otherwise called the Republic of Holland, or the Batavian republic, a maritime country of Europe, occupying that part of the Netherlands which lies between Austrian Flanders and Brabant, now the French departments of Lys, Escaut, Deux Nether and Dyle on the south, and the district of East Friesland on the north-east; being bounded on the north and west by the German ocean or North sea, and on the east by the kingdom of Westphalia. They are situated between the parallels of 51° 10', and 53° 35' N. lat. and between 3° 10', and 7° 5' E. long. In British miles the length of this country, from north to south, is estimated at 165, its breadth from west to east about 100, and its area at 10,000 square miles.

Before the French revolution, this part of the Low Countries was divided into seven provinces, viz. Guelderland or Gelders, Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Friesland, Overvessel, and Groningen, besides the dependencies of Dutch Brabant and Dutch Flanders. Of late the whole has formed eight departments, which, except that called the Generalité lands, were distinguished by the old names. The following table gives a general view of the subdivisions, area in geographical miles, population and chief towns of these provinces. | Provinces | Subdivisions | Area | Population in 1796 | Chief Towns | |-----------------|-----------------------|------|--------------------|--------------------------------------------------| | I. Guelderland | Nimeguen | | | Nimeguen, Zutphen, Amheim. | | | Zutphen | | | | | | Arnheim | | | | | II. Holland | North Holland | | | AMSTERDAM, Rotterdam, Hague, Leyden, Haarlem, | | | South Holland | | | Helvoetfluyss and Alkmaer. | | III. Zealand | West Zealand | | | | | | East Zealand | | | MIDDLEBURG, Flushing. | | | Emeland | | | | | IV. Utrecht | Abboude | | | | | | Montfort | | | UTRECHT, Amersfort. | | | Wyk | | | | | V. Friesland | Oostergo | | | | | | Weftergo | | | | | | Zevenwolde | | | | | | Northern islands | | | | | VI. Overysel | Salland | | | | | | Twenthe | | | DEVENTER, Zwol, Campen, Coeverden. | | | Wollenhoven | | | | | | Drenthe | | | | | VII. Groningen | Groningen | | | GRONINGEN, Winchoten. | | | Ommeland | | | | | | Drent | | | | | | Dutch Brabant | | | Bois-le-duc, Breda, Bergen-op-Zoom. |

A great part of these provinces is composed of islands formed by the mouths of the large rivers which here disembogue their waters into the German ocean. The principal islands are Walcheren, Joodland, South and North Beveland, and Wolfersdyk, composing West Zealand; Schouwen, Duiveland, Fertholm, and St Philipsland, forming East Zealand; Goeree in South Holland, the Texel, Vlieland, and Ameland, to the west and north of Frieland.

The Dutch had formerly considerable colonial territory; but this is now reduced to part of Java, Sumatra, and the Molucca islands, with some other settlements in the East Indies; some trading factories on the Guinea coast; St Eustatius and part of Surinam in South America.

The face of the country is, in general, extremely uniform, consisting of large tracts of marshy pastures, or sandy heaths, interspersed with several large rivers, and numerous canals. There are a few hills in the eastern districts, but the coasts are so low, that, but for the dykes or sea walls, they would be inundated by the sea. The soil consists almost entirely of alluvial earth and vegetable mold, and is very productive. The climate is moist, inclement, and peculiarly inhospitable to strangers; intermittent fevers and similar diseases, the attendants on a marshy and watery soil, being extremely frequent. The winters are colder and the summers hotter than in Britain.

The principal rivers of the United Provinces are the Rhine, the Maese or Meuse, and the Escaut or Scheldt, which separates them from French Flanders. There are few lakes of any note, except the sea of Haerlem, near the Zuider Zee.

There is little interesting in the natural history of Holland; the animals and plants resembling those of the adjacent countries of France and Germany, and its mineral products being extremely few. Its chief artificial products are flax, tobacco, madder and flower roots, butter and cheese. The state of agriculture is but little advanced; as almost the whole country is under grass, and the corn produced is not nearly sufficient for home consumption.

The changes which the coasts of the Dutch provinces have undergone, in consequence of the shifting of the geography, beds of rivers, the encroachments or retiring of the sea, and tempests from the German ocean, render their progressive geography an interesting object. We find that in the latter periods of the Roman empire, the river Rhine divided itself into two great branches at Burginafium, the modern Schenk, about five miles north-west of Colonia Trajana, near the present Cleves. The southern branch joined the Meuse at the town of Mola or Muvi, while the northern branch passed by Durstadt, Utrecht, and Leyden, to the ocean. The northern branch of the Rhine was joined to the Yssel by the canal of Druus (see Batavorum Infula), while this latter river flowed into a considerable lake called Flevo, now a southern portion of the Zuider Zee. When the canal of Druus was

(a) See each of these articles in the general alphabet. was neglected, the waters of the Rhine poured into the Yssel with such violence as to increase the lake of Flevo to a great expanse of waters, so that instead of a river which once ran from that lake to the sea for nearly 50 Roman miles, there was opened the wide gulf which now forms the entrance. In the mean time, the northern branch of the Rhine became much diminished, and the canal of Druius gradually disappeared. The estuaries of the Meuse and the Scheldt being open to great inroads from the sea, have also materially changed their figure and position; and the latter in particular, which once formed merely a triangular island, divided into four or five smaller branches, which are now extensive creeks, dividing the islands of Zeeland and South Holland. In the beginning of the 15th century, the estuary of the Meuse suddenly formed a vast lake to the south-east of Dort, overwhelming 72 villages, and 100,000 inhabitants. By a subsequent change, the Rhine was again subdivided, the northern branch falling into the Leck, while the southern formed the modern Waal.

