INTRODUCTION.

THE term farrier is probably a corruption of ferrier, Fr. ferrant, from the verb ferrer, to shoe a horse; all these words being derived from the Latin ferrum, "iron." There is no doubt that the word farrier was at first used to denote a person who shod horses, but as these persons were for a long period the only horse-doctors, the term was soon used in the more extensive sense of horse-doctor or horse-leech; and hence farriery came to signify the art of curing the diseases of horses.

There can be little doubt that the word farrier was originally spelt ferrier or ferrer; as we meet with this latter orthography in some of our older writers. Thus Blundeville, who wrote in the time of Queen Elizabeth, in his "Address to the Gentlemen of England," book iv., has the following sentence:

"All horses, for the most part, do come into their decay, sooner than they should do, by one of these four wiles; that is to say, either for lacke of being well bred, or through the rashness of the rider, the negligence of the keeper, or else through the unskillfulness of the ferrer."

Again, the same author mentions, "Martin Ghelly of Alton, called Martin Alman, chiefe ferrer to the queen's magistracy."

the usual acceptation of the word, forms only a part of that more general art, which has been commonly called the veterinary art; by which is understood the art of medicine as applied to the inferior animals, which has been long called by the French l'art veterinaire, or medicinae veterinariae. This word veterinary is of very ancient date, being derived from the Latin veterinarius, which is used by Columella to denote a horse-doctor, or cattle-doctor. The term veterinary, being derived from veterinus, qu. veheterinus, a vehendo, carrying, is properly applicable only to beasts of burden; but veterinary medicine is now commonly employed in a more comprehensive sense, to denote the art of curing the diseases of domestic animals in general.

The French, who appear to have first used the term in this general sense, usually distinguish that part of the art which we call farriery by the appellation of Hippiatrique, from iatros, a horse, and urges, physicians. Thus, they have a Cours d'Hippiatrique, a Dictionnaire d'Hippiatrique, &c.

As there are considerable advantages attending the consideration of the diseases of the several domestic animals in the same treatise, we propose, in the present article, not to confine ourselves to the medical treatment of the horse, but to extend our views to the diseases of such other of the domestic animals, as are of most importance to man, particularly the ox, sheep, and dog.

The diseases of the horse, as they are better known, and more interesting, than those of the other domestic animals, will of course occupy the greatest share of our attention. The diseases of the dog have been as yet too little investigated for us to give a very satisfactory account of them; but as the subject of veterinary medicine has of late been much cultivated, it is probable that these, as well as some other obscure diseases of animals, may ere long receive some elucidation. If any considerable improvements or discoveries shall be made before the completion of our work, we shall notice them under Veterinary medicine.

It may be thought, that, considering veterinary medicine in this extensive point of view, it would have been more correct to defer the subject to the article Veterinary; but most of our readers who have been accustomed to see in our dictionary the article Farriery, will expect an account of, at least, the diseases of the horse, under this article, and would probably not be pleased to have this delayed till nearly the end of the work; besides, it is of little importance under which article the diseases of animals are treated of, as, when we have once defined our terms, we cannot be misunderstood, provided we always employ them in the sense of the definition. Again, as the term veterinary has departed from its original signification, there can be no objection to our employing the word farriery, a term that is more familiar, in the same general sense. In fact, it has been so employed by a late writer on the subject, Mr Feron, who has entitled his work, "A new System of Farriery," though he professes to treat it of the horse, ox, and sheep.

In this article, then, we shall use farriery as synonymous with veterinary art, and shall consider both as the art of preserving the health and curing the diseases of domestic animals.

The study of veterinary medicine must be an interesting object to every person, whole profession, or situation in society, requires him to attend to the comforts and diseases of domestic animals.

To the veterinary practitioner, the study of the principles of his art, the history of the diseases which he is called on to relieve, and the methods of treating them that have been found most successful, are as essential, as the study of the human economy, and the diseases to which it is exposed, are to the medical practitioner. A farrier who has studied his art scientifically, is as much superior to the ignorant empiric, to whose mercy the lives and limbs of horses and cattle are usually intrusted; as the regular physician to the illiterate quack, who puffs off his pernicious nostrums in every newspaper, and enriches himself, by imposing on the credulity and folly of the public. The necessity of a regular education to the farrier, as well as to the surgeon or physician, which had long been felt, has led to the institution of veterinary schools; at first in France, and within these few years in England. Of these we shall presently give an account.

To the farmer and country gentleman this subject must be highly interesting. They will find their account in being able themselves to superintend the management of their horses, dogs, sheep, and cattle, so as best to preserve their health, and relieve their diseases, without relying implicitly on their grooms, huntmen, and farriers, herdsmen and cattle-doctors, who are probably either notoriously ignorant, or are induced from interested views, or a fellow-feeling, to prolong the cure, and pick the pockets of their masters (A). These gentlemen therefore cannot employ a part of their leisure time to greater advantage than in acquiring a knowledge of the diseases of domestic animals.

The medical practitioner who wishes to derive an advantage from analogy in some of the obscure diseases to which the human frame is subject, and which would probably receive considerable elucidation from a comparison with similar diseases that affect the inferior animals, must engage with peculiar interest, in a research that promises so well to repay his labour. "It is not a little remarkable, (say the editors of a well-conducted medical journal), that the diseases of horses, cattle, and sheep, which occur so frequently, and are so seriously lamented, should be so imperfectly understood. No greater benefit could be conferred on physical science than a complete history of the diseases of our domestic animals, especially if given by any one endowed by nature with superior acuteness, and a talent for observation, improved by habit and experience; who could describe the symptoms and appearances of the different disorders, point out the analogies with those incident to the human body, detect those minute circumstances which serve to distinguish them, class them under their proper heads, and correct all the confusion in which they now lie involved. Veterinary medicine has lately occupied some share of attention, chiefly as relating to horses, and as a distinct pursuit from the general study of all the diseases of animals, but considered apart from any relation or inquiry concerning the treatment of the morbid states of the human system. It is in this last point of view, that comparative pathology seems to offer so many subjects worthy investigation; and, when looked upon in this light, it strikes us as one of those studies quae ad non pertinent, et quae nefas malum efficiunt.*

We shall see, from the historical sketch of farriery, Farriery which will immediately be given, that the art never made any considerable progress, or assumed anything like a scientific form, till it attracted the attention of men who had made the human economy their study. Almost the only rational improvements, that have been made in the art, were either suggested or carried into effect by medical men; and nothing will contribute so much to its perfection as the interest which the profession has lately shewed to it, and the attention that has of late been paid to the study of comparative anatomy and pathology.

The healing art in general must profit by this. There is not only an intimate connection between the structure of man and that of the inferior animals; but, especially in those that have been domesticated, the diseases of both are nearly allied.

The murrains, that in the early part of the last century so frequently attacked the horned cattle throughout almost all Europe, nearly depopulating most of the farms, are very analogous to some of the epidemic diseases of man; and pestilential diseases among cattle, have not unfrequently been the forerunners of similar epidemics among the human race. Homer, in describing the plague that harassed the Grecian camp, in consequence of the affront given by Agamemnon to the priest of Apollo, says that the domestic animals were first affected.

On mules and dogs th' infection first began, And last the vengeful arrows fix'd in man."

POPE.

The plague of boils that raged among the Egyptians (Exod. ix. 10.) affected both man and beast. Similar instances are related both by sacred and profane historians.

Almost the whole tribe of inflammations, even the gout (according to Van Swieten), are found to affect the domestic animals, are produced by the same causes,

(A) It may be thought by some, that we have gone too far in accusing the farriers and grooms, &c. of having a fellow-feeling; but, when it is known, that "a part of every shilling paid to common farriers, is in some shape returned to the groom, as a fee or perquisite;" that "the servant receives at least five per cent. from the farrier on every bill paid by his master;" and that "if a horse dies under the care of a farrier, he generally becomes the property of the groom;" (See Veterinary Transactions, No. 1. Introduction); it will be allowed that there is some ground for the surmise. Domestic animals are subject to eruptive diseases, both chronic, and such as are attended with fever; and both are very similar to those by which man is affected. It is pretty certain that the smallpox sometimes rages among sheep, as we shall see hereafter; and a complaint very like the measles often attacks swine. Some of them are transferable to man; and to this transference in the case of the cowpox, a blessing which will render immortal the name of Jenner, we owe the probable annihilation of one of the most dreadful pests that ever afflicted the human race.

Scrofula and consumption attack monkeys. Apoplexy, epilepsy, and many others of what are called nervous diseases, indigestion, and even mental derangement, are not uncommon among domestic animals; spasmodic affections are very frequent among them, and it is said, that for one case of tetanus or locked jaw among the human species in these climates, there are ten or twenty among horses.

The analogy might be pursued much farther; but what has been stated is sufficient to show the advantages that medical men may derive from the study of veterinary medicine. Many obscure and dangerous diseases may thus in time be illustrated or mitigated; and the effect of doubtful remedies may be ascertained by experiments on the inferior animals. For, though there are a few instances of different effects following the exhibition of the same medicines in man and animals; yet, on the whole, the analogy is nearly as complete with respect to remedies as diseases (B).

It will appear, from what has been said, that the reasoning, and much of the treatment, in the diseases of animals must be nearly the same as in man, and, of course, that the veterinary practitioner will gain much by acquiring a knowledge of human medicine. Were the practitioners in farriery generally instructed in the principles of medicine, little more would be required, in a treatise on farriery, than to point out the difference in the structure and functions of domestic animals, to describe the diseases peculiar to them, and to mark the varieties that it is necessary to observe in the treatment of disease and the administration of remedies. But, as many of these gentlemen have not the opportunity of attending medical lectures, and most of them have not received an education that would enable them to understand the language in which medical writings are usually composed; it becomes necessary in a treatise of this kind to accommodate the language to the taste and capacity of general readers, and to introduce much that will be found in other articles on subjects connected with medicine. To prevent repetition, as much as possible, and to avoid swelling this article to a greater length than is necessary, we shall, however, where the similarity of the subject will admit of it, occasionally refer to some of the medical articles in this dictionary.

The successful practice of farriery, like that of medicine in general, requires that the practitioner should possess a considerable share of knowledge. It is not sufficient to have been long in the habit of managing the veterinary horses and cattle; this indeed, to a person of a strong mind, and attentive observation, will furnish a considerable number of facts, with respect to the symptoms and progress of the diseases to which domestic animals are subject. But, to mark the minute differences between such as resemble each other, to investigate their causes, and to contrive a rational mode of treatment, requires a much greater share of abilities, and much more extensive information, than we can expect to find among grooms and shepherds, or falls to the lot of most of those, who call themselves farriers and cattle-doctors.

It must be obvious to every thinking mind, that no Anatomy practice either in medicine or farriery can be rational, but such as is founded on a comprehensive knowledge of the structure and functions of those animals, the treatment of whose diseases is the object of that practice. The first thing, therefore, necessary to the veterinary practitioner is, to acquire some idea of the anatomical structure of the domestic animals. We have already, in the second part of the article Anatomy, given a general account of the structure of quadrupeds; and in exemplifying this, in the chapter on the anatomy of a dog, we pointed out the most striking peculiarities that are to be found in this animal; as we have done with respect to ruminating animals, viz. the cow and sheep, in the succeeding chapter of that part. To that article we must refer our readers for the anatomical part of our subject, as far as relates to the ox, the sheep, and the dog. It will naturally be expected, that a description of the structure of the horse should be given in this article; but this description must, in general, be concise, as the nature of our plan prevents us from enlarging on the subject, excepting in those parts where a pretty minute knowledge appears to be necessary.

Those who wish to study the anatomy of the horse minutely, may consult Vitet's Medicine Veterinaire, tom. i.; Blaine's Outlines, and Stubb's elegant work on the anatomy of the horse.

The practitioner should take every opportunity of inspecting the bodies of those animals that die of diseases, which are very important, or which are not very well understood. Morbid affections often throw considerable light on the nature and treatment of diseases; and it fortunately happens, that with respect to domestic animals, these affections are very easy, and are not obstructed by those absurd prejudices, which, especially in this country, are opposed to the diffusion of human bodies. In treating of the diseases of domestic animals, in

(B) One of the most remarkable cases of anomaly in the effect of remedies is that of arsenic, which, in the quantity of a few grains will prove a deadly poison to man and most animals, but may be given with impunity to horses to the amount of two drams or more. The story of the different effects of antimony, on hogs and monkeys, is well known. See Antimony. As to the example of white vitriol, (fulphate of zinc), which proves emetic in the human subject, but produces no such effect in the horse; it is owing to the different structure of the stomach in this animal, by which he is incapable of vomiting. Colocynthis, or bitter apple, is well known to be a most violent purgative to man, but in the horse it has produced no effect, in the enormous dose of four ounces. a future part of this article, we shall give a concise view of the appearances on disease, as far as they have been ascertained, whenever they tend to illustrate the nature, causes, or treatment of the disease under consideration.

The study of the functions of domestic animals ought to go hand in hand with that of their structure; and the student will find it of considerable advantage, to compare the functions of these animals with those of man. This comparative view will be given in some future article. In the present treatise, we can only speak of the functions of domestic animals, as far as it is necessary to illustrate the nature or the treatment of their diseases.

The natural history of these animals ought to form a part of the studies of the veterinary practitioner. It is a subject that is not only highly curious and interesting, but extremely useful. We find, that these animals, in their native fields, enjoy a state of health and vigour, which is interrupted only by those accidents to which a life of liberty and wildness may expose them. It is only when they are received under the protection of man, that they become subject to disease. It is therefore an interesting inquiry, to examine into their native habits; as, in our endeavours to preserve their health, we should, as nearly as is compatible with convenience and economy, imitate the habits that are found to prevail among these animals in a state of nature. It is the province of the naturalist to describe the external conformation of these animals, and the advantages, and defects dependant on it, that fit or disqualify them for the various purposes, for which they are destined under the service of man; it is his business to describe the methods of breeding these animals in a state of nature, and how far this may be improved for the purposes of domestication, and to detail the method of training and managing them. Many of these circumstances are treated of by some of the writers on the veterinary art, in a complete system of which they ought not properly to be omitted. We shall, however, not treat of them in this article, as, according to the plan of our work, they more properly fall to be considered under the article MAMMALIA, in which will be given the natural history of all quadrupeds.

Chemistry must form a necessary part of the studies of every man who engages in the practice of medicine, whether human or veterinary, as, without a knowledge of its principles, neither the functions of the animal economy, the intimate structure of its component parts, nor the action of many remedies, can be properly understood. In the article CHEMISTRY, we have prepared abundant matter for the reader to make himself acquainted with the elements of that admirable science.

The practitioner, whether of human or veterinary medicine, who is a proficient in anatomy, wants but a little manual dexterity, and some practical experience, to make him a tolerable surgeon. The operations to be performed on brutes are few, and these are in general very clumsily executed. Humanity, however, as well as prudence, will readily point out to the farrier the necessity of learning the best methods of performing these operations with dexterity and despatch, so as to give the least pain to the unfortunate animals that are placed under his care. We shall describe the usual operations immediately after treating of the anatomy of the horse.

It is of considerable consequence, that the person who undertakes the management of domestic animals, should make himself acquainted with those circumstances which experience has shewn to be most favourable to the preservation of their health, and the prevention of their diseases. This subject forms what may be called veterinary hygeiology; and will be considered at some length in the fourth part of this article.

Before the practitioner can attempt to remove or alleviate the diseases to which domestic animals are subjected, he must acquire a competent knowledge of the remedies employed for that purpose, their nature, uses, and doses, as adapted to the different animals, in various situations, and various diseases; with the methods of preparing and compounding them into the several forms that are usually employed; and with the best means of administering them. This comprehends what is called the veterinary materia medica, and will form the subject of our fifth part.

With this previous knowledge, the veterinary practitioner is prepared to enter on the consideration of the diseases, which will be treated of in the sixth part of our article. He must be particularly attentive to the symptoms of each disease, as, on an accurate knowledge of these, will depend the means of distinguishing these complaints, which upon a superficial view bear considerable resemblance to each other, but which require a very different, and perhaps opposite mode of treatment. He must attend to the greater or less violence of these symptoms, to the nature of the part which they attack, and to the greater or less rapidity of their progress; as these circumstances must considerably influence the judgment he is to form of the danger, and probable termination, of the disease. He must, as far as possible, investigate the causes, that appear to have produced the disease in question, or which seem to aggravate or keep up the morbid symptoms; as on the removal or mitigation of these causes, must depend the only rational and scientific method of cure. Lastly, he must make himself acquainted with the treatment that experience has found most successful in the cure of each particular disease, as well as with that which has been found to be attended with little or no advantage.

As the proper means of attaining the best information is of the greatest importance, we shall here give Mr Blaine's instructions on this point.

"The mode in which any art is attained, must be in a great measure directed by the future views of the learners. It appears to me that there are three distinct classes of persons, who are likely to study this branch of useful knowledge. The first are persons of enlarged minds, and extended fortunes. The second are surgeons, whose situation in country villages may render their services in this art highly useful, upon occasions when no farrier is at hand, or, in the end, in cases in which farriers of the common class are unable to judge. The third are farriers themselves, or persons intending to profess veterinary medicine.

"Gentlemen and amateurs, who wish to accumulate information on this curious and interesting subject, within the reach of the veterinary college, will find their account in attending a course of lectures there; if not, not, they should apply themselves to the study of the more general parts of the body, both of the human and animal; the latter, I hope, they may attain by the following sheets. They may direct the collar maker, huntsman, or tanner, to cut up their dead horses in their presence. They may study physiology in a pleasant and interesting manner, from the ingenious work on this subject by Mr Saumarez. The lighter parts of the veterinary art may be acquired with pleasure, from the elegant publication of Mr Richard Lawrence of Birmingham, and a course of chemistry will amply reward them for their pains in acquiring it.

