(See Encycl.). A number of non-descript little animals was discovered by La Martiniere the naturalist when accompanying Peronou on his celebrated voyage of discovery. These animals he called insects, and to many of them he gave particular names. Of these we shall give his description in this place, leaving our readers, as he has left his, to arrange them properly according to the Linnean classification.
"The insect, which is figured No. 1, inhabits a small plate prismatic triangular cell, pointed at the two extremities, XXX. of the confluence and colour of clear brittle ice; the body of the insect is of a green colour, spotted with small bluish points, among which are some of a golden tinge; it is fixed by a ligament to the lower part of its usual habitation; its neck is terminated by a small blackish head composed of three converging scales, in the form of a hat, and enclosed between three fins, two of them large and channelled in the upper part (A) and one small, femicircular (B). When it is disturbed, it immediately withdraws its fins and its head into its cell, and gradually sinks into the water by its own specific gravity. Fig. 2. represents the under side of the prism, shewing in what manner it is channelled, in order to allow free passage to the animal when it wishes to thrust itself up in it. Fig. 3. represents the profile of the same. The movement carried on by the two larger fins, which are of a softish cartilaginous substance, may be compared to that which would be produced by the two hands joined together in the state of pronation, and forming, alternately, two inclined planes and one horizontal plane; it is by means of this motion that it supports itself on the top of the water, where it proba- ably feeds on fat and oily substances on the surface of the sea." Our author found it near Nootka, on the north-west coast of America, during a calm.
Fig. 4 represents a collection of insects, as our author calls them, consisting only of oval bodies, similar to a soap bubble, arranged in parties of three, five, six, and nine; among them are also some solitary ones. These collections of globules, being put into a glass filled with sea water, described a rapid circle round the glass by a common movement, to which each individual contributed by simple compression of the sides of its body, probably the effect of the reaction of the air with which they were filled. It is not, however, easy to conceive how these distinct animals (for they may be readily separated without deranging their economy) are capable of concurring in a common motion. "These considerations (says our author), together with the form of the animal, recalled to my mind, with much satisfaction, the ingenious system of M. de Buffon; and I endeavoured to persuade myself, that I was about to be witness to one of the most wonderful phenomena of Nature, supposing that these molecules, which were now employed in increasing or diminishing their number, or performing their revolutions in the glass, would soon assume the form of a new animal of which they were the living materials. My impatience led me to detach two from the most numerous group, imagining that this number might perhaps be more favourable to the expected metamorphosis. I was, however, mistaken. These I examined with more attention than the rest; and the following account is of their proceedings alone. Like two strong and active wrestlers, they immediately rushed together, and attacked each other on every side; sometimes one would dive, leaving its adversary at the surface of the water; one would describe a circular movement, while the other remained at rest in the centre; their motions at length became so rapid as no longer to allow me to distinguish one from the other. Having quitted them for a short time, on my return I found them reunited as before, and amicably moving round the edge of the glass by their common exertions."
Fig. 5 represents a singular animal, which has a considerable resemblance to a little lizard; its body is of a firm, gelatinous consistence; its head is furnished on each side with two small gelatinous horns, of which the two hindermost are situated the furthest inward; its body is provided with four open fan-like paws, and some appendages near the insertion of the tail, and terminates like that of a lizard; the ridge of the back is divided the whole way down by a band of a deep blue; the rest of the body, as well as the inside of its paws, is of a bright silvery white. It appears to be very sluggish in its motions; and when disturbed by the finger, merely turned itself belly upwards, soon afterwards resuming its former position. Fig. 6 represents it reversed. Mariniere caught it during a calm at the landing place on the Bahee Islands.
INSTITUTE is a name which has lately been substituted for school or academy. Formerly institution, in the propriety of the English language, was sometimes used as a word of the same import with institution; and now institute is employed, especially by the admirers of French innovations, to denote what had hitherto been called an academy. When royalty was abolished in France, it would have been absurd to continue the titles Royal Academy of Sciences, Royal Academy of Inscriptions, &c.; but instead of merely abolishing the word royal, and substituting national in its stead, it occurred to the fertile brain of Condorcet, to abolish the seven academies themselves, or rather to melt them all down into one great academy; to which was given the appellation of the National Institute, or New Academy of Arts and Sciences. This academy, founded on a decree of the new constitution, was opened on the 7th of December 1795, when Bonaparte, the then minister for the home department, attended, and the decree of foundation was read; which was to the following purport:
"The Academy of Arts and Sciences belongs to the whole republic, and Paris is its place of residence. Its employment is to aim at bringing all arts and sciences to the utmost perfection of which they are capable. It is to notice every new attempt, and all new discoveries, and to keep up a correspondence with all foreign literary societies. And by the particular orders of the Executive Directory, its first studies are to be directed to those subjects which more immediately tend to the reputation and advantage of the French republic."