The early history of these provinces, from their subjection by the Romans, till they fell under the dominion of the Spanish monarchy, has been already given under the article NETHERLANDS, so that we have here to relate only those transactions which have taken place since the accession of Philip II. to the crown of Spain (b).

At the death of Charles V. the Dutch provinces were in a very flourishing condition. In this small tract were then reckoned not fewer than 350 large walled cities, and 6300 considerable towns or large villages, all become rich by their application to arts and commerce. The same application had diffused a spirit of independence among the inhabitants, who were jealously alive to every invasion of their rights and privileges. The reformed religion had made considerable progress among all ranks, and the doctrines of Calvin had been embraced by a great majority of the people. Hence, nothing could be more impolitic than the measures taken by Philip to advance the cause of popery, and to enforce obedience to the tyrannical acts of his deputies. The establishment of a court of inquisition, the increase of the number of bishoprics, the appointment of Cardinal Grandvède to be chief counsellor to the duchess of Parma, the regent of the Netherlands, and the enormous taxes levied to support the Spanish forces, were no trifling grievances, and created such a spirit of disaffection, that when the duchess assumed the reins of government, in the year 1560, the murmurs of the people could no longer be suppressed.

A deputation of the malcontents, at the head of whom were William prince of Orange, and his brother Louis of Nassau, with the counts of Egmont and Horn, waited on the duchess at Brussels, and insisted either on the dismissal of Cardinal Grandvède, or the calling of an assembly of the states-general. The duchess thought proper to comply with the former of these requests, but as that minister was succeeded by two of his creatures, who trod exactly in his footsteps, and in particular increased the religious persecutions, and the power of the inquisition, the popular ferment became greater than ever. The patriots sent Count Egmont to Madrid, to lay their grievances before the king; but that monarch with his accustomed insincerity, returned a favourable answer to their remonstrances, without changing any of the obnoxious measures of the government at Brussels. In the meantime the diabolical combination that had been formed between Charles IX. of France and Isabella of Spain, for the massacre of the protestants, which soon after took place, had been whispered in the Low Countries, and in consequence a general association was formed for the purpose of abolishing the court of inquisition. This association, headed by Henry de Brodenrode, a descendant of the earls of Holland, waited on the regent in such a formidable body, that she was obliged to promise the exertion of her utmost influence towards obtaining their demands. It is said, however, that she could obtain no better terms from the bigotted Philip than that heretics should in future be hanged instead of burnt.

As the people found that their dutiful remonstrances could obtain no redress, they determined to take into their own hands the necessary reformation. In several towns in Flanders, the people assembled, destroyed churches, pulled down images, and committed other acts of violence. The principal inhabitants, however, while they were preparing to resist the oppressive acts of the government, behaved with more temperance and moderation; a new oath of allegiance had been exacted, and this the counts of Egmont and Horn, probably with a view to temporise, were induced to take, but the prince of Orange steadily refused, and retired into Germany, whither he was followed by great numbers of all ranks and conditions, so that within a few days 100,000 families had left the Low Countries. This emigration so much alarmed the duchess of Parma, that she resigned the regency.

The duchess was succeeded by the duke of Alva, Duke of Alva who had been sent into the Netherlands with an army of 10,000 veteran troops, to intimidate the people, and enforce obedience to the civil power. We have already drawn the character of this bloody man (see Alva), and have shown how well he was calculated to execute the orders of a tyrannical and bigotted master. He no sooner entered on his government than the whole country was filled with terror; Counts Egmont and Horn were ignominiously executed, and the estates of the prince of Orange were confiscated.

This prince and his brother had been labouring to support the cause of their injured countrymen among the German patriots.

(b) There is no part of the history of nations more interesting in itself, or more replete with useful lessons to rulers and subjects, than that which records the struggles of a brave people to preserve or regain their liberties and independence. Hence the glorious contest which the Dutch provinces maintained against the power of Spain, and by which they finally triumphed over tyranny and oppression, might well deserve a much fuller detail than our confined limits will enable us to afford. In the compendious view which we have here given of these transactions, we have endeavoured to catch the more prominent features, and thus in some measure preserve the spirit of the picture. We may refer our readers for a minute account of these events to The Modern Universal History, vol. xxxi., and Watson's History of the Reigns of Philip II. and Philip III. German princes, and had raised a detachment of Germans, by which they were enabled to make head against the regent. The prince of Orange, who had been always a favourite with the people, was now rendered more popular in consequence of his sufferings in their cause, and was invited to take the command of the armed bodies which were preparing to resist the duke of Alva.

The prince first penetrated into Brabant, and attempted to surprise Ruremond, but was defeated by a detachment of the Spanish army; but his brother soon after overpowered a body of Spaniards, and killed 600. In a subsequent engagement, however, with the main body of Alva's army, Prince Louis was entirely defeated, and all his infantry cut in pieces. The prince of Orange finding that he could not at present keep the field against so formidable an enemy, and that his soldiers deserted in consequence of his ill success and want of pay, was, in 1569, obliged to disband his army, and return to Germany.