"A good surgeon has travelled three-fourths of the road towards making a good veterinarian, but he must diligently travel the remainder to arrive at excellence. He must by no means sit down contented with the analogy between the human and brute; which, if he does, will lead him into very great error; for though this analogy is in most cases very striking, yet there are others in which the similarity fails, and he is left to act upon other principles. Hence those diseases that are conquered or mitigated by vomiting in the human; in the horse he must pursue another mode of treatment. In acute diseases removed by purging in the human, his attempts on the horse would probably fail; as before the effects were produced, the animal might be past relief. It must be remembered that the operations of medicines are very different in the one, and the other. It is not sufficient that a surgeon has an intimate acquaintance with the human frame; he must be equally conversant with the animal he treats, or he will treat in vain; particularly those diseases originating in a peculiarity of form from the human, as all the diseases of the feet. He should make himself particularly conversant with the specific diseases of the horse, which bear no analogy to anything in the human body; as farcy, glanders, strangles, greale, &c. From the great strength of the arterial system, he must ever be aware how prone the diseases of the horse are to a rapid termination, and hence that his treatment must be decisive and energetic; therefore, in all cases, he must be very attentive to diagnostics. But what will much embarrass a surgeon in practising the veterinary art, will be a want of knowledge of the general usages, nomenclature, and idioms, if I may so express it, among grooms and farriers; without an acquaintance with which, these people at once detect and despise the practitioner. It should be the business therefore of the surgeon, with his other acquisitions, to learn their manners, and to make himself acquainted with their terms. The third class of persons, either farriers already practising, or persons intending to practise, will easily gain that. When it is in their power, I would advise their taking the advantage of the veterinary college; but when they cannot, I would recommend the prosecution of their studies in a regular manner. Begin by first reading some general description of the human body, such as Symond's Anatomy, or the anatomical part of the present work, carefully; let them pay attention to the functions and uses of the parts, particularly where the same uses are brought about by a variation in structure; this enlarges the mind, and prepares it to receive the benefits of dissection, which should now be proceeded to. Any small animal may be first dissected, to enable the learner to use his instruments properly. He may then proceed to dissect the horse with some authorities by him, which will assist him at first to make out parts, but too scrupulous an attention to numerous descriptions will only bewilder. The necessary instructions for dissection, and the preservation of parts, may be gained, by a recourse to Poole's Anatomical Instructor, which is professedly written to instruct the pupil in these particulars. When he is well acquainted with the appearance of the animal in health, he should take every opportunity of examining diseased appearances, which are seldom wanting at the tan-yard or the kennel. He should now make himself acquainted more intimately with physiology, for which purpose he may read Haller's works; there is at present a translation of Cuvier's Treatise on Comparative Anatomy, which he may likewise avail himself of. When he has become acquainted with pathology, as at present received, he may peruse the older authors on farriery; to this should succeed a knowledge in chemistry, preceded by an acquaintance with the materia medica; the proper works for which he may see by a reference to that article, and nothing will now be wanting, but experience and practice to perfect him."

Since the establishment of a veterinary school in Britain, little is wanting to promote the progress and improvement of the veterinary art, as far as relates to the knowledge of farriery. But the art, with respect to the medical treatment of other animals, is still in the most deplorable state of imperfection. Proposals have been made for improving cattle medicine; and among these, we think the following of Mr John Lawrence, entitled to attention; though, probably the proposer's list of works may be much improved and enlarged, by referring to the account of authors which will be immediately given.

Mr Lawrence's proposal is simply, "that the affair of Mr Lawrence providing the country with regular-bred surgeons, for once's proposal, the practice of cattle medicine, be immediately undertaken by the agricultural societies; at least, that the experiment be made by some of the most considerable, each society engaging a gentleman of that description, at a sufficient and respectable annual stipend. The contract may run in such form, that should the surgeon's annual emolument from practice come short of the stipulated sum, the deficiency should annually be made up by his patrons the society. No person to be engaged on any pretence, but who shall have received the usual education of a surgeon, and have attended the hospitals the usual length of time. A selection of Veterinary text-books to be made, and the books purchased for the use of the surgeon, but to remain the property of the society. This may consist of Gibbon's last edition, two vols. Bracken, Bartlett, Osmer, Layard, with our late writers; and Lafoile and Bourgelat from the French, with whatever may have been published since their time, by authority of the French veterinary schools. All the members of the society and their connections, as far as their influence may extend, to entrust the care of their diseased animals to the surgeon appointed, at a fair and liberal charge for his attendance and medicines. The surgeon to keep a regular history of all the cases which shall come under his inspection, including the presumed causes and symptoms of the disease, with the probable methods of prevention, his mode of treatment, a particular detail of the medicines prescribed, their operation, with every relative and useful remark which may occur." PART I. HISTORY.

THE early history of farriery, as of every other art and science, is involved in great obscurity. We shall not attempt to penetrate the cloud that hangs over the ancient state of the art, or to supply the want of facts, by conjectures, which, however rational, can lead to no certain or useful conclusions.

There seems no doubt that in the time of Hippocrates, and probably long before, the medical practitioner exercised his office in favour of the domestic animals, as well as of man; and Galen seems to have been well skilled in the knowledge and treatment of some of the diseases of animals.

Perhaps the earliest authentic writings on the subject of the veterinary art, now extant, are to be found in the works of Columella, the celebrated Roman author on husbandry, who, in his work *De Re Rustica*, has given many sensible directions for the management of horses and cattle. Columella lived about the second century, under the reign of the Roman emperor Tiberius, or, as some say, of Claudius Caesar.

It is understood that Celsus, the elegant imitator of Hippocrates, who lived some time before Columella, wrote much on the diseases of animals; but none of his writings on this subject have survived the general wreck of science and literature that accompanied the fall of the Roman empire.

We have no certain accounts of any author who wrote expressly on this subject earlier than Vegetius, who flourished, as is supposed, sometime in the fourth century, and probably during the reign of the emperor Valentinian the third. The work of Vegetius, *De Arte Veterinaria*, is still considered as extremely valuable, as it has handed down to us the only certain account of the opinions and practice of the early practitioners in this art. The body of the work appears to have been compiled from the most celebrated Greek writers on the subject. It is divided into four books; the prefaces or introductory chapters to which are written in very elegant language.

An edition of Vegetius was published at Basil, in 1574; and the work has been translated into several modern languages. Such of our readers as wish for a particular account of the contents of Vegetius's treatise, will find a copious analysis of it, in the third volume of M. Vitet's *Medicine Veterinaire*.

A collection of fragments of ancient writers on the veterinary art, was made by Ruellius, physician to Francis I., king of France. It was first published in Latin, in the year 1530; and afterwards, in 1637, the original Greek was published. The writers who contributed to this collection were chiefly Abysetus, Fumelius, Hierocles, Patagonius, and Theonetus. Some part of this collection is tolerably good; but, on the whole, it appears to be a strange jumble of good, bad, and indifferent, collected without judgment, and arranged without taste.

It is said that Xenophon, who lived three or four hundred years before the Christian era, wrote a small treatise in twelve chapters, on the training, management, and external figure of horses; but, as he says little or nothing with respect to their diseases, he cannot properly be ranked among the writers on veterinary medicine.

A blank of more than a thousand years now occurs dark ages in the history of farriery. During this long period of darkness, ignorance, and barbarity, the veterinary art, like most others, rather went back than advanced. During some part of this gloom, however, the art of shoeing horses with iron appears to have been invented; an art which seems to have contributed not a little to throw the management of this noble animal into the hands of a set of errant blockheads, who were now first called farriers. We cannot here enter on a discussion of the medical pretensions of these guardians of the health of horses. They have been amply commented on, by some of the best writers on the subject of farriery, as Gibbon, Bracken, Lafoffe, and particularly Mr John Lawrence, to whose useful and humane treatise on horses we refer our readers for some very spirited remarks on the subject.

The first modern writer on farriery, whom we can mention, is Carlo Ruini, an Italian, who, in 1618, published at Venice his *Anatomia del Cavallo*. This work, of which very few copies are now to be found, is embellished with many copperplates, which, for the time when they were engraved, are very elegant. It is said that many succeeding writers on the anatomy of the horse have been indebted to them for most of their figures.

We now come to a period at which the veterinary art began to assume something of a scientific form. Many writers of eminence began to appear both in France and England, countries which have been the most distinguished for their attention to the management and diseases of domestic animals. As the French writers were the first, who did anything considerable towards the improvement of farriery, we shall trace the progress of the art in that country, before we examine the improvements it has received in England.

In 1698 Solleyef published his grand work, "Le Solleyef." FAR R I E R Y.

History.

parfait Marechal," the complete Horseman, a work, which gained its author a high reputation, and was long the only guide, as well in farriery as in the manege.

M. Solleyfel was principal riding-master in France, and this situation led him to pay much attention to the diseases of horses; and being a man of considerable abilities, and enlightened understanding, he saw the errors that prevailed in his time; and his genius and experience led him to expose and to correct them. His practical observations and remarks, which it would be out of place to particularize in this early part of our article, in general merit considerable attention. His observations on the external figure of the horse, and of his blemishes and defects, are also very valuable. It is much to be regretted that this ingenious author had not studied the anatomy of the horse, as he would then have avoided many errors and much false reasoning, into which his ignorance of anatomy betrayed him. Solleyfel's work passed through many editions, and was translated into most of the modern languages. A version of it into English was executed by Sir William Hope, one of his pupils, early in the 18th century.

The dreadful havoc committed by the murrain or epidemic diseases among horned cattle, that ravaged Europe during the first half of the 18th century, attracted the attention of medical men, and thus led the way to a greater improvement in the veterinary art, than it had ever before experienced. These epidemics were first described by two Italian physicians, Ramazzini, in a treatise De Contagione Epidemica; and Lancisi, physician to the pope, in a treatise De Bovina Pestis. But the most celebrated works on the prevailing epidemic seem to have been written by the faculty in France. Among the first appeared a memoir by M. Hermant, physician to the king.

In 1746 was published a memoir Sur la Maladie Epidemique des Bœufs du Vivarais, by the celebrated zoologist Sauvages.

About the middle of this century, the first steps were taken towards the establishment of schools for the public instruction of practitioners in farriery. One of the most celebrated of these was the veterinary college of Lyons.

Over this institution presided the famous Bourgelat, a name that will be ever respectable in the history of farriery. Besides his office of professor at Lyons, he was inspector general of the veterinary schools in France; commissary general to the royal stables; honorary member of the Royal Academy of Paris, and member of the Royal Academy of Berlin. M. Bourgelat was a voluminous writer, and most of his works are still in much repute. In 1752, he published Elements d'Hippiatrique, "Elements of Farriery," in 3 vols. The first volume is divided into eight chapters, comprehending the knowledge of the horse, as far as regards his external form. The first chapter treats of the denomination and division of the parts that compose the body of this animal; the second treats of the beauties and defects of the fore part of the horse, or what the French writers call l'Avant Main; the third treats of the beauties and defects of the several parts of the body; the fourth, of the beauties and defects of the hind part of the horse, or l'Arrière Main; the fifth, of the different marks of horses; the sixth, of the means of ascertaining the age of horses; the seventh, of the geometrical proportions of the horse; and the eighth, of shoeing.

The second volume describes the anatomy of the horse, as far as relates to the bones, the integuments, the muscles, and blood vessels; and the third volume concludes the anatomy with a description of the parts that compose the head and chest.

In 1745, M. Bourgelat's materia medica, for the use of the veterinary pupils, came out. Soon after was published his Elementary Treatise on the Anatomy of the Horse, which is the most complete work of the kind that has ever yet appeared. In 1766 he published his Elementary Botanical Demonstrations, for the use of the pupils of the veterinary college. He likewise gave to the world a treatise on bandages applicable to the horse.

M. Bourgelat also furnished many of the best articles on farriery for the French Encyclopédie.

About this time appeared a number of works on the Buffon and manege, and on natural history, particularly a work by Daubenton, M. de la Guérinère, entitled École de Cavalerie, and the celebrated natural history by M. de Buffon and Daubenton; but as these works have little connection with the diseases of animals, which they mention only incidentally, we shall not here particularize their contents.

Contemporary with Bourgelat, and equal to him in Lafoffe the celebrity, flourished Lafoffe the Elder, a member of Elder Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, and farrier to the king of France. He made many discoveries, and introduced several valuable improvements in the art of farriery, particularly an improved method of shoeing, and a treatise on the glanders. These were at first communicated in the form of memoirs to the French academy, and published in their annals. They were afterwards collected in 1754 into one volume, under the title of Observations et Découvertes faites sur des Chevaux, "Observations and Discoveries on Horses." We shall have occasion, in future parts of our article, to consider the merits of these memoirs, which were well received, and have contributed much to the advancement of farriery.

The elder Lafoffe also wrote some of the articles on farriery in the Encyclopédie.

He was soon followed by his son Lafoffe the Younger, who occupied the same post as his father, Younger and has acquired much reputation, by following his steps, and extending his improvements. He published, in 1766, his Guide de Marechal; or "Farrier's Guide;" a work well known in this country, though it has never, we believe, appeared in an English dress. It is divided into five parts, treating, 1st, Of the means of ascertaining the age of horses, and a succinct enumeration of the several parts; 2d, Of the blunders and tricks of farriers; 3d, Of the internal diseases of the horse; 4th, Of the external diseases, and the most important operations; and, 5th, Of shoeing. This work is characterized by M. Vitet, as one of the most accurate, simplest, and most precise, that had ever appeared. The anatomical part of the work is short, but comprehensive, and is illustrated by some tolerably good plates. It appears to have been a sort of text-book to a course of lectures on farriery, which were afterwards, in 1772, published in a superb form, with 65 coloured plates, under the title of Cours de Hippiatrique; or "Course of This work is extremely scarce in Britain, where, according to Mr Blaine, there are only three copies of it; one of which belongs to the Medical Society of Woolwich; another is in the hands of a Mr Mathaia, ci-devant pupil of the Veterinary College; and he believes Mr Morecroft has a third.

But the principal work of the younger Lafoffe is his Dictionary d'Hippiatrique, in four volumes, which is little known in this country, and which we have not seen. Mr Blaine calls it "the best practical system of farriery that had ever appeared."

In 1803 was published an abridgement of M. Lafoffe's Guide, of which an English translation has lately appeared under the title of The Veterinarian's Pocket Manual. It is a useful little book, but it is a pity that the author or translator had not observed a more methodical arrangement.

Though, for the sake of uniformity, we have mentioned the younger Lafoffe immediately after his father; there were many works published in France between the Memoirs and the Guide.

In 1755, M. Garfault published his Nouveau parfait Marechal, an improvement on the Parfait Marechal of Solleylel. It is divided into seven treatises; on the Conformation of the Horse; on Haras, or the Method of Breeding; on Stables; on the Diseases of Horses; on Operations; on Shoeing; and on Horse Medicines. This work is not without defects, but, for the most part, it is very good, and by no means deserves the brief character given of it by Mr Blaine in his History of the Veterinary Art, that it "does not seem to merit any distinction in this place."

The articles on farriery in the Encyclopedie that had been written by Bourgelat and Genon, called forth a work from M. Ronden, senior, farrier to the larger stables of the king; who, in 1759, published Observations sur les Articles de l'Encyclopedie concernant la Marechallerie. They appear to be ingenious, and contain much practical information.

In 1763 there appeared at Paris a work on agriculture in two volumes 4to, entitled La Nouvelle Maison Rustique, which contains much useful matter respecting the breeding, management, and diseases of domestic animals, as well as fowls as quadrupeds.

The contagious epidemics among horned cattle still appeared occasionally in France and other parts of Europe; and many essays were written on them by various physicians, particularly by M. Bovand of Befanon, in 1766; by M. Leclerc and M. Barbaret, of Paris, in the same year.

In 1768 Daubenton, the celebrated naturalist, already mentioned, published a memoir on the mechanism of rumination in sheep; and in 1769, appeared a small volume entitled La Medicine des Beles a Laine; "the Medical Treatment of Sheep."

Between 1776 and 1782, M. Vitet, a physician at Lyons, published his Medecine Veterinaire, in 3 vols 8vo, of which the first contains a pretty full account of the anatomy of the horse and ox, with some judicious remarks on the beauties and defects of both, and on some of the more important operations to which they are exposed; the second treats of the diseases of horses, sheep, and cattle; and the third gives an account of the remedies employed in veterinary medicine; and ends with a copious analysis of most of the continental writings, and a few English, that had appeared on the subject, from Vegetius to 1770.

M. Vitet's work is, for the most part, a compilation from the best writers who have gone before him; but as he had read much, and appears to have selected with judgment, his book is one of those which may be consulted with advantage. We know that it bears a high character in France, and is often quoted with respect. We are therefore disposed to rate it at a higher value than a late writer has done; and are inclined to suspect that some of those who affect to think lightly of it are indebted to it for much more than the "names of many of those who have written on this subject."

Much about this time, but in what precise year we cannot say, the abbé Rozier, well known as the editor of the early volumes of the Journal de Physique, published his Cours d'Agriculture et de Medecine Veterinaire; a work of much reputation in France, but, we believe little known on this side the water.

Another work appeared about this time on the epidemics among cattle, entitled Recherches Historiques et Physiques sur les Maladies Epizootiques; "Historical and Philosophical Researches respecting Epizootic Diseases," by M. Paulet. It contains an abridgment of almost all that had been written on the subject, and is particularly valuable for the account of the morbid appearances that were discovered on dissection.

We shall finish our account of French writers in the words of Mr Blaine.

