or UNITED NETHERLANDS, otherwise called the Republic of Holland, consist of the seven provinces of Holland, Zealand, Friesland, Groningen, Overijssel, Zutphen, and Utrecht. They are bounded on the west by the German Ocean; on the east by the circle of provinces, Westphalia; and on the south by Flanders, Brabant, and the duchy of Cleves. They compose the greatest part of the ancient Batavia, whose inhabitants were formerly so much renowned for their valour. Under the Romans they Batavians were exempt from imposts and taxes, in consequence of high bearing the honourable title of Allies of the Republic.

The Netherlands came into the possession of the house of Austria by the marriage of Mary of Burgundy with the emperor Maximilian; but on that prince's resigning the imperial crown, the 17 provinces of the Netherlands devolved upon right on Don John of Spain; but he and his successor Spain Philip le Beau dying in a short time after, they, in 1507, fell under the dominion of Charles V. at that time a minor.

At this period the seven provinces, which now compose the Republic of Holland, enjoyed a kind of independence; but the policy and warlike disposition of Charles soon reduced them to obedience. When he resigned the sceptre to his son Philip, the Low Countries were in a most flourishing condition. In this small tract of country were reckoned no fewer than 350 large cities inclosed with walls, place of the 6500 considerable towns, all become rich by their application to the arts and to commerce. At the same time, the love of liberty was very prevalent among the inhabitants, and they were jealous of every invasion of their rights and privileges. The arbitrary government of Philip was therefore very disagreeable to his subjects in the Low Countries, and the partiality shown on all occasions to the Spaniards soon lost their affections altogether.

The extreme superstition, however, and cruel bigotry of Persecution Philip, proved the greatest source of discontent. The doctrine of the Reformation of the reformers had been preached and received with avidity in the Low Countries. A cruel persecution of the reformed had been commenced by Charles V. intonm that he is said to have destroyed no fewer than 100,000 persons on account of religion. This cruelty had no effect except to increase the number of heretics; which being observed by Mary queen of Hungary, sister to the emperor, she invited him to the Low Countries, that he might personally behold the bad effects of his cruelty. On this the emperor granted a toleration, but Philip was altogether inflexible. In order to proceed more effectually against the reformed, a court of inquisition was instituted; and under pretence that the three bishoprics, which at that time comprehended the whole country, were too large, 17 of their dignitaries were erected, three with the title of archbishops. To afford sufficient revenues for these, it became necessary to suppress several abbeys, which of itself produced great discontent. But what gave the finishing stroke to the whole was, Philip's announcing his intention of residing constantly in Spain; his appointing the duchess of Parma, his natural sister, to be regent of the Netherlands; and giving her pointed go for a counsellor cardinal Granvelle, a bloody persecutor of the reformed; at the same time that the provinces were oppressed by the violences of foreign troops, for the payment of whom they were also oppressed by taxes. Three councils were established at Brussels; one to preside over the laws and courts of justice; a second to direct everything respecting peace or war; and the third to manage the revenues; but still the duchess of Parma was ordered to consult Granvelle in every matter, and make him at all times her chief confidant.

The duchess took upon her the government of the Low Countries in the year 1560; and was no sooner arrived at Brussels, than complaints poured in from all quarters against the inquisition, cardinal Granvelle, and the new bishoprics. The duchefs endeavoured to allay the ferment by fair words, but in vain. At the head of the malecontents were the prince of Orange, count Egmont, and count Horn, who strenuously insisted on calling an assembly of the States-general, and laying before them the grievances by which the country was oppressed. The event was, that in 1564 the cardinal was obliged to resign his dignity; which yet did not produce any good effect, as he was succeeded by two of his creatures, Paraimont and Viglius, who trod exactly in his footsteps. They pushed on the inquisition to fresh executions; it ruined the principal nobility as heretics; and on all occasions showed such violent and intolerable zeal for the Catholic religion, that one of Philip's ministers represented to him the danger there was of a total revolt of the provinces, unless the rigours of persecution were somewhat relaxed. But Philip no sooner received this intelligence, than he replied, "that he had rather be without subjects, than be a king of heretics." Agreeable to this reply, all the obnoxious decrees were enforced with double rigour; upon which the state of affairs became so alarming, that it was thought necessary to send count Egmont into Spain, in order to have a personal interview with the king on the subject. Philip, accustomed to deceit, gave a smooth answer, abated the rigour of his decrees, and ordered the governor sometimes to consult with the prince of Orange. Thus tranquillity was for a time restored; but in the year 1566, it being discovered that a scheme for the total extirpation of the Protestants had been concerted by the queen-mother of France, her son Charles IX., and Isabella queen of Spain, in a conference at Bayonne, matters became worse than ever. That the information received concerning this detestable combination was true, very soon appeared, from Philip's disclaiming all the favourable interpretations which had been put upon his answer to count Egmont, and from his ordering the inquisition to proceed with more fury than ever. The consequence of this was a general association against this abominable tribunal, which was subscribed by all orders and degrees of men, Roman Catholics as well as Protestants.

The confederates, headed by Henry de Brodenode, a descendant of the ancient earls of Holland, waited on the duchefs of Parma, in such a formidable body, that they were obliged to dismiss them with an absolute promise that their demands should be granted. These demands were, that the inquisition should be abolished, and the edicts against liberty of conscience recalled; and for this he immediately interposed all his interest with Philip. Sir William Temple alleges, that Philip, in consequence of the governor's representations, granted all that was desired, but too late. All other historians, however, agree that he was inflexible, and that the duchefs could procure no better conditions than that heretics should from that time forward be hanged instead of being burned. Even this appeared a concession unworthy of the king; the royal name was therefore forbidden to be used.

Before the confederates proceeded to extremities, they sent deputies to Madrid; but, according to some authors, they were refused admittance into the king's presence. It appears, however, that they had found means of representing the true state of affairs to the king, and of informing him that the disturbances proceeded from the detestation in which the inquisition was everywhere held in the Low Countries. Their representations produced no other effect than an equivocal promise, which was evidently never intended to be kept. The governor received orders to proceed against heretics with the utmost severity; upon which the people broke out into acts of open rebellion. In several towns of Flanders the churches were destroyed, images pulled down, and all those acts of violence committed which are the usual operations of a lawless mob. The principal inhabitants, however, still remained quiet, and even did all in their power to restrain the violence of the commonalty; so that, had Philip made any kind of reasonable concession, the public tranquillity might have been restored.

Instead of this, however, a new oath of allegiance was administered by the governor, and all persons were obliged to swear that they would regard as traitors and enemies to their country all whom the king should think proper to proscribe. This extraordinary proceeding was followed by the most cruel persecution that can be imagined; at the same time that the duke of Alva was sent into the Netherlands with an army of 10,000 veteran troops, to put the last hand to the misery of the people, and fully to establish the despotic rule of the court. Counts Egmont and Horn took the above mentioned oath; but the prince of Orange could by no means be induced to it, and therefore retired into Germany, along with counts Brodenode and Hoogstrate. Their example was followed by great numbers of all ranks and conditions; and after the arrival of the army commanded by the duke of Alva, such multitudes continued to emigrate, that the duchefs of Parma informed the king, that within a few days 100,000 families had left his dominions; that in a short time the country must be depopulated, in which case there would be no occasion for a governorate; she therefore begged leave to resign, before she should have the mortification and disgrace of being left alone in the Netherlands.

Philip immediately complied with the request of the princess, and the duke of Alva was appointed to succeed her in the government. It may easily be imagined that the miseries of the people would now become intolerable. The king was a proud and merciless tyrant, set at too great a distance from his subjects to be thoroughly sensible of their calamities, and totally destitute of compassion had he known them ever so well. The new governor was of the same disposition; and the army he commanded was fierce, rapacious, and cruel, desiring nothing more ardently than to enrich themselves at the expense of the inhabitants. The whole country was filled with blood and horror; counts Egmont and Horn were ignominiously executed, and the estate of the prince of Orange was confiscated. These last proceedings drove the people into despair; and they invited the prince to return, in order to take upon him the defence of the country from such insufferable tyranny and oppression.

All this time the prince of Orange, and his brother Louis of Nassau, had been labouring to form alliances for the defence of the liberties of their country. He had represented matters in such a light to the emperor Maximilian, that his Imperial majesty sent an ambassador to Philip, exhorting him to treat his subjects in the Netherlands with less rigour. This embassy was haughtily received; Philip continued his persecutions, and the prince of Orange his preparations for entering the Low Countries. His first efforts, however, were very unsuccessful. A detachment of Germans in the service of the prince attempted to penetrate into Brabant and Sirprize Ruremond; but were defeated by a detachment from the duke of Alva's army. Another party, consisting chiefly of French, attempted to penetrate into Artois by the way of Picardy; but their officers were arrested by order of Charles IX. Louis of Nassau, however, defeated a body of Spaniards, and killed 600 of them on the spot; but the vigilance of his enemies prevented him from drawing any advantage of consequence from his victory.

The duke of Alva was so much chagrined at the defeat sustained by his party, that he instantly assembled his troops from all quarters. His army then appeared too formidable to be opposed, and the prince of Nassau with count Hoogstrate Prince of Orange defeated by the duke of Alva.

Prince of Orange defeated and disbanded his army.

Cruelty of the duke of Alva.

His intolerant principles and executions.

Duke of Alva attempts in vain to establish his new taxes at Brussel.

Brief taken by the Orange party.

Duke of Alva desists from enforcing his taxes.

Range faction, and forced to retire with loss to the island of Beyerland. Triumphant as this victory might seem, it served to animate the decreed spirits of the enemies to the government. The prince of Orange, sensible of the advantage of possessing this island, exhorted the nobility of his party to fortify and garrison it; his orders were obeyed, by which means he soon became master of Delfshaven, a town situated on the opposite banks of the Meuse. It appeared in Boef-The Gueux's retreat how unpopular the duke of Alva was in every part of the country. Dordrecht shut its gates against him; Rotterdam refused to admit his troops; but Boef obtaining permission that they should pass through in separate small divisions, seized the gates, and began a general massacre of the inhabitants. Four hundred perished by the sword, the dam was pillaged, the women were ravished, and every proof of the basest act of barbarity and inhumanity committed. Retribution was soon made by the enemy. Alva had detached Offorio d'Angulo with a body of forces to secure Flushing, a considerable port in Zealand, and to erect a citadel. The inhabitants denied Offorio admittance, shut their gates, and seized Pacanoe, a famous engineer, who had come to measure the ground where the citadel was to be erected. Apprehending that attempts would be made to force them to submission, they petitioned Lumey, admiral of the Gueux, for assistance; and he furnished them with 200 men, under the command of Captain Treflong. On the arrival of this reinforcement, the Spanish engineer was hanged, and an unsuccessful attempt made to surprise Middleburg, the capital of the island of Walcheren. Not dispirited by this disappointment, the Zealander's assiduously prosecuted their cruises upon the Spaniards, and obtained as much wealth as purchased a large store of arms and ammunition at Antwerp. Joined by great numbers of English and Scotch adventurers, they ventured to attack the duke of Medina Celi, sent with a strong squadron to succor the duke of Alva in the government of the Netherlands. The duke was completely defeated, a great number of his ships were taken, and a booty, amounting to near 1,000,000 livres, was carried off by the Zealander's.