The duke of Alva did not fail to make the most of his success. All the prisoners taken in the last campaign were put to death, and the tenth part of every man's estate, with a tenth of all merchandise, were exacted as an annual payment from the inhabitants, under the penalty of military execution. The states offered to pay an annual subsidy of 2,000,000 florins, in place of these taxes; but these offers were rejected with disdain.

The people thus driven to despair, were resolved to strain every nerve to resist these oppressing acts. The tradesmen in the towns shut their shops, and the peasants refused to bring provisions to the markets. In the meantime a squadron of ships, which is known by the name of gueux, had been fitted out by the prince of Orange, and the command given to Lumey. The willing success of this squadron, which had captured Brielle, in the island of Voon, and repulsed a force sent against it by the duke of Alva, induced the Zeelanders to collect all their ships, and also oppose the enemy at sea. A considerable advantage was gained by this fleet, against a Spanish squadron commanded by the duke of Medina Celi. The duke was entirely defeated, many of his ships were taken, and the Zeelanders carried off a booty of nearly 1,000,000 of livres.

To increase his army, the governor had draughted men from the garrisons of most of the fortified towns, and thus exposed them to the attacks of the patriots. Accordingly, Lewis of Nassau surprized Mons, the count de Bergues gained possession of several towns in Overijssel, Guelderland, and Friesland; while another party of the malcontents made themselves masters of North Holland. The duke of Alva now began to feel that he had gone too far, and attempted when too late, to conciliate the good opinion of the people. He published an edict consenting to remit the most oppressive taxes, if the state could suggest any other method of raising the necessary supplies, and he convoked the states-general of the Provinces to assemble at the Hague. His promises and his threats were, however, now disregarded; and the states who, in contempt of his authority had assembled at Dordrecht, openly espoused the cause of their country, declared the prince of Orange commander of the national forces, and raised a considerable sum for the payment of his troops.

The prince's forces now amounted to 15,000 foot and 7000 horse, with which he advanced into Brabant, and took Ruremond by assault. He then possessed himself of Mechlin, Oudenarde, and Dendermond, and having levied contributions on those inhabitants who adhered to the government, he marched towards Mons, then besieged by the duke of Alva, with an intention to raise the siege, by bringing the duke to a general action. This, however, Alva declined, and Mons was obliged to capitulate.

In the midst of these successes, a damp was thrown over the ardour of the patriots, by the news of the horrid massacre of St Bartholomew *, and in the same degree the spirits of the Spaniards revived. The prince of France, Orange found himself obliged to retire to the province of Holland, leaving the cities which he had taken at the mercy of the army. Mechlin opened its gates, and was pillaged without mercy, while the other towns were evacuated by the garrisons, and loaded with heavy impositions. In a short time nothing remained to the patriots, but the provinces of Holland and Zealand; but these stood firm in the cause of liberty, and soon became the seat of a fanguinary warfare. Frederic de Toledo was detached by the duke of Alva to reduce the insurgents in these quarters. He quickly reduced Waarden, where his soldiers committed the most horrid acts of barbarity. The capture of this place was followed by that of Haarlem after an obstinate resistance.

To balance this ill success by land, however, the Zealander obtained many important advantages by sea. They attacked the harbour of Antwerp, and carried off several ships; and when the governor equipped a squadron to oppose them, it was thrice encountered by Wertz, the Zealander admiral, and totally defeated. In the meantime the Spanish forces, under Frederic of Toledo, consisting of 16,000 veterans, sat down before Alkmaer, the fence capital of Holland, a town without regular fortifications, and defended only by 300 burghers and 800 soldiers, in great want of provisions, and without any prospect of speedy relief; yet this place, though attacked with great vigour, by a battery of 20 pieces of heavy cannon, which effected a breach in one of the walls, held out against every attempt, and the Spanish soldiers who attempted to storm the place by the breach, were repulsed with great slaughter, and Frederic was at length compelled to raise the siege.

Notwithstanding these partial successes, the affairs of the patriots were still in a precarious situation. Don Louis de Requenes, who had succeeded the duke of Alva in the government, was directed to carry on the war with the utmost vigour. The prince of Orange had, after a long siege, made himself master of Middleburgh, but had sustained a great loss by the defeat and death of his brother Louis. The patriotic cause derived some advantage, however, from a mutiny which took place in the Spanish army, but this advantage was of a transient nature.

In the commencement of the year 1575, an attempt at negotiation took place between the contending parties, but they could come to no terms of accommodation, and the war was continued with great virulence. Though much distressed in his finances, Philip made extraordinary efforts to crush the patriots, and succeeded so far, that they almost despaired of ultimate success. In this dilemma they sent a deputation to Queen Elizabeth of England, offering to become her subjects, if she would would afford them her protection; but from political reasons she declined the offer. The distresses which Philip now experienced, and the death of his deputy Requesens, did more for the cause of the patriots than all their own exertions.

Profiting by these events, in the latter end of this year they attacked and carried the citadel of Ghent; while the inhabitants of Antwerp, in revenge for having been pillaged by the Spanish garrison that held the citadel, united in the common cause, by what was called the pacification of Ghent.

