FERMENTATION is a chemical process which has been already considered in the Encyclopaedia, and will be again referred in this Supplement under the title Animal and Vegetable Substances. In this place we mean nothing more than to give such directions, principally cipally from Mr Richardson of Hull, for the proper fermentation of malt liquors as have not been fully detailed in the article Brewing (Encycl.).
This author controverts, "we do not think very successfully, the conclusions drawn by Mr Henry from the experiments, of which the reader will find an account in the article Fermentation (Encycl.); but it is not his theory with which we are at present concerned, but his practice as that of an experienced and enlightened brewer. Having treated of Worts, and the proper method of boiling them, for which see Wort in this Supplement, and having given an historical view of the process of fermentation, of which a pretty accurate abridgement is inserted in the articles Brewing and Fermentation (Encycl.), he proceeds thus:
"The agency of air, in the business of fermentation, is very powerful; but as all fermentable subjects have an abundant supply, we are rather to provide for the egress of their own, than to suffer the admission of the external air, by which a great number of the fine, volatile, oleaginous parts of the subject would be carried off, and a proportionate injury in flavour and spirituality sustained. Hence such a covering should be provided for the gyle-tun as would barely allow the escape of the common air produced by the operation; whilst the gas, or fixed air, from its greater density, resting upon the surface of the beer the whole depth of the cask, prevents the action of the external air, and consequently the escape of those fine and valuable parts just mentioned.
"But towards the conclusion of vinous fermentation, this aerial covering begins to lose its efficacy; which points out the necessity of then getting the beer into casks as soon as possible, that the consequences may be prevented, of exposing so large a surface, liable to so copious an evaporation. Amongst these, a loss of spirituality is not the least; for this evaporation is more and more spirituous, as the action approaches the completion of vinous fermentation; and that once obtained, the loss becomes still more considerable, if still exposed to the air; whence it might be termed the distillation of Nature, in which she is so much superior to art, that the ethereal spirit rises pure and unmixed, whilst the highest rectification of the still produces at best but a compound of aqueous and spirituous parts.
"Nor is this entirely conjecture. Experience teaches us, that we cannot produce so strong a beer in summer, ceteris paribus, as in winter; the reason is, not because the action of fermentation does not realize so much spirit in warm weather, but because the fermenting liquor, after the perfection of vinosity, continues so long in a state of rarefaction, that the spirituous parts are dissipated in a much greater degree at that time than at any other, in a similar state of progression. And this doctrine of natural distillation seems to account for that increase of strength obtainable from long preservation, in well closed casks, and, more particularly so, in glass bottles; for Nature, in her efforts to bring about her grand purpose of resolving every compound into its first principles, keeps up a perpetual internal struggle, as well as an external evaporation; and if the latter be effectually prevented, the former must be productive of additional spirituality, so long as the action keeps within the pale of vinous fermentation.
"In order to maintain a due regulation of the ferment-
Suppl. Vol. I. Part II.
ing power, and to answer the several purposes of the Fezzan operation, a scrupulous attention to the degree of heat at which the action commences, and a particular regard to the quality and quantity of the ferment employed, are indispensably necessary." The degree of heat must be ascertained by the thermometer, and regulated by experience: the quantity of yeast can be ascertained only by the intention of the artist; but of the quality of that substance we shall treat under Yeast in this Supplement.
FEZZAN is a kingdom in the anterior of Africa, placed in the vast wilderness as an island in the ocean. The following account of it was given to Mr Lucas the African traveller by an old sheik, a native of Fezzan; and that account was confirmed by the governor of Mefurata, who had himself visited Fezzan, and who, having treated the traveller with great kindness, ought not to be suspected of having wantonly deceived him.
According to this account, Fezzan is situated to the south of Melurata (see Mesurata in this Suppl.), and the traveller from the latter place to the former arrives in eight days at Wadan, where refreshments are procured for the caravan. From thence in five hours they reach the desert of Soudah, where no vegetable is seen to grow but the talk, a tree from which the lemon-coloured wood is taken which forms handles for tools. The passage of the desert takes up some days, when the traveller finds a miserable village, producing nothing but dates, brackish water, and Indian corn; from this village a day's journey conducts to the town of Sebbah, where are the remains of an ancient castle, and other venerable ruins, and in four days more he reaches Mourzouk, the capital of Fezzan.
This city is situated on the banks of a small river, surrounded by a high wall for defence, and is distant from Mefurata 390 computed miles. Eastward of Mourzouk is the town of Quela, in which are the remains of ancient buildings; the size of the cisterns, and the construction of the vaulted caves, exhibit instances of ancient splendor. South of which place is Jermah, distinguished by numerous and majestic ruins, on which are many inscriptions. Teffouwa lies eastward, near which was a river which the sheik remembers, but is now overwhelmed in the moving sands. N.E. from Mourzouk, distant about 120 miles, is the large town of Temmifwa, where the caravans of pilgrims from Bornou and Nigritia, by way of Cairo to Mecca, provide their stores for the desert.
