an extensive empire, situated partly in Europe, and partly in Asia. It is bounded on the north by the empire of Russia, Hungary, and the Black sea; on the west by the gulf of Venice and the Mediterranean; on the south by the Mediterranean and Arabia; and on the east by Persia. In its present state, we may compute it as extending from the river Unna, in east longitude about 17°, to the mountains which separate it from Persia, in about 50° of east longitude from Greenwich, or about 33° from west to east; while from the most southerly point, a little above Baflora, in north latitude 31°, to the confines of European Russia, in north latitude 47°, it occupies a range of 16° of latitude. In British miles its extent is estimated at 1750 in length, by a medial breadth of about 1000, and its area at 652,960 square miles.

Turkey is naturally divided into European and Asiatic, separated from each other by the Black sea, the Archipelago, and the straits by which these are connected. European Turkey is subdivided into 11 provinces, viz., Moldavia, Bessarabia, Wallachia, Bosnia, Servia (partially), Bulgaria, Romelia (including Macedonia and Thrace), Dalmatia, Albania (including Epirus), Croatia (partially), and the Morea, or ancient Greece; while Asiatic Turkey is subdivided into seven provinces, viz., Natolia (Asia Minor), Diarbek (Mesopotamia), Syria (including Judea), Georgia (Iberia), Turcomania (Armenia), Irac-Arabia, and Kurdistan (Assyria). See each of these articles in the general alphabet.

The islands belonging to Turkey are extremely numerous; comprising those of the Archipelago, or the Grecian islands, and several in the Levant. The most important are Lemnos, Lesbos or Mytilene, Scio, Samos, Cos, Rhodes, Cyprus, Candia, Paros, Delos, Naxia, Sanctorini, Patmos, Negropont, Andros*, Colteri or Salami*, Egina, Zante*, Cephalonia, Leucadia, Corfu, and Cerigo or Cythera, which see under their proper heads.

Both European and Asiatic Turkey abound in mountainous tracts, interspersed with numerous plains and valleys, and here and there a desert of considerable extent. The plains are watered by numerous large rivers, and, in the Asiatic part, consist chiefly of pasture grounds.

Among the mountains of European Turkey may be noticed the Carpathian chain, which divides it from the Austrian territories; the celebrated mountains of Haemus; the Acroceranian mountains; and the classical hills of Pindus, Ossa, Pelios, and Athos. The most important mountains of Asiatic Turkey are, Mount Caucasus, dividing it from Russia; Mount Taurus, now called Thuron; Olympus; Ida; the mountains of Elend, and perhaps Mount Ararat, the resting-place of the Ark, dividing it from Persia; and Mount Lebanon, celebrated in scripture for its cedars.

The principal river of European Turkey is the Danube, with its tributary streams, the Save, the Morava, the Bofna, and the Pruth; but we may also notice the Marilia or Hebrus, and the Vardan or Axius. In Asiatic Turkey are seen the Kifil-Irmak or Halys, the Sacaria, the Sarabat or Hermus, the Minder or Meander, the Araxes, the Orontes, the Jordan, and the Euphrates.

The lakes of European Turkey are of little importance, and in the Asiatic part there are only three that merit notice. These are the Dead sea and the sea of Galilee in Palestine, and the Van in Armenia.

The climate in the greater part of the Turkish empire is delightful, and the seasons mild and genial. The heats of the summer, except in the deserts of Syria, and on the shores of the Black sea, are tempered by the keen winds that blow from the higher regions, and the winter is in general extremely mild. The unhealthiness of the large towns on the coast of Asiatic Turkey, is owing much more to the indolent and dirty habits of the people, than to any infalibility of the climate.

Turkey affords a most ample field to the naturalist, whether his taste lead him to explore the animal, the history, vegetable, or the mineral kingdom. In the first of these he will find the lion, a variety of the tiger, the hyena, the jackal, the ibex, the goat and cat of Angora, and many other quadrupeds common in Europe. Among the birds, one of the most numerous and most useful is the stork; partridges of a large size, quails, woodcocks, cranes, and several birds of prey, are also very common. The Black sea and the Archipelago abound with excellent fish, and contain great variety of curious mollusca, and other marine animals. Among the insects, that destructive animal the locust is a frequent visitant's, and Sonnini particularizes the tarantula, and a monstrous species of spider, which he calls galeode araneoides, or the scorpion spider. Of the domestic animals, the Turks abound in excellent horses, asses of a large size, and that most useful beast of burden, the camel.