The duke of Alva now ordered a squadron of ships to be equipped at Amsterdam, to bridle the insolence of Lumey and the Zealander's, while he himself raised an army to oppose the prince of Orange and Lewis de Nafau, who were making great preparations in Germany and France. To augment the army in the field, he had drafted most of the garrisons. By this means the prince's friends gained possession of North Holland; and Louis de Nafau was projecting a scheme to surprise Mons, with the inhabitants of which he held a secret correspondence. The design succeeded; which emboldened most of the cities and towns in Holland to declare against the government. The Holland count de Bergues gained over several cities in Overijssel, Guelderland, and Friesland. In a word, the revolt became so general, that the duke of Alva soon found he could not long resist the torrent. He now, when too late, published an edict to appease the people, setting forth, that he would consent to remit the most oppressive taxes, if the states could suggest any other means of raising the necessary supplies. He convoked the States-general to meet at the Hague, but his orders were now disregarded; and the States, in contempt of his authority, assembled at Dordrecht, inviting deputies from the prince of Orange, the nobility, and the towns that had declared against the governor. Here monarchical power was raised to enable the prince of Orange to begin his march. His forces amounted to 15,000 foot and 7000 horse. He had promised to advance three months pay; and was enabled to perform his engagements by the liberality and public spirit of the States-general and the cities. He showed the address with which he could manage and direct the people; and without the name of sovereign of the provinces under his government, he possessed the authority. He presided at all military operations by sea and land; made and disposed of offices at pleasure; assembled the States; and published all ordinances and regulations relative to the present state of affairs, without control. However, he conducted matters with the utmost delicacy, and used his power with great moderation, to avoid giving offence to the free spirit of the Hollander. The Popish religion was banished the churches, and persons of that persuasion were, with great caution, admitted into public employments. Not only the king's revenue and church tithes were appropriated to the public service, but the estates of those who remained firm in their loyalty. In short, the most vigorous measures were taken for resisting the tyranny of Spain; and those persons who had refused the tithes to the government, voluntarily subscribed their all to support a party formed in defense of liberty.

While the States-general were employed in ways and means to maintain an army, the prince of Orange advanced to Ruremonde, which he took by assault, on the refusal of the city to supply him with necessaries. From thence he marched to Brabant, and raised heavy contributions. He took Mechlin, Oudenarde, and Dendermonde; and could not restrain the excesses of the soldiers, who pillaged the churches, massacred the priests, and committed other barbarities. Next he approached to Mons, besieged by the duke of Alva, with design, if possible, to engage him to give battle. The duke baffled all his endeavors to force him, and carried Mons by capitulation. The whole Spanish dominion, however, lately so insolent and exulting, was ready to expire in the Netherlands, had it not been revived by the massacre of the Protestants in Paris.

While the fate of Mons was depending, the states of Holland met at Haarlem, to deliberate on the defense of the province and the prosecution of the war. Amsterdam was in the enemy's hands, which greatly obstructed all their measures. It was therefore determined to besiege it; and the enterprise was committed to Lumey, chief of the Guéux. After putting the States to considerable expense, the project miscarried through Lumey's misconduct. Water was his element, but his vanity led him to display his abilities as a land-officer. He made regular approaches, and was foiled in every attempt.

The reduction of Mons, and the depression of spirit consequent on the massacre at Paris, obliged the prince of Orange to retire to Holland, and encouraged Alva to invest Dendermonde, Oudenarde, and Mechlin. The latter, being in no condition to resist, opened its gates; but the Spanish soldiers chose to scale the walls, to give an air of assault to the enterprise, and countenance to the horrid barbarities intended. Protestants and Catholics were massacred without distinction. The town was pillaged, and the booty estimated at 400,000 florins. All the other towns were evacuated by the garrisons, and loaded with heavy impositions by Alva. As to the prince, he had now removed the seat of war into the province of Holland. Only this province and Zeeland remained firm to their engagements; the rest, overwhelmed with consternation, capitulated on the best terms they could procure from the government. However, the country being strong by its nature and situation among the waters, and more so by a fierce, rough, and sturdy people, proud of their ancient fame, and the most implacable enemies of Spanish tyranny, it was determined to make the most vigorous resistance. Frederic de Toledo was dispatched by Alva to begin the operations in Holland. He had already reduced Zutphen and Gelderland; and, flushed with success, appeared before Waarden, which he summoned to admit a garrison. The burghers replied, that they were intrusted by the king with the defense of the place, and could not receive a military force without violence to their privileges and engagements. They soon had reason to repent their firmness: the town was taken by surprise; and all the burghers, assembled in the great church to take the oaths of fidelity to the king, were wantonly butchered. Infants, old men, women, and the sick, were all put to the sword, without pity or remorse; and of all the barbarities hitherto committed, this was the most horrible. It was imagined that the terror inspired by such instances of severity would reduce the people to obedience, and shake the obstinacy of the other towns. The contrary effects were produced; rage and despair took possession of every breast; and all determined to suffer the last extremities rather than submit to so cruel a tyranny.

Having finished this tragedy, Frederic went to Amsterdam, to deliberate with the officers of the army about the siege of Haarlem. Here it was determined, before they proceeded to extremes, that the city of Amsterdam should write to the magistrates, exhorting them, in the most pathetic terms, to submit, rather than incur the punishment inflicted on Waarden. The council of Haarlem met to take this letter into consideration. Some were for soliciting an immediate reinforcement from the prince of Orange; and others, who apprehended the prince was too weak to afford the necessary relief, were for making the best terms possible with the king. Those of the latter opinion were the magistrates. Accordingly, without consulting the burghers, deputies were dispatched to Frederic to stipulate conditions. In their absence, Ripperda, a gentleman of Friesland, strongly attached to the prince of Orange and the cause of liberty, assembled the chief burghers; and so animated them against the Spaniards, that they resolved to stand a siege, and suffer all the horrors of war, rather than submit. They sent to the prince of Orange to acquaint him with their determination, and to implore assistance. Four companies of Germans were detached to reinforce the garrison of Haarlem; and the deputies, on their return, were seized as traitors to their country, sent to the prince of Orange, and by his order beheaded. Frederic was preparing to compel the burghers to submission. On the 16th of December he invested the town, after carrying Sparendam fort by assault, with great loss and slaughter of his soldiers. A variety of errors were committed in the attack; in the defense, and manner of succoring Haarlem. The assailants and defendants had equally shown themselves ignorant of the art of war, and implacable in their resentment. The prince of Orange used every expedient to relieve the town; but all his attempts were frustrated by untoward accidents, and the vigilance of the Spaniards. At last, quite spent with fatigue, despairing of relief, weakened by losses, and totally exhausted of provisions and ammunition, the burghers of Haarlem surrendered upon more favorable terms than they could well expect. A few only of the most obstinate were executed; the rest were pardoned on taking an oath of fidelity, and paying an acknowledgment of 15,000 florins.

During the siege of Haarlem, the Zealanders were performing glorious achievements by sea, and gaining victories over the Spanish naval armaments. All the efforts of the governor of Antwerp could not prevent their carrying off a great number of ships out of the harbour. To revenge the insult, and relieve Middleburg and Rammekins blocked up by the Zealanders, he equipped a squadron, and gave battle to Wertz, the Zealand admiral, but was defeated. After repairing and augmenting his fleet, he again fell foul with sixty large vessels, encountered a squadron of Zealanders. much inferior in strength, and met with his former fortune. Most of his ships were sunk or taken; but he found means to push into Middleburg, with the broken remains of his squadron, to the great joy of the garrison, now reduced by the scarcity of provisions to the last extremity. D'Avila's disgrace did not end here; for, on his return to Antwerp, he was a third time attacked and defeated, with considerable loss, by Wertz, who thus repaired the disappointment of an unsuccessful attempt made on Tolon.

Soon after the reduction of Haarlem, Alva, perceiving that his severity answered no other purpose than irritating the people more against the Spanish government, published a proclamation, couched in the most flattering terms; but the people were not disposed to confide in promises so often violated, nor to throw themselves on the clemency of a prince and governor who had shown themselves inflexible, implacable, perfidious, and inhuman. They now expected the worst that could happen, and bid defiance to fortune. The Spaniards were preparing to invest Alcmar, and the Hollanders put every means in practice to resist them. Eight months pay was due to the garrison, who began to mutiny; but contributions were raised, which silenced their clamours. Frederic of Toledo, with 16,000 men, sat down before a town fortified by no regular works, and defended only by 300 burghers, and 800 soldiers, in extreme want of provisions, and without the prospect of relief. Sonoi, the governor, despairing of being able to sustain a siege, wrote to the prince of Orange, that a place destitute of troops, provisions, ammunition, money, and every necessity, ought to be evacuated, and the few soldiers in garrison, and the burghers, saved from falling into the hands of the enemy. But the prince of Orange so animated them by a letter, that, to a man, the townsmen, governor, and soldiers, determined to sacrifice their lives, and spill the last drop of their blood in the breach. Perseverance had made the Zealander masters of Rammekins, contrary to all hope and probability; the same virtue, the prince observed, might save Alcmar, a town of the utmost consequence to the cause of liberty. What particularly inspired the defendants with courage, was the prince's good fortune in surprising Gertrudenburg. Frederic pushed the siege with great vigour. He ordered the inhabitants of Haarlem to work in the trenches, and sustain the first fire of their friends and countrymen. On the 18th of September, a battery of 20 pieces of heavy cannon began to play; a breach was soon effected; the assault was given, and repulsed with vigour, though sustained by the bulk of the Spanish army. From a Spanish officer taken, the garrison were informed, that Alva had given orders to retire, in case he failed in the third assault; but if he succeeded, to put all to the sword. Their courage was whetted by this account, and preparations were cheerfully made for withstanding the utmost efforts. Frederic was foiled in every attempt; the assailants were driven from the breach with prodigious slaughter; the Spanish soldiers refused to mount the walls; in a word, the siege was raised, and the town relieved, to the exceeding joy of the prince of Orange, and great mortification of Alva.

This advantage was attended with another of less importance, but which equally served to inspirit the Hollanders. The duke of Alva's grand fleet, equipped with great labour and expense, was defeated by the Zealanders. Though the action did not prove decisive, it greatly alarmed the duke, as Bossu, one of his best officers, was taken prisoner, and his fleet afterwards dreaded to look the enemy in the face.