In the town or province of Mendrah is a large quantity of trona, a species of fossil alkali, that floats on the surface or settles on the banks of its spreading lakes, great quantity of which is sent to Tripoli, and shipped for Turkey, Tunis, and Morocco; at the latter place it is used as an ingredient in the red dye of the leather. Mendrah is about 60 miles south of Fezzan. The territory of Fezzan extends but little westward, being confined by barren mountains. The smaller towns of this kingdom are said to be about one hundred; these towns are chiefly inhabited by husbandmen and shepherds; in every town a market is regularly held; mutton and goat's flesh are sold by the quarter, usually from thirty-two to forty grains of gold, or from four to five fillings English. The flesh of camels is dearer, and divided into smaller parts.
The houses are of clay, with flat roofs composed of branches. branches of trees, on which earth is laid; this is sufficient in a climate where it never rains. The heats in summer, from April to November, are intense, and the hot winds blow from the south-east, south, and south-west, with such violence as to threaten suffocation; when it changes to the west or north-west a reviving freshness ensues.
The dress of the inhabitants is like that of the Moors of Barbary, consisting of a large pair of trowsers, a shirt which hangs over the trowsers, a kind of waistcoat without sleeves, and a jacket with tight sleeves; over the jacket is a loose robe which reaches below the knee, a girdle of crimson, and a long cloth called a barrakon or albaicque, like a highland plaid, is worn; stockings of leather, laced like half boots, and slippers; on the head a red cap and turban; sometimes over the whole they throw a long cloak with a hood, called a burrago. In summer they throw off all but the shirt and the cap.
The people bear very high degrees of heat, but any cold affects them sensibly. Their diseases are chiefly of the inflammatory and putrid kind; the smallpox is common. Their old women are their principal physicians. For pains in the head they cup and bleed; for those in the limbs, they bathe in the hot lakes. They have a multitude of noxious and loathsome animals; the air is crowded with mosquitos, and their persons are overrun with the vermin which affect the beggars of Europe.
In their persons they incline to the negro, of a deep swarthy complexion, with curly black hair; they are tall, but indolent, inactive, and weak. In their common intercourse, distinction of rank seems to be forgotten; rich and poor, master and man, converse, eat, and drink, together; they are, however, generous and hospitable.
An extensive plain composes the kingdom of Fezzan; the soil is generally a light sand, the springs are abundant, and few regions in Africa exhibit a richer vegetation. The land produces the talk, the white-thorn, date trees, the olive and lime, apricot, pomegranate, and fig; Indian corn and barley are the favourite objects of cultivation, of wheat there is little raised. The tame animals are, the sheep, cow, goat, and camel; and the wild are, the ostrich, antelopes of various kinds, one of which is called the huadee, which when chased plunges with address from a precipice, and lights on its hams.
The food of the lower class consists of flour of Indian corn, seasoned with oil and fruit; those of superior rank eat wheat bread and flesh. Fezzan produces much salt; the water has in general a mineral taste, but the favourite beverage is a liquor from the date tree, which acquires, when fermented, an intoxicating strength. In religion they are rigid Mahomedans, but tolerant. Their government monarchical; their present king is descended from one of the sheerefs of Tafilet, who about 400 years since obtained the crown. Till the present century the kingdom was independent, when the Bashaw of Tripoli conquered and made it tributary; the reigning sovereign has nearly thrown off this yoke. In Fezzan, the descendants of the prophet are highly privileged, their property and persons are inviolable; they are exempt from certain punishments. This class are in general either princes or merchants.
The revenue is composed of a tax on towns and villages, a tax on every camel load of goods (except provisions) which enters the capital, fines for offences, lands of persons dying without heirs, and a tax on gardens and date trees. Gold dust by weight is the chief medium of payment; but for convenience they are furnished with small papers of gold dust of different values, from two marbles or one and a half upwards; for smaller articles corn or flour are used as a medium. One grain of gold is equal to 1½ d. sterling. The Fezzan grain is the same as in England.
The justice of the sovereign is highly extolled; small offences are punished by the bastinado, and the punishments increase to fine, imprisonment, and death. Trusting to their natural defence, their towns are without guard, and they have no standing forces. The only war the sheeref remembered was undertaken against a people inhabiting the mountains of Tibelli, which is separated from the people of Fezzan by a wide and sandy desert. These people are wild and savage, and had plundered a caravan belonging to the king, who sent an army of between 3 and 4000 men against and subdued them. The country of these people produces much fenna. The vales of Tibelli are said to be fertile in corn and pasture for cattle, particularly camels. The people live in huts, and profess various religions, some the Mahomedan, others are attached to their ancient idolatry.
The people of Fezzan carry on a considerable trade with Tripoli, Bornou, Nigritia, &c. At the end of October, when the heats are abated, the caravans depart from Mourzouk in small parties of ten or twelve, unless in time of war. They lay in provisions of dates, meal, and mutton salted, dried in the sun, and boiled in oil or fat. The merchants have agents in the chief towns, to whom they send the slaves they purchase. The caravans to Tripoli carry the iron, fenna, gold and slaves brought from the southern countries; and in return bring back cutlery, woollen, silks, dollars, copper, and bras.