A second application to Queen Elizabeth met with more success, and she advanced them the sum of 20,000l. sterling, on condition that they would not invite the French into their territories, that they would listen to any reasonable terms of accommodation, and repay the loan in the course of the ensuing year. Agreeably to these conditions, a cessation of hostilities was granted to the States by Don John of Austria, the present governor, and a treaty was entered into with him for disbanding the foreign troops. The weak state of the government required some concessions, and Don John acceded to the pacification of Ghent, by which most of the demands of the patriots were granted. The provinces of Holland and Zealand, however conceiving that by this treaty the other provinces had conceded too much, refused their concurrence, and hostilities soon recommenced.

The king of Spain dissatisfied with the concessions of Don John, recalled that governor, and appointed the archduke Matthias in his room, while he made additional preparations for a vigorous prosecution of the war. The States-general in their turn made another application to Queen Elizabeth, and obtained from her, not only a promise of 100,000l. sterling, but of a body of forces consisting of 5000 foot, and 1000 horse; in return for which, the States agreed to put into her possession certain fortified towns, and to transport and pay the forces. These supplies, however, Elizabeth afterwards declined funding, though she professed all possible good will towards the provinces and their cause. A change of measures which about this time took place in the States of Guelderland and Groningen, in favour of the protestant interest, contributed not a little to aid the general cause of the patriots, though several of the provinces were still torn by intestine dissensions and jarring interests. At last the prince of Orange, perceiving that little confidence was to be placed in the unanimity of provinces rent by faction, different in religion, and divided by ambition, political maxims, and private interest, formed the scheme of more closely uniting the provinces of which he was governor, and cementing them with those more contiguous, in which the protestant interest prevailed. Such an alliance was subject to fewer difficulties than attended the more general one of uniting all the provinces; it was in fact the only measure that could be proposed with safety, and it was prosecuted with that alacrity and address for which William was deservedly celebrated.

On the 23rd of January 1579, deputies from the provinces of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Friesland, Groningen, Overijssel, and Guelderland, met at Utrecht, and signed the alliance ever since known by the name of the Union of Utrecht, the basis of that commonwealth so renowned by the appellation of the United Provinces. This treaty of alliance was founded on the infracting of the pacification of Ghent solemnly acceded to by Philip, and the late invasion of certain towns in Guelderland. It was not hereby intended to divide the seven provinces from the other ten, or to renounce the pacification of Ghent; its object was to preserve the liberty stipulated in that pacification, by more vigorous operations, and united councils. The chief articles of this union were the following.

That the seven provinces shall unite themselves in interest as one province, never to be separated or divided by testament, donation, exchange, sale, or agreement; referring to each particular province and city all its privileges, rights, customs, and statutes. In all disputes arising between either of the provinces, the rest shall interpose only as mediators. They shall assist each other with life and fortune against every foreign attempt upon any particular province, whether to establish sovereignty, the Catholic religion, arbitrary measures, or whatever else may appear inconsistent with the liberties of the province, and the intention of the alliance. All frontier towns belonging to the United Provinces shall, if old, be fortified at the expense of the provinces; if new, at the joint expense of the union. That the public imposts and duties shall be farmed for three months to the highest bidder, and employed with the king's taxes in the public service. No province, city, or member of the union, shall contract an alliance with any foreign prince or power, without the concurrence of all the other members. That foreign powers shall be admitted into the alliance, only by consent of all the contracting parties. As to religion, the provinces of Holland and Zealand shall act in that particular as they think advisable; the rest shall adhere to the purport of the edict published by the archduke Matthias, which prescribed, that no man should be oppressed on account of conscience. All the inhabitants, from the age of 18 to 60, shall be trained and disciplined to war. That peace and war shall be declared by the unanimous voice of all the provinces; other matters that concern the internal policy shall be regulated by a majority. That the States shall be held in the usual constitutional manner, and coinage shall be deferred to future determination. Finally, the parties agree, that the interpretation of these articles shall remain in the States-general; but, in case of their failing to decide, in the stadtholder.

Soon after the union of Utrecht, King Philip did all his utmost to disconcert the projects of the prince of Orange, and to reduce the provinces to their obedience. He offered to restore him to all his estates, to indemnify him for all his losses, and give him the first place in his esteem and favour; but William was too wise to rely on the promises of a prince who had already shewn himself perfidious, and too generous to abandon a cause in which he had embarked from no interested motives. He determined to share the fate of the United Provinces, and not to disappoint the hopes which they had conceived of his conduct.

In the mean time the duke of Parma was doing his utmost to disconcert the projects of the prince of Orange, and to reduce the provinces to their obedience. He besieged and took the town of Marien; invested Maestricht, and carried it after a siege of four months, and reduced the republican general La Noue to such straits, that he was glad to retreat under the cannon of Antwerp. At length the Provinces, by the advice of the prince of Orange, resolved to solicit the alliance. affiliation and protection of the duke of Anjou, to whom they had formerly applied in vain, and to offer him the sovereignty of their territories. Accordingly, in 1582, they solemnly renounced their allegiance to Philip, and acknowledged as their sovereign, Francis Hercules de Valois, duke of Alençon and Anjou; and in the following year they published an edict, entitled the abdication of Philip king of Spain, for ever excluding that monarch from any right or authority over the Netherlands.