"After the death of Bourgelat and Lafoffe, we hear Huzard of no character of any great eminence for some years; but it appears, that since the revolution, the subject has again been more diligently studied, and the names of Chabert and Huzard stand forward. Soon after, or about the time above alluded to, there appeared a considerable work, called, The Rational Dictionary of Medicine, Surgery, and Farriery, in five volumes; and very soon after, a Veterinary Dictionary, by Buchon; but it has no merit superior to that of Lafoffe. In 1787, M. Chabert published a Treatise on the Mange of Horses; since which he has likewise published upon the peripneumonia of black cattle. There has also appeared an Essay on the Grease of Horses, which gained the prize medal of the society for the promoting the health of animals; to which is joined a report on thick wind and on broken wind; but we are not aware who is the author. In 1788, there came out a treatise on the haras, with the method of hoeing, cutting, and all the lesser operations, translated from the Spanish of Hartmann, by Huzard. Likewise "Instructions and Observations on Domestic Animals, with remarks on the breeding, rearing, buying and selling; with an analysis of previous authors, by Chabert, Handrin, and Huzard. The above authors have also published, conjointly, a Veterinary Almanack, containing the history and progress of animal medicine, since the establishment of the veterinary schools. In 1791, M. Lamagieu Lapole, veterinary surgeon, published observations on the health of the animals of St Domingo, dedicated to the veterinary college at Alfort. In 1797, M. Chabert and Oudinet, M. Huzard published, by order of government, a treatise vol i., on ascertaining the existence of the glanders, the means of preventing it, and destroying the infection."

Before we detail what has been done in Britain for the advancement of the art, we must take a cursory view. view of the principal writings that appeared during the 18th century in the rest of Europe.

In 1730, Goelicke, a German, published a treatise in 4to, *De Lue Contagiosa a Bovium*; "On the Contagious Disease of Cattle;" in which the symptoms of the murrain that raged in Flanders about that time are well described; and there are added the appearances on diffusion.

In 1734, appeared at the Hague a work entitled *La parfaite Connoissance des Chevaux*; "The Complete Knowledge of Horses;" by John Saunier, and Galpard his son. The latter boasts of this work, that it was drawn up from the lectures of his father, an experienced man; and that it contains the result of numerous experiments on subjects of every description, and diseases of every species; that it is the labour of the life of two men, the offspring of their continual application and study. After all their boasting, however, the work of Mynheers Saunier is little worth.

In 1745, and 1746, appeared two other treatises on the epidemic of cattle by Mauchard and Ens.

In 1749, the illustrious and indefatigable Linné published at Upsal his *Pan Suecicus*, in which there is little that relates to our subject, if we except a table of such plants as are eaten or refused by the domestic animals, which is curious and useful.

Some time before 1756, Frederic Hafler, a Swede, published *Instructions for Improving the Breed of Sheep*, which was in much repute, and was translated into French.

In 1762, M. Reynier of Laufane published a treatise on a contagious inflammatory disorder that raged among horses and cattle, and which the Geneveese called *la louver*. This will be considered hereafter.

In the same year there appeared at Vienna a work on the epidemic of cattle by Dr Plenitz; and in 1765 Mich. Sagard of the same city published a work on a contagious distemper that the year before attacked the cattle in the circle of Iglaw in Moravia; and was attended with an appearance of aphthous crusts in the mouth.

Of late veterinary medicine has been much cultivated in Spain, where the works of Hartmann are held in much esteem. In that country, it is said, a work on farriery in nine volumes has been lately published; but of this we know nothing.

We must not close our account of continental writers without mentioning the name of the illustrious Camper, whose works were lately collected and published at Paris. Besides a long description of the structure of the organs, and some lesser essays on comparative anatomy, these volumes contain an elaborate history of the epizootic disease that raged among the cattle on the continent in the middle of last century, in the form of lectures. We shall speak of this work hereafter.

We have thus brought the history of this art on the continent in a concise manner, down to the present time; and from it may be learned what improvements have originated there, and at what periods. It would appear, that when the science began to command attention, from the exertions of Francis the first, and Vegetius became studied, had it progressively improved in the degree it might be supposed to be placed by a conversation with this author, it would ere this have been more approximating to perfection; but instead of proceeding on the rational system of Vegetius, it dwindled again into ignorance of barbarity; and the recipes of manage-masters, and the operations of blacksmiths, were the only ostensible marks of its affluence. From this state the practitioner became in some degree routed by the improved system of Solleyfel; but he could only combat present errors, he could not point the way to future improvement, for he was ignorant of the groundwork whereon to build it, i.e. the anatomy of the animal. This defect was only in a small degree supplied by the labours of Ruini, and in some measure farther assisted by the demonstrations of Bourgelat. Many of the remaining errors were combated by Lafoffe with great advantage; and his experiments and discoveries on glanders, the rationality and improvements of his mode of shoeing, entitle him to great merit. Yet, though by these exertions, and by the establishment of veterinary seminaries, the art assumed a more regular and scientific form, its attainments were by no means adequate to its opportunities; which was almost wholly owing to an obstinate adherence to the humoral pathology, by which the treatment of internal and acute diseases continued inert and unsuccessful. Their prescriptions were filled with decoctions of simples, and they were utterly unacquainted with the medicinal virtues of the more active remedies in use among us. Under an opinion that the blood and humours were the constant seat of disease, they were continually wasting them with correctors; entirely ignorant or unmindful of the derangements of the solids, and of the connections between living blood and living vessels. Nor did this influence only their treatment of internal and acute diseases; but even of local and chronic affections: hence their mode of treating farcy, gout, and other complaints of a similar nature, were equally inert, and all evinced an erroneous pathology. Upon a careful and unprejudiced review of the state of farriery among ourselves, and on the continent of Europe, we are not inclined to think it had any advantages of moment at the beginning of the war in their favour; though it must be allowed, we are indebted to them for many improvements, and for the first hints towards the establishment of a regular school of the art among us. Since the war, our means of communication are so few, that we are not aware of what is doing among our neighbours. But though farriery, as a branch of veterinary medicine here, has kept nearly equal pace with its continental improvements, I do not think (says Mr Blaine,) the treatment of other animals, particularly of oxen, cows, and sheep, has been equally attended to; and, in this particular, I am disposed to think we are behind hand with them. Their severe visitations of the epizootic distemper have made them more attentive to this branch of the art."

In taking a view of the history of farriery, or veterinary medicine in general, in our own country, it will be seen, that we were much longer in improving the art, and reducing it under a rational and scientific form, than our neighbours on the continent. Our earliest writers on the diseases of horses and cattle, were deplorably ignorant, not only of all principles of general medicine and found practice, but even frequently of the common appearances of the diseases, which they professed to cure.

Our first writers on the treatment of the diseases of Blundelhorses, ville, Part I.

History. horses, were, as in France, chiefly riding-masters; and of these, the first that seems worthy of notice is Blundeville, who lived, as we have already observed, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. His work appears to have been principally compiled from the writings of Vegetius, and other ancient writers; and it contains little that can entitle it to any distinction, as a work of utility. It may, however, be perused as a literary curiosity.

The names of many writers, after Blundeville, are mentioned by those who have written on the history of farriery; but they are all still inferior to Blundeville, except perhaps Burdon, on whose work, notes were written by Dr Bracken.

About the end of the 17th century, lived Gervase Markham, a name in high repute amongst grooms and farriers, even to this day. He published a work on Farriery, which he called his Maister Piece, and which is one of the strangest compounds of nonsense and absurdity that has ever appeared on the subject.

In the opinion of Mr Lawrence, Markham was nothing more than a mere vulgar and illiterate compiler; and his works, some few things excepted, are stuffed with all the execrable trash that had ever been invented by any writer, or practised by any farrier, ancient or modern, on the subject of horses. It is necessary, however, that we do justice to the character of Gervase Markham; he certainly possessed a species of merit which has not descended to all his successors, the copyists and plagiarists; he very honestly gives the names of those authors from whom he derives his knowledge.

Some years after Markham, Michael Baret published a book, which he called the Vineyard of Horsemanship. This we have never seen, but it appears to be of some repute. The next writer on this subject, is the Duke of Newcastle, who gave to the world a most superb work on an improved method of breeding and managing horses. This work bears a very high character, not only from the name of the illustrious person by whom it was composed, but from its own intrinsic merit. The duke is quoted with respect by most succeeding writers; and his work has been translated into French, German, Dutch, and Italian. It chiefly relates to horsemanship, but as it contains some excellent observations and maxims on the breeding of horses, it naturally comes to be considered here.

In the latter end of the 17th century, Andrew Snape, who was farrier to Charles II, published a large work on the anatomy of the horse, illustrated with many copperplates. These plates appear not to have been taken from his own dissection, but are mostly copied from preceding authors, especially from Ruini. Mr Blaine, however, is mistaken in asserting that some of them are copied from Saunier, as Snape's work was published in 1683, whereas Saunier's did not appear, (according to Vitet) before 1734. It is said that Snape had projected a larger work on the diseases of horses, but this he did not live to execute.

Early in the 18th century, farriery experienced a considerable improvement from the writings of Mr William Gibbon. This gentleman had been a surgeon in the army, but relinquished that situation for the practice of farriery, which he probably expected to find more profitable. Mr Blaine places this writer in the middle of the last century; but his first work entitled "The Farrier's New Guide," was certainly published previous to the year 1721, as we have seen a second edition of it advertised in that year. This was the most scientific work on the diseases of horses, that had then appeared in the English, or perhaps any language. The detail of symptoms is in general just, accurate, and the plan of treatment advised is for the most part very judicious. The anatomical part of Mr Gibbon's work is not so valuable, being frequently incorrect, and evidently not the result of his own observation. The Farriers Guide was soon followed by The Farriers Dispensatory, containing an account of the remedies employed in farriery, and the means of preparing and exhibiting them. This work is far inferior to the former, and is now of little use. In 1721, Mr Gibbon published a small work on The True Method of Dieting Horses, which contains some judicious remarks on the means of preserving the health of this useful animal; as also on the breeding of horses; with some observations on their external form, their sagacity, and habits. This book must have been very valuable at the time of its publication, but is now in a great measure superseded by Clark and other later writers.

About 1759, Mr Gibbon published a larger work, On the Diseases of Horses, in which he has brought together the substance of his former works on farriery, with some improvements. There is, we believe, a later edition of it in two vols. Mr Gibbon must be considered as one of those to whom farriery is most indebted for its improvements. He was almost the first, at least in this country, to rescue the art from the hands of the illiterate empirics, to point out their blunders, and correct their errors. Mr John Lawrence, who has given a very full account of Mr Gibbon in the first volume of his treatise on horses, perhaps goes too far in ranking him on an equality with some of our present writers; while these again have erred as much on the other side, in detracting from the merits of a man to whom they are all more or less indebted for much of their most valuable matter.

Gibson was followed in his plan for the improvement Bracken of farriery by Dr Bracken, a physician at Lancaster, and a pupil of Boerhaave, who published a work called Farriery Improved. "Bracken (says Mr Blaine) was physician of great abilities and extensive knowledge in his profession; a man of considerable erudition, a sportman, and a wit of a peculiar cast. His works have by some been as much admired and read for the peculiar style in which they are written, and that peculiar freedom and non-obsequiousness of rule or form, as for the real information they contain.

Though there is great ingenuity in his writings, and though in many respects he improved upon Gibbon, yet as a practical work it was much inferior; nor was his information given in a way that could benefit the generality of his readers: independent of his style being too peculiar, and his reasoning too arbitrary for farriers, his manner of pursuing his subject was so defunctory, that few readers had patience to follow him. Nevertheless his works, which were several, and passed through many editions, have raised him a fame that can only die with the science."

These two writers may justly be considered as the fathers of English farriery; they established their system on the only sure foundation, the analogy which prevailed between the structure, economy, and diseases of man and of brutes. The best practice in this country has been derived from their instructions; and their works formed an example, by following which, later writers have greatly improved the art.

The next writer of reputation was Mr John Bartlet, also a medical man, who about the middle of the last century published his Gentleman's Farriery, and afterwards his Veterinary Pharmacopoeia. Bartlet had formed himself on the model of Gibbon and Bracken, the best parts of whose writings he has given in his farriery, condensed into a more compendious view. He also enriched his work by the most material improvements of Lafoffe, whose memoirs on shoeing and on glanders, he translated into English.

Soon after Bartlet, appeared Mr William Ofmer, a surgeon and a sportsman, who practised farriery in Oxford street, London. He was the principal means of introducing into this country the French mode of shoeing, which, in his treatise on the lameness of horses, he adapted to the English manners, so as to render service, what had been before nearly useless and impracticable. Mr Ofmer's mode of shoeing will be mentioned hereafter. From the above works many compilations were soon made; these were generally below mediocrity, amongst which, one called the Farrier's Dictionary, though a very wretched composition, met with a very rapid fate. We must except from these a small treatise by a Mr Blount, surgeon, which is above the common class, and worthy of notice, from an ingenious contrivance, illustrated by a plate, for securing a fractured limb.

In the year 1746, Dr Richard Brockleby, a friend of Dr Mead, published a pamphlet on the disorder that just before raged among horned cattle. It should seem that this book is very little known beyond the circle of medical men, as we have not seen it referred to by any writer on the diseases of cattle.

Brockleby was followed on the same subject by Dr Layard. We shall speak particularly of these two authors, when we come to treat of the murrains.

About 30 years ago, Mr James Clark, farrier to his majesty for Scotland, published an ingenious Treatise on Shoeing, and on the Diseases of the Feet of Horses. This was soon followed by his Treatise on the Prevention of Diseases Incidental to Horses. By this latter work Mr Clark has acquired much reputation, as a scientific farrier, and a sensible writer. It contains some judicious observations on stables, diet, and exercise, on blood-letting, rowels, and fetons; with remarks on the uses and administration of the more common remedies. Mr Clark's book is in general well calculated to produce a more judicious and humane method of treating horses, than usually prevails. But it would have been more useful, had the author omitted much of the theoretic discussion, into which he has entered on some parts of the animal economy, on the nature of disease, and on the action of remedies. Mr Clark is a good practical writer, but his theory is often very lame, or very obscure. He had an easy opportunity of attending the medical lectures, which were taught at Edinburgh in his youth, when the humoral pathology and the theory of Boerhaave were in full vogue. Mr Clark has here and there interposed among his practical remarks much of this old leaven. But as he probably had not received such a previous liberal education as might fit him for the judicious application of what he heard, he is often deficient in that theoretical knowledge which he takes so much pains to display.

Some years before the publication of Mr Clark's last Lord Pembroke mentioned treatise, viz. in 1778, Lord Pembroke favour-broke ed the public with his excellent dissertation on the management of dragoon horses, with some remarks on shoeing. This work is entitled, Military Equitation, or a Method of Breaking Horses. Though the observations, contained in his lordship's work, were intended for the use of the British cavalry, they are for the most part applicable to horses in general, and well merit the attention of farriers and others concerned in the management of horses. We do not well understand what Mr Blaine means by affirming that Lord Pembroke derived the principle of his medical hints from Mr Clark. If he means that his lordship borrowed anything from Mr Clark's treatise on preventing the diseases of horses, he is certainly mistaken, as the first edition of this treatise, which we believe has not been reprinted, appeared in 1788, and in it Mr Clark often quotes Lord Pembroke's work (c).

Much about this time Mr Stubbs published his elegant plates of the anatomy of the horse, of which work, as the production of an artist, we cannot speak too highly. Mr Stubbs is a very eminent painter of animals, and to much professional excellence in this capacity, he has added a considerable share of anatomical knowledge. Hence his figures are in general extremely correct, and will be found very useful to those who have not the opportunity of availing themselves of real subjects.

One of the latest writers on the subject of farriery is Taplin. Mr Taplin, who for some time enjoyed a considerable reputation, both as a practitioner and as a writer. But this reputation has been materially fulfilled, since it was discovered, that Mr Taplin is not only ignorant of the anatomy of the horse, but has liberally copied from those very writers whom he takes every opportunity to vilify and abuse. As from his flagrant plagiarism and arrogance, Mr Taplin has well deserved the dressing which he has recently received from several late writers, we shall turn him over into the hands of one of his rivals, who does not seem disposed to show him any mercy.

"This gentleman likewise began his career as a surgeon, but turned aside to the then more profitable track of farriery. Mr Taplin set out by decrying all that had gone before him, all that were in practice with him, and in fact everything that has been done by anyone since. Yet Mr Taplin's works are said to be compilations from those very authors whom he abuses; and, in some instances, after abusing egregiously, he copies literally.

(c) We find that Lord Pembroke's work was first published about 1761. The edition mentioned in the text is, we believe, the second. Unfortunately for this gentleman, from some late improvements, the people of this country have learned to distinguish in this art, as well as in others, between scientific investigation and verbose quackery. Had Mr Taplin set out by studying the structure and economy of the animal, he might, and undoubtedly would, have proved an ornament to the profession; but when he permits his works to go through so many editions, in the face of criticisms from all quarters, with a chapter on diffeles of a part that has no existence in the horse, i.e., the gall bladder, we must be aware that he is entirely ignorant of that, upon which every pretension to professional merit must be grounded. Mr Taplin indulges himself in the most unrestrained freedoms in speaking of those who have gone before him, yet copies verbatim from them; he cannot wonder, therefore, that he has been treated with considerable severity by later writers; nor can he be surprised that a practice so begun and so continued has ended as his has.*

Mr Taplin is the author of several works on farriery.

His first publication was, we believe, The Stable Directory, which had a great sale. He next published a larger work, in two volumes; and lately he has sent out a small pamphlet called Multum in parvo, which is supposed to be merely intended to advance the sale of his prepared horse medicines.

The end of the 18th century will ever be memorable in the history of farriery, for the establishment of an institution for the public teaching of the veterinary art in England, in imitation of those schools in France of which we have already spoken.