Notwithstanding this success, the affairs of the States were yet in a most precarious situation; and their ability to support themselves appeared in the highest degree problematical. The Duke of Alva had resigned the government, United Provinces, and his successor Don Louis de Requesnes had orders to push the war with vigour, while his antagonists prepared for the most obstinate resistance. The first advantage appeared on the side of the prince of Orange, by the surrender of Middleburg. But this was soon balanced by the defeat and death of prince Louis of Nassau. The Spaniards, however, were prevented from pursuing the advantage they had gained, by a mutiny among their troops. This mutiny took place on a regular and well-concerted plan. The Spanish soldiers depoised all their officers, appointed new ones, and army established a fort of community, vesting one of their number with the chief authority. The difficulties of the Spaniards on account of this tumult were likewise augmented by a victory gained by the Zealanders at Lea; when almost 40 of the Spanish ships were taken or destroyed. Philip then perceiving that numberless difficulties would attend the reduction of the provinces by force, published an act of grace; but in such a limited manner, that it was unanimously rejected. Requesnes then determining to close the campaign with some remarkable exploit, laid siege to Leyden. The city was reduced to the utmost distress for want of provisions; the whole country was laid under water; and they could receive no relief except what was obtained by boats forcing themselves through the enemy to the city. In short, they were reduced to the brink of destruction, when a violent south-west wind drove the inundation against the works of the besiegers with such violence, that they were obliged to relinquish the enterprise for fear of being entirely swallowed up. In their retreat they were attacked by the garrison, and 500 of them destroyed. This disappointment provoked the Spanish soldiery, that they depoised Valdes the commander, whom they had chosen for themselves, and proclaimed their old one: a second mutiny ensued, and they marched in a tumultuous manner to Utrecht. Here, however, they met with a very unfavourable reception. Bailmont the governor declared them rebels and traitors to their king; and gave free liberty to every one to massacre them wherever they could be found. The mutineers attempted to set fire to the gates; but being repulsed, and their leader slain, they capitulated, were received into favour, and sent into winter-quarters.

The year 1575 commenced with some negotiations for peace; but these proving ineffectual, though the emperor interposed his mediation as far as possible, the war was renewed with redoubled fury. Fortune now declared in favour of the Spaniards; and the States were reduced to such despair, that they began ferociously to think of making an offer of the provinces to some Protestant power who might be able to defend them against the tyranny of the Spaniards. This offer was made to queen Elizabeth of England; but she declined it, for political reasons. A negotiation was even set on foot for this purpose with France, in favour of the duke of Anjou; but it ended in nothing besides the advantage of establishing a mart at Calais for the disposal of the prizes made by the Gueux. Philip, however, notwithstanding his power, had the utmost difficulty in supporting the expense of the war. He had already borrowed more than 40,000,000 crowns from the Spanish and Genoese merchants, and the interest still unpaid now amounted to as much as the capital. The war had besides cost a greater sum sent in specie from Spain and the Indies, which, with the immense losses occasioned by the stagnation of trade in the Netherlands, had quite exhausted the treasury. Large arrears were due to the troops; they were every day mutinying, and some broke out into actual rebellions. To remedy these evils, Requesnes demanded a supply of the provinces; and they answered him, by requiring restitution of of their privileges, and dismission of the Spanish troops. Flanders, in particular, paid the desired subsidy, by balancing it against half the damages the province sustained from the misconduct of the governors, and the wars wantonly and unnecessarily excited. While this affair was in agitation, Requesens died of an ardent fever; the council of state assumed the administration, and the prince of Orange took the opportunity of the confusion that ensued to lay the first foundation of the Pacification of Ghent, by which his affairs were considerably retrieved, and the greatest blow given to the court of Spain she had yet sustained. All now was anarchy in the Low Countries. The garrison of Ziericke mutinied for want of pay; and to appease them, the council of state sent 100,000 livres, which the Walloon regiments under Madragon seized upon, after expelling the Spanish soldiers, and wounding and murdering their officers. This did not unite the Spanish mutineers among themselves; they turned out the few remaining officers, and made new appointments. Joining with the garrison of Lillo, they marched, to the number of 2000 men, towards the capital; committed horrible outrages; overwhelmed the inhabitants of Brussels with consternation; and, upon the 26th of July, seized upon Alost, confined the principal burgurers, and hanged up a king's officer. The most favourable conditions were offered by the council of state, in order to appease the tumult, and provisions were sent to the mutineers. This created suspicion in the inhabitants of Brussels, that the mutiny was excited by the connivance of the council, with a view of ruining the provinces, without incurring the resentment and odium consequent on any appearance of legal oppression. They arrested the council, declared the Spaniards rebels, and took measures in concert with the other cities and provinces for expelling foreigners out of the Netherlands. A confederacy to this purpose was formed between the provinces of Hainault, Artois, and Flanders, to which all the rest except Luxemburgh acceded; and Don John of Austria, who had entered the Low Countries in quality of governor and successor to Requesens, was obliged to live in obscurity in Luxemburgh until the storm should subside.

The prince of Orange was all this while profiting by these commotions. He had long laboured to have the States-general convoked; and he now saw them not only assembled, but preparing to make head against the Spaniards, by a strange vicissitude of fortune, arising from accidents which all his penetration and sagacity could not foresee. United in councils against the common enemy, every measure was taken for reducing the citadels of Ghent, Antwerp, and Maestricht, the chief places in the hands of the Spaniards, and what must principally contribute to their expulsion. Ghent citadel was taken on the 27th of November, by the assistance of a strong reinforcement of troops and artillery sent by the prince of Orange. At Antwerp the states of Brabant were less successful. The citadel was vigorously attacked; but the mutineers at Alost entering the citadel to assist their countrymen, a fall was made, the besiegers were driven from their trenches, great part of the town was consumed by fire, and the rest pillaged for three days with every kind of insolence and brutality, at a time when Antwerp was the most flourishing and populous city in the Netherlands, and indeed among the most wealthy in Europe. It is affirmed that the treasure carried off amounted to four millions, besides an infinity of rich merchandise. This terrible calamity united Papists and Protestants without distinction in a confederacy, and co-operated with the measures of the prince of Orange to form the Pacification of Ghent; which was a confederacy of all the provinces to expel foreign soldiers; to reëstablish the ancient form of government; to refer matters of religion to the several states of the provinces; for ever to unite the other provinces in the same common interest with Holland, Zealand, and the prince of Orange; to renew the commerce and amity between them; to assemble the states in Pacification in the manner practised under the house of Burgundy and of Ghent. Charles V.; to suspend all the rigorous edicts of the duke of Alva on the subject of religion, until the States general should take the matter into consideration; to release all the natives made prisoners, mutually, without ransom; and to restore all things upon the same footing as before the war, and the tyrannical government of the duke of Alva.

The States general began with soliciting aid from the queen of England. Their ambassador had a gracious reception; and Elizabeth advanced them 20,000l. sterling, from queen Elizabeth, on condition that the French should not be invited into the Netherlands, that they would accept of reasonable terms of accommodation if offered, and that the loan should be repaid the ensuing year. Next a cessation of hostilities was agreed upon with Don John, upon his assurances that every reasonable request of the provinces should be granted. On the 27th of December, deputies were sent with proposals to Don John to disband the foreign troops; but he desired to know what security the States would give for their allegiance after the departure of the Spanish forces; and remonstrated against the unreasonableness of disarming the king, while his rebellious subjects were in arms, and ready to seize the first opportunity of defeating their obedience. He likewise demanded security with respect to religion; and insisted to warmly on this head, that it was obvious he had no inclination to part with the Spanish army before the provinces of Zealand and Holland embraced the Catholic religion. After much altercation, necessity at length oblied Don John to grant all that was required, to confirm the pacification of Ghent, and dismiss the Spanish army. He had the king's authority for his proceedings; the treaty was proclaimed at Brussels and Antwerp on the 17th of February; and Don John immediately acknowledged governor, and the king's lieutenant of the Netherlands.

It must be observed, however, that when this edict was signed, the provinces of Holland and Zealand, by the advice of the prince of Orange, made the following objections, viz., that the States-general had not established the right of the assembling this sovereign tribunal in the persons originally invested with that power by the constitution; that in some particular instances they had suffered an infraction of their privileges; that the Spanish troops were allowed to carry off the immense wealth they had acquired in the Netherlands, and by the destruction of the city of Antwerp in particular; that no stipulation was made in favour of those dispossessed of their estates, &c. For these reasons the States and the prince refused to sign the edict, though they consented to all the articles that did not contradict those specified. This raised a contention, by which the public peace was soon broken. Don John was irremediable in recommending violent measures against the prince and his party. To this purpose he wrote a letter in cipher to the king; but this letter fell into the hands of Henry IV. of France, who transmitted it to the prince of Orange. Escovedo, secretary to Don John, was next sent into Spain with a message to the same purpose; but the governor becoming impatient for his return, left the country himself, under pretence of complimenting Margaret queen of Navarre on her journey to Spaw. In this expedition he seized hostages on the citadel of Namur; but attempted to justify his conduct to the States, by representing, that he was under a necessity of retiring to a place of safety, while he saw the flames of war and rebellion ready to break out all around him; and concluded with defining the States to disarm the burghers of Brussels, who were closely attached to the prince. prince of Orange. This letter was answered by an invitation from the States to return; promising at the same time, that they would, to the utmost of their power, bring to punishment all those who should form any designs against him. This, however, was not only refused, but the whole tenor of his conduct afterwards showed, that he was resolved to commence hostilities, and that he was encouraged to do so by Philip. The event was, that Don John was deprived of his dignity, the archduke Matthias was appointed governor-general, and preparations were made for a new and vigorous war. The Spanish troops were ordered to assemble in Naples and Milan; levies were made in Burgundy and Luxembourg; and a resolution was taken of supporting Don John with the whole power of the Spanish monarchy.

To oppose this formidable power, the States, in 1578, entered into a new treaty with the queen of England; by which that princess agreed to advance them 100,000l. Sterling, and to assist the provinces with 3000 foot and 1000 horse; on condition that the loan should be repaid with interest in eight months; that certain towns should be ceded to her in security; and that the States should defray the expense of transporting their troops, and take them into pay, while they acted in their service. Elizabeth, however, afterwards departed from these conditions, under pretence that the French would suspect her having some designs on the Netherlands, and would for that reason unite their forces with those of Spain against her. Instead of the English troops, she now proposed to send John Casimir, count Palatine, with 3000 foot and 4000 horse; refusing at the same time to pay the money stipulated, until the States had consented to this alteration.

Before this treaty was concluded, Don John was joined by an army of 16,000 foot and 2000 horse, all chosen veterans, commanded by Alexander Parnefe, duke of Parma, the best officer in the Spanish service. Being thus superior to the prince of Orange, the Spaniards gained several advantages; which, however, were more than balanced by the loss of the city of Amsterdam. This place had been closely blockaded up for several months by sea and land, and at last concluded a treaty with the friends of the prince of Orange; by which it was stipulated, that the Protestants should hold their religious meetings without the walls, and have a burying-place within; that the garrison should be disbanded, and 600 men, commanded by the burghers, levied for the defence of the city; that all persons banished on account of religion should be recalled; that Amsterdam should enjoy all its ancient privileges, and that all vacancies in public employments should be filled without distinction of party or connection. This capitulation, however, was soon after broken; the Catholic magistrates were driven out of the city, attended by the priests and Popish clergy of every denomination; the images were pulled down, and only the reformed clergy suffered to preach publicly. Some ineffectual negotiations next took place; after which the States, sensible that the misfortunes and losses in the winter arose from the irresolution of the provincial states, vested the archduke, the council of state, and the prince of Orange, with a power of levying what number of troops they should think necessary, and disposing of them as they thought proper, without referring to the States in every particular: they only recommended that they would proportion the expenses to the revenue, which at that time amounted to 6,000 livres. About this time a revolution, greatly beneficial to the common cause, was effected in Guelderland; John of Nassau, brother to the prince of Orange, had been appointed governor of this province. Upon entering on the administration, he perceived that the whole conduct of affairs was in the hands of persons strongly affected to king Philip and the Catholic religion; most of the cities professed Popery; and the count, who had sworn to the pacification of Ghent, was restrained from attempting any change in religion. The face of affairs, however, took a sudden turn; John acquired great popularity, and soon discovered that foreigners were the leading persons. By his artifice and policy he stimulated the people against them; they were deprived of their seats in the provincial states, and turned out of their offices in the government or the cities. Thus Nassau obtained the chief direction, and was able to co-operate with the measures planned by his brother. Another revolution happened in Groningen, of which the sieur Groningen de Billy was governor. Billy was by birth a Portuguese, by religion a Catholic, and consequently a dependent on the court of Spain: he refused to accede to the union of the provinces, and the States-general found it necessary to send to him Francis Martin Stella, with proposals for signing the pacification of Ghent. Billy, suspecting that the deputy's real design was to excite a revolt in the province, put him to the torture to extort confession; after having first wounded him with his own hand. The deputy bore the most excruciating tortures with firmness; and having a surgeon to dress his wound to enable him to undergo a second trial, he communicated something in the Greek language, which the surgeon soon made public: in consequence, the mob assembled, rescued Stella, declared for the pacification of Ghent, and obliged Billy to quit his government. The change of councils in these two provinces was of the utmost service to the confederacy; and would have enabled the province to have encountered the whole power of Spain, had not their affairs been distracted by dissensions among themselves.

