or Asperifolious, among Botanists, such plants as are rough-leaved, having their leaves... Asperifoliæ leaves placed alternately on their stalks, and a monopetalous flower divided into five parts.—They constitute an order of plants in the *Fragmenta methodi naturalis* of Linnaeus, in which are these genera, viz. tournefortia, cerinthe, lymphytum, pulmonaria, anchusa, lithospermum, myotis heliotropium, cynoglossum, alpeugo, lycopsis, echium, borrago: *magis minusve oleraceae, mucilaginose, et glutinosae sunt.* Lin.

In the present system, these are among the pentandrae monogynia.

**ASPERIFOLIÆ PLANTAE,** rough-leaved plants; the name of a class in Hermannus, Boerhaave, and Ray's methods, consisting of plants which have four naked seeds, and whose leaves are rough to the touch.

In Tournefort's System, these plants constitute the third section or order of the second class; and in Linnaeus's Sexual Method, they make a part of the pentandrae monogynia.

**ASPERITY,** the inequality of the surface of any body, which hinders the hand from passing over it freely.—From the testimony of some blind persons, it has been supposed that every colour hath its particular degree of asperity: though this has been denied by others. See the article **BLIND.**

**ASPEROSA,** a town of Turkey in Europe; it is a bishop's see, situated on the coast of the Archipelago. E. Long. 25. 20. N. Lat. 40. 58.

**ASPERUGO,** small wild bugloss. See Botany Index.

**ASPERULA,** woodroot. See Botany Index.

**ASPHALTITES,** so called from the great quantity of bitumen it produces; called also the Dead Sea; and from its situation, the East Sea; the Salt Sea, the Sea of Sodom, the Sea of the Desert, and the Sea of the Plain, in the sacred writings: A lake of Judea.

Many things have been said and written of this famed, or, if they were indeed true, rather infamous lake; such as that it arose from the submersion of the vale of Siddim, where once stood, as is commonly reported, the three cities which perished in the miraculous conflagration, with those of Sodom and Gomorrah, for their unnatural and detestable wickedness: on which account this lake has been looked upon as a lasting monument of the just judgment of God, to deter mankind from such abominations. Hence it is added, that the waters of the lake are so impregnated with salt, sulphur, and other bituminous stuff, that nothing will sink or live in it; and that it casts such stench and smoke, that the very birds die in attempting to fly over it. The description likewise of the apples that grew about it, fair without, and only ashes and bitternes within, were looked upon as a farther monument of God's anger. So likewise the description which many travellers give not only of the lake, but of all the country round about, of the whole appearing dreadful to behold, all sulphurous, bituminous, stinking, and suffocating: and lastly, what hath been farther affirmed of the ruins of the five cities being still to be seen in clear weather, and having been actually seen in these latter times; all these surprising things, and ill-grounded notions, though commonly, and so long, received among Christians, have been of late so much exploded, not only by the testimony of very credible witnesses, but even by arguments drawn from Scripture, that we must give them up as inventions, unless we will suppose the face and nature of all these things, to have been entirely changed. Thoese, in particular, of bodies not sinking in the water, and of birds being stifled by the exhalations of it; appear now false in fact. It is true, the quantity of salt, alum, and sulphur, with which it is impregnated, render it so much specifically heavier (Dr Pococke says one-fifth) than fresh water, that bodies will not so easily float; yet that author, and others, assure us, they have swam and dived in it; and, as to the birds, we are told likewise, that they will fly over it without any harm. To reconcile these things with the experiments which Pliny tells us had been made by Vespa, Nat. Hist., is impossible, without supposing that those ingredients have been since much exhausted, which is not at all improbable; such quantities of them, that is, of the bitumen and salt, having been all along, and being still taken off, and such streams of fresh water continually pouring into it, as may reasonably be supposed to have considerably diminished its gravity and density. For, with respect to its salt, we are told, the Arabs make quantities of it from that lake, in large pits about the shore, which they fill with that water, and leave to be crystallized by the sun. This salt is in some cases much commended by Galen, as very wholesome, and a strengthener of the stomach, &c. on account of its unpleasing bitterness.