The veterinary college owes its origin to M. St Bel, a French gentleman, born at Lyons, and who was first junior assistant to the professor of the Royal Veterinary College there, and afterwards professor of anatomy at the veterinary college of Montpelier. This gentleman came to Britain in 1788, and published proposals for establishing a veterinary school in this kingdom. These proposals did not, at that time, meet with encouragement; but two years after, when M. St Bel, driven from his native country by the horrors of the revolution, again visited England, his proposals were taken again into consideration by an agricultural society at Ockham in Hampshire. It had been the intention of this society, to send two young men to France, to study the veterinary art scientifically; but on hearing the proposals of M. St Bel, they abandoned this idea, and appointed a committee to consult with him on the best means of forming a school for teaching the art in this kingdom. To this school they gave the name of the Veterinary College of London; and M. St Bel was appointed the first professor.

The following gentlemen were appointed to the management of this institution.

His Grace the Duke of Northumberland, President.

Earl Grosvenor, Earl Morton, Earl of Oxford, Lord Rivers, Sir George Baker, Bart. Sir T. C. Bunbury, Bart. M. P. Sir W. Fordyce, John Hunter, Esq.

Sir John Ingleby, Bart. M. P. Sir H. P. St John Mildmay, Bart. G. M. Alcough, Esq. Mr John Baynes, Mr J. Burgess, Rev. T. Burgess, Rev. J. Cook. Dr Adair Crawford, John Gretton, Esq. Dr Hamilton, Mr Rennet, Dr D. Mapleton, Granville Penn, Esq. Mr William Stone, Richard Tophane, Esq. Dr Williams, J. Wollaston, Esq.

Messrs Ranford, Moreland, and Hammerly,

A house was taken, for the purpose of the institution, and pupils were admitted to board in the house.

The success of this institution, at first, by no means answered the expectations of the founders. It appears that M. St Bel was prevented, by the embarrassed state of his circumstances, from executing the office of professor, with that ardour and activity, which was necessary to the reputation of the infant school; and indeed it seems, from the specimen he has left us of his professional abilities, that these were not adequate to the office he had undertaken. He possessed considerable industry, and it is probable that, had he lived, he would have succeeded better than his outset had promised. But, in the year 1793, he was attacked with an illness, which proved fatal in about a fortnight.

M. St Bel left behind him several works, viz. An Essay on the Geometrical Proportions of Eclipse. Lectures on the Elements of Farriery. The Art of Horsehoeing, with Observations on the Difficulties of the Feet. And a volume of posthumous works.

We do not pretend to give our own opinion as to the merits of these works, as we have not seen them. But it is said that the Essay is merely an application of the proportions long ago laid down by Bourgelat in his Elements d'Hippiatrique, to a particular case; and that many of his measurements are incorrect. Mr Blaine roundly taxes him with translating Laffolé to furnish matter for his Elements, and refers for proof of this to the description and treatment of quitor in St Bel's Elements, and Laffolé's Dictionnaire d'Hippiatrique.

Mr Blaine brings many other instances of M. St Bel's want of information and science, for which we must refer our readers to Mr Blaine's Outlines of the Veterinary Art.

On the death of M. St Bel, there appears to have been a competition for the vacant chair, between two gentlemen, who were both well qualified to fill it, Mr Edward Coleman and Mr Morecroft. Both of these gentlemen had been bred to surgery, and the former had acquired much reputation by an ingenious Essay on Suspended Respiration. The latter was lately returned from France, where he had been studying the veterinary art. We are not acquainted with the particulars. culars of this competition; but the choice of the subscribers fixed on Mr Coleman, under whose management the college has acquired considerable reputation.

The election of Mr Coleman was followed by some new regulations. An anatomical theatre was fitted up, with dissecting rooms for the use of the students. A medical committee was also appointed for the purpose of examining the pupils, who had completed their education at the college, previously to their receiving a diploma as veterinary surgeons. This committee, in committee, 1801, was composed of the following gentlemen:

Dr Fordyce, senior physician to St Thomas's hospital. Dr Ralph, physician to Guy's hospital. Dr Babington, Do. Dr Bailie, physician to St George's hospital. Mr Cline, surgeon to St Thomas hospital. Mr Home, surgeon to St George's hospital. Mr Ashley Cooper, surgeon to Guy's hospital. Mr Abernethy, surgeon to Bartholomew's hospital. Mr Wilson, lecturer on anatomy and surgery; and Mr Coleman, professor of the college.

The following are the regulations of this useful institution as published in the year 1801.

The subscribers of the veterinary college pay two guineas per annum, or twenty guineas for life. For this subscription each subscriber is entitled to send, when sick or lame, any number of horses to the veterinary stables, where no charges are made for medicines, attendance, or operations. The subscriber pays only for the keep and shoeing of his horse, which is generally less than the actual expense incurred by the college. A committee of subscribers is appointed to examine the quality of the forage, and to regulate the price of the keep of horses. For some years past, the subscribers paid only 2s. 6d. per night; but in consequence of the great advance in hay, corn, and straw, and the college, by this moderate charge, having sustained a considerable loss, the keep of horses is now fixed at 3s. per night. A separate committee inspects the accounts of the college, and three times in the year reports to the general meeting the state of the finances of the college. No horses but those the property of subscribers are admitted into the veterinary stables; but the professor is allowed private practice, and horses not belonging to subscribers may be sent to the college for the professor's opinion.

The horses not intended to be left in the stables of the college may be sent for the professor's advice on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, from twelve to two o'clock. Where medicines are requisite, they are prepared for subscribers' horses at very reduced prices; and the college receives all emoluments which may arise from the sale of horse medicines.

The expenses incurred by subscribers, for shoeing, for the keep of horses, or for medicines, must be paid for before the animal be taken from the college. And as some losses have been sustained from the strict letter of this regulation not having been always attended to, the clerk has now received positive orders from the committee, not to allow any horse, before all the expenses are paid, to be taken from the college. The horses are placed under the direction of the professor, who resides on the spot, and the medicines he prescribes are compound by a proper person employed for that purpose.

As the great object of the veterinary establishment is to form a national school for the improvement of farriery, pupils paying twenty guineas are admitted into the college to learn the veterinary art.

Lectures are given by the professor on the formation, economy, and diseases of horses, and other domestic animals; and most of the eminent medical teachers in London, with a liberality peculiar to themselves, have allowed the veterinary pupils to hear their lectures without any fee or reward. The veterinary students attend lectures on human anatomy and physiology, on the principles and practice of surgery, on the materia medica, and chemistry, and practice of physic.

The period requisite for obtaining a competent knowledge of the veterinary art, is regulated by the talents, previous information, and industry of the individual pupil. The students continue to attend the college until they are examined and approved by the medical committee. Those pupils who are duly qualified receive a diploma; but those who are found on examination to be deficient, are rejected. There are four general examinations in the year. When examined and approved, if no objections are made to their conduct, during their study at the veterinary college, they may be recommended to any regiment of cavalry, not already provided with a veterinary surgeon.

No fees of any kind are allowed by the college to any of the servants of subscribers; neither are the servants of the college permitted to receive any perquisites from the subscribers.

A veterinary college has also been established near Birmingham, and it is said that others are in contemplation in other parts of the empire.

The advantages that have already accrued from this establishment, to veterinary medicine in general, and to our national cavalry in particular, are very considerable. Almost every regiment of cavalry has been supplied from the college, with a veterinary surgeon; and many of these gentlemen have published works which, for the most part, do much credit to themselves and their academy.

In 1798, Mr Coleman published the first volume, and in 1802, the second, of Observations on the Structure, Oeconomy, and Diseases of the Foot of the Horse. This is a most useful and valuable work, but it is too splendid and costly, especially the second volume, for general circulation. The first volume contains a very full account of the method of shoeing practised at the veterinary college, of which we shall give an abstract hereafter.

About this period, appeared also a pamphlet by Mr Coleman, On the Formation and Uses of the natural Frog of the Horse, with the description of an artificial Frog.

In 1801, appeared the first number of the Veterinary Transactions, published by order of the subscribers. This pamphlet commences with a long introduction, stating the object of the institution, the progress which it had made, and the causes that tended to prevent its complete success. These originate partly in the party opposition of the common farriers, who deem it their interest to do all in their power to circumvent the views of the subscribers: but they have fill more been derived from the underhand malice of grooms and servants, with whose interest the institution, from the liberal manner in which which it is conducted, must certainly be full. The body of the pamphlet is occupied with a very neat view of the consequences and treatment of wounds of joints, and other circumcised cavities, and it is concluded by an account of the regulations of the college (see No. 77.) the list of the medical committee, a list of the examined and approved veterinary surgeons that had at that time passed at the college, and lists of the then managers and subscribers to the institution.

The first pupil of the college, as we believe, who distinguished himself as an author, was Mr Bracey Clarke; who, in the third volume of the Linnean Transactions, published a very ingenious paper on the boots in horses and cattle, of which we shall speak hereafter.

About the same time appeared a small volume on Veterinary Pathology, by Mr Riding, veterinary surgeon to the 18th regiment of dragoons.

In 1822, Mr John Denny, of the 10th dragoons, published a small volume on the Diseases of Horses. In this work Mr Denny has in general given the principles and practice of the veterinary college, and has illustrated and confirmed these by his own attentive observations and long experience.

In the same year appeared a very neat Compendium of the Veterinary Art, by Mr James White of the 1st Dragoons. This is only a pocket volume, and of course is very concise; but the author has given a very comprehensive view of the nature and treatment of diseases, and of the late improvement in the art of shoeing introduced into the veterinary college; and the work will be found an useful companion to the young practitioner. This volume also contains the substance of a former work, by the same author, on the Anatomy and Physiology of the Horse's Foot. In the year 1824, Mr White published the Veterinary Materia Medica, containing a brief description of the various substances employed in farriery, with an account of their particular effects on the body of the horse. He occasionally introduces some pertinent remarks on the diseases of the horse; and in the latter part of the volume, comprising the veterinary pharmacopeia, he has given a number of the best and most scientific recipes that he had seen. This work may be considered as the second volume of Mr White's compendium; and the author considered the two volumes, as forming a complete system of the veterinary medicine. Though we are disposed to think very favourably of these volumes, as a practical compendium, we cannot help thinking that Mr White might have contented himself with that modest title without assuming the more pompous one of a system. We must also remark, that the materia medica, which is not large, is unnecessarily swelled by the admission of many articles that seem to have been introduced merely to tell us, that they are never used in the veterinary practice.

Mr White is also the author of an Address to the Royal First Devon Yeoman Cavalry respecting the management of their horses, when employed on actual service.

In the year 1802, or we believe a little earlier, a work of considerable elegance was published by Mr Richard Lawrence, veterinary surgeon at Birmingham. As we have not seen this work, we must copy the following account of it from Mr Blaine. "It is much to be regretted that a gentleman who possesses so much ingenuity, should pass over subjects of such importance in such a light cursory manner. The description and treatment of some diseases occupy fewer lines than to treat the subject in such manner as to prove useful; they would require pages. The plates are elegant, and extremely well designed, particularly those that regard the proportions and paces of the horse; those that regard the internal structure and diseases are not so happy. The diction is very superior. As a cabinet work, it is most certainly elegant and interesting; but as a useful assistant to the art itself, it does not rank too high."

In the same year was published the first part of a Boardman's dictionary of the veterinary art by Mr Thomas Boardman of the third regiment of Dragoons. This work was intended to be completed in fifteen parts. The author seems to have availed himself of the latest and best information on the several articles that compose his work; and he has introduced into it a variety of subjects on the principles of general medicine.

One of the latest publications by pupils of the veterinary college, is a new system of farriery by Mr John Feron, veterinary surgeon to the thirteenth regiment of Light Dragoons. This work is printed in quarto, and affords a good instance to what an extent a small quantity of matter may be carried by the modern typographical improvements of large type, broad margins, wide spaces, and frequent breaks. The work is indeed very elegant both in type, and in plates. It also contains some useful information on the external structure of the horse, with a view to point out and illustrate what appeared to the author to be the most perfect form of a blood horse, with the blemishes and defects which appeared most likely to impede his velocity. This appears to be the best part of the work, and is well illustrated by the plates. The latter half of the book is occupied with the consideration of diseases; and here we are led, from the author's title page, to expect an account not only of the diseases of horses, but of the principal epidemics to which cattle, sheep, &c., are subject. These epidemics are however discussed in the course of seventeen pages; but we are given to understand that the author intends in a future publication to give a full comparative description, with the proper mode of treatment of every disease that affects domestic animals. Mr Feron's observations are rendered of much less utility than they would otherwise have been, by the want of a proper index, or table of contents.

These are, we believe, the principal publications that have proceeded from the pupils of the veterinary college. A few other works on veterinary medicine still remain to be considered. In 1796, a very elegant work on horses was published by S. Freeman, Esq., whose character is given by Mr Blaine as an amateur in the manege, and a gentleman of fortune, learning and great ingenuity. This publication consisted in a description of the structure and economy of the foot, accompanied with a set of plates highly finished in Skelton's best style. The subjects were directed under the inspection of Mr Home, or an assistant; and except some slight errors in the ligaments of the navicular bone, appear very correct. This publication, for the elegance of its engravings, and the general spirit of the whole, will be long without a competitor. It recommends a very ingeniu- ous mode of shoeing, and the economy of the foot is likewise very ingenious.

About the same time Mr John Lawrence published a small volume on horses, chiefly composed of extracts from St. Bel, Ofner, Clarke, and Lord Pembroke; and in 1798, this gentleman brought forward his philosophical and practical treatise on horses, a work which is as remarkable for the good sense and humanity of the author, as for the whimsical eccentricity and angry irritability which he occasionally displays. The work embraces a great variety of subjects. It commences with an account of the principal former writers on farriery, in which high eulogies are paid to the memory of Gibson and Bracken, and a very violent attack is made on the ill-starred Mr Taplin. The latter part of the work contains Mr Lawrence's system of veterinary practice, which is chiefly taken from his favourite authors, as Mr Lawrence seems at that time not to have had much practical experience. The work also contains some remarks on the diseases of horned cattle, on the treatment of cows, and on calving.

Mr Lawrence has since, in 1805, published a separate treatise on cattle, in which the management of neat cattle, sheep, and swine, are handled in a matter-of-fact manner; and a much fuller account of diseases and their treatment is given than could be expected in his former treatise. We venture to recommend Mr Lawrence's works as amongst the most instructive and most entertaining that we have met with.

Some years ago there appeared a work on the description and treatment of the diseases of cattle, by a Mr Downing, a professor of cattle medicine; which, though very expensive, sold very fast, and was very generally esteemed amongst farmers and graziers. We have not seen this work; but from the account of it that is given by Mr Blaine in his outlines, it should seem that it abounds with important errors, and frequently inculcates a dangerous mode of practice. We cannot here enumerate the particular examples brought by Mr Blaine in proof of his assertions, but we shall notice the most important of them under their proper heads.

Perhaps no part of veterinary medicine has been so little cultivated in this country, as that which considers the diseases of cattle. There is scarcely a work on this subject in the English language that is worth perusal. We cannot give a better idea of the little value that must be placed on these works than by the following extract from Mr Lawrence's treatise on cattle:

"I have never yet seen any of these cattle doctoring books, which appeared to me to be written bona fide. Well-intentioned ignorance, if not entitled to respect, is at least venial; but the slightest examination of most of these printed guardians of the health of cattle, by a person qualified to judge, will evince, that they are premeditated impostures, goods merely varnished up for sale. They have either the names of living men attached to them, who, in the strongest probability, never either did, or could write a line of them, or they are published in the name of some one of the mighty dead, among cow-doctors, who most unfortunately died at last, after sixty years practice. One would expect to find something original and valuable, from this long-continued and extensive practice; but the disappointment is always complete. The chief of that which we meet with, consists of transcriptions from former writers, interlarded with learned, medical, and physical dissertations, perhaps found and good enough in their place, to which are loosely and clumsily tacked the most nonsensical and burlesque appendages by Mr Editor. The medicinal forms in these books, are frequently the strangest jumble that imagination can conceive. Articles of a directly opposite nature and intention, are blended in one mass, which must inevitably act upon the animal system with an effect similar to that of two men pulling at opposite ends of a cord. We find balsam of Peru and Glauber's salts married together, the intent of which, no doubt must be, as a Suffolk farrier once described to the late Mr Ruth, "a kind of heater, and a kind of cooler." Indeed the far greater number of the prescriptions wear rather the appearance of having been fabricated for the use of the book, than of having ever been used and approved in real practice. One truly laughable custom was introduced by the book published under the name of Topham's old one. It was to subjoin to every prescription of note, a fact character, conceived in the most high founding terms of panegyric, at the same time, with a choice of words, at once so droll, and so gravely professional, with so formal an arrangement, that he must be a man far surpassing me in gravity, grave as I naturally am, who can peruse them without bursting into laughter. It must not be denied, however, that these books contain a number of useful hints, relative to the management and dieting of cattle, whether or not such may have originated with the doctor, or have been introduced by the editor. They may also, to a certain degree, be confounded as to the symptoms of diseases, although by no means to be implicitly relied on even in that respect. So far they have their use. With regard to doctoring, as it is termed, or prescribing medicines to cattle, they are most truly blind guides; and when, unfortunately, they are set to lead the blind, the fate of both parties may be very readily anticipated. I am speaking of books, which have been published within the last half century. As to the ancient veterinary writers, none of them, not even the celebrated Vegetius, were medical men, and their medical practice is utterly beneath modern notice. The same kind of books of our old English writers, consist of a strange medley of ancient practice with various sage additions of their own. A rational man cannot read over some of their prescriptions without amazement, nor a humane one without extreme pity for the harried victim of such monstrous practice. By the way, they who, for interested purposes, fabricate pretended cattle medicines, of the effects of which they are careless or ignorant, commit an act of gross inhumanity and crime, in too probably adding to the load of sufferings of a helpless animal already tortured by disease. One of the greatest curiosities we meet with in the old books, is their grand universal specific. It seems as though they judged by a kind of compound arithmeticico-medical logic, that all medicines being conjoined and multiplied one into the other, the product must necessarily be the prevention or cure of all diseases."