To enumerate the vegetable productions of Turkey, would far exceed our scanty limits. The forests of European Turkey, though far less extensive than in ancient times, furnish abundance of the finest timber, especially oak, cedar, larch, walnut, chestnut, and beech, while the olive, the date, the almond, the peach, the mulberry, the cherry, the lemon, and the orange, are the natural productions of Asiatic Turkey. Many of the most valuable drugs employed in medicine, are also the produce of this empire, especially opium, rhubarb, myrrh, asafoetida and other fetid gums, scammony, fennel, galls, and coloquintida. Both gold and silver mines are found in Turkey, but from the indolence of the natives they are scarcely ever worked. Many of the islands abound in mineral treasures, especially Cyprus, where are found mines of gold, copper, vitriol, and iron; and where rock crystal, jasper, and several precious stones are occasionally procured. The chief mineral production of Turkey, however, is its marble, of which it furnishes several of the most rare and beautiful varieties. That from the Grecian island Paros, is proverbially excellent.

The people whom we now call Turks, and who form the great mass of population of the Turkish empire, are generally believed to be the descendants of the ancient Scythians. They are supposed to have migrated from the Altai mountains in Tartary, about the middle of the fifth century, and to have gradually diffused themselves towards the west, till they reached the lake Maeotis, the modern sea of Azof, near which they settled in Armenia Minor or Turcomania. At this time the Roman empire in the east was sufficiently strong to prevent the invaders from extending beyond the river Oxus, on the banks of which they established themselves, and soon became a formidable foe to the emperors of Constantinople.

There is little certain or interesting in the history of these barbarians till the reign of the caliph Othman, or Ofan, who in the end of the 13th century established what from him has been called the Ottoman empire. He first took the title of sultan, and fixed the seat of his government at Prusa, the capital of Bithynia. His successor Orkan was a restless, ambitious, and cruel prince, who greatly extended the limits of the empire, took possession of Gallipoli, and penetrated into Thrace. Amurath the grandson of Ofan, in 1362, established the famous military bands called janissaries, which still form the chief engines and chief moderators of Turkish despotism. These were first composed of young Christian slaves that had been taken in war, and educated in the Mohammedan religion. They were inured to obedience by severe discipline, and trained to warlike exercises; and as every sentiment which enthusiasm can inspire, and every mark of honour which the favour of the prince could confer, were employed to animate them with martial ardour, and excite in them a sense of their own importance, these janissaries, (or new soldiers) soon became the chief strength and pride of the Ottoman arms. On the assassination of Amurath in 1389, he was succeeded by his son Bajazet, furred named Ildirim, or the Thunderbolt, whose reign forms one of the most splendid epochs in the Turkish history.

Early in this reign, viz., in 1396, the Hungarians were defeated at Nicopolis in Bulgaria, and in 1402, was fought the famous battle between Bajazet and Timur or Tamerlane, the chief of the Moguls, between Cesarea and Aneyra, which ended in the captivity of Bajazet, and the temporary humiliation of the Turks. See MOGULS, No. 19 and 20.

On the death of Bajazet, his son Moufa became sultan, and in 1412 defeated the emperor Sigismund with great slaughter. Moufa was succeeded by his brother Mohammed I., by whom he had been affianced. The reign of Amurath II., successor of Mohammed, contributed greatly to increase the splendour of the Turkish empire. In this reign Constantinople was attacked, but for the present escaped pillage. Amurath was successfully opposed in his hostilities against the Christian princes, by the Albanian chief George Castrion, whom the Turks call Scanderbeg.

Amurath was succeeded by Mohammed II., and soon after his accession, viz., in 1453, the city of Constantinople was taken by the Turks, and has ever since remained the capital of their empire. The events of which we have thus drawn the faint outline, are related at some length in the article CONSTANTINOPOLITAN HISTORY, No. 111.—168.