At last the prince of Orange, perceiving that little confidence was to be placed in the unanimity of provinces rent by faction, different in religion, and divided by ambition, political maxims, and private interest, formed the scheme of more closely uniting the provinces of which he was governor, and cementing them with those more contiguous, in which the Protestant interest prevailed. Such an alliance was subject to fewer difficulties than attended the more general one of uniting all the provinces; it was in fact the only measure that could be proposed with safety, and it was prosecuted with that alacrity and address for which William was deservedly celebrated.

On the 23rd of January 1579, deputies from the provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Friesland, Groningen, Utrecht, Overijssel, and Guelderland, met at Utrecht, and signed the alliance ever since known by the name of the Union of Utrecht, the basis of that commonwealth so renowned by the appellation of the United Provinces. This treaty of alliance was founded upon the infraction of the pacification of Ghent solemnly acceded to by Philip, and the late invasion of certain towns in Guelderland. It was not hereby intended to divide the seven provinces from the other ten, or to renounce the pacification of Ghent; its object was to preserve the liberty stipulated in that pacification, by more vigorous operations, and united councils. The chief articles of this union are the following:

The seven provinces shall unite themselves in interest as one province, never to be separated or divided by testament, donation, exchange, sale, or agreement; referring to each particular province and city all its privileges, rights, customs, and statutes. In all disputes arising between either of the provinces, the rest shall interpose only as mediators. They shall assist each other with life and fortune against every foreign attempt upon any particular province, whether to establish sovereignty, the Catholic religion, arbitrary measures, or whatever else may appear inconsistent with the liberties of the provinces and the intention of the alliance. All frontier towns belonging to the United Provinces shall, if old, he fortified at the expense of the provinces; if new, at the joint expense of the union. The public imposts and duties shall be farmed for three months to the highest bidder, and employed with the king's taxes in the public service. No province, city, or member of the union, shall contract an alliance with any foreign prince or power, without the concurrence of all the other members. Foreign powers shall be admitted into the alliance, only by consent of all the contracting parties. As to religion, the provinces of Holland and Zealand shall act in that particular as they think advisable; the rest shall adhere to the purport of the edict published by the archduke Matthias, which prescribed that no man should be oppressed on the account of conscience. All the inhabitants, from the age of 18 to 60, shall be trained and disciplined to war. Peace and war shall be declared by the unanimous voice of all the provinces, other matters that concern the internal policy shall be regulated by a majority. The states shall be held in the usual constitutional manner, and coinage shall be deferred to future determination. Finally, the parties agree, that the interpretation of these articles shall remain in the States-general; but in case of their failing to decide, in the stadtholder.

This alliance was so universally approved, that in a short time the cities of Ghent, Nimeguen, Arnheim, Leeuwarden, Venlo, Ypres, Antwerp, Breda, Bruges, with several other towns, besides a great number of noblemen and persons of distinction, embraced and signed the union. Thus the foundation of a commonwealth was laid, but in a fluctuating and uncertain state of affairs, when men were actuated by different passions, views, and interests; intimidated by the great strength of the Spanish monarchy, and supported chiefly by a zealous adherence to liberty, and firm resolution to perish in defense of freedom. The first coin struck after this alliance is expressive of the situation of the infant republic. Here was represented a ship labouring amidst the waves, unassisted by sails or oars, with this motto, Invertum quo sata ferant.

It was expected, that the important object of this alliance would have attracted the attention of the Walloons, and indeed of all the Catholic inhabitants of the Netherlands; it in fact did so, but in a different manner from what was imagined. The Walloons not only refused to accede to the union, but they made the strongest remonstrances to the States-general upon the danger, impropriety, and illegality of such a confederacy. It appears from Strada and Bentivoglio, that the duke of Parma was at the bottom of their intrigues. He stimulated and prompted their measures, inspiring them with a jealousy of the Protestant designs on the Catholic religion. In the end, he contracted an alliance with them; and thereby confirmed by his own example the legality and necessity of the union of Utrecht. Immediately they began levying an army; but still kept up appearances with the confederated provinces, though it was obvious that hostilities must soon commence. To prevent the effusion of blood, the emperor, as mediator, set on foot another negociation; but Philip would allow no reasonable terms of accommodation, and give no security for liberty of religion. Instead of granting equitable conditions, he laboured to detach the prince of Orange from the union; made him extraordinary proposals; offered to restore him to all his estates, indemnify his losses, raise him to the height of power, and give him the first place in his esteem and favour. But William was too wise to rely on the promises of a king who had shown himself perfidious. He determined to share the fate of the United Provinces, to fulfil his engagements, and the hope conceived of his conduct.

While the prince of Orange was busied in conciliating factions, forming alliances, and strengthening the union, the duke of Parma was taking measures to disconcert his projects, and reduce the provinces to the king's obedience. He dispatched Gonzaga and Mondragon with 8000 men to lay siege to Maestricht. The town was taken by assault; the governor hanged; and 45 of the chief inhabitants were tortured to death, for having valiantly defended themselves, and faithfully discharged their duty. It is said the duke of Parma disavowed this bloody proceeding, to inconsistent with the character of a hero. After some farther inconsiderable advantages obtained in the neighbourhood of Rumonde, the king's army insulted Antwerp, where the archduke and the prince of Orange then resided. The States army was entrenched near Borgerhout, a post attacked without succours by the duke of Parma, after a brisk skirmishing of two hours between the armies. La Noue, however, the general of the States army, not choosing to expose himself to continual alarms from the enemy's cavalry, retired under the cannon of Antwerp.

On La Noue's retreat, the duke of Parma invested Maestricht. The siege began on the 8th of March, and continued without remission to the 29th of June. This defence was deemed very extraordinary, as the fortifications were in bad order, the garrison slender, and the place but poorly provided with the necessaries of a siege. One Sebastian Tappin, an engineer by profession, a Protestant, and a brave and alert soldier, by his indefatigable vigilance raised continual obstructions to the duke's approaches. The garrison had sustained frequent assaults, and made divers bloody failures, by which they were so much fatigued, that during a parley the town was surprised and a great many soldiers were put to the sword; but Tappin was saved by favour of the duke of Parma, who gave strict orders that he should have quarter. For three days Maestricht was a scene of the utmost desolation and horror, the Spanish soldiers committing every excess and enormity, in despite of all the endeavours of the general to restrain their licentiousness, and maintain discipline. With such diligence did the duke apply himself to this siege, that, unable to support the fatigue, he was seized with a fever, which had near proved fatal. His situation inspired the enemy with fresh courage. They ventured to appear in the field; reduced Alost, and some other places of little consequence; but could not prevent the loss of Menin taken by assault, though it was soon after retaken by the prince of Orange. In Brabant the States likewise obtained some advantages, though of too unimportant a nature to merit attention. The truth is, all the United Provinces were in a deplorable situation; and their trifling successes were owing entirely to accident, or the duke of Parma's illness. Several provinces contributed nothing to the common cause; others furnished but a small proportion of the taxes agreed upon at the union. The army had large arrears due, and lived at discretion; in a manner more opprobrious to the people than taxes to the amount of their regular pay. The people clamoured against the States; they threw the blame on the officers for relaxing in the point of discipline; and the officers recriminated, alleging, that the fault was in the States, who failed in performing their engagements to the army. All was in confusion; but as no person would acknowledge his error, there appeared little hopes of amendment. In a word, nothing, besides the tame ditties in the Spanish army could have prevented the duke of Parma from reducing the revolted provinces to accept any terms he should think fit to prescribe. He was equally in want of money; and his late treaty with the Walloons required that he should dismiss all his foreign troops in the space of six weeks after the publication of the treaty. His situation indeed was so deplorable, that he requested leave to resign his command, and retire with the foreign soldiers to Italy; but the court of Spain had too much confidence in his ability to entrust so important a charge to another. In this state of affairs the animosity of the parties remained, without the power of showing their resentment. The States were resolute, but unable to defend their liberties. Philip was determined, but too weak to be despotic; and both were obliged to content themselves with publishing bitter remonstrances against each other.

At last the prince of Orange renewed the treaty with the duke of Anjou. The queen of England was again offered the sovereignty, but she declined it for political reasons. The duke of Anjou was, however, opposed by a great number of the Reformed, on account of the share his mother had in the horrid massacre of the Protestants at Paris. All arguments to remove their prejudices were in vain. Anjou was a Roman Catholic, and that alone was sufficient to render him detestable. The prince of Orange urged the necessity of receiving the prince. Theologians and civilians allowed that it was lawful to have recourse in extremity to a Papist, but the people continued obstinate. This determined the prince of Orange to have recourse to the States-general, to whom he sent a long remonstrance, pointing out the causes why the confederacy did not produce the intended effect; and exhorting them to reconsider the affair respecting the duke of Anjou. In consequence, the States-general referred the prince's remonstrances to the provincial states and cities; and after long deliberations, and warm debates, it was at length determined, in 1580, to call in the duke of Anjou, as the only resource in so great a calamity. Accordingly, the United Provinces renounced their allegiance to Philip, and acknowledged Francis Hercules de Valois, duke of Alençon and Anjou, for their sovereign. The treaty consisted of 27 articles, of which this we have mentioned was the chief. Deputies were sent to the duke of Anjou, to explain the articles, and congratulate him on his accession. As to the archduke Matthias, finding himself unsupported by the emperor, the empire, and the numerous friends whom he expected would have joined him on his elevation, he expressed no resentment at the conduct of the provinces, which with great moderation he attributed to necessity. He only demanded to know their intention with respect to his own person; and the States made their apology, by representing the situation of their affairs, assuring him of their esteem, permitting him to reside in the Netherlands as long as he thought convenient, and highly applauding the prudence and equity of his conduct during his administration. As to the provinces of Holland and Zealand, they were left wholly in the hands of the prince of Orange, whose power as stadtholder was in no respect limited by the duke's sovereignty. After all, Grotius affirms, that the duke's authority was merely nominal, that the real power devolved on the prince of Orange, whose name, however, was used in all public acts only in a titular capacity. It was apparent indeed to the French, that William concealed ambitious views under the cloak of patriotism; but it was not convenient to discover their sentiments.