Mr Lawrence has excepted from the above general condemnation, a work lately published by Mr Culley, of Northumberland; which, he says, ought to be in the hands of every farmer in Great Britain. He considers it as the only original work in our language, and, as containing in a small compass, a most valuable fund of information. In the year 1800, Mr Morecroft, the rival candidate with Mr Coleman for the professorship of the veterinary college, published a small pamphlet containing a cursory account of the various methods of shoeing horses, with incidental observations. This work displays considerable ingenuity. We shall notice Mr Morecroft's method of shoeing by and by.

In 1802, appeared Mr Blaine's Outlines of the Veterinary Art, or the Principles of Medicine as applied to a knowledge of the structure, functions, and economy of the horse, the ox, the sheep, and the dog; and in a more scientific and successful manner of treating their various diseases; in two volumes. Mr Blaine is well known as a practitioner of veterinary medicine, and as the advertiser of a specific against the distemper in dogs. In his Outlines, Mr Blaine, after giving a sketch of the history of medicine in general, enters on the history of veterinary medicine in particular, which he details at considerable length; not however, without several errors, some of which we have already pointed out. He next proceeds to lay down very briefly what he conceives to be the proper means for the attainment of the veterinary art. Then follows a long section on a subject which we should scarcely expect to find in a work of this kind, the history of chemistry. The first part concludes with a sketch of comparative anatomy, in which the structure and economy of the ox, sheep, and dog are passed over much too lightly. The second part, which occupies the rest of the first volume, and one-half of the second, is taken up with a very minute account of the anatomy of the horse, with some observations on the economy and uses of the several parts. We consider this as the best part of Mr Blaine's book; but we think that he has made it unnecessarily prolix, as by carrying it to such an extent, he has not left room for a satisfactory account of diseases, which occupy the rest of the second volume. Here we cannot but consider the author as very defective. Neither the symptoms nor the treatment are given with that accuracy or precision, which the public had a right to expect from a practitioner of Mr Blaine's long experience. Many of the diseases of cattle, sheep, and especially of dogs, are passed over in a manner that is by no means satisfactory. The work is written in a very slovenly manner, and is everywhere filled with an ostentatious parade of medical phraseology that must render it nearly unintelligible to the generality of readers. In his receipts, Mr Blaine has for the most part adopted the new nomenclature, which, however we may approve in medical formulae, we cannot think calculated for the meridian of farriers. We, however, by no means intend to insinuate that Mr Blaine's work is without merit; it certainly contains much valuable matter; but we must repeat that it is not what we should have expected from the advantages of information and experience which Mr Blaine appears to have possessed.

In the following year, Mr Blaine published a smaller work, which he calls a Domestic Treatise on the diseases of horses and dogs, which appears to be chiefly an abridgement of the Outlines, with a sort of advertisement for the sale of Mr Blaine's patent medicine.

In 1802 appeared a General View of the Agriculture of the county of Peebles, by the Rev. Charles Findlater, minister of the parish of Newlands, in that county. This work, though intended merely as a local survey of the state of agriculture and improvements in a small district, abounds with much excellent matter that must prove of general utility. Besides the observations which the ingenious author has made, on the general management of live stock, in the body of his work, he has added in one of his appendices some valuable information respecting some of the most important diseases of sheep, which are partly furnished from the communications of Dr Gillespie, late physician in Edinburgh, and Dr Coventry professor of agriculture in that university, and partly derived from his own experience.

In 1803 was published an elegant work on practical Dicksonian agriculture by Dr R. W. Dickson; the second volume of which contains much useful instruction respecting the choice, breeding, feeding, &c., of all the species of live stock employed on a farm; with a few very concise remarks on the diseases of each species. But as these are merely practical hints, they cannot be of much use, except to those who are already tolerably acquainted with the subject.

In the same year, the Rev. William Daniel performed a task, which, however ill suited to the character and avocation of a clergyman, must be highly grateful to every lover of the sports of the field, in the publication of his Rural Sports, which contains perhaps the most complete account of everything relating to dogs that is to be found in the English language. Among other subjects connected with the management of this favourite companion of man, the reverend author takes occasion to treat pretty fully of his diseases. On this subject, Mr Daniel has not only collected matter from what he conceives to be the best sources, but, what is more useful, as well as more to be depended on, he has added much from his own observation and experience.

One of the latest works on the diseases of domestic animals, which we have seen, is An Enquiry into the Rot in Sheep, and other animals, by Dr Edward Harrison, a respectable physician of Horn-castle, in Lincolnshire. Of this pamphlet we shall speak at large, when we come to treat of the disease, whose nature and causes it is intended to illustrate.

PART II. ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE HORSE.

In the sketch which we are to give of the anatomy of the horse, we must very lightly pass over such parts as appear not to be of immediate importance in the practice of farriery, in order to dwell more minutely on those organs that are of greater consequence. Thus we shall content ourselves with giving a tabular view of the bones and muscles; we shall entirely omit the brain and nerves; but we shall describe some of the other viscera, as the stomach, and the bowels, somewhat more minutely. We shall be most particular on the anatomy of the extremities, especially of the feet, as on an accurate knowledge of these parts depend the principles of shoeing; FAR R I E R Y.

1. BONES OF THE HEAD. A.

a, c, Half of the frontal bone, which in the horse is always composed of two pieces. e, f, One of the two parietal bones. g, h, i, k, The occipital bone, with a process at k, that is peculiar to the horse. l, m, The temple, or temporal bone, of one side; n, the cheek-bone of one side. o, One of the small bones within the socket of the eye, that answers to the os angularis in man. p, p, Bones of the nose. q, r, s, The upper jaw-bone. t, The intermaxillary bone, or what is usually called by veterinary writers the inferior jaw-bone. This is not found in the human skeleton. u, v, The posterior maxillary bone, which answers to the lower jaw-bone in man.

BONES OF THE SPINE. B.

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, The seven vertebrae of the neck. a, The atlas; b, the second vertebra, called in human anatomy, dentata; d, e, f, its transverse processes; e, its oblique processes; f, its ridge, answering for a spinous process; g, h, i, k, l, m, n, third cervical vertebra; g, its body; above the letter is the hole for the transmission of the vertebral arteries and veins; i, k, anterior and posterior transverse processes; l, a protuberance in the fore part of the body. 8—25, The eighteen vertebrae of the back; a, the body of each; b, the transverse processes that articulate with the ribs; c, the oblique processes; d, the spinous processes. 26 to 30, The five vertebrae of the loins, which have very long transverse processes, though they are not very easily distinguished in the figure, from its having a side view. x, x, The sacrum bone, composed of five pieces, as in man. From 31 to 43, the 13 bones composing the tail, answering to the os coccygis in man.

BONES OF THE TRUNK. C.

a, b, i, j, The true ribs; 10 to 18 the false ribs; a, the head articulating with the transverse process of the first dorsal vertebra; under is seen the lower branch of the head that unites with the seventh cervical and first dorsal vertebra; c, the end that unites with the sternum or breast-bone; a, b, c, d, e, f, g, the two hip-bones, answering to the os innominata in the human anatomy; a, b, c, the ilium, with its tuberosity a, forming the haunch or hip; e, f, the ischium; g, g, the pubis with its juncture or lymphsish between the two letters.

BONES OF THE FORE EXTREMITY. D. D.

e, f, g, h, i, l, m, The scapula or blade-bone; e, its neck, below which is seen its glenoid cavity; f, anterospinus fossa; h, its spine, which in the human ends in the processus acromion, but as there is no clavicle in the horse, it ends by a tuberosity; i, coracoid process; between m and i, the anterior colta; l, between this and e, posterior colta; between m and l, is its base, and the line above it marks the extent and situation of the cartilage of the scapula; n, o, p, q, humerus or arm; n, its neck, above which is seen its head; o, its anterior head, forming the point of the shoulder, as it is commonly called. called in the horse's p, its tuberosity; q, its lower head, behind is seen the cavity for the reception of the olecranon; r, r, ulna; the upper part forms the olecranon or elbow, the lower part is united by ligamentous fibres to the radius; s, s, the radius; t, t, pisiform; u, u, trapezoid; v, v, metacarpus; w, w, phalanges; x, x, coronet-bone, or little pastern; y, y, coffin; z, navicular or nut-bone.

**Bones of the Hind Extremity. E. E.**

h, i, k, l, m, Thigh-bone; h, the neck, above which is the head received into the socket of the pelvis; i, great trochanter; k, the outer trochanter; l, l, the inner trochanter; m, m, the anterior condyles; n, n, the posterior; p, p, femoral cartilage; q, q, knee-pan or patella; g, tibia or leg-bone, commonly called the thigh; r, fibula; the tibia is seen terminating in its maleoli, to articulate with the tarsus; 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, tarus or hock; 1, 2, 1, 2, calcis, forming the point of hock, in man the heel; 3, 4, alfragalus; 5, 5, great cuneiform bone; 6, cuboid bone; 7, middle cuneiform bone; 8, small cuneiform bone; s, s, t, t, metatarsus; s, s, canon or flank; t, t, two small metatarsals; u, pattern; v, sesamoids; w, coronet-bone or lesser pastern; x, x, coffin-bone; y, navicular or nut-bone.

**Of the Teeth.**

A male horse has 40 teeth, when he has completed his full number. The mare has usually but 36. They are divided into three kinds; the cutting teeth or nippers; the cuspids or tusks, and the molars or grinders. A knowledge of the horse's teeth and of the changes which they undergo, from their first appearance, is of the greatest consequence, as from it we derive the surest marks of the age of the horse; at least, till he is eight or nine years old.

Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, shew the appearance of the teeth from their first cutting to the age of eight years.

Fig. 2, shews the appearance of the colt's teeth at the age of three weeks; fig. 3, that of the colt's teeth at three months. Fig. 4, shews the state of the teeth from three months to about four or five years, where a, a, are the pincers or nippers; b, b, what are called the separators; c, c, the corners, or the last of the front teeth at that age; d, d, the tusks. Fig. 5, shews the appearance of the teeth at the age of five years, and figs. 6, 7, and 8, their appearance at the respective ages of six, seven, and eight years.

The age of a horse is easily known by his mouth, till he comes eight, after which the usual marks wear out.

A horse, like many other brute animals, has his teeth divided into three ranks; viz. his fore-teeth, which are flat and smooth, his tusks, and his back-teeth. His back-teeth or jaw-teeth are called his grinders, being those by which a horse chews and grinds his provender, and are 24 in number, 12 above and 12 below: they are strong double teeth, with sharp edges; but when a horse grows old they wear much smoother.

The first that grow are his foal-teeth, which begin to appear a few months after he is foaled: they are 12 in number, six above and six below; and are easily distinguished from the teeth that come afterwards by their smallness and whiteness, not unlike the fore-teeth of a man.

When the colt is about two years and a half old he casts the four middlemost of his foal-teeth, viz. two above and two below: but some do not cast any of their foal-teeth till they are near three years old. The new teeth are easily distinguished from the foal-teeth, being much stronger, and always twice their size, and are called the incisors or gatherers, being those by which a horse nips off the grass when he is feeding abroad in the fields, or in the house gathers his hay from the rack. When a horse has got these four teeth complete, he is reckoned three years old.

When he is about three and a half, or in the spring before he is four years old, he casts out four more of his foal-teeth, viz. two above and two below, one on each side the nippers or middle teeth: so that when you look into a horse's mouth, and see the two middle teeth full grown, and none of the foal-teeth except the common teeth remaining, you may conclude he is four that year about April or May. Some indeed are later colts, but that makes little alteration in the mouth.

The tusks appear near the same time with the four last mentioned teeth, sometimes sooner than those, and sometimes not till after a horse is full four years old: they are curved like the tusks of other beasts; only in a young horse, they have a sharp edge all round the top and on both sides, the inside being somewhat grooved and flattened, inclined to a hollowness.

When a horse's tusks do not appear for some time after the foal-teeth are cast and the new ones come in their room, it is generally owing to the foal-teeth having been pulled out before their time by the breeders or other dealers in horses, to make a colt of three years old appear like one of four, that he may be the more saleable; for when any of the foal-teeth have been pulled out, the others soon come in their places; but the tusks having none that go before them, can never make their appearance till their proper time, viz. when a horse is about four or coming four; and, therefore, one of the surest marks to know a four years old horse is by his tusks, which are then very small and sharp on the top and edges.

When a horse comes five, or rather in the spring before he is five, the corner teeth begin to appear, and at first but just equal with the gums, being filled with flesh in the middle. The tusks are also by this time grown to a more distinct size, though not very large; they likewise continue rough and sharp on the top and edges. But the corner teeth are now most to be remarked; they differ from the middle teeth in being more fleshy on the inside, and the gums generally look rawish upon their first shooting out; whereas the others do not appear in this way. The middle teeth arrive at their full growth in less than three weeks; but the corner teeth grow leisurely, and are seldom much above the gums till a horse is full five: they differ also from the other fore-teeth, in this, that they somewhat resemble a shell; and thence are called the shell-teeth, because they environ the flesh in the middle half-way round; and as they grow, the flesh within disappears, leaving a distinct hollowness and openness on the inside. When a horse is full five, these teeth are generally about the thickness of a crown-piece about the gums. From five to five... and a half they will grow about a quarter of an inch high, or more; and when a horse is full six, they will be near half an inch, and in some large horses a full half-inch, about the gums.

The corner teeth in the upper jaw fall out before those in the under, so that the upper corner teeth are seen before those below; on the contrary, the tusks in the under gums come on before those in the upper.

When a horse is full six years old, the hollowness on the inside begins visibly to fill up, and that which was at first flehy, grows into a brownish spot, not unlike the eye of a dried garden bean, and continues so till he is seven; with this difference only, that the tooth is more filled up, and the mark or spot becomes faint, and of a lighter colour. At eight, the mark in most horses is quite worn out, though some retain the vestiges of it a long time; and those who have not had a good deal of experience, may sometimes be deceived by taking a horse of nine or ten years old for one of eight. It is at this time only, when a horse is past mark, that one can easily err in knowing the age of a horse; for what practices are used to make a very young horse or colt appear older than he is, by pulling out the foal-teeth before their time, may be discovered by feeling along the edges where the tusks grow, for they may be felt in the gums before the corner teeth are put forth; whereas, if the corner teeth come in some months before the tusks rise in the gums, we may reasonably suspect that the foal-teeth have been pulled out at three years old.

It will, perhaps, be needless to mention the tricks that are used to make a false mark in a horse's mouth, by hollowing the tooth with a graver, and burning a mark with a small hot iron; because those who are acquainted with the true marks, will easily discover the cheat by the size and colour of the teeth, by the roundness and bluntness of the tusks, by the colour of the false marks, which is generally blacker, and more impressed than the true mark, and by many other visible tokens, which denote the advanced age of a horse.

After the horse has passed his eighth year, and sometimes at seven, nothing certain can be known by the mouth. It must, however, be remembered, that some horses have but indifferent mouths when they are young, and soon lose their marks; others have their mouths good for a long time, their teeth being white, even, and regular, till they are 16 years old and upwards, together with many other marks of freshness and vigour; but when a horse comes to be very old, it may be discovered by several indications, the constant attendants of age, viz. his gums wear away insensibly, leaving his teeth long and naked at their roots. The bars of the mouth, which, in a young horse are always flehy, and form so many distinct ridges, are, in an old horse, lean, dry, and smooth, with little or no rising. The eye-pits in a young horse (except those come of old stallions) are generally filled up with flesh, look plump and smooth; whereas in an old horse, they are sunk and hollow, and make them look ghastly, and with a melancholy aspect. There are also other marks which discover a horse to be very old, viz. gray horses turn very white, and many of them all over flea-bitten, except their joints. This, however, happens sometimes later and sometimes sooner, according to the variety of colour and constitution.

Black horses are apt to grow gray over their eye-brows, and very often over a good part of their face, especially those who have a star or blane fringed round with gray when they are young. All horses, when very old, sink more or less in their backs; and some horses, that are naturally long-backed, grow so hollow with age, that it is scarce possible to fit them with a saddle. Of this kind are several Spanish and Barbary horses, and many Danish and Flanders breed. The joints also grow stiff with old age, and their knees and hocks bend so, that they are apt to trip and stumble upon the least descent, though the way be smooth and nowadays rugged. After which they can be of little use to the owner.

**Chap. II. Principal Muscles of the Horse.**

We shall here only enumerate the muscles of the head, neck, and trunk, as being of less importance than those of the extremities. Of these latter we shall give a table, expressing, besides their usual names, their origin, insertion, and uses.

**Muscles of the Eyelids and Eye.**

Orbicular of the eyelids. Elevator of the upper eyelid, a, b, fig. 1c. Elevator of the eye. Depressor of the eye. Adductor of the eye. Abductor of the eye. Trochlear muscle of the eye: Obliquus major. Lesser oblique. Retractor of the eye.

**Muscles of the Mouth and Jaws.**

Orbicular, g, i, fig. 9, o, fig. 10. Buccinator, r, fig. 9, s, fig. 10. Elevator of the corner of the mouth, m, n, fig. 10. Long nasal of the upper lip, l, m, n, o, fig. 9. Malarter, p, q, fig. 9. Ciliaries, u, w, fig. 9. Temporal, 2, 3, fig. 9. Canine, 6, 7, fig. 9, m, n, fig. 10. Depressor of the lower lip, 9, 10, fig. 9, p, q, r, fig. 10. Elevator of the chin, 12, fig. 9. Dilatators of the nostrils, a b c d, g f, fig. 9.