Three years after the taking of Constantinople, Mohammed laid siege to Belgrade, from which, after an attempt of obstinate resistance, he was at length repulsed with considerable loss. Abandoning his attempt on Hungary, the sultan made preparations for an expedition into Greece, where the princes Thomas and Demetrius, brothers of the emperor, still continued to maintain their authority. Alarmed at the progress of the Turkish arms, these princes resolved on retiring into Italy, on which the peninsula was seized by the Albanians. This tribe sent a deputation to Mohammed, offering to give up to him the Grecian cities and fortresses, provided they should be allowed to keep the open country; but this offer was rejected by the sultan, who under the appearance of assailing the Greeks, entered the country with a formidable army, defeated the Albanians, took several cities, and carried off great numbers of the inhabitants.

Mohammed was succeeded by his second son Bajazet II., in 1481, preferred by the janizaries to his elder brother Zizan, who fled for protection to Pope Alexander VI., by whom he is said to have been poisoned, at the instigation of Bajazet, and for the reward of 300,000 ducats. Selim, his youngest son and successor, was a successful prince. He conquered Egypt, Aleppo, Antioch, Tripoli, Damascus, and Gaza, and defeated the Persians. Solyman, furred named the Magnificent, one of the most accomplished, enterprising, and warlike, of the Turkish princes, ascended the Ottoman throne in consequence of the death of Selim.

Having quelled some insurrections in Asia, he commenced hostilities against the European princes, and entering Hungary, made himself master of Belgrade, then reckoned the chief barrier of that kingdom against the Turkish power. He next turned his victorious arms against the island of Rhodes, then the seat of the knights of St John of Jerusalem. After incredible efforts of courage and military conduct, the knights obtained an honourable capitulation, and retired to the small island of Malta, where they fixed their residence. See MALTA. He afterwards annexed Hungary to the Ottoman empire. His dominions extended from Algiers to the river Euphrates, and from the farther end of the Black Sea to the extremity of Greece and Epirus. During the siege of Sigeth, a city of Hungary, before which the Turks lost above 30,000 men, Solyman expired in the 74th year of his age, and 41st of his reign.

His son and successor, Selim II., besieged and took Selim II., Cyprus; but in the famous sea fight at Lepanto, in 1571, the Turkish fleet was utterly destroyed by Don John of Austria. He afterwards invested and took Tunis by storm, putting the garrison to the sword.

On his death, Amurath III., ascended the Ottoman throne, and extended his dominions on both sides by the addition of Raab in Hungary, and Tigris in Persia. His son, Mohammed III., has no claim to notice except... Turkey except on account of his barbarity. He began his reign by strangling 19 of his brothers, and ordering 12 of his father's wives, whom he suspected to be pregnant, to be drowned. This monster of cruelty had, however, a successful reign of nine years duration. During the government of his son, Achmet I., the affairs of Turkey underwent a material change for the worse*. On his death, the janizaries and the divan elected his brother Multapha, whom in two months they declared incapable of reigning, and threw him into prison; after this they proclaimed his young nephew, Olman, the son of Achmet, emperor. This prince formed a design of curbing the power of the janizaries, for which he was deposed and murdered; and Multapha was again called from his prison to the imperial throne, but was soon after strangled.

Under Amurat, or Morad IV., surnamed Gasi, the Intrepid, everything again assumed a new appearance. He was successful in his wars, and took Bagdad from the Persians. A debauch of wine put an end to his life, and dishonoured his memory. His son Ibrahim, who succeeded him, had every vice; he was a weak prince, and wholly destitute of courage. He was strangled by four mutes.

After a long interval of inactivity, the Turks again became formidable to Europe, under Mohammed IV., who succeeded him. His grand vizier Kupuli, who at once directed the councils and conducted the armies of the Porte, took Candia from the Venetians. After carrying on many wars against the Germans, the Poles, the Ruffians, and other European powers, he was compelled to resign the turban to Soliman II. in 1687, a prince happy in his domestic government, but unsuccessful in his wars. His brother, Achmet II., was likewise unfortunate in his wars. In his reign the Turks were driven out of Hungary and Transylvania†. The accession of his nephew, Multapha II., to the Ottoman throne, gave a new turn to the affairs of the Porte. Possessed of more vigour than his predecessor, he resolved to command his troops in person. He accordingly took the field, passed the Danube, stormed Lippa, seized Itul, and falling suddenly on a body of Imperialists, under Veterani, he killed that officer, dispersed his forces, and closed with success the campaign. He was afterwards defeated by Prince Eugene in an uncommonly bloody battle at Zenta, a small village on the western bank of the Thuyfe, in the kingdom of Hungary. About 20,000 Turks were left dead on the field, and 10,000 were drowned in the river, endeavouring to avoid the fury of the sword. The magnificent pavilion of the sultan, and all the stores, fell into the hands of Prince Eugene, and soon after this misfortune the haughty Multapha was dethroned.