In the beginning of the year 1582, the duke of Anjou, who had already taken an active part in favour of his new subjects, and had opposed the duke of Parma with some success, arrived in Holland from England; and in the month of February he was solemnly installed at Antwerp as duke of Brabant. It appears, however, that the prince of Orange, though he had been the great promoter of this measure, and even placed the ducal coronet on the head of the new sovereign, still possessed the greatest influence and authority in the United Provinces.

When Philip of Spain found that he could not bribe the prince of Orange to his interests, he resolved to use every method to rid himself of so dangerous an opponent. Soon after the signing of the union of Utrecht, Philip had proscribed the prince, and offered a reward of 25,000 crowns to any person that should bring him dead or alive to Madrid. The greatness of the reward, and a bigotted regard for the interests of the Catholic religion, prompted several to attempt murdering the prince of Orange. He narrowly escaped assassination in 1582; but, two years after, he met his unmerited fate at Delft, by the hands of one Guion, or, as he is commonly called, Balthazar Gerrard. About the same time the duke of Anjou died in France; and the provinces of Holland and Zealand appointed Maurice, son of the late prince of Orange, to be their stadtholder and captain-general. For an account of the actions of this great man, see the article MAURICE OF NAPOLEON.

Philip II. died in 1598, and Philip III. prosecuted the war with the United Provinces with as much rancour as his predecessors, but with much worse success. The great defeat sustained by the archduke Albert in 1600, and many subsequent disasters, induced the court of Madrid at length to listen to terms of accommodation. In 1607 a suspension of hostilities took place, and the year following a treaty on terms favourable to the Provinces was concluded for 12 years.

At the expiration of the truce, both parties prepared for a renewal of hostilities; but now the Spaniards fought with considerable dilatation: From a strange policy, which they have since frequently practised, in their contests with the powers of Europe, the Dutch contrived to advance their commercial interests at the expense of their enemy. A very lucrative trade took place between the principal Dutch ports and those of Spain, by which the Spaniards were supplied by their enemies even with ammunition and warlike stores. At the same time the Dutch enriched themselves by numerous prizes taken from the Spaniards, and, in particular, gave a severe blow to the resources of the court of Madrid, by capturing the flota from Mexico, a prize valued at 15,000,000 of livres.

These repeated losses of the Spaniards proved the inability of their continuing the war against a people so determined as the Dutch. Accordingly, in 1648, they agreed to a treaty of peace, by which his Catholic majesty renounced all right and sovereignty over the states-general of the United Provinces; and these provinces were henceforth declared a free and independent republic. It was also agreed between the contending powers, that each should remain in unmolested possession of those places which they severally held at the signing of the treaty.

From this time to the year 1670 we meet with nothing very remarkable in the history of the United Provinces. By invariably pursuing the maxims of prudence, industry, and frugality, the republic had attained the highest pitch of grandeur. Amsterdam became the emporium of Europe, and the richest city in the universe. The population of the Provinces, especially of Holland, was much greater than at any former or subsequent period, though it is scarcely credible that, as some authors affirm, Holland alone should then contain 3,000,000 of inhabitants. The states despatched ministers and consuls to China, Siam, and Bengal; to the Great Mogul, the king of Persia, and the khan of Tartary, the grand signior, the czar of Russia, and the princes of Africa. They were considered as an important weight in the scale of Europe; and no treaty was concluded without the concurrence of their ambassadors.

It is not surprising that the successes of the Dutch, and dispute the prosperous condition in which they now beheld themselves, should have rendered them rather arrogant towards the neighbouring states. Louis XIV. of France had conceived himself affronted by a foolish boast of one of the Dutch ministers, and he was particularly jealous of the advantage which the new republic had acquired over his subjects in the trade to India. The triple alliance formed about this time between England, Sweden, and the United Provinces, was an additional motive with the French king to break off all intercourse with the Dutch, and to curb their growing power. He began by prevailing on Charles II. of England to abandon the triple alliance; a request to which that worthless monarch, alive to nothing but his pleasures and his avarice, readily agreed, on condition of being well paid for his treachery. Louis also persuaded several of the German princes to unite their forces with his against the republic, and of all the Germanic body, only the elector of Brandenburg interested himself for the safety of the states-general. The French king assembled an army of 100,000 men, which he divided into four columns, one commanded by himself in person, with the assistance of Marshal Turenne; another by the prince of Condé; a third by General Croqui, and a fourth under the conduct of the duke of Luxemburg. Such an army drawing towards the frontiers could not but terrify the Dutch, now torn with civil and religious factions. The partisans of the Orange family were for abolishing the perpetual edict, and raising William prince of Orange to the dignity enjoyed by his predecessors; but the De Witt faction opposed him violently, though they could not prevent the young prince from being chosen captain-general and high-admiral. Many hoped that William's new dignity would incline his uncle Charles II. to return to the triple alliance; but that hope was frustrated by the conduct of his majesty, who, in conjunction with the Most Christian king, declared United Provinces declared war against the states-general on the 7th of April. A month after, the elector of Cologne and bishop of Munster followed the example of the two kings. The Dutch put themselves in the best posture of defense that circumstances would admit. Maastricht was strongly garrisoned; the prince of Orange had assembled an army of 25,000 men, with which he advanced to the banks of the Yssel; and the Dutch fleet cruised off the mouth of the Thames, to prevent the junction of the naval forces of England and France, which amounted to 150 ships. All Europe watched the first motions of the two powerful kings, seconded by the best generals of the age.