What likewise relates to the constant smoke ascending from the lake, its changing the colour of its water three times a-day, so confidently affirmed by Josephus and other ancients, and confirmed by Prince Radziwill ib. v. cap. 5, and other moderns, who pretend to have been eyewitnesses of it, is all now in the same manner exploded by others of more modern date, and of at least equal candour. The unhealthiness of the air about the lake was affirmed by Josephus and Pliny, especially on the west: the monks that live in the neighbourhood confirm the same, and would have diffused Dr Pococke from going to it on that account; and, as he ventured to go and bathe in it, and was two days after, seized with a dizziness, and violent pain in the stomach, which lasted near three weeks, they made no doubt but it was occasioned by it; and he doth not seem to contradict them. As to the water, it is, though clear, so impregnated with salt, that those who dive into it come out covered with a kind of saline matter. There is one remarkable thing relating to this lake, generally agreed on by all travellers and geographers, viz. that it receives the waters of Jordan, a considerable river, the brooks of Jabbok, Kishon, Arnon, and other springs, which flow into it from the adjacent mountains, and yet never overflows, though there is no visible way to be found by which it discharges that great influx. Some naturalists have been greatly embarrassed to find a discharge for these waters; and have therefore been inclined to suspect the lake had a communication with the Mediterranean. But, besides that we know of no gulf to corroborate this supposition, it has been demonstrated, by accurate calculation, that evaporation is more than sufficient to carry off the waters brought by the river. It is, in fact, very considerable; and frequently becomes sensible to the eye, by the fogs with which the lake is covered at the rising of the sun, and which are afterwards dispersed by the heat. It is enclosed on the east and west with exceeding high mountains, many of them craggy and dreadful to behold. On the north it has the plain of Jericho; or, if we take in both sides of the Jordan, it has the Great Plain, properly so called, on the south; which is open, and extends beyond the reach of the eye. Josephus gives this lake 580 furlongs in length, from the mouth of the Jordan to the town of Segor, on the opposite end, that is about 22 leagues; and about 150 furlongs or 5 leagues, in its greatest breadth; but our modern accounts commonly give it 24 leagues in length, and 6 or 7 in breadth. On the west side of it is a kind of promontory, where they pretend to throw the remains of Lot's metamorphosed wife. Josephus says, it was still standing in his time; but when Prince Radziwill inquired after it, they told him there was no such tall pillar or statue to be found in all that part. However, they have found means, about a century after him, to recover, as they pretended to assure Mr Maundrell, a block or stump of it, which may in time grow up, with a little art, into its ancient bulk.

It is to be observed here, that the name of Dead Sea is not to be found in the sacred writings; but hath been given to this lake because no creature will live in it, on account of its excessive saltness, or rather bituminous quality; for the Hebrews rank sulphur, nitre, and bitumen, under the general name of salt. However, some late travellers have found cause to suspect the common report of its breeding no living creature; one of them having observed, on the shore, two or three shells of fish like those of an oyster, and which he supposes to have been thrown up by the waves, at two miles distance from the mouth of the Jordan, which he there takes notice of, lest they should be suspected to have been brought into the lake by that way. And Dr Pococke, though he neither saw fish nor shells, tells us, on the authority of a monk, that some sort of fish had been caught in it; and gives us his opinion, that as so many sorts live in salt water, some kind may be so formed as to live in a bituminous one. Mr Volney, however, affirms that it contains neither animal nor vegetable life. We see no verdure on its banks, nor are fish to be found within its waters. But he adds, that it is not true that its exhalations are pestiferous, so as to destroy birds flying over it. "It is very common (says he) to see swallows skimming its surface, and dipping for the water necessary to build their nests. The real cause which deprives it of vegetables and animals is the extreme saltness of the water, which is infinitely stronger than that of the sea. The foil around it, equally impregnated with this salt, produces no plants; and the air itself, which becomes loaded with it from evaporation, and which receives also the sulphurous and bituminous vapours, cannot be favourable to vegetation; hence the deadly aspect which reigns around this lake. In other respects, the ground about it, however, is not marlily; and its waters are limpid and incorruptible, as must be the case with a dilution of salt. The origin of this mineral is easy to be discovered; for on the south-west shore are mines of fossil salt, of which I have brought away several specimens. They are situated in the side of the mountains which extend along that border; and, from time immemorial, have supplied the neighboring Arabs, and even the city of Jerusalem. We find also on this shore fragments of sulphur and bitumen, which the Arabs convert into a trifling article of commerce; as also hot fountains, and deep crevices, which are discovered at a distance by little pyramids built on the brink of them. We likewise find a fort of stone, which, on rubbing, emits a noxious smell, burns like bitumen, receives a polish like white alabaster, and is used for the paving of court-yards. At intervals, we also meet with unhewn blocks, which prejudiced eyes mistake for mutilated statues, and which pass with ignorant and superstitious pilgrims for monuments of the adventure of Lot's wife; though it is nowhere said she was metamorphosed into stone like Niobe, but into salt, which must have melted the ensuing winter."