The academy is to consist of 288 members, half of whom are to reside in Paris, the other half in the departments; and to them is to be added a certain number of foreigners, as honorary members, confined at present to twenty-four.
The academy is divided into three classes, each class into sections, each section to contain twelve members.
1st class. Mathematics and natural philosophy. This class is divided into ten sections. 1. Mathematics. 2. Mechanical arts. 3. Astronomy. 4. Experimental philosophy. 5. Chemistry. 6. Natural history. 7. Botany. 8. Anatomy and animal history. 9. Medicine and surgery. 10. Animal economy, and the veterinary science.
2nd class. Morality and politics. This class consists of six sections. 1. Analysis of sensations and ideas. 2. Morals. 3. Legislation. 4. Political economy. 5. History. 6. Geography.
3rd class. Literature and the fine arts. This class consists of eight sections. 1. Universal grammar. 2. Ancient languages. 3. Poetry. 4. Antiquities. 5. Painting. 6. Sculpture. 7. Architecture. 8. Music.
For each class a particular room in the Louvre is appropriated. No one can be a member of two classes at the same time, but a member of one class may be present at the meetings of any other. Each class is to print, yearly, an account of its transactions.
Four times a-year there are to be public meetings. On these occasions, the three classes meet together. At the end of each year, they are to give a circumstantial account to the legislative body of the progress made in that year in the arts and sciences. The prizes given yearly by each class are to be publicly notified at certain times. The sums requisite for the support of the institution are to be decreed yearly by the legislative body, upon a requisition made by the Executive Directory.
The first forty-eight members were chosen by the Executive Directory, to whom the choice of the remaining members was confided. To the members, resident in Paris, is reserved the choice both of the depart- ment and the foreign members. On a vacancy in any class, three candidates are named by the class for the choice of the body at large.
Each class is to have, at its place of meeting, a collection of the products, both of nature and art, and a library, according to its particular wants.
The regulations of the institution, with respect to the times of meeting, and its employments, are to be drawn up by the body at large, and laid before the legislative assembly.
The hall in which the body at large holds its meetings, forms part of the west wing of the Old Louvre, at present called the Museum. It formerly went by the appellation of the Hall of Antiques (Salle des Antiques); and as long as the kings inhabited this part of the palace, was occupied by their guards, from which circumstance it obtained the name of the Hall des Cent Suisses. It was likewise appropriated to banquets and entertainments, given by the court on gala days; and it was to this place that Henry IV. was conveyed, on his affiliation by Ravallac, in the Rue de la Ferronnerie.
It was built at the same time with the rest of this part of the Louvre, about the year 1528, after the designs of Pierre Lefort, abbot of Clagny. It is 144 feet in length, and 40 in breadth, and holds from 1200 to 1200 persons. In order to adapt it to its new destination, the floor has been sunk, which gives a greater air of lightness to the roof. In the centre stands a double table, in the form of a horse-shoe, supported by sphinxes, at which the members of the institute take their seats. This table is surrounded by two tiers of benches, which are raised for the accommodation of spectators, who have likewise seats provided for them in the vast embrasures of the windows, and at each extremity of the hall.
Whether science will be advanced by the seven royal academies having been melted into one, time must determine; but candour compels us to acknowledge, that the proceedings of the national institute have hitherto been abundantly interesting. Intimately connected with the national institute is the French system of
National Instruction, which is likewise novel, and therefore sufficiently curious to deserve notice in a Work of this kind. When the Christian religion was abolished in France, it was impossible to continue the universities and other seminaries which were founded by Christians, and obliged by their constitution to teach, whether pure or not, the doctrines of Christianity. They were accordingly all swept away, and a new system of education planned, which was to be carried on in what they call
The Primary Schools. The Central Schools. The School of Health. The School of Oriental Languages. The Polytechnic School. The National Institute. The Jury of Public Instruction. The Commission of Public Instruction.
The Legislative Committee of Instruction. And various other national establishments for the improvement of particular sciences.