Holland could be attacked only by the Rhine or the Meuse, and the French generals and ministers differed by which of these inlets the first impression should be made. At length, after much deliberation, it was determined to attack the Dutch on both these sides at the same time, in order the more to disconcert their councils. The campaign began with the siege of Rheninberg, Vefel, Orsoi, and Rurick, four towns well fortified, and deemed the keys of Holland. Nothing could oppose armies so well appointed, led by generals so skilful and so experienced. The four towns were compelled to surrender within a few days of each other; and a severe defeat sustained by a body of Dutch troops, in attempting to defend the passage of the Rhine, by the prince of Condé, served still more to dishearten the troops of the flutes-general.

It is almost incredible with what rapidity, towns and fortresses yielded to the fortune of his majesty's arms. The reduction of Betau, the most fruitful country of the United Provinces, and the surrender of Tolhusfert, obliged the prince of Orange to abandon the Yssel, lest he should be attacked in the rear, and to retire to the very heart of the country, as far as Rhenen in the province of Utrecht. By this means the town of Arnhem, the forts of Knotsemborough, Voorn, St André, and Shenck, this last the strongest in the Netherlands, with a variety of other forts and towns, surrendered as soon as summoned; and at last Nimeguen, a town strong from the nature of the works and fortifications, and garrisoned by 8000 fighting men, including the inhabitants, was invested. After the citizens had for eight days exhibited signal proofs of courage in defense of their liberties, they were forced to yield to the superior skill of Turenne.

The only means by which the Dutch could arrest the progress of the enemy was, to open the sluices and inundate the country. The town of Utrecht set the example, which was soon followed by many others, and in a short time Holland, Brabant, and Dutch Flanders, formed one vast lake, the towns rising like islands in the midst of the waters. An embassy was also sent to the king of England, to request that he would prevail on Louis to relax in the severity of his attack. Charles pretended a compliance with this request; but as his interference produced no effect, it is probable that he was not sincere. In the space of three months, Louis conquered the provinces of Guelderland, Overyssel, and Utrecht, took about 50 towns and forts, and made 24,000 prisoners. The latter, however, were soon released for a trifling ransom. The very successees of the conquerors tended to weaken their force, as they were compelled to leave behind them several strong bodies of troops, to garrison the captured towns. This induced the French to listen to proposals for a negociation, which, however, came to nothing.

Marshal Turenne, now appointed generalissimo of the king's army on his majesty's return to Paris, marched to oppose the elector of Brandenburg and the German general Montecuculi, who had joined their forces, and were about to pass the Rhine. For three whole months were the elector and Montecuculi employed in abortive attempts to effect a passage at Mentz, Coblenz, Strasbourg, and other places. This answered the purpose of making a powerful diversion in favor of the Dutch, though they could not accomplish their design of joining the prince of Orange. After repeated disappointments, the imperial army directed its march to Westphalia; and Turenne followed, in order to keep the bishop of Munster steady to his engagements. For half the campaign he, with a body of 16,000 men, baffled every stratagem of the elector and Montecuculi, the latter the most renowned general of the empire, at the head of an army near triple his strength. He obliged them to go into winter quarters, in a country harassed and exhausted; and confirmed the bishop of Munster in the alliance of France, at the very time he was on terms with the emperor. He obliged the elector of Brandenburg, who took the chief command during Montecuculi's illness, to abandon the siege of Warle, took Unna Kamen, Altena, Berkemham, and several other towns and fortresses. By continuing his operations, he forced the elector out of his winter quarters again into the field, chased him from post to post, until he obliged him to quit Westphalia, repass the Weser, and retire with precipitation into the bishopric of Hildesheim. After taking possession of the elector's towns in Westphalia, he pursued him into the bishopric of Hildesheim, and at length, by mere dint of superior genius, forced him to seek shelter in his hereditary dominions. All this was effected after Louvois had appointed the marshal's army quarters in Alsace and Lorraine, amidst the rigours of a severe winter, opposed by a superior enemy, by the artifices of Louvois, and seconded only by his own prudence, and the affection of his troops, which he maintained in defiance of all the difficulties, hardships and dangers, they encountered. It was indeed supposed, that Montecuculi was prevented from giving Turenne battle by the remonstrances of Prince Lobkovitz, the emperor's ambassador, influenced by the gold of Louis. Certain indeed it is, that Montecuculi's illness arose from his chagrin at seeing all his projects frustrated by the unsteady dilatory conduct of the court of Vienna. Louis's negociations disturbed Europe no less than his arms. His tools and creatures swarmed in every court. Leopold could not be prevented from declaring in favor of Holland; but his ministers were bought off from seconding the emperor's intentions. The whole English nation exclaimed against the alliance of their kingdom with France; but Charles stood in need of French gold to supply his extravagance and profligacy. The elector of Bavaria had indeed been compelled by Louis to retire to his capital; but it was by dint of intrigue that he was forced from his alliance with Holland, and constrained to make a peace with France.

While the French generals were thus carrying all before them, the combined fleets of France and England were were scarcely less successful against the maritime power of the Dutch. The English squadron under the duke of York, uniting to that of France under D'Estrées, thrice engaged the Dutch fleet commanded by De Ruyter; and though neither party could boast of much advantage, the check sustained by the Dutch admiral was of essential service to the cause of the allies.