When the king of Spain was informed of this open defection of the Provinces, he attributed the whole to the prince of Orange, and proceeded directly to proscribe him; he confiscated his estate, upbraided him with ingratitude, and attempted to stain his character with ignominy. He even promised a reward of 25,000 crowns to whoever should bring him the prince of Orange dead or alive; the same to his heirs, in case the person perished in the enterprise; and he declared all those proscribed, their estates confiscated, their honours and dignities abolished, who adhered to William a month after the publication of this edict.

The prince of Orange did not flinch over this proscription. He employed one Villiers, a Frenchman, to refute the edict; his answer was well received, and is recorded by historians as a proof of the spirit, the equity, the prudence, and the moderation of the prince. However, when it was proposed to the States for their opinion, with a request they would publish it in their own name, they declined it; assigning for a reason, that it contained some facts too little known to be credited, and perhaps too much acrimony and resentment against a prince whose power they still dreaded. With these recriminations ended the transactions of the year.

The following year the States, after long deliberations at The Hague, published an edict, excluding king Philip from publicly exercising any sovereignty, right, or authority, over the Netherlands, from this writing appeared on the 26th of July 1581, under the title of The Abdication of Philip king of Spain. It was regally extremely well drawn up; stated in the strongest manner the mutual privileges of the king and people; proved that the allegiance of the latter was voided by the breach of contract on the side of the former; enumerated the oppressive and tyrannical acts of his government; set aside his authority for the most cogent reasons; forbade money to be coined in his name; and took every other step towards independence. It was in vain for Philip to remonstrate; he knew the States were to be convinced only by the sword; to this therefore he appealed. The duke of Parma blocked up Cambrai so closely, that the garrison was reduced to the extremity of relieved by living upon horses, dogs, and cats; though they still refused to capitulate, in hopes of being succoured. At length the duke of Anjou assembled a body of 10,000 foot and 4000 horse, and approached Cambrai. The vicount de Turenne and count Voulandois undertook to force themselves with a body of men into the town; but they were surrounded and taken prisoners by the Spaniards. This disappointment did not discourage the duke of Anjou; he still pressed forward with intention to attack the Spanish lines; but the duke of Parma, not caring to hazard a battle, deserted his works, and retired to Bouchain. As soon as the duke of Anjou entered the city, he took an oath to govern it agreeable to its ancient laws, and to preserve the citizens in the full possession of all its liberties. He was now pressed by the States and the prince of Orange to march directly into Flanders; he endeavoured to comply; but his army, composed chiefly of volunteers, was so weakened by defection that the design was laid aside.

It was about this time that the duke of Anjou resumed the notion of addressing Elizabeth queen of England. Not deterred by the ill success of his former negociation, he determined upon a voyage to England; an excursion which proved equally unsuccessful to himself and unfortunate to the United Provinces, as during his absence the duke of Parma made himself master of Tourney, which concluded the transactions of this campaign. He was magnificently entertained, led into a persuasion that all would succeed according to his wish, and at length tired out with tedious expectation. In his absence, St Guilan was reduced by the prince of Espinoi. This general directed his march towards Dunkirk, with intention to join the French forces. The duke of Parma, who had notice of his motion, repaired to seize the opportunity of investing Tourney. He began his approaches, and was vigorously received by that garrison, inspired by the courage of the princess Maria d'Espinoi, niece of the count Horn so cruelly beheaded by the duke d'Alva. The town was stormed in breach by the duke of Parma, who supported the assailants in person, received a wound, and had the mortification to see his Spaniards thrown headlong from the walls. The duke of Anjou Jou repeatedly promised succours; but either forgot, or could not perform his engagements: the latter indeed is the most probable; as he was certainly a dupe to the superior policy of Elizabeth, who had not yet declared openly in favour of the States. In the end, despairing of relief, harassed with perpetual watching, and weakened by losses, the garrison capitulated on the 29th of November. The conditions were honourable; and the prince d'Espinoza was treated with particular marks of distinction by the duke of Parma, who highly esteemed the heroic qualities of this amazon. This advantage was succeeded by another, obtained by the Spanish general Verdugo, over the confederate army in Friesland, commanded by general Norris and William Lewis of Nassau, a young prince of great expectation. It appears from the Spanish account, that Norris was attacked in a defile, where he could not draw out his troops in battalia; and that he was put in confusion, and defeated with great loss. On the other hand, the Dutch writers allege, that he attacked the enemy; but being inferior to them in cavalry, retreated in good order, with scarce any loss.

The year 1582 began with a spectacle very unusual in the Netherlands, the public entry of a sovereign elected by the people. The duke of Anjou setting sail from England on the 8th day of February, arrived on the 10th at Flushing, where he was received by the princes of Orange and d'Espinoza. Next day they set out for Antwerp with a magnificent retinue, and went up the Scheld attended by 50 barges. His reception at Antwerp was splendid beyond anything ever seen in the provinces; they even exceeded the preparations made for Philip himself on his being appointed to the government in the Netherlands by Charles V., his father. A theatre was erected before the walls of the citadel, in which was placed a chair of state, covered with cloth of gold. There the duke was seated, and the conditions were read to him, upon which he was received as duke of Brabant. When he had sworn to observe the articles, he was clothed with the ducal robe, and his head adorned with the ducal coronet by the prince of Orange; who said, "I will pin it in such a manner that it will not be easily shaken;" an expression which at that time was taken for a happy omen, though it foreshadowed fallacies.

While the states of Brabant were employed in festivity and mirth, a Bilcayan merchant, named Gaspar Anghera, had contrived a project to redeem his shattered fortune by the death of the prince of Orange. He corrupted one of his domestics, by the promise of half the reward, to strike the blow. The assassin entered the citadel; and as the prince was passing after dinner into another room, discharged a pistol, and dangerously wounded him behind the ear. The prince was stunned with the force of the ball, and before he recovered the assassin was killed by his attendants; which prevented for a time the absolute discovery of the plot, though it afterwards appeared from circumstances. It was traced that he had confessed the secret to a Dominican named Antonio Tunmermon, receiving from the wicked priest abolution, and a promise of eternal reward. Tunmermon was hanged, drawn, and quartered, his limbs being fixed upon the walls of Antwerp. But though for this time the prince escaped the danger, he was in 1584 assassinated at Delitz, by one Balthazar Gerrard or Guion, a person who had before served his highness with fidelity and zeal. He was at that very time employed by the prince to carry letters into France, and had received money to bear his expenses, with which he purchased pistols to murder his benefactor. At the criminal's examination, it appeared that he had long meditated this bloody action, and was confirmed in his resolution by the Jesuits and Catholic priests; he even affirmed on the rack, that the duke of Parma was privy to the design, who promised he should have the reward: upon the whole, Gerrard seems to have been an enthusiast, and his crime the result rather of insanity, than of any concerted scheme, or malicious intention. His punishment, however, regarded only the action: it was cruel beyond measure, shocking to humanity, and a striking instance of the vehement party-spirit of the times; not of the justice of the judges, or the attachment of the people to the prince of Orange.

The United Provinces were now in a most deplorable situation. The duke of Anjou had been totally unable to resist the duke of Parma, in consequence of which many towns had been taken; and in other respects the states had sustained immense losses. The duke of Anjou, chagrined and disappointed, had retired to France, where he died. But above all, the loss of the prince of Orange seemed to give the finishing stroke to the affairs of the states; and confusion and anarchy now reigned in their councils. The provinces of Zealand and Holland alone endeavoured to repair the loss, and show their gratitude to William by electing Maurice his son Maurice their stadholder and captain-general by sea and land. Maurice was at that time only 18 years of age; but appeared in every respect worthy of the high dignity which had been conferred upon him. The first step taken by the confederates was a solemn renewal of the treaty of Utrecht; after which the most vigorous preparations were made for the defence of the country. But before any success of thing of consequence could be done, the duke of Parma had the Spanish reduced Liefkenshouck, Dendermonde, Vilvorde, Ghent, and Antwerp; which struck the states with such terror, that they again offered the sovereignty to queen Elizabeth. This was once more refused; though that prince engaged, by a new treaty, to assist the states both with men and money. An army was accordingly sent into the Netherlands under the command of the earl of Leicester; but it does not appear that this was of any essential service to the cause; for the conduct of that general was so exceedingly improper, that he was not only baffled in every military enterprise, but drew upon himself a general odium. It is very probable indeed that the States could not long have supported themselves in such circumstances, had not Philip rashly engaged in a war with England, with whose naval power he could scarcely be enabled to cope by any superiority in numbers whatever. The defeat of the Spanish armada in 1588 gave such a blow to the power of that nation, as totally disabused them from carrying on the war in the Netherlands. Instead of sending the proper assistance to the duke of Parma, that general received orders to halter to the aid of the duke of Mayence, who had been defeated by Henry IV. The duke was obliged to comply with this order, though Duke of Parma the consequence. Prince Maurice now carried everything before him; and by the end of the year 1591, the Dutch saw their frontiers extended, the whole country secured by France, rivers and covered by fortified towns, with the greatest probability of driving the Spaniards out of Friesland in another campaign.

The remainder of the history of this war is only a detail of the Spanish losses and misfortunes, which now ensued. Their affairs were at last totally ruined by a decisive victory gained by prince Maurice, in the year 1600, over the archduke Albert, who had been appointed the Spanish governor of the Netherlands. King Philip II. died in 1598, leaving the affairs of his kingdom in the most distressed situation; notwithstanding which, his successor Philip III. was too haughty to consent to peace, or allow that the States were free, though he was plainly unable to keep them. United them in subjection. At last, in 1606, the courts of Madrid and Brussels began to think of peace in good earnest.

In 1607 a suspension of hostilities took place, and in 1609 a treaty was concluded. In the first article of the treaty, the archduke, in his own and the king of Spain's name, acknowledged the United Provinces, and renounced all claim to sovereignty over them, but in such general terms as would admit of altercation. In the second, a truce for 12 years, by sea and land, through all the dominions of both parties, was concluded. By the third article, the parties were to remain in possession of what they now held, without cession or exchange. In the fourth, a general amnesty was stipulated, and full freedom of trade by sea and land to each other's dominions granted. This necessarily implied a cessation of hostilities in the Indies; however, great debates afterwards arose upon this account. Spain observing the rapid progress of the Hollanders in the India trade, apprehended they would soon become too powerful in that quarter; and the Dutch were willing to maintain the advantage of their superiority. Both, for this reason, disputed the article; yet it could not be set aside without destroying the whole treaty, and the fruits of all their laboured conferences. The fifth article regulated the imports, and the duties to be paid by the subjects of the archduke and the States, trading to each other's dominions, which were to be on the same footing with those of other nations. The archduke used his utmost endeavours to have the duties at Lillo, on the Scheld, abolished, and the commerce of Antwerp restored to its former grandeur; but this was diametrically opposite to the interest of the Hollanders, that it was impossible it should ever take place. The sixth and seventh articles likewise regarded commercial affairs. But it would be unnecessary to dwell on particulars. Sufficient it is, that the truce was mutually beneficial, Spain being no longer in condition to support the war, and the Hollanders having obtained the end of all their desperate resistance and invincible perseverance in the cause of liberty. Philip of Nassau, by the truce, entered into possession of all his paternal estates in the Spanish Netherlands and Burgundy; while the States rewarded the faithful services of Maurice with a pension of 25,000 florins, to be paid annually out of the public treasury, besides an appointment of 60,000 francs as governor-general. Pensions were likewise settled on the other princes of the house of Nassau: all were gratified in a manner that demonstrated the high sense the republic had of their merit, though they might possibly be disappointed in their great design of raising prince Maurice to the sovereign authority.