His brother and successor, Achmet III., gave an asylum to Charles XII., king of Sweden, at Bender, a Turkish town in Moldavia, after his defeat at the battle of Pultava. (See Russia, No. 118, and Sweden, No. 140.) Being unsuccessful in his war against Koul Khan and the Persians (see Persia), he was deposed, and succeeded by Mohammed V.

From the deposition of Achmet III. till the accession of Multapha III. in 1754, nothing of importance occurs in the history of the Turkish empire. During the reign of this latter sultan was begun and terminated that destructive war with Russia, of which the principal events have been enumerated in the article Russia, No. 143 and 144.

In this reign an extraordinary alarm was excited in Turkey by the sudden appearance of a new prophet in Upper Asia. This man, whose name was Shiek Manjour, pretended that he was predestined by the eternal immutable decrees of heaven to fill up the measure of divine revelation to mankind; and that, as he was to be the last, so he was the greatest of the prophets. The scene of his ministry was in the wide and desolate regions on the borders of the Caspian sea; and though the first rumour of his proceedings represented him as at the head of a multitude of armed enthusiasts, ready to overturn the established government, and the religion of Mohammed, it was soon discovered that all the military fury of his zeal was directed against the Christians.

About the same time a formidable rebellion broke out in Egypt, which, though it has never properly formed a part of the Turkish empire, may be considered as tributary to the Turks, and as constituting the granary of that empire. This rebellion, which has been sufficiently noticed under the article Egypt, No. 125, was suppressed chiefly by the wise conduct and intrepid bravery of Hoffsan Bey, the captain pacha, who at the age of 70, fought with all the ardour of youth, and all the skill of the most consummate general. That veteran, however, was recalled before he was able to carry all his patriotic designs into execution, that he might aid the divan with his council, in the critical situation into which the empire was brought by the arrogant claims of the court of Russia. The result of the deliberations was a precipitate declaration of war against that court, contrary to the better judgement of the old pacha. The war commenced in autumn 1787, and the hordes of Tartars which were first brought into the field, headed by the new prophet, were everywhere defeated by the superior discipline of the Russian troops commanded by Prince Potemkin. Some enterprises which were undertaken by the Turks against the island of Tannan and the Crimea were attended with as little success as the attempts of the Tartars; while the emperor Joseph declared to the Porte, that he would assist his ally the empress of Russia with an army of 80,000 men. Four Austrian armies were accordingly assembled; one at Carlstadt in Croatia, under the command of General de Vins; another at Petervaradin in Hungary, commanded by General Langlois; a third on the borders of Lithuania, under General Febris; and the fourth in the Bucovine, under the orders of the prince of Saxe-Cobourg. Two other generals, 10 lieutenant-generals, and 30 major-generals, were all ordered to prepare for active service in the frontier armies.

The war between the Turks and Austrians was carried on with various success. At first the advantage was evidently on the side of the Ottomans, and the imperial Joseph acquired no warlike renown. His declared purpose was to get possession of Belgrade; from which, however, he was repulsed with disgrace. The prince of Saxe-Cobourg in his department of the war displayed indeed prodigies of valour; but being opposed to a superior force, he was long obliged to act only on the defensive. At length being joined by a body of Russian forces under General Soltikof, preparations were made for commencing in form the siege of Choczin, which was surrendered to the allied armies on Michaelmas. Turkey. mas day 1788, after a defence which would have done honour to the ablest general in Europe. Still, however, success seemed to lean to the Turks. The grand vizier made a sudden incursion into the Banat, and spread consternation and dismay to the very gates of Vienna. The Austrian affairs seemed approaching to a very alarming crisis; not only the splendid views of conquest which were beheld in the imagined partition of a tottering empire had totally disappeared, but had left in their place the sad and gloomy reverse of a discontented and impoverished people, an exhausted treasury, and an army thinned by pestilence and desertion. The first campaign of an invasive war had already produced an impression on the territory of the invader.