The first degree of public instruction is to be met with in the Ecoles Primaires, established by a decree of the convention of the second Pluviose, in the second year of the republic (A). Every district is furnished with one of these schools; the professors or masters in which are paid from the national treasury; and to which every head of a family, without exception, is compelled by law to send its children for instruction. The subjects taught in these primary or elementary schools are divided into nine classes:
1st, Instructions connected with the physical and moral situation of children, prior to their entering into these schools. 2nd, Similar instructions as a guide to teachers in the national schools. 3rd, The arts of reading and writing. 4th, The elements of French grammar. 5th, Elements of arithmetic and geometry, with the theory of the new mensuration. 6th, The elements of geography. 7th, Explanations of the principal phenomena and productions of nature. 8th, Elements of agriculture. 9th, Elements of republican morals.
Next to the primary schools in rank and consequence are the Ecoles Centrales, which were established by a decree of the Convention of the seventh Ventose in the third year. They are situated in the capital of every department, bearing the proportion of one central school to 300,000 inhabitants. In these schools the republican youths are taught the sciences, and their application in real life. In each of them are professors for the following branches:
1. For mathematics. 2. Experimental philosophy and chemistry. 3. Natural history. 4. Agriculture and commerce. 5. Logic and metaphysics. 6. Political economy and legislation. 7. The philosophical history of nations. 8. The art of healing. 9. Arts and manufactures. 10. Universal grammar. 11. The belles lettres. 12. The ancient languages. 13. The modern languages. 14. The fine arts.
Each central school is furnished with an extensive public library—a botanic garden—a cabinet of natural history—an apparatus for experimental philosophy—and a collection of machines and models connected with the arts and manufactures.
The professors of each school hold, every month, a public sitting, in which conferences are held relative to subjects connected with the improvement of letters, the sciences, and the arts, which are the most beneficial to society.
The object in the establishment of the primary and central schools was, the general instruction of all classes of the citizens; and it being incompatible with the perfect completion of that important purpose, to expect from them the propagation of particular branches of science, it became necessary to establish other literary and scientific academies.
Accordingly, the French government have founded, 1st, Schools of health (les écoles de santé), in Paris, Strasbourg, and
(A) We would translate this chronological jargon into the language of Christian Europe, were we not persuaded that the French calendar, the French constitution, and the French institutes, will have the same duration; we trust in God not a long duration. For Pluviose, and the other fantastic names of months introduced into this article, see Revolution, Encyc., no. 184. and Montpelier, where medicine and surgery are studied; which schools are affirmed, by those who find nothing wrong in France, to be the most perfect of their kind, as well as new and unparalleled models for such institutions.
2d. Two schools for Oriental languages, in the national library, and in the college of France.
3d. The Polytechnic school in Paris, or central school for the direction of public works. This establishment is very generally admired and considered as a model for imitation. It contains more than 400 young persons, previously educated in the mathematics, and the majority of them intended for engineers in various lines; and they labour under the immediate direction of their tutors nine hours every day. It occupies the principal part of the Palais de Bourbon in Paris, and is furnished with a large collection of instruments and models. The journal of the Polytechnic school, which is published by the bookellers Regent and Bertrand at Paris, is a perfectly original work, and admirably calculated to convey useful information.
Of the national institute a sufficient account has been given in the preceding article. We proceed therefore to the jury of public instruction (Le Jury Central d'Instruction), of which the principal business is to superintend the primary and central schools. It appoints the professors in these schools, and examines into their conduct. Like the legislative body it is renewed by a third every half year. When they have chosen a professor for a central school, they submit their choice to the department; and, in case of disapprobation, they make another appointment. To this jury of public instruction the professors in the central schools are amenable for all misconduct connected with their offices; it may expel them, but all its decisions must be submitted for confirmation to the tribunal of the department.
There is also established at Paris a supreme council, called The Commission of Public Instruction, to which is entrusted the whole executive department. The preservation of the national monuments, of public libraries, museums, cabinets, and valuable collections; the superintendence of all the schools and the modes of instruction; all new inventions and scientific discoveries; the regulation of weights and measures; national statistics and political economy, are all placed under the authority of this supreme commission. For the commodious and regular execution of so many complicated branches of business, there is a large office, called Le Secretariat, which is divided into three departments.
1. For the regulation of the different kinds of instruction; of the modes of education in the schools; and for the choice of elementary books. 2. For weights and measures; inventions and discoveries; libraries and bibliography; museums, works of art, and literary rewards and encouragements. 3. For theatres, national feasts, republican institutions, and the erection of monuments.