No sooner were the Dutch freed from this extreme danger, and felt the blessings of liberty, than dissensions among themselves took place. The disputes between the Arminians and Calvinists produced violent disturbances, which frequently ended in the perpetration of the former. In 1621 war was renewed with Spain; and it may be remarked, that during the whole course of it, the subjects of the republic traded to the Spanish ports, as if there had been an entire friendship subsisting between the two nations. It was no uncommon practice with them to supply towns with provisions that were besieged by their own armies; and to furnish the enemy with ammunition and other necessaries, without which they could not carry on the war. Their motive and apology for this conduct was, that thus they kept in their own hands the profits by which other nations would be enriched. By steadily pursuing this line of conduct, making as many prizes as they could by force, and at the same time making as much profit of their enemies as could be obtained by a lucrative trade, it is no wonder that the republic should flourish, and rival in wealth the greatest nations of Europe. In 1628 the Spaniards met with a dreadful blow by the capture of their flota from Mexico. This was the greatest prize the Hollanders had ever met with; being valued at no less than 15,000,000 livres. From this time the Spaniards were everywhere defeated and baffled in almost every enterprise they undertook; nevertheless, they carried on the war, with an obstinacy hardly to be matched, for 20 years longer. At last, in 1648, a treaty was concluded, by peace conditions which his Catholic Majesty renounced all right and sovereignty over the Lords the States-general of the United Provinces, who were henceforth declared a free and independent republic, and that both sides should remain in the unmolested possession of what they held severally at the signing of the treaty.

From this time to the year 1670 we meet with nothing flourishing very remarkable in the history of the United Provinces. By invariably pursuing the maxim of prudence, industry, and frugality, the republic had attained the highest pitch of grandeur. Amsterdam became the emporium of Europe, and the richest city in the universe. Holland alone contained 3,000,000 of souls, and all the other provinces were proportionally populous. The States dispatched ministers and consuls to China, Siam, and Bengal, to the Great Mogul, the king of Persia, the khan of Tartary, the Grand Signior, the czar of Muscovy, and the princes of Africa. They were considered as an important weight in the scale of Europe, and no treaty was concluded without their ambassadors. The triple alliance with England and Sweden, into which they had entered, gave Louis suspicion that they proposed to fetter bounds to his ambition, and clip those bold pinions which had so swiftly conveyed his conquests over the Low Countries. Van Beuningen's influence, in comparing himself to Joshua stopping the course of the sun, which was the French king's device, highly disquieted his majesty; who was shocked at the presumption France, and pride of a republic just started out of obscurity, and gained, in the space of a century, from the ocean. But what was still more alarming to Louis, was the probability that the Dutch would ruin the manufactures of France, and his new established commerce of the Indies. His jealousy discovered itself in divers instances; and the pensioner De Witt, who at that time had the leading of affairs, his brother, and his party, did all in their power to remove these prejudices; but the unhappy differences which then prevailed in the United Provinces frustrated all their endeavours.

Louis now sought every opportunity of breaking with the Dutch; lest perhaps from any dread of their power, or inability to injure him, than with a view to enlarge his dominions by the entire conquest of the Low Countries. He knew that the whole strength of the republic consisted in her marine; that her frontier was weak, her provinces divided, and the chief power in the hands of men inveterately set against the family of Orange, the ancient captains of the republic. His first attempt was to dissolve the triple alliance, and disengage it from Charles II., king of England. In this business the duchess of Orleans was employed; she went to England under pretence of visiting the king when her brother; and her negociation was successful. In the meantime Louis possessed himself of Lorraine, under pretence that duke Charles was forming alliances in the empire against France.

The following year was spent in negociations with the emperor, Spain, and Sweden, with the electors of Cologne and Brandenburg, with the bishop of Munster, and other spiritual and German princes. The design of Louis was to prevent their acceding to the triple alliance; from which he had already weaned one power, the most considerable of the whole. The bishop of Munster beheld with uneasiness the the growing power of the United Provinces; he pretended that they had made several attempts upon the counties of Stirum, Culemborg, Bentheim, and East Friesland; that they had seized on Ravenstein on the Meuse, and several other places belonging to his bishopric. In his own defense he concluded a treaty with France, and prevailed on the elector of Cologne to follow his example. By signing a treaty with these two princes, the king opened a way to Holland by the Meuse and the Rhine; he established by this means places of arms and magazines in a country distant from his own dominions, and secured a retreat in case his enterprise proved abortive. With respect to the emperor, every artifice was used to keep him neutral; and indeed his own inclinations co-operated but little in favor of the Dutch, whom he regarded as subjects revolted from the princes of his family, and in possession of several places belonging to the empire. In Sweden, Louis's negotiations were equally successful; for here he prevailed so far with Charles XI., as to obtain a stipulation, that if the emperor, or any of the princes of the empire, joined their forces to the Dutch, a Swedish army should march into the very heart of Germany and join the French, in order to force those princes to observe the treaty of Westphalia.

Of all the Germanic body, the elector of Brandenburg alone interested himself for the safety of the States-general. The peace of Westphalia had prevented this enterprising prince from extending his dominions in Germany, and retaking Pomerania from the Swedes. He had long aspired at the stadtholdership of Holland; and though that office had been for five years suppressed, yet he flattered himself, that in case of a war he might obtain it, perpetuate it in his family, and in time reduce Holland by dint of force, intrigue, and stratagem. With this view, he rejected the proposals of several princes of the empire, and even those of France, endeavoring by every possible method to insinuate himself into the friendship and confidence of the States. In the end he concluded a treaty with them, whereby it was stipulated that he should assist the republic with 25,000 men. Beverning, the Dutch ambassador at Madrid, concerted all the schemes of France at that court, and engaged the queen of Spain to furnish money and troops for the defense of the United Provinces. Thus was the face of Europe wholly changed. France and England, who had contributed largely to the raising and aggrandizing the republic, were now incited to destroy her; while Spain, which for an age had been endeavoring to suppress her, was arming for her support. Pierre de Groot, the Dutch minister at the Hague, was employed to penetrate into Louis's designs; he gave his constituents notice that he foretold a terrible storm ready to fall upon them, which they might nevertheless break by reasonable submissions and proper acknowledgments. Upon this the States wrote to the king, endeavoring to appease his wrath; but finding him inexorable, they prepared for receiving him, and provided for the security of their provinces. But the long peace the republic had enjoyed destroyed her standing forces, and little confidence could be reposed in her new levied soldiery.

As soon as matters were ripe for execution, Louis ordered an army of 100,000 men to file off towards the Rhine. Before the opening of the campaign, and previous to his declaration of war, he divided his army into four columns, commanding one in person, with the marshal Turenne under him. Another was led by the prince of Conde, assisted by the marshals Humieres and Bellefonds; the third was headed by Crequi; and the fourth marched to Westphalia under the conduct of the duke of Luxembourg, to join the bishop of Munster. As the marshals Crequi, Bellefonds, and Humieres, refused to receive orders from Turenne, they were banished; but after six months' exile, were recalled, at the instance of the whole body of marshals in France, upon their making proper submissions.

Such an army drawing towards their frontiers could not but terrify the Dutch, now torn with civil factions. The partisans of the Orange family were for abolishing the perpetual edict, and raising William III. to the dignity enjoyed by his predecessors; but the De Witt faction opposed him violently, though they could not prevent the young prince from being chosen captain general and high admiral. Many persons hoped that William's new dignity would incline his uncle Charles II. to return to the triple alliance; but that hope was frustrated by the conduct of his majesty, who, in conjunction with the most Christian king, declared war against the States-general on the 7th day of April. A month after, the elector of Cologne and bishop of Munster followed the example of the two kings. The Dutch put themselves in the best posture of defense that circumstances would admit. Maastricht was strongly garrisoned; the prince of Orange had assembled an army of 25,000 men, with which he advanced to the banks of the IJssel, and the Dutch fleet cruised off the mouth of the Thames to prevent the junction of the naval forces of England and France, which amounted to 150 ships. All Europe watched the first motions of two powerful kings, seconded by the best generals of the age.

His most Christian majesty joined his army at Charleroy. It was composed of 23 companies of gens d'armes, lifeguards, musqueteers, and light-horse, two regiments of the French and Swiss guards, 14 regiments of foreign infantry, and 60 regiments of light horse or dragoons, comprising in all an army of 110,000 fighting men, under the command of marshal Turenne as captain general. Holland could only be attacked by the Rhine or the Meuse; and the generals and ministers differed by which of these inlets they were to make the first impressions. At last, after several deliberations, it was determined to make both attacks at the same time, in order to more to disconcert their councils. It is probable that Turenne always opposed the siege of Maastricht; for we find him immediately after the surrender of Maëstricht strongly dissuading the king from that enterprise, in opposition to the sentiments of the prince of Conde. At last he prevailed; and it was resolved in council to advance towards the Rhine, and besiege at the same time the towns of Rhinberg, Vessels, Ortois, and Burck. These places were all well fortified, and deemed the keys of Holland; however, the Dutch did not appear disturbed at their being invested, as they were only under the protection, and did not immediately belong to, the United Provinces. They were besides in hopes that any attempts upon the territory of Cleves would halter the preparations of the elector of Brandenburg, and even rouse the emperor into a sense of the danger he was in from the vast designs of Louis. Nothing could oppose armies so well appointed, led by generals so skilful and so experienced. The four towns surrendered within a few days of each other; and Rhinberg, that held out longest, opened its gates on the seventh of June. A few days after, the town and fort of Rhee, and the town of Emerick, surrendered; upon which the king resolved to pass the Rhine by a ford, over which the cavalry were to swim. This bold enterprise was projected and conducted by Conde; who, in the face of two regiments of foot, and several squadrons of horse, under general Wartz, entrenched on the opposite side, effected the passage, in the same order, and with as much regularity, as if he had marched his troops on dry land. The enemy made a stout resistance; but were driven from their post, after having killed the duke de Longueville on the spot, and wounded the... the prince of Conde, which disabused him for some time from attending the service, and obliged him to resign the command of his army to Turenne.

It is almost incredible with what rapidity towns and fortresses yielded to the fortune of his majesty's arms. The reduction of Betau, the most fruitful country of the United Provinces, and the surrender of Tolhus fort, obliged the prince of Orange to abandon the Ijssel, lest he should be attacked in the rear, and to retire to the very heart of the country, as far as Rhenen, in the province of Utrecht. By this means the town of Arnhem, the forts of Knottemborough, Voorn, St André, and Schenck, this last, the strongest in the Netherlands (having cost the great Henry Frederic prince of Orange a seven months siege), with a variety of other forts and towns, surrendered as soon as summoned; and at last Nimeguen, a town strong from the nature of the works and fortifications, and garrisoned by 8000 fighting men, including the inhabitants, was invested. After the citizens had for eight days exhibited signal proofs of courage in defence of their liberties, they were forced to yield to the superior skill of Turenne.

