in astronomy and chronology. See Astronomy, no 347. p. 320. and Kalendar.

The ancient Roman year was the lunar year, which, as first settled by Romulus, consisted only of ten months; viz. 1. March, containing 31 days. 2. April, 30. 3. May, 31. 4. June, 30. 5. Quintilis, 31. 6. Sextilis, 30. 7. September, 30. 8. October, 31. 9. November, 30. 10. December, 30—in all 304 days; which came short of the true lunar year by 50 days, and of the solar, by 61 days. Numa Pompilius corrected this irregular constitution of the year, and composed two new months, January and February, of the days that were used to be added to the former year.

The ancient Egyptian year, called also the year of Nabonassar, on account of the epocha of Nabonassar, is the solar year of 365 days, divided into 12 months, of 30 days each, besides five intercalary days added at the end. The names, &c. of the months are as follows: 1. Thoth. 2. Paophi. 3. Athyr. 4. Chojae. 5. Tybi. 6. Mecheir. 7. Phamenoth. 8. Pharmuthi. 9. Pachon. 10. Pauni. 11. Epiphi. 12. Mefori; before the ἑκατονταρχίας.

The ancient Greek year was lunar; consisting of 12 months, which at first had 30 days apiece, then alternately 30 and 29 days, computed from the first appearance of the new moon; with the addition of an embolismic month of 30 days every 3d, 5th, 8th, 11th, 14th, 16th, and 19th year of a cycle of 19 years; in order to keep the new and full moons to the same terms or seasons of the year. Their year commenced with that new moon, the full moon of which comes next after the summer solstice. The order, &c. of their months was thus: 1. Ἐπαρχίας, containing 29 days. 2. Πεντάσιας, 30. 3. Βούλησις, 29. 4. Μαρτυρίας, 30. 5. Πεντάσιας, 29. 6. Πεντάσιας, 30. 7. Γαρμίας, 29. 8. Αὐγήσιας, 30. 9. Ελαιρίας, 30. 10. Μενιάς, 30. 11. Οξυρίας, 29. 12. Σεπτεμβρίας, 30.

The ancient Jewish year is a lunar year, consisting commonly of 11 months, which alternately contain 30 and 29 days. It was made to agree with the solar year, either by the adding of 11, and sometimes 12 days, at the end of the year, or by an embolismic month. The names and quantities ties of the months stand thus: 1. Nisan, or Abib, 30 days. 2. Iyar, or Zius, 29. 3. Sivan, or Siwan, 30. 4. Thammuz, or Tammuz, 29. 5. Ab, 30. 6. Elul, 29. 7. Tifri, or Ethanim, 30. 8. Marchefivam, or Bul, 29. 9. Cisleu, 30. 10. Tebeth, 29. 11. Sabat, or Schebeth, 30. 12. Adar, in the embolismic year, 30. Adar, in the common year, was but 29. Note, in the defective year, Cisleu was only 29 days; and in the redundant year, Marchefivam was 30.

The Persian year is a solar year of about 365 days; consisting of 12 months of 30 days each, with 5 intercalary days added at the end.

The Arabic, Mahometan, and Turkish years, called also the year of the Hegira, is a lunar year, equal to 354 days, 8 hours, and 48 minutes, and consists of 12 months, which contain alternately 30 and 29 days.

The Hindoo year differs from all these, and is indeed different in different provinces of India. The best account that we have of it is by Mr Cavendish, in the Phil. Trans. of the Royal Society of London for the year 1792. "Before I speak of the civil year of the Hindoos (says this eminent philosopher), it will be proper to say a few words of the astronomical year, by which it is regulated.

"The astronomical year begins at the instant when the sun comes to the first point of the Hindoo zodiac. In the year 1792, it began on April 9th, at 22h. 14' after midnight of their first meridian, which is about 41' of time west of Calcutta; but, according to Mr Gentil's account of the Indian astronomy, it began 3h. 24' earlier. As this year, however, is longer than ours, its commencement falls continually later, in respect of the Julian year, by 50' 26" in four years. This year is divided into 12 months, each of which corresponds to the time of the sun's stay in some sign; so that they are of different lengths, and seldom begin at the beginning of a day.

"The civil day in all parts of India begins at sunrise, and is divided into 60 parts called dandas, which are again divided into 60 palas. In those parts of India in which the Benares almanac, or as it is there called patras, is used, the civil year is lunilar, consisting of 12 lunar months, with an intercalary month inserted between them occasionally. It begins at the day after the new moon next before the beginning of the solar year. The lunar month is divided into 30 parts called teetees; these are not strictly of the same length, but are equal to the time in which the moon's true motion from the sun is 12°. From the new moon till the moon arrives at 12° distance from the sun is called the first teethee; from thence till it comes to 24° is called the second teethee; and so on till the full moon, after which the teethees return in the same order as before.

"The civil day is constantly called by the number of that teethee which expires during the course of the day; and as the teethee is sometimes longer than one day, a day sometimes occurs in which no teethee ends. When this is the case, the day is called by the same number as the following day; so that two successive days go by the same name. It oftener happens, however, that two teethees end on the same day; in which case the number of the first of them gives name to the day, and there is no day called by the number of the last, so that a gap is made in the order of the days. In the latter part of the month the days are counted from the full moon, in the same manner as in the former part they are counted from the new moon; only the last day, or that on which the new moon happens, is called the 30th, instead of the 1st. It appears, therefore, that each half of the month constantly begins on the day after that on which the new or full moon falls; only sometimes the half month begins with the second day, the first being wanting.

"This manner of counting the days is sufficiently intricate; but that of counting the months is still more so.

"The civil year, as was before said, begins at the day after the new moon; and, moreover, in the years which have an intercalary month, this month begins at the day after the new moon; but notwithstanding this, the ordinary civil month begins at the day after the full moon. To make their method more intelligible, we will call the time from new moon to new moon the natural month. The civil month Vifakhia, the first in the Hindoo kalender, which extends from the 9th of our April to the 10th of May, begins at the day after that full moon which is nearest to the instant at which the sun enters Meha, the first in order of the Indian signs, whether before or after; however, it is not always accurately the nearest.

"A consequence of this way of counting the months is, that the first half of Chitra, the last month in the Indian kalender, extending from March the 16th to April the 9th, falls in one year, and the latter half in the following year; and whenever the sun enters no sign during a normal month, this month is intercalary. The number of days in the month varies from 29 to 32. Indeed the Hindoo months, both solar and lunar, consist neither of a determinate number of days, nor are regulated by any cycle, but depend solely on the motions of the sun and moon; so that a Hindoo has no way of knowing what day of the month it is but by consulting his almanac; and what is more, the month ought sometimes to begin on different days, in different places, on account of the difference in latitude and longitude, not to mention the difference which may arise from errors in computation. This mode of computing time must be attended with many inconveniences; but in the transactions of civil life the Hindoos do not much regard it. A disagreement, however, in the computation of the teethees, which sometimes also happens, occasions no small perplexity; because by the teethees or lunar days are regulated most of their religious festivals. Every Brahmin in charge of a temple, or whose duty it is to announce the times for the observance of religious ceremonies, is therefore furnished with one of their almanacs; and if he be an astronomer, he makes such corrections in it as the difference of latitude and longitude render necessary."

New Year's Gift. See Gift.