**Muscles of the Neck.**

Sterno-mastoidei; a, b, c, fig. 9. Coraco-hyoideus, f, f, fig. 9, and a, b, c, d, e, fig. 10. Sterno-hyoideus; g, fig. 9, f, g, fig. 10. Sterno-thyroideus; b, i, k, fig. 10. Transversals; h, i, fig. 9, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, fig. 10. Trachelo-mastoidei; M, O, P, Q, S, fig. 10. Rectus internus major capitis; m, n, fig. 9, and w, x, y, fig. 10. Intertransversales minores colli; o, fig. 9. **Part II.**

**FARRIERY.**

Long muscle of the neck; \( p, q \), fig. 9. X, Y, fig. 10.

Spleniens; \( r, s, t \), fig. 9.

Hyothyroideus; \( y \), fig. 9.

Cricothyroideus; \( x \), fig. 9.

Lower constrictor of the pharynx.

Rectus capitis posticus major; \( i, u \), fig. 11.

Minor; \( x, w \), fig. 11.

Superior oblique of the head; \( u, U \), fig. 10.

Inferior ditto; \( W, W \), fig. 10.

Intertransversales posteriores colli; L, &c. M, &c., fig. 11.

Intervertebral muscles.

Multifidae spinæ; \( c, d \), fig. 12.

Spinales cervicis; \( R, T, U \), fig. 11.

**Muscles of the Trunk.**

External oblique; \( I, K, L, M \), fig. 9.

Obliquus internus; \( s, t, u, w, x, y \), fig. 10.

Rectus abdominis; \( x \), fig. 10.

Transversalis abdominis; \( p, q, r \), fig. 11.

External intercostals; \( 1, 2, \&c. \), fig. 11.

Internal, ditto; \( 3, 4, \&c. \), fig. 11.

Semifascialis and spinalis dorfi; \( a, b, c, d, e, f \), fig. 11.

Longissimus dorfi; \( g, h, i, k \), fig. 11.

Sacrolumbal; \( l, m, n, \&c. \), fig. 11.

Elevators of the ribs; \( a, b \), fig. 12.

Lateral of the tail; \( e, f \), fig. 12.

Intertransversals of the tail; \( g, \&c. \), fig. 12.

Elevator of the tail; \( i \), fig. 12.

Depressor of the tail; \( k \), fig. 12.

---

**Table of the Muscles of the Extremities.**

1. **Muscles of the Fore-leg and Foot.**

| Name | Origin and Insertion | Use | |-----------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------| | Trapezius | From the 4th, 5th, and 6th cervical vertebrae; from the first or 13 dorsal vertebrae; and from the cervical ligament, into the spine of the blade-bone. | To raise and draw backwards the blade-bone. | | Larger rhomboid | From the ligament of the neck, at about the 2d vertebra, into the cartilage of the blade-bone. | To raise the blade-bone, and draw it a little forwards. | | Rhomboideus major | From the lateral part of the breast-bone, into the upper and fore part of the blade-bone. | To draw the blade-bone forward, when the neck is fixed, or vice versa. | | Triangulaire Vitet | From the 3d, 4th, 5th, and 6th dorsal vertebrae, below the cartilage of the blade-bone, into the whole length of that cartilage. | To draw the blade-bone downwards. | | Levator scapulae | From the 4th, and 5th vertebrae of the neck, into the upper and fore part of the blade-bone, above the pectoral. | To draw the blade-bone forwards. | | Levator pectoral | From the true ribs, and from the 6th and 7th cervical vertebrae, into the last cervical vertebra. | To connect the blade-bone with the chest, and to draw it downwards, and sometimes to assist other muscles. | | Anterior serratus | From the ante-spinatus fossa, by two tendons, into the two tubercles of the head of the shoulder-bone. | To extend the fore-leg and move it forwards. | | Ante-spinatus | From a fossa, so called, into the outer-side of the shoulder-bone. | To move the fore-leg outward, and away from its fellow. | | Post-spinatus | From the coracoid process of the blade-bone, into the whole of the capsular ligament. | To prevent the ligament from being pinched between the bones. | | Latissimus dorfi | From all the dorsal vertebrae connected with the muscles of the back, and with the fleshy pannicle, into the inner tuberosity of the shoulder-bone, below the blade-bone. | To draw the fore-leg backwards, and towards the chest. | | Common muscle | From the tuberosity of the temporal bone, and from the four first cervical vertebrae, into the upper and outward part of the arm. | To raise the arm, and when that is fixed, to draw the head and neck downwards. | | Subscapular | From the hollow of the blade-bone, into the inner side of the shoulder-bone. | To move the arm towards its fellow. |

---

**Larger...** FAR R I E R Y.

Origin and Insertion.

From the side of the breast-bone, and the cartilages of the six last true ribs, into the inner side of the shoulder-bone.

From the fore part of the breast-bone, into the inner and lower part of the shoulder-bone, and connected by expansion with the radius.

From the coracoid process of the blade-bone into the lower and back part of the shoulder-bone.

From the upper part of the posterior edge of the blade-bone, into the inside of the shoulder-bone.

From the posterior edge of the blade-bone into the outer tuberosity of the shoulder-bone.

Below the last muscle, between the last and the subscapula.

From the tuberosity of the blade-bone, above the glenoid cavity, into the inner tuberosity of the radius.

From the neck of the shoulder-bone into the inner tuberosity of the radius.

From the posterior edge of the blade-bone into the olecranon, or elbow.

From the whole length of the posterior edge of the blade-bone into the olecranon.

Below the inner side of the head of the shoulder-bone, into the inner and upper part of the olecranon.

From the neck, and some part of the shoulder-bone, into the olecranon.

From the outer condyle, and tuberosity of the shoulder-bone, into the anterior tuberosity of the cannon-bone.

From the side of the radius downwards from the middle, into the small inner metacarpal bone.

From the outer condyle of the shoulder-bone, at its back part, into the pisiform, and small outer metacarpal bones.

From the inner condyle of the shoulder-bone, into the back part of the cannon.

From the inner condyle of the shoulder-bone, at its back part, into the pisiform bone.

From the lower and outer head of the shoulder-bone, and upper part of the radius, into the anterior protuberance of the coffin-bone.

From the outer head of the radius, passing over the knee through an annular ligament, into the upper and back part of the bone down to the foot.

From the inner condyle of the shoulder-bone passing behind the knee, into the arch of the coffin-bone.

From the olecranon and the shoulder-bone at the back part, into the arch of the coffin-bone.

To draw the fore-leg downwards and backwards.

To draw the fore-legs together, and to assist the last in respiration, when the fore-leg is fixed.

To draw the arm forwards and outwards.

When the blade bone is fixed, to draw the fore-leg upwards and inwards, and vice versa.

To draw the shoulder-bone upwards and outwards.

To turn the arm.

To bend the arm.

To turn the fore-arm, and assist the former in bending it.

To bind down the muscles, and assist in extending the arm.

To extend the arm.

To oppose the oblique flexor.

To assist in extending the arm.

To extend the cannon.

To assist the former, and turn the foot outwards.

To bend the cannon.

To assist the former.

To bend the carpus, and extricate the ligament.

To extend the foot.

To assist the former.

To bend the foot.

To assist the former. 2. Muscles of the Hind Leg or Foot.

Name, &c.

Posterior gluteus. \(m, n, o, p\), fig. 9.

Tenor vaginae femoris.

Fascia lata.

\(a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h\), fig. 9.

Semimembranosus. \(17, 18, 19\), fig. 9.

Biceps flexor cruris. \(3, 4, 5\)

—\(11\), fig. 9.

Posterior flexor of the leg.

The large gluteus. \(q, Q, r, s\), \(t\), fig. 9.

Capular. \(a, b, c\), fig. 12.

Gracilis. \(e, f\), fig. 9. \(u, w\), fig. 11.

Sartorius.

Adductor longus.

\(p, q, r, s, t\), fig. 11. \(t, u\), fig. 12.

Large ploas.

Larger internal iliac. \(e\), fig. 10.

Lesser internal iliac.

Pectineus. \(s\), fig. 12.

Triceps adductor femoris.

Vastus externus. \(n, o, p, r, s, t\), fig. 10.

Straight muscle of the leg.

Rutus cruris.

\(g, h, i, k\), fig. 10.

Vastus internus. \(b, c\), fig. 10.

Crural. \(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6\), fig. 11.

External obturator.

Square muscle of the thigh.

Quadratus femoris.

Gemini. \(f, g\), fig. 10.

Origin and Insertion.

From the interior and posterior angles of the ilium, into the little trochanter of the thigh-bone.

From the anterior angle of the ilium, into a tendinous expansion over the thigh.

From the tuberosity and lower angle of the ilchium, into the fore part of the thigh-bone, and into the tibia.

From the tuberosity of the ilchium, and beginning of the tail, into the inner side of the spine of the tibia.

Like the former, into the inner condyle of the thigh-bone and upper end of the tibia.

From the vertebrae of the loins, and from the sacrum, into the great trochanter of the thigh-bone.

Rises from the brim of the acetabulum, into the outer side of the thigh-bone.

From the pubis and ilchium, into the fascia of the thigh and the inner side of the head of the tibia.

From the inner edge of the brim of the pelvis, into the inner head of the tibia.

From the three last dorsal, and four first lumbar vertebrae, and from the two last false ribs, into the inner trochanter of the thigh-bone.

From the inner surface of the ilium, into the lesser trochanter of the thigh-bone.

From the inner surface of the ilium, into the lesser trochanter of the thigh-bone.

From the symphyis pubis, inserted below the last.

From the inner edge of the pubis, from the anterior branch of the ilchium, and from its tuberosity, into the back of the thigh-bone, the upper and inner part of the tibia, and the tuberosity of the thigh-bone.

From the great trochanter, and the outer side of the thigh-bone, into the side of the knee-pan.

From the ilium above the socket, and from the upper part of the thigh-bone, into the upper part of the knee-pan.

From the neck, inner tuberosity, and whole inner part of the thigh-bone, into the inner side of the knee-pan.

From the fore part of the thigh-bone, into the inner side of the knee-pan.

From the inner part of the ilchium, into the hollow of the great trochanter.

From the lower part of the tuberosity of the ilchium, into the thigh-bone below the great trochanter.

From the ilchium and pubis, one above the other, inserted into the thigh with the last.

Use.

To extend the thigh, and draw it outwards.

To stretch the fascia of the thigh, and draw it inwards.

To draw the thigh outwards.

To bend the leg, and draw it inwards.

To bend the leg.

To extend the thigh, and draw it backwards and outwards.

To extricate the capular ligament.

To make one thigh approach its fellow.

To assist the former.

To bend the thigh.

To assist the former.

To assist the former.

To bend the thigh.

To draw one thigh towards its fellow.

To extend the leg.

To extend the leg strongly.

To assist the vastus externus, and last muscle.

Ditto.

To roll the thigh-bone.

Assists the former.

Oppose the last.

Name, &c.

Inner obturator. I, 2, 3, fig. 12. Pyriform. Popliteus. 28, 29, fig. 11. Tibialis anticus. 14. Gastrocnemius. Plantar. 40, fig. 9. Perforated flexor of the foot. Larger perforating flexor of the foot. Lesser perforating flexor of the foot. The long extensor of the foot. Lateral extensor of the foot. Lesser extensor.

Origin and Insertion.

From the edge of the thyroid hole, into the thigh with the preceding: From the facrum within the pelvis, inserted as the last. From the external condyle of the thigh-bone, into the tibia. From the fore part of the external condyle of the thigh-bone, into both canons by two portions. From each condyle of the thigh-bone, into the hock. From the upper part of the spine of the tibia, inserted as the former. From the hollow between the condyles of the thigh-bone, into each side of the pattern-bone. From the back and outer part of the head of the tibia, into the arch of the coffin-bone. From the back part of the head of the tibia, inserted with the preceding. From the tendon of the extensor of the cannon, in the anterior protuberance of the coffin-bone. From the outer head of the thigh-bone, and from the head of the fibula, inserted with the last. From the tendon of the long extensor to the lateral extensor.

To assist the gemini. Ditto. To draw the leg inwards. To bend the leg strongly. To extend the canon. To bend the pattern and foot. To bend the foot. To assist the former. To extend the foot. Ditto. To draw the tendons of the long and lateral extensors together.

In the Hind Extremity.

Vena saphena; 21, fig. 9. Capular ligament of the knee; 3, 4; fig. 10. Sciatic artery; 34, fig. 11. Gluteal artery; 35, 36, fig. 11. Crural vein; 38, fig. 11. Popliteal artery; 39, 52, fig. 11. ——— vein; 53, fig. 11. Crural nerve; 35, fig. 12.

In the Neck.

Common jugular vein; 1, fig. 9. External anterior jugular; 2, fig. 9. Posterior external jugular; 3, fig. 9. Part of the carotid artery; 4, fig. 9. Branches of the cervical arteries and veins; 1, 2, fig. 10. Thyroid gland; a, fig. 11. Gullet; i, fig. 11. Windpipe; k, fig. 11. Cervical nerves; 2, fig. 11. Ligament of the neck; 5, fig. 11.; 7, 8, fig. 12. External carotid artery; 1, fig. 12.

In the Trunk.

Epigastric artery; w, fig. 11. External iliac; y, fig. 11. The diaphragm; m, m, fig. 12. Intercostal artery; p, fig. 12.

In the Fore Extremity.

Internal plantar vein; r, fig. 9. Coronary ligament of the foot; 13, fig. 9. Cartilages of the coffin-bone; r, l, ii.

In the Hind Extremity.

Vena saphena; 21, fig. 9. Capular ligament of the knee; 3, 4; fig. 10. Sciatic artery; 34, fig. 11. Gluteal artery; 35, 36, fig. 11. Crural vein; 38, fig. 11. Popliteal artery; 39, 52, fig. 11. ——— vein; 53, fig. 11. Crural nerve; 35, fig. 12.

CHAP. III. Of the Stomach and Bowels.

In the horse there is but one stomach, which is very Structure small in proportion to his general bulk; and is partly of the membranous, partly cuticular, and partly muscular, stomach. It is situated immediately behind the diaphragm, in the left hypochondrium, and in part of the epigastrium, with its excellent orifice extending across the spine to the right, which is the reason that lying on that side is judged more wholesome than sleeping on the left. It has two surfaces, which may be called its sides, though one is posterior, and the other anterior; and two extremities, a large and a small; the superior surface of which receives the gullet, and is called its cardiac orifice; while the former ends in the duodenum, and is termed the pyloric orifice; this extremity, when the stomach is distended, is the most posterior of the two. The hollow part situated superiorly, only forms its lesser curvature, as the lower portion forms its great curvature.

Thus when the stomach is moderately distended, it lies in an obliquely transverse direction, with its great extremity a little forwards, and its two orifices superi- Anatomy or, but the cardiac the most so, with the lesser extremity rather posterior to the other, and the great curvature inferior. It is evident that the situation of the stomach must vary much with its distension: the foregoing description answers to it when moderately distended only; but where it is very much filled, the left extremity will press upon the diaphragm, and the right will be carried more posteriorly. In oxen and sheep, where the first stomach is large, it is found, when distended, to have its left extremity carried quite into the left iliac region; in which part it is usually punctured, when they are hoved: but such an idea of the stomach of the horse would prove very erroneous; for this animal has a very small one, and therefore its situation can never be such.

From a distended stomach pressing upon the diaphragm, we are at no loss to understand, why breathing is impeded after a full meal, when a horse appears to labour for breath; for he is forced to use the intercostal muscles, and the muscles of the shoulder and fore extremities, to open the chest, the posterior enlargement being prevented from the diaphragm being fixed by the pressure of the stomach; hence we see the great impropriety of galloping horses after watering, to warm it in their bellies, as it is foolishly termed. Horses, when grazing, if they drink, are never observed to do this; if it was necessary, nature would dictate to them. How hurtful it is likewise to ride hard, after a horse has been full fed, is equally evinced. The stomach has externally a covering from the peritoneum, which adheres closely to it, by means of its cellular portion; and which portion is dipping in between the muscular fibres. Its middle portion is made up of muscular fibres, which are more numerous in this animal, than in the ruminant; making this kind of stomach a medium between the membranous one of some animals, and the true muscular stomach of others. The direction of these fibres is various; but they may principally be referred to a longitudinal and a transverse order, though neither of them are regularly so, and are intermixed with others, whose direction is very oblique, and interlaced with each other. The longitudinal plane is the most external of the two, and appears a continuation of the external plane of the oesophagus, with some original fibres, which spread over the lesser curvature, being carried obliquely round, and likewise over the great extremity, forming themselves into a kind of vertex, whose centre is in the middle of that extremity. The inner plane is by much the larger, and is not quite circular, but slightly oblique, crossing the obliquity of the longitudinal plane. This circular plane is very thick and strong round the cardia, or that extremity into which the oesophagus terminates. They are here so very thick as to form a true sphincter; and to this it is in some measure owing, that a horse cannot vomit; for when the circular and longitudinal fibres are acting from the pylorus to the cardia, by any irritation that reverses the usual motion, producing an effort to vomit, the circular and longitudinal fibres of the cardia being infinitely stronger and more numerous, are contracting this orifice (especially the circular), as the others are contracting the other parts; for as the muscular fibres exist equally throughout the stomach, by which the motions are effected, it cannot be simply from the existence of the circular covering to the first portion of his stomach, that he cannot vomit; for it is reasonable to suppose the fibres act throughout the stomach by the common consent of parts; nor do they of actual necessity want an immediate stimulus to their surfaces; for were this the case, the fibres of the oesophagus would not by the presence of the masticated bolus be stimulated to contract through the cuticular coat, which equally here lies over the fibres; nevertheless, the cuticular coat of the stomach is probably afflicting in this difficulty to regurgitate: it does it by lessening the liability to nausea, which seldom takes place in the horse; and as vomiting is only an effort to remove nausea or its cause, so nature not having given the disease, has not provided the means for its removal. As likewise vomiting appears to be a reverting of the peristaltic motion of the stomach; which motion, in its natural state, begins from the cardia, and ends at the pylorus; so in this reversed state, it commences at the pylorus, and ends at the cardia, thus regurgitating its contents; so it is very probable that the cuticular covering may lessen this inverted peristaltic motion in the upper portion, though it cannot wholly destroy it; and hence cannot be the only, or the principal reason of the impossibility, or rather of the difficulty with which this animal vomits; for instances have occurred where it has taken place. A horse in Suffolk was seen to regurgitate a large quantity of grains, and we have heard of one or two other instances; but these must be regarded as very rare occurrences.