As all public establishments require the superintendence and occasional correction of the legislature, in addition to that of their own immediate executive authority, it has been deemed necessary to appoint a permanent committee of instruction in the legislative body, to provide such funds as may be necessary for the perfection and improvement of this system of instruction. This legislative committee are invested with due authority for these purposes. Their objects are precisely the same as those of the commission of public instruction above described, only with this difference, that the latter superintends the execution of existing laws, whilst the former receives and improves them, or proposes new ones. This committee is divided into three departments, as is the commission, with exactly the same arrangement of their respective labours. The committee being charged with the enaction of all new laws, its members, with a view to obtain accurately all the requisite information relative to the numerous branches of the arts, have procured from the legislative body the appointment of a commission temporaire des arts to be annexed to them, and to meet in the same house with them; which temporary commission is divided into fifteen classes: viz. 1. For Zoology; 2. Botany; 3. Mineralogy; 4. Physics; 5. Chemistry; 6. Anatomy; 7. Machinery; 8. Geography; 9. Artillery and Fortification; 10. Medals and Antiquities; 11. Bibliography; 12. Painting; 13. Architecture; 14. Sculpture; 15. Bridges and Canals; and, 16. Musical Instruments.
The improvements of the national literary and scientific establishments are numerous and important.
18. By a decree of the convention of the 11th Prairial, in the second year, it was enacted, that means should be adopted by which every possible advantage might be derived from the botanic gardens of the republic, in Turkey and other foreign countries. This politic decree clearly tended to render France, in the language of the reporter, L'abrege de tous les climats, et l'entreprise de l'Europe. "The epitome of every climate, and the magazine of Europe." Those plants which thrive between the tropics may be cultivated in the south of France; and those which are the produce of northern climates, may be cultivated in the northern departments; by which means, France will be in possession of all foreign plants and drugs, without the exportation of species.
2d. The National Bibliography was decreed in the fitting of 22d Germinal, in the second year. It consists of a complete catalogue of books of all descriptions, the property of the nation; it was then ascertained, that the republic possessed more than ten millions of books. The titles of them were to be adjusted by actual comparisons; the manuscripts to be registered separately; anonymous productions were to be arranged according to their subjects; and those of known authors in the alphabetical order of the names. The several editions to be classified according to their dates: and what may be deemed more important, this French National Bibliography will contain a dictionary of anonymous books, as well as those published under fictitious names, a deformity in the republic of letters.
3d. The annihilation of all patois, or dialects, decreed in the fitting of the 16th Prairial, in the second year. Notwithstanding the universality of the French language, and that it was exclusively spoken in the majority of the inland departments, yet there existed thirty various dialects in France. It is more astonishing that Rozier had remarked, that between one neighbouring village and another, there was so considerable a difference in the dialect, that the inhabitants could not understand each other; and the vineyard had thirty different names. The naturalist Villars, has stated, that in the nomenclature of vegetables, in the departments, he had only met with an hundred which had a common appellation. The establishment of the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers was decreed in the fitting of the 8th of Vendémiaire, in the third year. This consists of a spacious hall, in the form of an amphitheatre, and contains the instruments and models of machinery connected with the arts, and a description of their uses, with every book relating to them. Annexed to this establishment are three expositors and a draughtsman, who explain to the students the use of each instrument, and who register every new discovery, which is presented to the Bureau de Consultation, to the lycée of arts, the ci-devant academy of sciences, or to the board of commerce.
5th, The establishment of the board of longitude was decreed in the fitting of the 7th of Messidor, third year. It was certainly a disgrace under the monarchy, that an astronomical and nautical establishment, which had already proved so beneficial to Great Britain, should not have been adopted in France. In consequence of this decree, the French board is now as complete as the English. It consists of ten members, and has under its jurisdiction the national observatory at Paris, and all the astronomical instruments belonging to the republic. It corresponds with foreign astronomers; delivers public lectures on astronomy and navigation; and its proceedings are annually recited in a public fitting.
6th, The general school of the Oriental languages was established by a decree of the 10th of Germinal, in the fourth year. This school adjoins to the national library, and all the books and manuscripts relative to Oriental literature are deposited in it.
7th, The national museum of antiquities was decreed in the fitting of 20th of Prairial, fourth year. A school of this description was successfully established at Vienna, by Eckel; at Gottingen, by Heyne; at Leipzig, by Ernelt; and even at Strasbourg, by the celebrated Ochlin; Paris was, however, without one. This national archeology, or science of antiquity, is divided into nine different classes: inscriptions, characters, statues, bas reliefs, sculptures, paintings, mosaics, medals, civil, religious, and military instruments. This extensive establishment is under the direction of two principal professors: le Conservateur Professeur, et le Conservateur Bibliothécaire. The province of the former is to deliver public lectures on the several branches of antiquities, to teach the theory of medals and engravings, the history of the arts among the ancients, &c. The duties of the latter are merely of a bibliographical nature.