In this situation of affairs Marshal Laudohn was with some difficulty drawn from his retirement to take the command of the army in Croatia; and under his auspices fortune began to smile on the Austrian arms. He quickly reduced Dubicza and Nevi, though they were both defended by the most obstinate bravery. He then sat down before Turkish Gradica; but the autumnal rains coming on with such violence, that the Save overflowed its banks, he was compelled to raise the siege. During this period the war in the Banat raged with the utmost violence; torrents of blood were shed on both sides; much desperate valor displayed on the one side, and many brave actions performed on the other; while a very great part of that fine but unfortunate country suffered all the desolation and ruin that fire and sword, under the dominion of vengeance and animosity, could inflict. The inhabitants were objects of commiseration; but the injustice with which the emperor had commenced the war, made his personal losses be considered as nothing more than the due reward of his conduct.

In the midst of these military operations Achmet IV. was deposed, and succeeded by Selim III. the late sultan. The new emperor did not want either courage or prudence, and he continued the war with Russia and Austria, with great spirit and resolution. Those events of this war in which the Russians were more immediately concerned, have been already noticed under the article RUSSIA, No. 156, 158, 160 and 161; so that we have merely to relate the remaining operations of the Austrians.

Marshal Laudohn renewed his attempts upon Gradica as soon as the season would permit, and after a brave defence it fell into his hands. This, with some other successes routed the emperor from his inactivity, and made him seriously determine on the attack which he had long meditated on Belgrade. The enterprise was intrusted to Laudohn, who, with that good fortune which seemed constantly to attend him, made himself master of the place in less than a month. The rest of the campaign was little else than a series of the most important successes. While one detachment of General Laudohn's forces took possession of Czernitz in Wallachia, another made itself master of Cladova in Serbia. Bucharest, the capital of the former of these provinces, fell without opposition into the hands of Prince Cobourg; while Akerman on the Black Sea was reduced by the Russians; and Bender surrendered to Prince Potemkin, not without suspicion of sinister practices, on the 15th of November.

Soon after this, the emperor Joseph died, and his successor Leopold shewed a desire for peace. After the reduction of Orsova, therefore, which happened on the 16th of April 1790, the war was carried on with languor on the part of Austria; and in the month of June a conference was agreed on at Reichenbach, at which the ministers of Prussia, Austria, Britain, and the United Provinces, assisted, and at which also an envoy from Poland was occasionally present. After a negotiation, which continued till the 17th of August, it was agreed that a peace should be concluded between the king of Hungary and the Ottoman Porte; that the basis of this treaty should be a general surrender of all the conquests made by the former, retaining only Choczm as a security till the Porte should accede to the terms of the agreement, when it also was to be restored.

In the following year the Porte was compelled to conclude a peace with the empress of Russia, and from that period till the deposition of Selim in 1807, no event of consequence has occurred. The Porte has alternately been at war with Britain and with France, but in neither contest has the acquired either honour or territory. As the very confined limits to which we are now reduced forbid us to dwell on these minor transactions, we shall hasten to conclude this historical outline with an account of the revolution which placed Mahomet IV. on the Ottoman empire.

In the spring 1807, the spirit of insurrection had shown itself among the janizaries belonging to the garrisons of the Dardanelles, and in the camp of the grand vizier. In the afternoon of the 25th of May, the garrisons of the castles of the Dardanelles were in a state of tumult, on account of the European uniform, the new and accelerated tactics, &c. Hali Aga, the commandant of Madchidja-fon of Muburna, on the Asiatic shore, was murdered. Indche-fasha IV. Bey, commandant of the entrance of the Black Sea, only escaped the same fate by flight. The reis effendi happening to come to inspect that post just at the same time, the military immediately rose upon him as one of the introducers of the nizam geded. He endeavoured to save himself in a bark, by passing over to Buyukdere, but 100 pistol shots laid him and his attendants dead. It seems that the rage of the janizaries had been embittered against him by the recollection of a promise he made to raise their pay, on condition they would adopt the new discipline, and which promise he never performed.