At length the tide of fortune began to turn in favour of the United Provinces. The court of Spain, jealous of the growing power of France, embraced the cause of the Dutch; and sent an army of 10,000 men to the assistance of the prince of Orange, while the mercenary king of England was compelled by his parliament to withdraw from his unnatural alliance with the French king; and the late ill success among the allied troops of France and Germany cooled the elector of Cologne and the bishop of Munster, in their friendship towards Louis. Thus that monarch, forsaken by his allies, was compelled to maintain singly a war against the empire, Spain, and the United Provinces. The accession of the prince of Orange to the throne of England, in 1688, gave an additional blow to the French power, by bringing on an intimate connection between England and Holland.

At length Louis was compelled to negotiate for peace, which was concluded in 1697, by a treaty extremely favourable to the United Provinces.

After the copious detail which we have elsewhere given of the military transactions of Europe, since the accession of William III., to the crown of England, in which the Dutch bore a conspicuous part, it will be here sufficient for us to give a very brief summary of the principal events. After the death of William III., the same plan of humbling the French king, was, in conjunction with the states-general, pursued by his successor Queen Anne; and the numerous and important victories of the duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene, led to the famous treaty of Utrecht, in 1713. See BRITAIN, No. 340—371. In 1747, the office of stadtholder was declared hereditary in the princes of Orange. In the war that took place in 1756, between France and England, a French party was formed in Holland, in opposition to the stadtholder, who favoured the alliance with England. Hence arose a jealousy between the two allies, which, during the American war, increased to an open rupture. See BRITAIN, No. 427, and No. 598 et seq. In 1787, some disputes took place between the stadtholder and the states-general, which induced the former to require the affluence of the king of Prussia. That monarch accordingly sent an army of 18,000 Prussians to Amsterdam, under the duke of Brunswick, who, in 1788, brought the whole country into subjection, and reinstated the stadtholder in his authority. See PRUSSIA, No. 73. In 1794 the republican armies of France having overrun the greater part of Flanders, took possession of the Dutch provinces, which they converted into the Batavian republic. The stadtholder found refuge in England, and the allied armies of Germany and Prussia retreated into Germany. See FRANCE, No. 459, et seq. In the summer of 1799, a considerable British force landed in the Texel island, made themselves masters of the Dutch fleet, and, in conjunction with a body of Russians, gained some advantages on the continent. Being opposed, however, by a superior French force, the army was obliged to re-embark, and return to England. See BRITAIN, No. 1069. By the treaty of Amiens, concluded in March 1802, all the colonies taken by the British were restored to Holland, except the island of Ceylon. On the renewal of hostilities in 1803, the Batavian republic was again compelled to take an active part against Britain, and in consequence again lost the Cape of Good Hope, and several other colonies, besides having her trade entirely ruined. Soon after the imperial diadem of France was conferred on Napoleon Bonaparte, the Dutch republic was elevated to the rank of a kingdom, and the emperor's brother, Louis, was appointed the first king of Holland.

With respect to the present state of this unfortunate country, we know very little that can be relied on. The people are evidently in a state of complete subjection to the French government; and though the late rumours of their avowed annexation to the empire of France may be premature, there can be little doubt of their being eventually confirmed.

According to the statistical table given in No. 2, the population of the United Provinces in the year 1796, appears to amount to 1,880,469 individuals; though it is generally estimated at about 2,000,000. Supposing this latter number to be correct, and that the area of the Dutch territory comprehends 10,000 square miles, there will be 200 individuals to each square mile; a proportion exceeding any thing that is to be found in any other part of Europe.

In the late republic of Holland, previous to the French revolution, the states-general formed the great and powerful council of the nation. That assembly was formed by deputies from the provincial states, and was invested with the supreme legislative power. It could not, however, make peace or war, form new alliances, or levy taxes, without the consent of the provincial states, nor could these determine any point of importance, without the consent of each of the cities that had a voice in their assembly. The stadtholder exercised a considerable part of the executive power, though in later times his power became very limited. The grand pensionary was properly a minister or servant of the province; and though he possessed great influence, being a perpetual member of the states-general, and of the secret committee, he was considered as inferior in rank to all the deputies.

The leading features in the constitution of the kingdom of Holland are, the guarantee of the payment of the public debt; the free and unqualified exercise of religion; the predominant authority vested in the king; the establishment of the Salique law, excluding females from the throne; the declaration that the minority of any future king shall expire on his attaining his 18th year; that only natives shall be eligible to any offices of state, exclusive of those immediately appertaining to the king's household; that the yearly revenue of the king shall be 2,000,000 florins, and that the royal residences shall be the palaces of the Hague, in the Wood, and at Soest dyke. The council of state is to consist of 13 members; the general government of the kingdom is to be committed to four ministers of state; and the legislative body is to be composed of 38 members chosen for five years.

The revenues of the United Provinces arose principally from taxes imposed on each province and city, according According to their ability. These consisted chiefly of a general excise, a land tax, a poll-tax, and hearth money; and are supposed to have amounted to £3,000,000 sterling.