8th, The new modelling of the Grand National Library, was decreed in the fitting of 25th Vendémiaire, in the fourth year. By virtue of this decree, the place of librarian in chief was suppressed, and the whole establishment placed under a conservateur of eight members; of whom two were appointed for the superintendence of printed books; two for manuscripts; two for antiquities; and two for engravings. From these a temporary director is annually chosen, who superintends the whole acts occasionally as president of this assembly, and maintains a regular correspondence with the constituted authorities relative to the concerns of the library.
9th, The augmentation of the Museum of Natural History, formerly called Le Jardin Royal des Plantes. This establishment was decreed the 13th Brumaire, third year, upon a report of Thibadeau, in the name Institute, of the committee of Public Instruction. Besides the addition of large rooms, and various other buildings, there are new collections of natural curiosities and productions; and the library is much increased. It is open to the public three times a week. At stated periods all the naturalists in Paris deliver courses of lectures in the various branches of natural history. The museum is said to have received greater improvements from this augmentation than from all the labours of Buffon, or from its foundation, since the time of Tournefort.
10th, The Ecole des Mines was established in the Hotel des Monnaies, and has for its direction the naturalist Le Sage. This institution is unrivalled in Europe; and the collection of mineralogical curiosities surpasses whatever can be conceived.
11th, The society of natural history in Paris, deservedly clasped among those which have rendered the greatest services to the cause of science since the revolution. A lecture of public instruction is held every ten days, which is generally given by one of the members, and which is open to all the lovers of natural history. Premiums are proposed for dissertations; one of which, by the late C. Herman, jun. (whose early decease was a great loss to the republic of letters) on the apterous class of insects, may be said to constitute an epocha in the annals of natural history. The society has published a volume of memoirs, in folio, entitled, "Transactions of the Society of Natural History." It has likewise erected a statue to the great Linnaeus, in the national garden of plants; and, at the period when every public instruction was suspended, gave lectures on the different branches of science belonging to its department. Several intelligent and skilful navigators, among others those sent in search of the unfortunate La Pérouse, as well as those which accompanied Buonaparte on his romantic expedition to Egypt, were members of this society.
This statement of facts relative to the present state of public instruction, the sciences, the arts, and the progress of national literature in France, has been taken from a miscellany, of which the principal writers are well acquainted with what is doing in that distracted country. They call it a sublime system; and seem to consider the increase of the national library, the improvement of the botanic gardens, and the discoveries that have been made by the different schools or institutes, as furnishing a demonstration that the republican government is more favourable to the advancement of science, than the monarchical, whether absolute or limited. But it should not be forgotten, that this system is yet in its infancy; and that in prosecuting new schemes, all men, and more especially Frenchmen, are actuated by an enthusiasm which gradually cools as their pursuits become familiar. We shall therefore venture to predict, that the different schools will not display such ardour seven years hence as they do at present; and that if the republican government continue a dozen of years in France, the progress of science in that country will not be more rapid than it was under the monarchy. We must remember, too, that the French libraries, museums, and picture galleries, have been improved by means which the morals of other governments do not employ—by rapine and robbery.
That something may be learned from this system to improve Institutes improve the modes of education in other countries, we admit; and it is for that reason that we have inserted an account of it. But if it contains something worthy of imitation, it contains likewise much to be shunned. We do not think it consistent with the rights of man to compel parents to send their children to be educated in particular schools; especially in schools where not only religious instruction is omitted, but where, there is reason to believe, that the professors are at pains to raze all religious impressions from the youthful mind. In a nation denying the truth of Christianity, it is not to be supposed that the Christian religion will be publicly taught; but in a nation of philosophers, as the French call themselves, it might have been expected that the laws of religious toleration would have been so far regarded, that Christian parents would not have been compelled to send their children to anticlerical schools! But it is not Christianity alone that is neglected in this sublime system of education. Though the legislative body has some time ago decreed that there is a God, there is not in any one of those schools the smallest care taken to instruct the republican youth in the principles even of natural religion! We might indeed have looked for it under the title Metaphysics, had not the constitution of the National Institute taught us, that French metaphysics attend to nothing but the analysis of sensations and ideas. Yet the legislators might have listened on this subject to a republican as sound as themselves, and who was likewise no friend to superstition.
"Nam et Majorum instituta tueri facitis, ceremoniique retinendis sapientis est. Non folum ad religiosum pertinet, sed etiam ad civilitatis statum, ut fine illis, qui facitis publice praestant, religioni privatae satisfacere non possint." Cicero de Nati. Deorum.