It is not, therefore, that the stomach of the horse cannot be irritated to make an attempt to vomit, that no such effect generally takes place; for though it is but very seldom that nausea occurs, and perhaps never in a state of nature, yet it may be excited by means of aconite, heliobore, and some other substances, which have caused fruitless efforts to vomit. But the true and principal reason that a horse may be said, naturally not to be able to vomit, arises, in that nature has wisely constructed the parts, that the very effort to it increases the resistance by the very strong sphincter placed at the mouth of the cardia. Had this resistance not been placed, and every means taken to increase the almost impossibility of vomiting in a horse, it is evident that from the curtain of the palate stopping the opening of the mouth, this action, had it taken place, would have occasioned suffocation. The inner coat of the stomach is composed of two portions, the one cuticular and the other villous. This species of cuticular covering to nearly one half of the stomach, is peculiar to such animals as appear destined to live on grain, as horses, asses, rats, and mice; and this forms a third species of stomach between the true membranous one of graminivorous animals, and the muscular of the carnivorous tribes, and it may be considered in a slight degree, as a species of gizzard, resembling the structure of those animals, as fowls, who have organs to make up for the want of teeth. For a horse has not the means of re-mastication, as in oxen or sheep, nor does he usually masticate his food at first sufficiently to comminute it; for the wants of the constitution stimulate him to a hasty deglutition of his food, which, if there was not some other structure than that common to stomachs in general, would not be sufficiently digested: for the food is solid, and the stomach small; therefore this cuticular coat may be useful, as its inflexibility allows it to press in a small degree upon the food, and perform a slight trituration upon it. This cuticular coat is spread over the first portion of the stomach, taking in all the great extremity, and forming between a third and half of its extent. It is formed into folds at the cardia in the same manner as at the internal part of the oesophagus; but as soon as it has passed this orifice, these folds take an irregular direction, but are less than those formed on the villous surface.

The villous or fimbriated portion of the stomach, though it occupies more of the length of the stomach, yet perhaps in real extent is little more than half of its surface. It unites with or is connected to the cuticular. Its external surface is firm, and appears as it were a distinct portion, but is only dense cellular substance, which has given rise to the description of four tunics to the stomach. The tunica villosa is so called from its resemblance to the pile of velvet; its fine villi are probably the extreme fine ends of vellus secreting the gastric juice. The villous coat being much larger in extent than the muscular, is thrown into folds, which are more considerable than those of the cuticular coat. These are largest at the portion toward the great extremity, and are irregularly waving: towards the duodenum they become less, and when at the pylorus they form a fold that makes a kind of valve to this part of the stomach, preventing the return of the food, and its too speedy passage out. The folds not only hinder the too speedy passage of the food, but by this means apply the gastric juice more certainly to all the parts; but the principal end is to increase the secreting surface, which is here more extensive than those of the human.

The remainder of the alimentary canal is continued from the lower orifice of the stomach, to the anus, or end of the passage, forming a long canal of different dimensions, called intestines. They are usually divided into small and large. In some animals they hardly merit this distinction, there being but little difference in point of size; but in the horse, the proportion is very different; the small intestines being not much larger than the human, but the large of an immense bulk. This canal is connected through its whole extent to membranous productions of the peritoneum, especially to those called mesentery and mesocolon. The whole canal varies in point of length in different subjects; but is seldom less than 24 yards, and often more. The intestines are contained within a prolongation of the peritoneum, which arises in most instances from the mesentery: the two folds of this membrane separate and surround the intestines, forming their external coat. The next coat is muscular, and formed of two layers of fibres, a longitudinal and a circular; the latter are in greater proportion, and by the contraction of these the vermiform motion, called peristaltic, is performed, from the longitudinal fibres slightly shortening them, and the circular diminishing their size. Within this muscular coat there is a quantity of cellular membrane rather more dense than in some other parts; and this used to be regarded as a coat, and was called the nervous, but is only a layer of cellular membrane. The third and inner coat of the intestines is the villous, which is very vascular and fimbriated. There are no considerable folds of the inner tunic of the intestines, as in the human. In this animal these are rendered unnecessary by the great length of his intestines, and the slow passage of the alimentary contents through them by this length and his position.

The first portion of the bowels, which answers to the duodenum in man, though in the horse it is nearer 20 inches than 12, is attached to the stomach, having its first pyloric orifice ending in it; its course in the horse is rather different from that in the human, and by this it acquires a more complete covering from the peritoneum. It hangs loose and pendulous, being attached to the concave surface of the liver, where making a turn, it is fixed to the vertebrae; it then takes the name of jejunum. It appears rather larger in circumference than the other small intestines, and is remarkable for having the pancreatic and biliary ducts penetrating it, sometimes entering it obliquely close together, and sometimes at a distance from each other.

The jejunum and ileum differ very little from the same bowels in the human species.

The great intestines are very properly so called in the horse; and as they have very little resemblance to the human large intestines, they require a particular description.

The cæcum is situated in the back part of the belly, and is a very large canal, which is entered abruptly by the ilium. The fore part of this canal projects forward two or three feet, into a sort of bag of the same size of the colon; but the back part terminates in what is called a blind end. The cæcum usually occupies the right side of the belly, and appears immediately on opening the peritoneum, with its commencement from the colon and ilium in the right iliac region, extending forwards to the right side, with its blind end close to the diaphragm and liver. This termination is not furnished, as in some animals, with an appendix vermiformis, but terminates by a simple blind end. Through the peritoneal covering are seen four muscular longitudinal bands, extending from the extremity along the muscular coat, and dividing the gut into four longitudinal portions. One or two of these are usually covered with fat, and are not so regularly longitudinal as the others. The internal membrane is folded up between the longitudinal bands, and by intersecting them forms numerous cavities called the cells.

On the slightest inspection we see a great peculiarity in the form of the cæcum of the horse; and in a more accurate view, are struck with the importance of the structure to this animal, and are led to consider the cæcum as little less than a second stomach. This is in fact the case; for the food coming in a macerated mass from the small intestines, is mixed in the cæcum, with the bile, and pancreatic juice, and here undergoes a farther change, to which the structure of the cæcum is evidently favourable, as it is fitted to retain the mass for a considerable time within it, and to circulate it through all its parts. It has two blind ends, one forming its basis, and near this enters the ilium; the other forming its point, and extending up towards the diaphragm. From one part of the base the colon commences by a very contracted portion, for the purpose of preventing the entrance of the contents of the ilium, till they have passed through the cæcum. In many animals the cæcum is a very inconsiderable part; in some it has one or more appendices; in others it is almost entirely wanting; and Anatomy and in all but the horse its use is obscure, and apparently not very important; but in the horse it is certainly little less than a second stomach, for its whole structure proves, that it is purposely designed that all the food taken in shall be poured into the base of this gut, by the contraction of which it shall be forced towards the apex, and either in its passage or return shall be detained in the cells to be in some way farther acted upon, and to undergo some change necessary to the system. Having undergone this change, whatever it is, it is forced into the colon.

The colon commences small from the side of the base of the cæcum; and as the ilium cannot be said to enter it together with the cæcum, as in some animals, there is in the horse no such part as the valve of the colon properly so called. The ilium has, however, a sort of protrusion with its inner membrane, by which in some measure it prevents the return of the contents of the cæcum. As the colon passes, it is farther contracted, and then enlarges into a very long and large canal, which, after having made nearly the whole circumference of the belly, is again slightly contracted. It then again enlarges, passes again round the belly, and is a third time contracted, just where it ends in the rectum or straight gut. The small intestines rest on the turns of the colon and on the cæcum. The colon is furnished with four ligamentous bands in its large portion, but there are only two in the small portions; these form longitudinal frenae, which are interlocked again by internal folds, so as to form the cells of the colon. It is connected and supported in its situation by that portion of the mesentery termed mesocolon. This intestine is very different in the horse to what it is in most other animals, in consequence of its variations in size, being in most other instances of one general size; it is likewise this gut and the cæcum that are the principal seat of the inflammation arising from violent purging medicines.

The rectum is the continuation of the colon, and passes backwards from the lumbar vertebrae to the anus. Its muscular coat is thicker than that of the other intestines, and it is thrown internally into cavities by the inner membrane, in some manner similar to the cells of the colon, though less; were it not for this, the intestine might be too constantly stimulated to expel its contents, but by this means the faeces are received and retained till they are collected in a considerable quantity, when they are expelled. The rectum is attached to the spine and sacrum by the peritoneum, is here called mecorectum; but the true fold of peritoneum does not invest its whole portion, but leaves it as it approaches the rectum, which is at this place only covered with the cellular part of it. The mesentery bands of the rectum are very strong, and terminate at the anus in a kind of ligamentary expansion attached to the os coccygis.

The anus is the termination of the rectum, and is opened by the force of the peristaltic motion and the consent of the parts, and shut by a muscular band round the extremity of the gut called the sphincter. It is likewise elevated and retracted by two pair of muscles.

**Chap. IV. Of the Foot.**

In our account of the anatomy of the horse's foot, it will be necessary to describe only one foot, as those belonging to both extremities are similar in structure.

The bones which compose the foot of the horse are fixed in number, considering the foot as commencing at the fetlock joint. Of these six bones two are included within the hoof, viz. the coffin-bone, and the navicular-bone; and four are situated above the hoof, viz. the large pattern-bone, the small pattern-bone, and the two sesamoid bones.

We shall begin from above, with the large pattern-bone, as this contributes to form what is called the large pattern joint.

The large pattern-bone, (1, fig. 13, 14, and 15,) is large part of an oblong cylindrical form, and, as is the case with tern bone, all such bones, is smaller in the middle than at either extremity. It articulates above with the lower head of the cannon-bone, and below with the upper head of the small pattern-bone. At its upper extremity there are three depressions, one on each side, large and superficial (a, c, fig. 13,) to receive the outer and inner convexity of the lower head of the cannon-bone, and one in the middle, b, for receiving the middle narrow convexity of the same bone. The fore part of this bone is slightly rounded, and rough towards its upper extremity, as at d, for the firmer attachment of ligaments. Behind, at its back part, it is flatter; and here there is a rough depression (C, fig. 14,) also for the attachment of a ligament that is deep seated, and is fixed to the two sesamoid bones. At the lower extremity the large pattern-bone is convex on each side (D, E, fig. 14,) for entering into two concavities of the small pattern-bone; and there is a depression (f, fig. 13,) for the attachment of a tendon. At the lower extremity there is also a roughness on each side at e, for the insertion of ligaments. Both extremities are covered with very smooth elastic gristle, which is kept constantly moist by the synovia or joint oil.

At the upper end of the large pattern-bone, towards the back part, are placed the two sesamoid bones, AA (fig. 14). These are of an irregular wedge-like form, and are covered with cartilage, articulating both with the cannon-bone, and on the back part they are very smooth to admit of a tendon readily sliding over them. The upper edges of these bones on each side have a rough irregular surface, into which is inserted a strong ligament that comes from the upper and back parts of the cannon-bone, is fastened separately to each of the sesamoid bones, from which it proceeds downwards and obliquely forward to be inserted into the tendon of the large extensor muscles, (see a a a, fig. 16,) a little below the large pattern-joint. These sesamoid bones are of considerable use in the mechanism of the large pattern-joint. "In consequence of their forming the back part of the large pattern-joint, and articulating with the lower and posterior part of the cannon, they contribute very essentially, by always receding whenever the foot comes in contact with the ground, to act as a spring to the animal, and to prevent concussion. All the weight received by the upper head of the large pattern-bone is conveyed to bones below; but a considerable portion of the burden is received by the sesamoid bones. While the animal is at rest, and also during motion, these bones sustain part of the weight; and where the pattern bones are long and oblique, the sesamoids often receive so much of the weight as to put the ligaments violently on the stretch, and occasion lameness." The small pattern-bone (2, fig. 13; 14, 15) is about half the length of the large one, and is as broad as it is long. Besides the two concave depressions, (h, h, fig. 13,) mentioned before, there is a ridge between them, t, that enters a corresponding depression, g, in the lower head of the large pattern-bone. The small pattern-bone has at the back and upper part (F, fig. 14,) a small projection, for the insertion of a long ligament, that comes from the fetamoid bones. The lower articulating surface is more extensive than the upper, as it is connected with the upper surface of two considerable bones, viz. the navicular and coffin-bone. It is of great consequence to understand the mechanism of the joints that are formed by this connection, as it is on this part that the principal stirs of the animal falls. The union of the small pattern-bone with the navicular and coffin-bones, forming what is called the coffin-joint, is one of the principal methods provided by nature to prevent concussion.

The navicular-bone (3, fig. 13, 14, 15,) is connected above with the back part of the small pattern-bone, and the lower edge of this bone is attached by a large ligament to the back part of the coffin-bone. The navicular-bone is slightly concave, to receive the back part of the lower head of the small pattern-bone. The upper edge of the navicular-bone behind is rough (g, fig. 14,) and thick, for the attachment of the upper ligament; and the lower edge of the navicular-bone receives at the back part a strong flat ligament from the coffin-bone, immediately above the insertion of the flexor-tendon. The lower surface of the navicular-bone is covered by cartilage, and has a small ridge in its centre, (t, fig. 13,) to be received into a corresponding depression in the long flexor-tendon. This bone may be considered as forming two distinct joints, one of which is composed by the connection of one part of the bone with the tendon of the flexor-muscle, and the other is formed by the connection of another surface of the navicular-bone.

The whole weight of the animal, supported by the small pattern-bone, is thrown upon the coffin and navicular bones. Of this weight the coffin-bone receives the greater share; but the navicular-bone receives a considerable portion of it, though this bone does not contribute to prevent concussion to much as Mr Freeman has endeavoured to prove. The navicular-bone, when the hoof touches the ground, defends a little, and thus prevents that concussion which the horse's body would have received if this bone had been immovably fixed; and when the hoof is again raised from the ground, the elasticity of the parts below the navicular bone lifts up this bone into its former position, thus acting as a spring in facilitating the motion of the animal. As the weight supported by the navicular-bones of the hind feet is less than that supported by the same bone of the fore feet, their descent in the former is less than in the latter. The organs connected with the navicular-bones of the hind feet are also less subject to disease.

The coffin-bone (4, fig. 13, 14, 15,) is so named from its being concealed, or as it were buried within the hoof. It is also sometimes called the foot-bone. On its fore part it is rounded, having very nearly the shape of the external hoof. Its upper surface is slightly hollowed (m, m, fig. 13,) to receive the lower end of the small pattern-bone, with the fore part of which it articulates, as it does behind with the fore edge of the navicular-bone. At the back part the coffin-bone ends in two processes on each side, the upper of which are tipped with cartilage. At the upper part of the front of the coffin-bone there is a small protuberance, (w, fig. 13,) extending upwards above the joint, and serving for the insertion of the tendon of the muscles that extend the foot. Below this the coffin-bone is extremely porous, for the passage of nerves and blood-vessels; and towards the lower part in particular there are about 13 holes, for the transmission of considerable arteries, which go to supply the sensitive sole. At the heels and quarters the coffin-bone is still more porous, and is supplied with a greater number of arteries, but these are proportionally smaller. The lower surface of the heels of this bone is also very porous, where it unites with the sensitive sole, but the rest of lower surface is generally smooth. There are here two hollow surfaces, which receive two corresponding rounded parts of the sensitive sole. They are unequal, the foremost being the larger. Into the hollow on the back part, the tendon of the flexor-muscle is inserted. (A, fig. 16.)

There are seven ligaments belonging to the coffin joint, of which there are three pairs, and one single. The first pair of ligaments take their origin from the heels of the coffin-bone on each side, and pass obliquely upwards as high as the middle, to which they are attached, and at which part of the small pattern-bone (B, fig. 16,) they are blended with the fibres of the lateral ligaments of the small pattern-joint. The second pair of ligaments on each side arise from the edge of the coffin-bone, near the heels, and pass obliquely forward to be inserted into the middle of the small pattern-bone (C, fig. 16,) near the attachment of the extensor-tendon. The third pair take their origin from the lateral edges of the anterior process of the coffin-bone, and are inserted into the edges of the cartilages. The use of these ligaments is to unite the cartilages more firmly to the coffin-bone. The extensor-tendon being inserted into the upper edge of the anterior process of the coffin-bone, prevents the necessity of a ligament at this part. The single ligament of the coffin-bone is connected with the posterior and inferior concave surface of the coffin-bone, immediately above the insertion of the flexor-tendon, and also with the lower edge of the navicular bone. Besides this ligament there is another attached to the whole of the upper and back part of the navicular-bone, by which means that bone is enabled to support a greater share of the weight that rests upon it. By means of these ligaments this important joint is rendered very strong, while by the elasticity of the cartilages, and the constant supply of lubricating fluid within the joint, all the motions of the animal are rendered safe and easy.

The small pattern-joint is also well secured by means of ligaments, and by the sheath of the flexor-tendon. There are also ligaments proceeding from the fetamoid bones, which enter the sheath of the flexor-tendon, and are attached to the small pattern-joint. (a, a, a, fig. 16.)