In the mean time the bishop of Munster and elector of Cologne, having joined that body of troops under the command of the duke of Luxemburg, the united army entered the province of Overijssel, and by dint of cruelty, and terror which the duke spread, reduced the towns as soon as he appeared before them. Animated by that implacable rage that constantly attends religious wars, the two prelates obliged the duke to exert a severity, by no means suited to his nature, against heretics and the rebellious subjects of the house of Austria. Next the king's forces penetrated into the province of Utrecht, where their conquests went on with the same rapidity, and put the capital of the province in the utmost danger. To retard its fate, the Dutch could imagine no other expedient than opening their sluices, and overflowing the country. The other towns followed the example of Utrecht; and Holland, Brabant, and Dutch Flanders, was one vast lake, the towns rising like islands in the midst of the waters. Farther to stem the torrent of Louis's conquests, the people were persuaded the only barrier was to lodge the supreme power in the hands of the prince of Orange. They accordingly obliged the states of Holland and West Friesland to unite the dignity of stadtholder to those of captain-general and high-admiral, with which the prince was already invested. They likewise sent remonstrances so pathetic to the king of England, that Charles, moved with the situation of the republic, and jealous of the designs of Louis, dispatched the duke of Buckingham and earl of Arlington into Holland, to quiet the fears of the Dutch, and insist upon the king's penetrating no farther into Holland. In case of Louis's refusal, Charles declared he would break the alliance; as he perceived that, instead of securing Zealand to the English, agreeable to the treaty, the designs of France were to unite the whole republic to their own monarchy. His most Christian majesty had in fact no great regard to the menaces of his ally; but as persifling obstinately to advance into a country which the inundation rendered impassible, might terminate in the ruin of all his schemes, he seemed, out of compliment to the king of England, to listen to terms of accommodation; which, after all his victories, could not fail of proving advantageous. In the space of three months he had conquered the provinces of Guelderland, Overijssel, and Utrecht, taken about 50 towns and forts, and made 24,650 prisoners. Conde and Turenne advised his majesty to send the prisoners to work upon the canal of Languedoc, and to leave all the places that were not essential to the preservation of his conquests; the minister Louvois was of a different opinion, and his sentiments determined the king. The prisoners were released for a trifling ransom, and the king's army totally reduced and exhausted by the continual drains made to garrison the conquered places.

A negociation was set on foot at Boxtel, near Bois-le-Duc, whither the king, attended by the English ambassadors and the Dutch deputies, repaired; but the terms required of the republic were so hard, that they were rejected with disdain by the Dutch; who, animated by their stadtholder, resolved to wait a change of fortune in the midst of the waters. They used every expedient to rouse the princes of Germany in their defence; and so successfully, that the elector of Brandenburg, the nearest and most interested prince, prepared to take the field. The undaunted courage, the vigilance, the public spirit of the prince of Orange, gained him the entire confidence and affection of the republic; and excited their resentment against the two brothers De Witts, his implacable enemies, whom they accused of receiving pensions from Louis. The suggestion was false; but possibly their love of liberty, and jealousy of the house of Orange, had carried those two great politicians too far in their pacific measures and complaisance to the power of the French monarch. The penitentiary was attacked in the streets by the populace; but by his personal bravery broke through the crowd, and saved his life, though covered with wounds. Soon after the sedition broke out afresh, and the partisans of the house of Orange again stirred up the animosity of the republic against the De Witts. Several crimes were laid to the penitentiary's charge, but he cleared himself. Suborned witnesses accused his brother of an attempt to poison the prince of Orange. Cornelius was imprisoned and treated with great barbarity. While he was under the torments, he sung that ode of Horace, *Jullum et tenacem propinquitu* cruelly murdered. His brother took him out of prison after sentence of banishment was pronounced; the tumult rose high, and both the De Witts were cruelly torn in pieces in the streets. William of Orange seemed touched at this terrible sacrifice; he made the penitentiary's eulogium, and ordered the murderers to be prosecuted; however, the clemency he showed them, the advantages he obtained by the massacre, and the animosity he bore the De Witts, convinced all men that he countenanced the murder.

William of Orange, in the mean time, daily ingratiated himself more. He gave up his whole fortune for the safety of the state; and exerted himself with such prudence and ability, that all Europe began to unite against the two kings by the month of July. Every prince in Germany was in motion to succour the Dutch. The emperor, the king of Denmark, the elector of Brandenburg, the duke of Brunswick Lunenburg, the landgrave of Hesse, immediately ordered their troops to join; several of the other princes were preparing to take the field. All were jealous, England began to waver, and there was not a power in Europe upon whom Louis XIV. could heartily rely. The army of Brandenburg, commanded by the elector in person, and the forces of the empire under the famous Montecucculi, joined near Heidelberg, and composed a body of 42,000 men. Turenne, now appointed generalissimo of the king's army on his return, marched to oppose the enemy's passing the Rhine. For three whole months were the elector and Montecucculi employed in abortive attempts to effect a passage at Mentz, Coblentz, Strasbourg, and other places. This answered the purpose of making a powerful diversion in favour of the Dutch, though they could not accomplish their design of joining the prince of Orange. After repeated disappointments, the Imperial army directed its march to Westphalia; and Turenne followed, in order to keep the bishop of Munster steady to his engagements. For half the campaign, paign, he, with a body of 16,000 men, baffled every stratagem of the elector and Montecucculi, the latter the most renowned general of the empire, at the head of an army near triple his strength. He obliged them to go into winter-quarters, in a country harassed and exhausted; and confirmed the bishop of Munster in the alliance of France, at the very time he was on terms with the emperor. He obliged the elector of Brandenburg, who took the chief command during Montecucculi's illness, to abandon the siege of Werle; took Unna, Kamen, Altena, Berkenbam, and several other towns and fortresses. By continuing his operations, he forced the elector out of his winter-quarters again into the field, chased him from post to post, until he obliged him to quit Westphalia, repulse the Wefer, and retire with precipitation into the bishopric of Hildesheim. After taking possession of the elector's towns in Westphalia, he pursued him into the bishopric of Hildesheim; and at length, by mere dint of superior genius, forced him to seek shelter in his hereditary dominions. All this was effected after Louvois had appointed the marshal's army quarters in Alsace and Lorraine, amidst the rigours of a severe winter, opposed by a superior enemy, by the artifices of Louvois, and seconded only by his own prudence, and the affections of his troops, which he maintained in defiance all the difficulties, hardships, and dangers, they encountered. It was indeed supposed, that Montecucculi was prevented from giving Turenne battle by the remonstrances of prince Lobkowitz, the emperor's ambassador, influenced by the gold of Louis. Certain indeed it is, that Montecucculi's illness arose from his chagrin at seeing all his projects frustrated by the unsteady dilatory conduct of the court of Vienna. Louis's negotiations disturbed Europe no less than his arms. His tools and creatures swarmed in every court. Leopold could not be prevented from declaring in favour of Holland; but his ministers were bought off from seconding the emperor's intentions. The whole English nation exclaimed against the alliance of their king with France; but Charles stood in need of French gold to supply his extravagance and profuseness. The elector of Bavaria had indeed been compelled by Louis to retire to his capital; but it was by dint of intrigue that he was forced from his alliance with Holland, and constrained to sign a peace with France.

While Turenne was thus employed on the Rhine, Conde having recovered of his wounds, returned to the command of the army in Holland. He besieged and took Maestricht in 13 days. Having repaired the fortifications, he proposed making himself master of several other towns; but the inundations everywhere stopped his course. All his attempts to draw off the waters were in vain; and he was forced to content himself with preserving, without pretending to extend, the king's conquests.

Whatever glory the king might have acquired by land, certain it is that the conduct of his admirals deserved equal praise with that of his generals. In little more than 12 months the French were taught the art of naval war. Before, they fought ship to ship; but understood nothing of those evolutions by which whole fleets imitate the movements of armies. The duke of York, afterwards James II., invented the method of giving all orders at sea by means of signals: this and every other part of the art the French borrowed from the English; and became so apt scholars, that they ventured to give battle to the Hollanders, the great rivals of the English on that element. Their fleet, amounting to 40 sail, besides fire-ships, joined to the English, gave battle three different times to the Dutch. De Ruyter gained additional glory in these engagements; and D'Estrées the French admiral gained the esteem of De Ruyter.

In the mean time, Spain declares in favour of the Dutch; and prevails upon the emperor to act more heartily in the cause of Holland, and defence of the liberties of Europe. The prince of Orange was reinforced by 10,000 Spaniards, sent to him by the governor of the Low Countries. Philip had concluded a treaty with the States at the Hague, whereby he declared war against France, engaged the emperor to make a powerful diversion on the Rhine, stipulated not to accept of peace before the Dutch had retrieved all their losses, and obtained from them a promise to listen to no terms of accommodation before his Catholic majesty was reinstalled in all his possessions in the Low Countries, previous to the peace of the Pyrenees. Montecucculi was ordered to advance with 30,000 men to Franconia; and Turenne, joining the troops of Cologne and Munster, passed the Main, and took post in the electorate of Mentz. The prince of Orange receiving no impediment from Conde, who was forced on account of the inundations to repulse the Menste, thought this a proper time for action, as the enemy had no considerable forces in the heart of the United Provinces. He ordered some troops to file off secretly to Amsterdam and Muiden; lined with infantry the intrenchments which secured the passage to Holland; and to deceive the duke of Luxemburg, who commanded in Utrecht, sent some forces by sea to attack Bommel. The duke, not penetrating the prince's design, came to succour the place; and William, finding his stratagem succeed, marched to Naarden, and with 25,000 men invested and took the place before the duke could provide for its security. Upon this success, the Dutch took courage, fortune inclined in their favour, and in a short time all the horrors of war were removed from the interior parts of the United Provinces to the Spanish Netherlands. Neither the experience nor consummate address of Turenne, the genius of Vauban, or the indefatigable vigilance of Louvois, could repair the error committed in ruining the army to garrison the conquered towns. Even Conde's fire seemed extinguished in the waters with which the Dutch had drowned their country. Instead of penetrating farther, he was obliged to retreat. Turenne could not prevent the junction of Montecucculi and the prince of Orange, nor the loss of Bonne. This junction, and the declaration of Spain, obliged the armies of France to abandon the three provinces with still more rapidity than they had conquered them. The triumphal arch at St Denis was hardly erected as a monument of Louis's victories, before the fruits of those victories were relinquished. In a word, the parliament of England would no longer suffer Charles to be the mercenary tool of France; the late ill success cooled the elector of Cologne and the bishop of Munster in their friendship; and Louis, forsaken by all his allies, found himself under the necessity of maintaining singly a war against the empire, Spain, and the United Provinces.