Another circumstance increased the spirit of opposition; the sultan had given notice that the janizaries were no longer to attend him as usual to the mosque, but that this duty was to devolve upon the troops disciplined after the European manner. Thousands of janizaries were now marching to Constantinople, and arrived in the suburb of Pera on the evening of the 28th. They swore to each other to conduct the revolution with the best order. Any person who should in the least injure any Frank was to suffer death. One individual janizary only met with his fate, for taking bread from a Greek (a baker), without paying for it. Behind the janizaries barracks, in the well-known place called Eimeldan, the janizaries planted their colours, and took with them their camp kettles; an infallible signal of insurrection. For a time, the sultan thought of defending himself; and troops, powder, and cannon, were brought to the seraglio. Soon after the mufti, the feimen bache, the kaimakan, and the two kazeakars of Romelia and Natolia, joined the janizaries. Turkey. zaries. A council was held in form, and it was pro- posed as a preliminary, to request the grand seignior to abolish the new discipline by a fetwa from the mufti. The grand seignior, however, thought he should be able to put a stop to the insurrection before the step could be taken, in consequence of his sending the heads of Mahmud, Terfana Emin, Hagai Ibrahim, and the kiaga Mehmed Effendi, to the Eimeldan. This measure completely failed; the janizaries were more enraged than ever; they did not require the heads of the universally esteemed Mahmud Effendi, but that of the Reis Effendi, then in the camp of the grand vizier.

The janizaries continued to search every place for those ministers, who had promoted the adoption of the European discipline, and publicly avowed themselves as its patrons, namely, Fransito, Ibrahim, Jusuf Aga, Hadlchi Ibrahim, and Achmet Bey, captains of the grand seignior's guard; Haffan Aga, Achmet Effendi, and others, 12 in number, who were all taken, dragged to the Eimeldan, and there cut to pieces. At this juncture the grand seignior sent a hatti icherif, a letter written in his own hand, in which he for ever abolished the nizam geded, and pronounced an execration on it. But the hatti icherif was not now accepted; the deposition of the grand seignior was resolved on. The whole force of the janizaries now proceeded to the feraglio. The mufti and the ullemas alone entered the haram, while the rest of the ministers, the agas, the janizaries, and the people, surrounded the palace.

Multapha IV., born on the 7th of September 1799, the eldest son of the sultan Achmet IV., set aside in 1789, was raised to the Turkish throne. And accord- ing to ancient custom, Selim, the former sultan, threw himself at the feet of Multapha, kissed the border of his garment, and immediately repaired to that department of the feraglio occupied by the princes of the Ottoman blood who no longer reign. The solemn invitation to Multapha, to ascend the throne, was made on the 26th of May, and on the 3rd of June the ceremony of invest- ing him with the fabric of the prophet, took place.

The population of the whole Turkish empire is usu- ally estimated at 18,000,000. Of these, 10,000,000 have been allotted to Asiatic Turkey, and the remain- ing 8,000,000 to Turkey in Europe. A considerable part of this population consists of Jews and mercantile Christians, from different parts of Europe, who are dis- tinguished by the name of Franks.

The government of Turkey is despotic, but the power of the sultan is by no means so absolute as we are generally led to suppose. Besides, being strictly subject to the laws of the Koran, and thus to the na- tional religion, such obstructions to his absolute will are raised by the power of the mufti, or chief priest and judge, by the frequent insurrections of the janizaries, and the ambition of the pachas, or governors of provinces, that many Christian sovereigns are much more despotic. The principal title of the sultans is, as we have seen, grand seignior, and the court of Constantinople is usu- ally styled the Porte, or Ottoman Porte, either from the large gate at the entrance of the feraglio, or, what is more probable, from the palace of the vizier, where all the affairs of state are transacted. The principal mini- sters of the Porte are the grand vizier or prime minister, the mufti, the reis effendi or chief secretary of state,

the kiflar-aga or chief of the black eunuchs, and the aga of the janizaries.

The revenues of the whole Turkish empire are com- puted at about 7,000,000 Sterling, while the usual ex- pense does not exceed 5,000,000. This revenue is partly derived from the capitation tax on unbelievers and from the customs, but principally from the tax on land, a- mounting to about 6s. per acre. The sultan is also supposed to possess a considerable private treasure, but of this nothing certain is known.

The military strength of Turkey is but inconside ra- ble for so large an empire. The whole of the land forces are supposed never to exceed 150,000 men, and these are ill disciplined, and now dispirited by successive disastrous wars. The navy is estimated at 30 sail of the line; but the ships are ill-built, badly manned, and wretch- edly navigated. In short, the military strength of the Ottoman empire is not improperly said to be more de- structive to its own provinces than to any state with which they are at war, and more terrible to its friends than its enemies.