Before the French revolution, the Dutch maintained a peace establishment of 30,000 men, which in war was augmented to above 50,000, chiefly by mercenary troops from Germany. Their naval establishment was highly respectable; and at the end of the 17th century it exceeded that of any other maritime power in Europe. Before the late war they could muster 40 sail of the line, 40 frigates, and 10 cutters. Since the celebrated engagement off the Dogger Bank during the American war, the Dutch have been scarcely able to cope with the English at sea; and the victory off Camperdown in October 1797, with the subsequent loss of the Texel fleet in 1799, proved the deathblow to the naval power of Holland.

Before the late change of government, the established religion of Holland was Presbyterianism, according to the doctrines of Calvin; though all sects of Christians were tolerated. The church was governed by consistories, classes, and synods, from which there was an appeal to one great national synod, subject to the control of the states-general.

The Dutch language is a dialect of the German, and in many respects bears a considerable resemblance to the Old English and Lowland Scotch. The literature of the United Provinces has long been respectable; and the universities of Leyden, Utrecht, Groningen, Harderwyck, and Franeker, have produced many eminent and celebrated men in almost every department of science. Grotius, Erasmus, Boerhaave, Leuvenhoek, Swammerdam, Gravius, Burman, Hoogwegen, &c., are names mentioned with admiration and respect in the annals of literature.

The Dutch manufactures consist principally of fine linen, earthenware, chiefly manufactured at Delft, especially white and painted tiles, tobacco-pipes, borax, oil, starch, paper, leather, woollen and cotton cloths, snuff, tobacco, and gin.

The commerce of the Dutch was formerly more extensive than that of any other country in Europe. They carried on a trade with every quarter of the globe, and in particular their East India Company was perhaps the richest society of merchants in the world. Holland was almost the exclusive centre of the spice trade; and the extensive fisheries on the coast of Greenland and in the North Sea, supplied the greater part of Europe with whale oil and herrings. Besides this external commerce, they carried on a considerable inland traffic with the interior of Germany, from which they brought immense quantities of timber. Vast rafts of trees, many hundred feet in length, set out annually from the forests of Andernach, and other places on the Rhine, and proceeding down the river under the direction of a great body of labourers, that formed a village of huts on the surface of the raft, sailed down the Rhine and the Waal to Dort, where the timber was disposed of, and where one raft has been sold for £30,000 sterling. All the foreign trade of Holland may now be considered as annihilated, but the inland traffic in wood and spirits still continues.

The inland commerce of the United Provinces is greatly promoted by the facility of conveyance from one part of the country to another, by means of the numerous canals.

The Dutch are, by constitution, a cool, or rather phlegmatic people, laborious, patient, obstinate, and persevering. When stimulated by any predominant passion, as avarice, or formerly love of liberty, they are capable of great exertions. Economy and order in the management of their pecuniary concerns are common among all classes, with whom it is an established maxim to spend less than their income. Interest and love of money regulate all their actions, and appear to supplant in their breasts every noble and generous feeling. These prominent features in the national character are, of course, modified by the rank or situation of the different orders in society. The higher ranks value themselves much on their distinctions, are reserved to strangers, but affable and obliging to those with whom they have had an opportunity of becoming acquainted; friendly, candid, and sincere. The mercantile men and traders are, in general, fair and honest in their transactions; though their natural thirst of gain sometimes tempts them to deceive and overreach their customers. The lower ranks are ignorant, dull, and slow of apprehension, but open to conviction, and patient of fatigue and labour.

Dress, among the Dutch, is regulated less by fashion, manners than by an attention to climate and season. The moist and inclement weather of these require a greater quantity of clothing than is found necessary in other countries under the same latitude; and, among the ordinary classes, broad hats, large breeches and thick boots and shoes, are still almost universal. Most of the women wear hats with low crowns and very broad rims, with jerkins and short petticoats; and, what appears exceedingly ridiculous to strangers, the boys and girls wear the same dress as the men and women.

A close attention to regularity and neatness in the streets and the interior of the houses prevails throughout the United Provinces, but is most conspicuous in North Holland. This was at first rendered necessary by the nature of the climate, to prevent rust and mouldiness from destroying their utensils and furniture, and has since become a habit, conducive at once to comfort and to health. The manner of living in Holland was, till of late, not a little gross. Their diet consisted much of high-seasoned and salted meats, butter, cheese, and spirituous liquors. In no country was gormandizing reduced more to a system. Convivial entertainments were extremely frequent; and the interval between the more substantial meals of dinner, tea, and supper, were filled up with cakes, fruits, jellies, and other light things; not to mention smoking and drinking, which supplied the place of conversation (c). If we may rely on the report of a late writer on the statistics of Holland*, the style of living is now much changed, though not much improved.

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(c) We must admit, that, in so moist and cold a climate, a full and generous diet may be safe if not necessary; but the Dutch, like many of our own countrymen, absurdly carried the same system into their tropical colonies. improved. Animal food is become extremely rare, and its place is supplied by a greater proportion of gin, tea, and coffee. The prevailing amusements in winter are dramatic entertainments and skating, in which latter they are exceedingly expert.

The Dutch taste for formal gardens, straight walks, trees and hedges clipped into fantastic shapes, and flower roots, has long been proverbial, and has been treated with more contempt and ridicule than it deserves. At worst, these are but harmless propensities; and, if indulged in moderation, are well suited to relieve the fatigues and inactivity of a retirement from the busy scenes of trade and commerce.