is the name of a corporation formed for the education of youth in the liberal arts and sciences, and authorized to admit such as have studied in it, to certain degrees in different faculties, which not only serve as certificates of proficiency in science, but also confer on those who obtain them considerable privileges within the university, as well as some rank in the state without it. Universities generally comprehended within them one or more colleges; but this is not always the case; for the university of St Andrew's was in being before either of its colleges was founded, and it would continue in being, with all its privileges, though both its colleges were levelled with the dust.

In every university with which we are acquainted, there are four faculties, viz. Theology, Law, Physic, and the Arts and Sciences, comprehending mathematics, natural and moral philosophy, &c.; and in Oxford, Cambridge, and some other universities, Music is considered as a fifth faculty. In each of these there are two degrees, those of Bachelor and Doctor; for though in the universities of Great Britain and Ireland we have no such degree as Doctor in Arts and Sciences, our Master of Arts answers to the degree of Doctor in Philosophy, which is conferred by many of the universities on the continent.

Universities in their present form, and with their present privileges, are institutions comparatively modern. They sprang from the convents of regular clergy, or from the chapters of cathedrals in the church of Rome, where young men were educated for holy orders, in that dark period when the clergy possessed all the little erudition which was left in Europe. These convents were seminaries of learning probably from their first institution; and we know with certainty, that in Old Aberdeen there was a monastery in which youth were instructed in theology, the canon law, and the school philosophy, at least 200 years before the university and King's College were founded. The same was doubtless the case in Oxford and Cambridge, and probably in every town in Europe, where there is now a university which has any claims to be called ancient; for it was not till the more eminent of the laity began to see the importance of literature and science, that universities distinct from convents were founded, with the privilege of admitting to degrees, which conferred some rank in civil society. These universities have long been considered as lay corporations; but as a proof that they had the ecclesiastical origin which we have assigned to them, it will be sufficient to observe, that the pope arrogated to himself the right of vesting them with all their privileges; and that, prior to the Reformation, every university in Europe conferred its degrees in all the faculties by authority derived from a papal bull.

It is perhaps no improbable conjecture, that the church of Rome derived her idea of academical honours from the Jews, among whom literary distinctions extremely similar subsisted before the nativity of our Saviour. Among them, the young student, with respect to his learning, was called a disciple; from his minority a junior; and the chosen or elected, on account of his election into the number of disciples. When he had made some progress in knowledge, and was deemed worthy of a degree, he was by imposition of hands made רְבוּיָה, a companion to a Rabbi, the person who officiates using this form, I afficiate thee, or, Be thou afficiated; and as soon afterwards as he was thought worthy to teach others, the afficiate was raised to the rank of Rabbi. Whether this process suggested the idea or not, it has certainly some resemblance to that by which a young man in our universities passes through the degree of Bachelor to that of Master of Arts or Doctor.

The most ancient universities in Europe are those of OXFORD, CAMBRIDGE, PARIS, SALAMANCA, and BOLOGNA; and in the two English universities, the first colleges are those of University, Balliol, and Merton, in the former, and St Peter's in the latter. Oxford and Cambridge, however, were universities, or, as they were then called, studiers, some hundreds of years before colleges or schools were built in them; for the former flourished as a seminary of learning in the reign of Alfred the Great, and the other, could we believe its partial partizans, at a period still earlier. The universities of Scotland are four, ST ANDREWS, GLASGOW, ABERDEEN, and EDINBURGH. In Ireland there is but one university, viz. that of DUBLIN, founded by Queen Elizabeth, and very richly endowed.

An idle controversy has been agitated, whether the constitution of the English or of the Scotch universities be best adapted to answer the ends of their institution; and, as might be expected, it has been differently decided, according to the partialities of those who have written on the subject. Were we to hazard our own opinion, we should say, that each has its advantages and disadvantages; and that while the English universities, aided

The account given by a late traveller (see Barrow's Voyage to Cochin-China) of the luxurious mode of living at Batavia, affords a melancholy, but accurate picture of Dutch gluttony. University aided by their great schools, to which we have nothing that can be compared, are unquestionably fitted to carry their young members farthest in the knowledge of the learned languages, the mode of teaching in our own universities is better adapted to the promotion of arts and sciences, and the communication of that knowledge which is of most importance in active life.

**University-Court**, in England. The two universities enjoy the sole jurisdiction, in exclusion of the king's courts, over all civil actions and suits whatsoever, where a scholar or privileged person is one of the parties; excepting in such cases where the right of freehold is concerned. And then by the university charter they are at liberty to try and determine, either according to the common law of the land, or according to their own local customs, at their discretion; which has generally led them to carry on their process in a course much conforming to the civil law.