That to Bornou carries bras and copper, for the currency of the country, imperial dollars, and various manufactures; but of their own produce only a preparation of dates, and meal of Indian corn, and they take in return slaves, gold dust, and civet.
To Cashua, an empire in Nigritia, they carry cowries, bras to make rings and bracelets, horses, several kinds of manufactures, and the Gooroo nuts; and in return take gold dust, slaves, cotton cloth, dyed goatskins, hides, fenna, and civet, for the countries south of the Niger, where also they convey fabric blades and Dutch knives, coral, bras beads, looking glasses, dollars, &c. and receive back gold dust, slaves, cotton cloths, goat skins, Gooroo nuts, cowries, and ivory.
A caravan of pilgrims sets out likewise in the autumn of every second or third year from Mourzouk, the capital of Fezzan, to Mecca. They proceed to Temefia, over the mountain of Ziltan, and thence to Sibbul, a place subject to Tripoli; and thence nearly in a line with the Mediterranean sea to Cairo, and thence to Mecca by the customary route.
As not one celestial observation has been taken to determine any latitude between Benin and Tripoli, all the positions are fixed by estimation, reckoning fifteen or sixteen miles for a day's journey. Mr Rennell places FIGURATE Numbers are such as do or may represent some geometrical figure, such as a triangle, pentagon, or pyramid, &c. These numbers are treated at great length by Maclaurin in his Fluxions; Simpson in his Algebra; and Malcolm in his Arithmetic; but the following account of them by Dr Hutton is as perspicuous as any that we have seen:
Figurate numbers are distinguished into orders, according to their place in the scale of their generation, being all produced one from another, viz. by adding continually the terms of any one, the successive sums are the terms of the next order, beginning from the first order, which is that of equal units \(1, 1, 1, 1, \ldots\); then the second order consists of the successive sums of those of the first order, forming the arithmetical progression \(1, 2, 3, 4, \ldots\); those of the third order are the successive sums of those of the second, and are the triangular numbers \(1, 3, 6, 10, 15, \ldots\); those of the fourth order are the successive sums of those of the third, and are the pyramidal numbers \(1, 4, 10, 20, 35, \ldots\); and so on, as below:
| Order | Name | Numbers | |-------|------------|---------| | 1 | Equals | \(1, 1, 1, 1, \ldots\) | | 2 | Arithmeticals | \(1, 2, 3, 4, \ldots\) | | 3 | Triangulars | \(1, 3, 6, 10, \ldots\) | | 4 | Pyramidal | \(1, 4, 10, 20, \ldots\) | | 5 | 2nd Pyramidal | \(1, 5, 15, 35, \ldots\) | | 6 | 3rd Pyramidal | \(1, 6, 21, 56, \ldots\) | | 7 | 4th Pyramidal | \(1, 7, 28, 84, \ldots\) |
The above are all considered as different sorts of triangular numbers, being formed from an arithmetical progression whose common difference is 1. But if that common difference be 2, the successive sums will be the series of square numbers; if it be 3, the series will be pentagonal numbers, or pentagons; if it be 4, the series will be hexagonal numbers, or hexagons; and so on. Thus:
| Arithmeticals | 1st Sum, or Polygon | 2nd Sum, or 2nd Polygon | |---------------|--------------------|------------------------| | \(1, 2, 3, 4\) | Tri. \(1, 3, 6, 10\) | \(1, 4, 10, 20\) | | \(1, 3, 5, 7\) | Squa. \(1, 4, 9, 16\) | \(1, 5, 14, 30\) | | \(1, 4, 7, 10\) | Pent. \(1, 5, 12, 22\) | \(1, 6, 18, 40\) | | \(1, 5, 9, 13\) | Hex. \(1, 6, 15, 28\) | \(1, 7, 22, 50\) | | &c. | | |
And the reason of the names triangles, squares, pentagons, hexagons, &c. is, that these numbers may be placed in the form of these regular figures or polygons, as here below:
**Triangles**
``` * * * * * * ```
**Squares**
``` * ** *** **** ```
But the figurate numbers of any order may also be found without computing those of the preceding orders; which is done by taking the successive products of as many of the terms of the arithmeticals \(1, 2, 3, 4, \ldots\) in their natural order, as there are units in the number which denominates the order of figurates required, and dividing those products always by the first product. Thus the triangular numbers are found by dividing the products \(1 \times 2, 2 \times 3, 3 \times 4, 4 \times 5, \ldots\) each by the first prod. \(1 \times 2\); the first pyramids by dividing the products \(1 \times 2 \times 3, 2 \times 3 \times 4, 3 \times 4 \times 5, \ldots\) by the first \(1 \times 2 \times 3\). And in general, the figurate numbers of any order \(n\), are found by substituting successively \(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, \ldots\) instead of \(x\) in this general expression \(x \cdot x + 1 \cdot x + 2 \cdot x + 3 \cdot \ldots\); where the factors in the numerator and denominator are supposed to be multiplied together, and to be continued till the number in each be less by 1 than that which expresses the order of the figurates required.