The established religion of Turkey is Mahometanism, the tenets of which have been already explained under laws, the articles Mahometanism and Alcoran. The laws of the empire are entirely founded on the Koran; but in particular cases the judges are guided by certain commentaries on that work, which have acquired the force of laws. The chief of these are the commentaries of Abou-Hanife.

The mufti, or Mohammedan pontiff, resides at Con- stantinople, but his power has seldom interfered with the civil government. Next to him in rank are the moul- lahs, who, though esteemed dignitaries of the church, are in fact rather doctors of the law, while the Koran is also a code of civil observance. From the mollahs are selected the inferior muftis or judges throughout the empire, and the cadielquiers, or chief justices. The next class of divines includes the imams, or parish priests, who perform the service of the mosques, while the cadis are judges annually appointed to administer justice in the towns and villages, and being regard- ed as churchmen, like the mollahs, have directed their chief attention to the judicial part of the Ko- ran. From this brief view it will be observed, that the ecclesiastical orders of muftis and imams somewhat resemble the Christian bishops and parochial clergy; while the other distinctions arise from the singularity of both religion and laws being united in the Koran, so that a lawyer or judge must be at the same time a skil- ful divine. The Turks have also their monks, styled dervishes, of four various orders and institutions, dedi- cated by solemn vows to religious offices, public prayer, and preaching. The Greeks, along with their faith, retain their priests, bishops, archbishops, and patriarchs; but their church is in the last state of degradation, and its dignities openly sold by the Turks; this abomi- nation, however, it must be confessed, partly arises from the miserable ambition and avarice of the Greek ec- clesiastics, who think they can atone by idle ceremo- nies for the neglect of all the invaluable morality of the gospel.

The Turkish language is of far inferior reputation Language and litera- ture. Turkey.

Literature, however, is not wholly neglected, and it has been repeatedly attempted to establish a printing press at Constantinople; but the design failed from the interest of the copyists, who inferred that this art would deprive them of their bread. A late traveller informs us that there are in this capital several kuttub-chans, or public libraries, among which are those of St Sophia, and the Soliman Janiay; but none are so elegant as that founded by the grand vizier Raghid, which is wholly built of marble in the midst of a square court, and is filled with books chiefly theological. A librarian constantly attends, and there are convenient seats with carpets and cushions. In the neighbourhood is a school founded by the same vizier, in which about 120 boys are taught to read and write. The market for books is extensive, containing many shops well supplied with oriental manuscripts. The Turks have their ancient poets, historians, and divines; but of little reputation when compared with those of Persia or Arabia. The state of education among the Turks may be conceived to be very low, and ignorance is indeed a chief part of the national character. The only profession which requires a shadow of learning is that of the law, which is intimately connected with their theology. The celebrated doctors have disciples, who are trained up to that department; but there seems nothing that can deserve the name of college or university.

The Turks cannot be regarded as a commercial people, though they admit of an extensive commercial intercourse with the states of Europe, through the medium of Frank and Greek merchants. The chief ports are Smyrna and Constantinople, the former of which is the great centre of the Levant trade, while the latter is concerned chiefly in the trade with Russia, by the Black Sea. At both these ports, and indeed throughout the Turkish empire, the trade is nominally carried on by factors from the different European states; but it is managed more immediately by Jew or Armenian brokers, who take numerous advantages of the ignorance of the factors, and seldom fail to enrich themselves at the expense of their employers. The commodities exported from Turkey, chiefly to Britain, Germany, Italy, Holland, and France, consist for the most part of bees wax, boxwood, silk, cotton yarn, walnut planks, sponges, opium and other drugs enumerated in No. 9, madder root, and other dye stuffs, and various dried fruits, such as figs, raisins, and currants. The imports are chiefly tin and tin plates, sugar, shallows, cotton yarn and cotton goods, muslins, clocks and watches, cutlery and glass ware, indigo, gunpowder, pistols and military stores, logwood, rum, coffee, and various spices, especially pepper, ginger, and cinnamon. The exports are principally from Smyrna, where the trade is carried on almost entirely by way of exchange, while at Constantinople the imports are generally paid for by cash or bills. The exchange is commonly against the Turks.