It is on account of this bitumen that it hath had the name of Asphaltite lake; it being reported to have thrown up great quantities of that drug, which was much in use among the Egyptians, and other nations, for embalming of dead bodies. Josephus affirms us, that in his days it rose in lumps as big as an ox without its head, and some even larger. But whatever it may have formerly done, we are assured by Mr Maundrell and others, that it is now to be found but in small quantities along the shore, though in much greater near the mountains on both sides the lake. But the contrary is since affirmed by two or more late * travellers; one * Pococke's whom tells us, that it is observed to float on the surface of the water, and to come on the shore after windy p. 56 weather, where the Arabians gather it, and put it to all the uses that common pitch is used for, even in the composition of some medicines; and another † tells ‡ Shew's us, he was there informed, that it was raised at certain times from the bottom, in large hemispheres, which, as soon as they touch the surface, and are acted upon by the external air, burst at once, with great noise and smoke, like the fulminans of the chemists, dispersing themselves about in a thousand pieces. From both these judicious authors we may conclude the reason of Mr Maundrell's mistake, both as to the lake's throwing it up only on certain feasts (that reverend gentleman might chance to be there at the wrong time); and likewise as to his not observing it about the shores, seeing the Arabs are there ready to gather it as soon as thrown up: all of them describe it as resembling our black pitch, so as not to be distinguished from it by its fuliginous smoke and stench when set on fire; and it hath been commonly thought to be the same with that which our druggists sell under the name of bitumen judaicum, or Jewish pitch, though we have reason to think that this last is fictitious, and that there is now none of the right asphaltum brought from Judea.

It hath, moreover, been confounded with a sort of blackish combustible stone thrown on the shore, and called by some Moses's stone, which being held in the flame of a candle, will soon burn, and cast a smoke and intolerable stench; but with this extraordinary property, that though it loses much of its weight and colour, it becoming in a manner white, yet it diminishes nothing of its bulk. But these, Dr Pococke tells us, are found about two or three leagues from the shore. He concludes, however, from it, that a stratum of that stone under the lake is probably one part of the matter that feeds the subterraneous fire, and causes the bitumen to boil up out of it.

**Asphaltum**, **Bitumen Judaicum**, or **Jews Pitch**, is a light solid bitumen, of a dusky colour on the outside, and a deep shining black within; of very little Asphodelus little taste; and having scarcely any smell, unless heat, when it emits a strong pitchy one. It is found in a soft or liquid state on the surface of the Dead Sea, and by age grows dry and hard. The same kind of bitumen is met with likewise in the earth, in other places of the world, in China, America, and in some places of Europe, as the Carpathian hills, France, Neufchatel, &c. There are several kinds of Jews pitch in the shops; but none of them are the genuine sort, and have little other title to their name than their being artificially compounded by Jews; and as they are a medley of what we know not what ingredients, their medicinal use begins to be deservedly laid aside, notwithstanding the diluent, solvent, pedatorial, and other virtues attributed to this bitumen by the ancients. The true asphaltum was formerly used in embalming the bodies of the dead. The thick and solid asphaltum is at present employed in Egypt, Arabia, and Persia, as pitch for ships; as the fluid ones, for burning in lamps, and for varnishes. Some writers relate, that the wall of Babylon, and the temple of Jerusalem, were cemented with bitumen instead of mortar. This much is certain, that a true natural bitumen, that for instance which is found in the district of Neufchatel, proves an excellent cement for walls, pavements, and other purposes, uncommonly firm, very durable in the air, and not penetrable by water. The watch and clock makers use a composition of asphaltum, fine lamp black, and oil of spike or turpentine, for drawing the black figures on dial plates: this composition is prepared chiefly by certain persons at Augsburg and Nuremberg. See the preceding article.