among the Turks: however, they have some schools, colleges, and academies; but they are on a very different footing from those among us. Not many years since a printing-house was set up at Constantinople, where books of all kinds were allowed to be printed, except on matters of religion. The most ingenious Mussulmen employ themselves in reading the Alcoran and the commentators upon it, to which almost all their learning is confined. Some of them amuse themselves with poetry, in which they are said to succeed very well. Other Turks delight in music, and spend the whole day in playing upon an instrument, without being tired, though they only repeat the same tune. It is said there are a great many manuscripts in the Turkish, Arabian, and Persian languages, among the Turks; but it is not to be supposed that they contain any very deep, solid, ingenious, or useful learning.

The Turkish regular troops are the spahis and timar-ispahis, who are light-horse. The latter, who have estates in land assigned them instead of pay, are obliged to bring a certain number of slaves into the field with them. The tributary princes of Moldavia and Walachia, and the Crimean Tartars, are also obliged to send auxiliaries. But the flower of the Turkish army consists of the janizaries, who amount to about 40,000, and are all infantry. They have particular privileges, being subject to no jurisdiction but that of their aga or commander. Their pay is three aspers a-day, besides victuals, and a suit of clothes every year. They are all lodged at Constantinople together in a fort of barracks, having been educated in the seraglio, and trained up to the exercise of arms from their infancy. Besides the janizaries, there is another body of foot called capit. The whole Turkish army, regulars and irregulars, amounts to above 300,000 men. Besides the true janizaries, or janizaries of the porte, and in actual pay, there are great numbers all over the empire, who procure themselves to be registered in this body, in order to be entitled to their privileges. The bachelors only are capable of bearing offices in the barracks or chambers at Constantinople. When any of the janizaries are disabled in the service, they have an allowance for life. To distinguish them, they wear a cap of a particular make. The emperor's guards are composed of them, and they are feared and respected everywhere, though they carry only a cane in their hand; for arms are not delivered to them but when they take the field. The chief commanders of the army are distinguished by two or three horse-tails carried before them. The Turkish navy is not so considerable as might be expected in such extensive dominions, situated on several seas, and abounding in commodious harbours. By their neglecting navigation and foreign commerce, they can never find sailors to man a great fleet; and those they have are unskilful, as well as their pilots and officers. If they would would apply themselves to navigation, and make the most of their situation and advantages, they could not fail to become a very formidable maritime power. Their navy generally consists of about 40 large ships, exclusive of galleys. In time of war they hire or buy merchant-ships, and others are sent them from Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli. The captain-bahia, or admiral, is the second officer in the empire, the grand vizir being the only officer above him. His power is absolute when he is out of the Dardanelles; and not only the sea-officers, but all the governors of the maritime provinces, receive orders from him. The pilots are mostly Greeks, and the captains renegadoes. The captain-bahia sails round the Archipelago, in summer, to collect the capitulation-tax, and learn the state of affairs in those parts.

The revenues of the empire are paid either into the public treasury, or into the sultan's private treasury. The former, called by the Turks deitamali muftimim, i.e. the public money of the Muftimim, is not to be touched but on the most pressing exigency of the state. The other the sultan may dispose of at pleasure. Prince Cantimir says, in his time, 27,000 purses, amounting to 13,000,000 and a half of crowns, were annually returned to both treasuries; arising from the produce of the customs, demesne lands, the capitulation tax paid by every subject of the empire who is not of the Mahometan religion; the annual tributes paid by the chams of the Crime Tartars, the princes of Moldavia, Walachia, the little republic of Ragusa, and part of Mingrelia; together with half a million of money out of a million and a half levied annually in Egypt. These are the fixed revenues; but vast sums are also raised by the confiscations of the estates and effects of the bahias and other officers, and from the estates of Turks dying without male issue.

The manufactures and commodities of Turkey are, silks, carpets, goat's hair, wool, camel's hair, cotton-yarn, dimitry, burdets, waxed linen, saffron skins, blue, red, and yellow Morocco leather; coffee, rhubarb, turpentine, florax, gums, opium, galls, mastic, emery, lemnian bole, pomegranate-shells, sponges, dates, almonds, wine, oil, figs, raisins, mother-of-pearl, boxwood, saffron, &c. These are exported in large quantities by the several European trading nations, who import their own goods and purchase those of the country. The inland trade is carried on chiefly by the Jews and Armenians; and even the Turks send merchandise, both by land and water, from one part of the empire to another, but not to foreign Christian countries. No nation is more advantageously situated for traffic than the Turkish; having the navigation of the Black Sea, the Levant, and the Red Sea; and consequently greater opportunities of importing the rich merchandises of the East, and distributing them all over Europe, than any maritime power; but they never attempt distant voyages, and have but few merchant-ships, both their imports and exports being chiefly made in foreign bottoms. Tyre, Sidon, and Alexandria, which once commanded the navigation and trade of the world, are in their possession, but make no figure in commerce at this day; and well it is for the Christians that the Turks are such an indolent generation; for their situation and vast extent of empire would enable them to monopolize the trade of the world, if they attended to it. Several European Christian nations have envoys and residents at Constantinople, and consuls in other ports. In this empire there is a great traffic in the human species: not only male slaves, but beautiful young girls, being publicly bought and sold.

The empire is styled the Ottoman kingdom or empire, the Ottoman Porte, the Sublime Porte, the Sublime Sultanian Porte, &c. The appellation of Porte is said to be derived from the large gate built by Mohammed II. at the Turneric entrance of the seraglio at Constantinople; though the Orientals in general call a royal palace the king's porte or gate.