The Turkish money usually employed in commerce is the piastre, which, according to the exchange or agio, is rated at from 13 to 17 in the English pound sterling, so that the average value of the piastre is about £6. Each piastre is divided into 40 paras, and each para into three alpers. The principal weight employed is the kilo, equal to about one cwt. English, divided into 44 oke, and each oke into 400 drahm.

From their jealousy with respect to strangers, it is extremely difficult to form a true estimate of the national character of the Turks. An intelligent writer, who seems well qualified to direct our judgement in this respect, has thus delineated the Turkish character. "The Turks are in general a sagacious, thinking people; in the pursuit of their own interest, or fortune, their attention is fixed on one object, and they persevere with great steadfastness until they attain their purpose. They are in common life seemingly obliging and humane, not without appearances of gratitude; perhaps all or either of these, when extended towards Christians, are practised with a view of some advantage. Interest is their supreme good; where that becomes an object of competition, all attachment of friendship, all ties of consanguinity, are dissolved; they become delusive, no barrier can stop their pursuit, or abate their rancour towards their competitors. In their demeanour they are rather hypochondriac, grave, sedate, and passive; but when agitated by passion, furious, raging, ungovernable; big with distillation; jealous, suspicious, and vindictive beyond conception; perpetuating revenge from generation to generation. In matters of religion, tenacious, supercilious, and morose."

The manners and customs of the Turks are distinguished by the peculiarity of their religion from those of other European nations. On the birth of a child, the father himself gives the name, putting at the same time a grain of salt into its mouth. The circumcision is not performed till the age of 12 or 14. Marriage is only a civil contract, which either party may break, and is managed by female mediation, the youth seldom seeing his bride till after the ceremony. The dead are perfumed and covered with incense, and buried in a cloth, open at top and bottom, that the deceased may be able to fit up and answer the questions of the angels of death. The burial-grounds are near the highways, and stones are often placed at the heads of the graves, with carved turbans denoting the sex. As they never intrude upon a former grave, the cemeteries are very extensive. In diet the Turks are extremely moderate, and their meals are dispatched with great haste. Rice is the favourite food, and is dressed in three ways. In boiling, the meat is cut into small pieces, and in roasting till smaller, a bit of meat and an onion being placed alternately on a very long spit. The fish of the Archipelago are excellent, and the beef tolerable, except that of the buffalo, which is very hard. The hares, partridges, and other game, are of superior flavour. The meal is usually spread on a low wooden table, and the matter of the house pronounces a short prayer. The frugal repast is followed by fruits and cold water, which are succeeded by hot coffee and pipes with tobacco. The houses of the Turks are seldom expensive; the chief furniture is the carpet which covers the floor, with a low sofa on one side of the room. In regard to dress, Tournefort observes that the use of the turban is unhealthy. The shirt is of calico, and the loose robe is fastened by a girdle, in which is stuck a dagger, while the tobacco box, pocket-book, &c., are worn in the bosom. The robe is generally of European broad cloth, trimmed with various furs. The shoes or slippers are slight, and unfit for much exercise. The dress of the women differs little from that of the men, the chief distinction being the head-dress; that of the fair sex consisting of a bonnet like... Turkey like an inverted basket, formed of pasteboard covered with cloth of gold, with a veil extending to the eyebrows, while a fine handkerchief conceals the under part of the face. The personal cleanliness of both sexes is highly laudable; but the European eye is not pleased with the female custom of staining the nails with a red tincture. The amusements of the Turks partake of their indolent apathy, if we except hunting, and those of a military description. To recline on an elegant carpet, or in a hot seat by the side of a stream, and smoke the delicate tobacco of Syria, may be regarded as their chief amusement. Chess and draughts are favourite games; but those of chance are considered as incompatible with strict morals. The coffee-houses and baths furnish other sources of amusement; and the bairam, or festival which follows their long lent, is a season of universal dissipation.*

It appears to be a mistaken notion, that the practice of eating opium, to procure intoxication, is general among the Turks. We are assured by a late traveller, that this practice is confined to a few individuals, who are regarded by the majority of their countrymen with as much contempt as drunkards are in the more polished societies of Europe.

Turkey. See Meleagris, Ornithology Index. Turmeric. See Curcuma, Botany Index. Turnep, a species of Brassica. See Botany Index; and for the culture, see Agriculture Index. Turnep-Bread. See Bread. Turnep-Fly. See Chrysomela, Entomology Index.