This privilege, so far as it relates to civil causes, is exercised at Oxford in the chancellor's court; the judge of which is the vice-chancellor, his deputy, or assessor. From his sentence an appeal lies to delegates appointed by the congregation; from thence to other delegates of the house of convocation; and if they all three concur in the same sentence, it is final, at least by the statutes of the university, according to the rule of the civil law. But if there be any discordance or variation in any of the three sentences, an appeal lies in the last resort to judges delegates appointed by the crown, under the great seal in chancery.

As to the jurisdiction of the university courts in criminal matters, the chancellor's court at Oxford, and probably also that of Cambridge, hath authority to try all offences or misdemeanors under the degree of treason, felony, or mayhem; and the trial of treason, felony, and mayhem, by a particular charter, is committed to the university jurisdiction in another court, namely, the court of the lord high steward of the university.

The process of the trial is this. The high steward issues one precept to the sheriff of the county, who thereupon returns a panel of 18 freeholders; and another precept to the bedells of the university, who thereupon return a panel of 18 matriculated laymen, *laicos privilegio universitatis gaudentes*: and by a jury formed de mediate, half of freeholders and half matriculated persons, is the indictment to be tried; and that in the guildhall of the city of Oxford. And if execution be necessary to be awarded in consequence of finding the party guilty, the sheriff of the county must execute the university process; to which he is annually bound by an oath.

**Vocabulary**, in Grammar, denotes the collection of the words of a language, with their significations, otherwise called a dictionary, lexicon, or nomenclature. See Dictionary.

A vocabulary is properly a smaller kind of dictionary, which does not enter so minutely into the origin and different acceptations of words.

**Vocal**, something that relates to the voice or speech; thus vocal music is that set to words, especially verses, and to be performed by the voice; in contradistinction to instrumental music, composed only for instruments, without singing.

**Vocative**, in Grammar, the fifth case or case of nouns. See Grammar.

**Voetius** or **Voet**, Gisbert, an eminent divine of the 16th century, was professor of divinity and the Oriental tongues at Utrecht, where he was also minister. He affiliated at the synod of Dort; and died in 1676, aged 87. He wrote a great number of works; and was the declared enemy of Descartes and his philosophy. His followers are called Voetians. Voetius had two sons, Daniel and Paul, both authors. John Voetius, the son of Paul, was doctor and professor of law at Herborn, and wrote a commentary on the Pandects.

**Voice**, a sound produced in the throat and mouth of an animal, by peculiar organs.

Voices are either articulate or inarticulate. Articulate voices are those whereof several confine together to form some intelligible or little system of sounds: such are the voices expressing the letters of an alphabet, numbers of which joined together form words. Inarticulate voices are such as are not organized, or assembled into words; such is the barking of dogs, the braying of asses, the hissing of serpents, the fingering of birds, &c.

For a description of the organs of the voice, see Anatomy; see also Physiology Index.

**Voice**, in Grammar, a circumstance in verbs, whereby they come to be considered as either active or passive, i.e., either expressing an action impressed on another subject, as, I beat; or receiving it from another, as, I am beaten. See Grammar.

**Voice**, in matters of election, denotes a vote or suffrage.

**Voice**, in Oratory. See Declamation; Reading, No. 5.; and Oratory, No. 129—131.

**Volant**, in Heraldry, is when a bird, in a coat of arms, is drawn flying, or having its wings spread out.

**Volatile**, in Physics, something that is easily dissipated by fire or heat.

**Volatile Alkali**. See Ammonia, Chemistry Index.

**Volatilisation**, the art of rendering fixed bodies volatile, or of resolving them by fire into a vapour.

**Volcano**, a name given to burning mountains, or to vents for subterranean fires. See Geology Index, Aetna, Hecla, &c.

**Voley**, a bird-cage, of such a size that the birds have room to fly up and down in it.

**Volga**, the largest river in Europe, derives its origin from two small lakes in the forest of Volkonofski about 80 miles from Tver, a town in Russia. It is navigable a few miles above that town. This noble river waters some of the finest provinces in the Russian empire, and at last falls into the Caspian sea by several mouths, below Astracan.

The Volga is subject to annual inundation. In the year 1774, the inundations exceeded the lowest water-mark by nearly 40 feet, since which period they have been rather on the decline; for in 1775, they rose only to 39 feet 2 inches above that mark; in 1782, they rose to 26 feet; in 1785, to 25 feet 2 inches; and in the year 1791, their height was the same. Pallas is of opinion that this phenomenon may have originated from the diminished quantity of snow and rain which had fallen in the higher countries; from the greater evaporation of the Caspian sea, and the gradual extension of the different mouths of the river, or perhaps from the joint operation of all these causes.

**Volition**, VOLITION, the act of willing. See Metaphysics.