From that time the United Provinces have been distinguished among the European nations as a very considerable maritime and commercial power. Their connection with Britain by the Revolution in 1688, when William III., stadtholder of Holland became king of this island, brought on a much closer connection between the two nations than had ever taken place before. By means of this connection, William formed a plan of humbling his great adversary Louis XIV., who had so lately brought his country to the verge of ruin. For this purpose he renewed the war in 1689, and commanded the army in person. However, he was overmatched by the abilities of Luxemburg the French general; who opposed him, and obliged him to conclude a peace in 1697. His enmity to the French king, however, was not yet extinguished. The remaining part of his life he employed in forming the most powerful confederacy against against that monarch; and so much was he wrapped in this project, that even in his dying moments it seemed to prevail over every other consideration*. His measures, however, were adopted by his successor Queen Anne; and the French monarchy had nearly sunk under the united efforts of the forces of Britain, Holland, and Germany, headed by the experienced generals Marlborough and Eugene. But at last the whole plan was disconcerted by a revolution in the British ministry; the Dutch were disappointed in the moment of their expectations, and obliged to consent to the peace of Utrecht, which left them exposed to the attempts of France as much as ever. A barrier composed of a great number of fortified towns was indeed granted them; but barriers of this kind are a slender defence against the modern improvements in war. In the war of 1739, these towns were taken one after another by Marshal Saxe, who thus revenged the exploits of the duke of Marlborough; while the Dutch and British army, commanded by the late duke of Cumberland, were driven from place to place, without being able to make one successful effort from the beginning of the war to the end of it. See BRITAIN, p. 342—429.

It is probable that the bad success of this war cooled the affections of the Dutch towards Britain to such an extent that ever since they have acted rather as concealed enemies than friends. In the war of 1753, their attachment to France was evident; and in the last, it proceeded to such an height, as to oblige the British ministry to declare war against them. The issue of this war is still fresh in our memories. A single naval engagement was the only event of consequence that took place, and showed that both were formidable antagonists to each other.

This war was undertaken in opposition to the wishes of the stadtholder, who having been maintained in his prerogatives chiefly by the powerful influence of Britain and Prussia, could have no motive for making a rupture with the court of London. The subsequent transactions of the States-general have been related under other articles (see PRUSSIA and REVOLUTION). Having defeated the grand alliance formed against the disturbers of the peace of Europe, and the office of the stadtholder being abolished, the Dutch republic, under the name of an ally, is now in reality little better than a province, of France. The consequence of this alliance is what might have been expected. The British government, obliged to attack its enemies wherever it might find them, commenced hostilities against the United Provinces, and in the compass of a very short period wrestled from them their most valuable possessions both in the eastern and in the western world.

The seven United Provinces being in great part surrounded by the sea, lying low, and abounding in marshes, have a damp and unwholesome air. Rains and fogs are frequent; and the gout, rheury, rheumatism, and agues, very common and difficult of cure. The effects of human industry here are wonderful in the dykes and dams erected for defending the country against the inundations of the sea, and in ditches, canals, mills, and sluices, for draining the marshes. The quantity of grain produced is not sufficient for home consumption; but the pastures in the marshes are so rich, that they can spare a great deal of butter and cheese for exportation. They have also a good breed of sheep, whose wool is highly valued. There is turf, madder, tobacco, some fruit, and iron; but all the pit-coal and timber used in this country, and indeed most of the necessaries of life, are imported. All the provinces either lie upon, or communicate with, the North Sea, by means of that called the Zuider, or South Sea; which was formed partly by the Rhine's right branch, then increased by the Vecht, which has now another outlet, overflowing the low swampy grounds through which it passed; and partly by the sea, in the 13th century, breaking in, and overflowing a large tract of ground contiguous to that before laid under water by the Rhine. The principal rivers are the Rhine, the Meuse, the Scheld, and the Vecht. The first is divided into several branches, one of which joins the Old IJssel, and after that falls into the Zuider Sea; another named the Leie, at the village of Krimpen, mingles with the Meuse; a third, called the Crooked Rhine, is branched out at Leyden into canals, of which one runs into the lake of Haarlem, and another flows itself in the land hills between Catwyk on the Rhine, and Catwyk on the sea; and a fourth, called the Waal, falls into the Meuse over a rank Workum. The Meuse, after dividing itself into two branches, and again uniting these, falls into the North Sea below Rotterdam. The Scheld below Antwerp divides itself into two branches, called the Western and Eastern Scheld; the first separating Flanders from Zealand; and the other, running north by Bergen op Zoom, and afterwards east, between the islands of Beveland and Schouwen, falls into the sea a little below. The Vecht runs from east to west through the province of Overijssel, and falls into the Zuider Sea. There are many smaller rivers that join these, and a vast number of canals; yet there are few good harbours in the provinces. The best are those of Rotterdam, Hoogeveen, and Flushing. As to the harbour of Amsterdam, it is indeed one of the largest and finest in Europe; but there is a bar at the entrance of it, over which large vessels cannot pass without being lightened or unloaded. There are no mountains in these provinces; and the only lake, properly so called, is that of Haarlem. The provinces are extremely well cultivated, and very populous; especially that of Holland, which, in this respect, perhaps has not its equal in the universe. The towns are very agreeable, being kept clean, and having canals in the middle of the streets, planted with trees. The number of inhabitants is computed at about 2,000,000. The animals here are much the same as in England; but their horses and hounds are of a larger size. Storks build and hatch on their chimneys; but, being birds of passage, they leave the country about the middle of August, with their young, and return the February following. It is said there are some wild boars and wolves here; and that neither oysters nor herrings are to be found upon the coast; but of other fish they have the several sorts, both in their seas and rivers, that we have in Britain.

The established religion here before the Revolution was Religion, the Presbyterian, or Calvinist; none but Presbyterians were admitted into any office or post in the government, excepting the army; all religions and sects, however, were tolerated, and had their respective meetings or assemblies for public worship, among which the Papists and Jews were very numerous. Since the late alliance with France, no particular religion is established; and the phlegmatic Dutch have drunk deep of the cup of infidelity, mixed by their new and volatile allies.

There are five universities in the provinces, viz. those of Utrecht, Leyden, Franeker, Groningen, and Harderwijk; but the three last are inconsiderable. The dissenters in England often send their children to these universities for education. Before the Reformation there was an archbishop at Utrecht, who had for his suffragans the bishops of Deventer, Groningen, Middleburg, Haarlem, and Leeuwarden. The language here is a dialect of the German, but French is much spoken by the better sort.

With regard to the commerce of this country, their East India company had the monopoly of the fine spices for more than 100 years, and was long the most opulent and powerful of any in the world. Though the country itself produces duces very few things, yet almost all the products and commodities of the globe may be found here, nearly as cheap as in the countries where they are made or produced. A vast variety of manufactures are carried on in the provinces, and with extraordinary skill and diligence; and a great number of hands are employed, and much wealth acquired, by the herring, cod, and whale fisheries. No nation has hitherto equalled them in the curing of herrings; those cured at Glasgow, in Scotland, are thought to come nearest to them. About 150 sail were annually employed in the whale-fishery, and about 200 in the herring. The profits of the latter, in a good year, after all deductions, were thought to amount to 200,000 Holland guilders. The principal manufactures here are those of linen, paper, and earthenware of all sorts. Ship-building also employs vast numbers of hands. The trade of this country, however, upon the whole, has long been declining; owing partly to a decline of their ancient parsimony and industry; but chiefly to the improvement of manufactures, trade, and navigation, in other countries; and at present (1796) it is almost annihilated.

The late constitution was somewhat singular. Most of the towns in the several provinces are little republics, whose deputies, with the nobility, composed the states thereof; and the deputies of the provinces, in like manner, composed the States-general. Every town or province might send as many deputies as they pleased to the assemblies of the provincial states, or States-general; but those of each town or province had but one voice, and presided by turns. No resolution taken by the States-general was of any force till confirmed by the several provinces. The legislative power in the towns was vested in the tenates; and the executive in the burgomasters, syndics, &c. The states of the provinces were styled, Noble and Mighty Lords; but those of Holland, Noble and Most Mighty Lords; and the States-general, High and Mighty Lords, or the Lord's the States general of the United Netherlands, or their High Mightinesses. Besides the States-general, there was also a council of state, consisting of deputies from the several provinces, making twelve in all; of which Holland sent three; Guelderland, Zeeland, and Utrecht, two apiece; and Friesland, Groningen, and Overijssel, one. In this council every deputy presided a week by turns, and the stadtholder had a decisive voice when the votes happened to be equal. The principal affairs that came under their deliberation, were those relating to the army and finances. The stadtholder was also president of the states in every province, but had no seat in the States-general. One dissenting voice in the provincial states prevented their coming to any resolution. See STADTHOLDER.

Such was the constitution of the seven United Provinces. They are now employed in framing for themselves a new one, upon the plan dictated to them by their masters the French.

With respect to the administration of justice in this country, every province has its tribunal, to which, except in criminal cases, appeals lie from the petty and country courts; and it is said, that justice is nowhere distributed with more impartiality.

The taxes in these provinces are so many, and so heavy, especially in Holland, that it is not without reason asserted, that the only thing that has escaped taxation there is the air they breathe. The ordinary revenues of the republic are computed at between two and three millions Sterling annually. Out of 102 guilkers, the province of Holland contributes 58; and consequently above one half of the whole public expenses. For the encouragement of trade, the duties on goods and merchandise are said to be exceeding low.

With respect to their land-forces in time of peace, they seldom exceed 40,000, and very often fall short of that number. They employ a great many foreigners in their service; and in time of war hire whole regiments of Germans. Their navy, were they to enter heartily into any war, could soon be made formidable, as they have always vast quantities of timber prepared for building ships, and great numbers of ship carpenters and mariners. It is under the direction of the five admiralty colleges, who, to defray the charges thereof, levy the duties on exports and imports.

As to the character of the Dutch, the boors or husbandmen are industrious enough, but heavy, and slow of understanding. The leemen are a plain, blunt, but rough, fusty, and ill-mannered sort of people. Their tradesmen are something sharper, and make use of all their skill to take advantage of those they deal with. Every class of men is extremely frugal. All appetites and passions run lower and cooler here than in other countries, avarice excepted. Quarrels are very rare; revenge is seldom heard of; and jealousy scarcely ever known. It is very uncommon for any of them to be really in love, or even to pretend to it; nor do the women seem to care whether they are or not. People converge pretty much upon a level here; nor is it easy to distinguish the man from the maids, or the maid from the maids, such liberties do they allow their servants, or rather are obliged to allow them; for they may not be struck or corrected by them, but the dispute must be left to the magistrate. The Dutch are tall and strong built; but both men and women have the groffest shapes that are to be met with anywhere. Their gait, except among the officers of the army and some few others, is exceedingly plain, and the fashions change as seldom as in Spain. The men are addicted to drinking, which some think necessary in this foggy air, both for their health and the improvement of their understandings. Among their diversions, that of skating in winter is one of the chief. It is amazing to see the crowds in a hard trot upon the ice, and their great dexterity in skating; both men and women darting along with inconceivable velocity. The Dutch are remarkable for their cleanliness; nothing can exceed the neatness of their houses, towns, and villages. Many of them have distinguished themselves by their learning, and some even by their wit and ingenuity; witness Erasmus, Grotius, &c. The Dutch excel also in painting and engraving; and some of them have been no contemptible statuaries.