"The weight which the fetamoid bones, by means of ligaments sustain, is very different in different horses; and bears no proportion to the bulk and weight of the animal. The pattern joints of large horses destined for slow motion, are constructed very differently from those..." Part II.

Anatomy of blood horses. Their pattern bones are short, and the joints nearly straight; but thorough-bred horses of light weight have long and very oblique pattern joints; and, as in proportion to the obliquity of the large pattern, or fetlock joint, the canon conveys more of the weight to the sesamoid bones, the ligaments that support the sesamoids are necessarily put into motion, and more on the stretch, as the weight presses down the lower and back part of the canon on the sesamoid bones. Short pattern joints are as much adapted to the frame of heavy horses as longer joints are to that of lighter horses. The ligaments that support the sesamoids above also contribute to assist the flexor muscles and tendons in preserving when at rest, and in motion, the large pattern-joint in its proper place.*

Before we proceed in describing the structure of the hoof, it will be proper to shew how the hoof is formed, and how it is connected with the parts within.

The hoof of the horse forms a sort of organized shoe, which is adapted to the foot with the greatest nicety; so that every part of the cavity is completely filled, without the foot's being subjected to any unequal pressure.

A correct knowledge of the natural form and structure of this part of the horse's foot, and of the deformities produced in it by improper treatment, is of the utmost importance; as on this must depend the most advantageous method of shoeing, and the only rational means of correcting the unnatural deviations. It will be obvious, that, in order to form a just idea of the original shape of the hoof, we must examine it before any shoe has been applied to it; for, unless this shoe has been so constructed and fitted to the foot, as to preserve unaltered the original form of the hoof, this will be so changed, that we cannot recognize from it what was the original shape. That the methods of shoeing usually employed are calculated rather to deform the hoof, than to preserve its original figure, will appear presently.

A vertical section of the hoof shows it to be nearly conical; the broadest part of the cone being next the ground. This inferior surface, in a hoof that has not been shod, especially in the fore foot, appears nearly circular; or the diameter, from side to side, is nearly equal to the diameter from toe to heel, (see fig. 17.)

The hoof is composed of a horny substance that is entirely without sensation. It is divided into crust, sole, frog, and bars.

The crust surrounds the foot on the fore part, and on the sides, like a wall (A, A, fig. 17.) It grows obliquely downwards from the coronet, and becomes broader as it approaches the ground. It is thicker at the toe, than at the quarter; and the outer quarter is thicker than the inner. On the outside it is smooth and rounded, but within hollow and laminated (B B, fig. 15.) to unite with the coffin-bone. The crust is the only part into which nails can with safety be driven in shoeing.

The horny sole (B B, fig. 17.) unites with the lower part of the crust, and is situated below the coffin-bone; but between it and the coffin-bone, there is a vascular substance to be presently described, called the sensible sole, from the blood-vessels of which the horny sole is formed. On the outside next the ground, the horny sole is hollow, but rounded within next the coffin-bone. The horny sole protects the sensible sole from injury, and in the horse's motions it embraces the ground, acting as a stop. When the laminated substances of the hoof lengthen, the horny sole defends, and thus affords in preventing concussion.

The bars, or binders, (C C, fig. 17.) are two horny Bars. Substances placed between the sole and the frog, and forming at the heels a close solid union with the crust. The small part of the bars called the toe, sometimes reaches almost as far as the toe of the frog. Within the frog, the bars are laminated like the inner part of the crust, and are closely united to the horny sole. The bars on the outside keep the horse's foot extended, and within, they tend to prevent the separation of the sensible sole from the horny sole. In the natural state of the hoof, there is a considerable cavity between the bars and the frog on each side.

The frog (D D, fig. 17.) is that hard, rounded protuberance, which we observe in the middle of the lower part of the hoof, pointed towards the toes, and expanded towards the heel like a wedge. In the middle of this broad part, there is a fissure (E, fig. 17.) The external frog is united within the hoof to a narrow substance of a similar shape, but of a more elastic structure, and possessing sensation, and therefore called the sensible frog. This substance is connected above with the navicular bone, towards the back part; and at the extremity of the heels, it is united with cartilages on each side. The toe of the sensible frog is united to the coffin-bone, but by far the greater part is behind this bone. The back part of the frogs being united with elastic and moveable substances, admit of considerable motion, the frog rising when the hoof touches the ground, and descending when the foot is raised. By the ascent of the frog, the heels are prevented from contracting, and the cartilages are expanded, so as to afford the horse a considerable spring, whilst the form of this part fits it for embracing the ground, and thus prevents the horse from slipping. The convex form of the frog clearly shows that it was always intended to touch the ground, and experience has fully proved, that, unless this contact takes place, the healthy state of this organ cannot be preserved. It has been supposed that the frog is intended to defend the principal tendon or back ligament; but Mr Coleman has shown that this is a mistake.

The weight of the horse is chiefly supported by the weight of crust, and not by the sole or frog; for when these parts have been removed, or by being diseased, become soft and porous, and thus incapable of resistance, it is found the sole and that the crust is still competent to bear the whole of the frog's weight. If the sole and frog really supported the weight, it is evident that when these parts are removed or diseased, the foot would slip through the crust.

The union of the sensible frog with the horny frog, and the connection thus formed between the sides of the frog's sensible frog, and the lower cartilages, effectually prevents dislocation. When the horny frog touches the ground, both that and the sensible frog ascend; but when by any means the horny frog is prevented from pressing on the ground, its proper functions are suspended. The cartilages partake of the motion of the frog; and, in proportion as this receives pressure, they recede from each other, and allow the sensible frog to ascend between them. But when the cartilages are rendered immovable by becoming bony, or by contraction of the the foot, the sensible frog is much confined in its motion. By this immobility of the cartilages, the horse is deprived of a powerful spring. When the frog does not press on the ground, and consequently the cartilages are deprived of motion, the moisture of the crust evaporates; and hence the quarters and heels of the hoof become contracted much more than the fore part of the crust, and this contraction is increased by the frog not being allowed to rise between the cartilages. Thus, the natural circular shape of the hoof is destroyed by the frog not receiving pressure.

Fig. 18 represents the lower part of a horse's hoof, as it is usually lengthened or contracted by improper shoeing.

We have not yet described the sensible sole. This is situated between the horny sole and the coffin-bone, and is united to the lower cartilages immediately behind the latter (C C, fig. 15). Its lower edge is firmly connected with the sensible laminae, at the lower edge of the coffin-bone; but at the extremity of the heels, the laminae are continued for about an inch, forming what are called the sensible bars. The sensible sole is well supplied with blood-vessels, but when these are emptied, it appears of a ligamentous texture. From the vessels of this part, the horny matter of the horny sole and bars is formed and renewed.

The only other part of the foot that we shall describe, is an important ligament, which surrounds the junction of the coffin-bone with the hoof, and is called the coronary ligament, (D D, fig. 16.) This ligament is attached at its upper part, to the anterior protuberance of the coffin-bone, and to the lateral cartilages; and extends a little above the coffin joint, being united on its outside to the skin. Below it is united to the sensible laminae, at their origin. On its outside it is convex, and is received into a correspondent hollow in the crust, called the coronary ring. It is ultimately inserted into the heels of the sensible frog. The uses of this ligament are very important. By its union with the sensible laminae, lateral cartilages, sensible frog, and coffin-bone, it affords the action of all these parts, increasing their strength and connection; and in particular, preserves the proper situation of the cartilages, and prevents their being dislocated, to which they would otherwise be liable, by being separated by the rising of the sensible frog between them, when the horny frog touches the ground.

We have thus described the structure and functions of the foot and hoof, as far as appeared to us to be absolutely necessary for understanding the principles and practice of shoeing. The names, insertions, and uses of the muscles of the foot, have been already concisely given in the table of the muscles of the extremities (see page 437.) The blood-vessels, nerves, and absorbents are well described, and most beautifully figured in Mr Coleman's elegant work on the structure, economy, and diseases of the foot of the horse; to which, and to Mr Freeman's work on the same subject, we refer such of our readers as wish for a complete and accurate account of that curious and important piece of mechanism, the foot of the horse.

We shall conclude this chapter with a summary recapitulation of the more important circumstances that have been mentioned, as we shall immediately apply them in describing the most approved method of shoeing; and they will be the better understood, and the more easily remembered, by being brought together in a comprehensive point of view. It appears then,

"That the natural form of the hoof of the fore feet of horses, before any art has been employed, approaches to a circle; and,

"That the internal cavity of the hoof, when circular, is completely filled by the sensible parts of the foot.

"That the hoof is composed of horny insensible fibres, that take the names of crust, sole, bars, and frog.

"That the crust is united with the last bone of the foot, by a number of laminated elastic substances.

"That the uses of the laminae are to support the weight of the animal, and from their elasticity to prevent concussion.

"That the horny sole is externally concave, internally convex, and united by its edge with the inferior part of the crust.

"That the uses of the horny sole are to act as a spring, by descending at the heels; to preserve the sensible sole from pressure, and (with its concavity) to form a convexity of the earth.

"That the external bars are nothing more than a continuation of the crust, forming angles at the heels.

"That the internal bars are a continuation of the laminae of the crust, attached to the horny sole at the heels within the hoof; and that these insensible laminae are intimately united with sensible laminated bars, connected with the sensible sole.

"That the use of the external bars, is to preserve the heels expanded; and the use of the internal horny bars, to prevent separation and dislocation of the horny sole from the sensible sole.

"That the external frog is convex, and of an insensible horny elastic nature.

"That the internal sensible frog is of the same form, very highly elastic, and united with two elastic cartilages.

"That the frogs are not made to protect the tendon, as Mr St Bel and other writers have supposed.

"That the use of the frog is to prevent the horse from slipping, by its convexity embracing the ground; and from the elasticity of the sensible and horny frogs they act as a spring to the animal, and keep expanded the heels."* PART III. OF THE OPERATIONS USUALLY PERFORMED ON DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

CHAP. I. Of Shoeing.

The principles and practice of shoeing are usually explained at the end of treatises on the veterinary art, immediately after describing the usual surgical operations. We think it better, however, to treat on the subject of shoeing in this part of our article, immediately after having described the anatomy of the horse's foot; the necessity of understanding which has been fully explained in the last chapter.

It is very uncertain at what period mankind first began to shoe their horses with iron; but it is probable that this practice commenced as soon as they were sufficiently civilized, to have such roads as were composed of solid, hard materials, fitted for the purposes of constant traffic. In many countries where such kind of roads are not required, as in the deserts of Arabia, and in many eastern countries, we know that to this day the horses are not shod; and we have been assured, that some years ago, when the roads in most of the United Provinces of America were not so hard as they are at present, horses were shod only on the forefeet (D).

We shall first briefly describe the mode of shoeing commonly practised by the smiths of this country, and shall then give a short account of the most important improvements that have been made in the art, from the time of Lafole to the present method employed at the veterinary college.

In the common mode of shoeing, the bars are totally cut away, and the frog is considerably pared down, by means of a cutting instrument called a butteris. The method of reason assigned for cutting away the bars, or opening the heels, as it is called, is, that the heels may not contract, and that the shoe may not press upon the sole, and occasion corns. The hoof being thus prepared, the shoe is to be applied. The common form of this shoe is nearly elliptical, being broader at the fore part, and growing narrower towards the heels, where it is thicker than at the toe. It is convex on its outer surface where it is to touch the ground, and concave on its inner part, which is applied next the hoof. It is fastened to the hoof by means of eight nails, four in each quarter; and the heads of these nails are nearly cubical, standing out a little beyond the shoe. This shoe is commonly applied nearly red-hot, in order, as we suppose,

(d) Attempts have been made to prove that the ancients understood the use of iron shoes, and passages have been quoted both from Greek and Roman writers to support this assertion. But we think that the learned Beckman has fully demonstrated the fallacy of this opinion, and has shown, that although leathern shoes were sometimes employed on the feet of horses and other beasts of burden, the use of iron horse-shoes was entirely unknown both to the Greeks and Romans. Indeed, if such shoes were in use among them, the ancient authors who have treated on horsemanship, husbandry, and the veterinary art, as Xenophon, Julius Pollux, Columella, and Vegetius, could not possibly have omitted to notice them. It cannot be supposed that these writers would have been silent with respect to the shoeing of horses, when they treat so particularly of the breeding and rearing of these animals, and prescribe remedies for the accidents and diseases to which they are subject.

Beckman is of opinion that iron horse-shoes were used in Europe as early as the ninth century, for in the works of the emperor Leo, who lived about that period, they are expressly mentioned by the name of σιδηρανα σιδηρα. The emperor also speaks of horse-shoe nails by the appellation of καρπος, and mentions that a certain number of pounds of iron should be given out from the imperial stores to make σιδηρανα, and other horse furniture. The antiquity of horse-shoes is also confirmed by their being spoken of in the writings of Italian, French, and English authors of the same century. "When Boniface marquis of Tuscany, one of the richest princes of his time, went to meet Beatrix, his bride, mother of the well-known Matilda, about the year 1038, his whole train were so magnificently decorated, that his horses were not shod with iron, but with silver. The nails were even of the same metal; and when any of them dropped out, they belonged to those who found them. The marquis seems to have imitated Nero; but this anecdote may be only a fiction. It is related by a contemporary writer, but unfortunately, his account is in verse; and the author, perhaps, sensible of his inability to make his subject sufficiently interesting by poetical ornaments, availed himself of the licence claimed by poets to relate something singular and uncommon. However this may be, it is certain that the shoes of the horses must have been fastened on with nails, otherwise the author could not have mentioned them.

"Daniel the historian, seems to give us to understand, that in the ninth century, horses were not shod always, but only in the time of frost, and on other particular occasions. The practice of shoeing appears to have been introduced into England by William the Conqueror. We are informed that this sovereign gave the city of Northampton as a fief, to a certain person, in consideration of his paying a stated sum yearly for the shoeing of horses; and it is believed that Henry de Ferrers, or de Ferriers, who came over with William, and whose descendants still bear in their arms fix horse-shoes, received that surname, because he was entrusted with the inspection of the farriers. We may here observe, that horse-shoes have been found with other riding furniture, in the graves of some of the old Germans and Vandals in the northern countries; but the antiquity of them cannot be ascertained." Beckman on Inventions, vol. ii. Operations, suppose, to adapt it better, and make it fit closer to the hoof.

The consequences of this method of shoeing must be, 1. That the function of the bars, whatever it may be, (and we have shewn that they are intended to prevent contraction of the feet,) must be destroyed. 2. That cutting away the frog, exposes this part to injury, and is productive of many diseases. 3. That the heels of the shoe being higher than the toe, will prevent the frogs from embracing the ground, for which we have shewn they were naturally intended. 4. That by making the shoe concave at the quarters, and placing the nails near the heels, the growth of the crust in these parts is impeded, and thus the foot is contracted, and its proper shape destroyed. 5. That by fattening the shoe near the inflexible frog at the heels, the proper action of the frogs and sole, as a spring to assist the motions of the animal, is destroyed. 6. That by putting on the shoe hot, the moisture of the crusts is dried up, and thus the contraction of the foot is still farther increased; and, 7. That by making the shoes rounded next the ground, the sure footing of the horse is greatly lessened, much to the danger of his rider.

The first modern writer who attempted to reform the common mode of shoeing, appears to have been Lafoffe. It is true that an excellent mode of shoeing was recommended about 300 years ago by Caesar Fiachchi, an Italian writer on horsemanship; but his plan never came into general use, and Lafoffe appears to have all the merit of the improvement, as it is more than probable that he had never seen Fiachchi's work. The shoe recommended by Lafoffe was what he called the half-moon shoe, being nearly semicircular, and reaching little further than to the middle of the foot; the nails being placed round the toe. Lafoffe's shoe was never very generally employed in this country, even though the improvement was rendered familiar by Bracken and Bartlet, who, as we have said, translated Lafoffe's treatise into English. It has been considered as useful in some cases of diseased feet, and for strong feet which have begun to contract, or appear likely to do so, provided such horses are not employed on very hard, rough roads; but it is by no means applicable to the majority of our horses. Its principal disadvantages appear to be, that the heels wear too fast, and that in running, horses are apt to slip with it.

Mr William Olmer, whose work on shoeing we have mentioned in No. 65, improved considerably on the shoe of Lafoffe. He forbade the frogs and bars to be cut away, except when they were ragged. He however, remarks, that the feet of all horses should be pared according to their length; the crust being made perfectly smooth by paring or rasping. His shoe was everywhere of an equal thickness, rather narrower behind than before, of a flat surface next the ground, and bevilled away from about the middle of its breadth inwards, leaving a flat surface for the crust to rest on.

The next improver of shoes was Lord Pembroke, though Mr Blaine most unaccountably places him after Mr Clark. Lord Pembroke's remarks on shoeing are exceedingly ingenious. He observed that the weight of shoes must, in a great measure, depend on the quality and hardness of the iron. If the iron be very good it will not bend, and in this case the shoes cannot possibly be too light; care, however, must be taken, that they be made of a thickness so as not to bend, for operations bending would tear out the nails, and ruin the hoof. That part of the shoe which is next the horse's heel, must be narrower than anywhere else, that stones may be thereby prevented from getting under it, and sticking there, which otherwise would be the case, because the iron when it advances inwardly beyond the bearing of the foot, makes a cavity, wherein stones being lodged, would remain, and by pressing against the foot, lame the horse. The part of the shoe which the horse walks upon, should be quite flat, and the inside of it likewise; and only just room enough should be left next the foot, to put in a picker, (which ought to be used every time the horse comes into the stable, and often on marches) and also to prevent the shoe's pressing upon the sole. Three, or at most four nails of a side, hold better than a greater number, and keep the hoof in a better state. He advises that the toe of the horse be cut square and short, and that no nails be placed in that part. By these means narrow heels are prevented, and many good effects produced. His lordship advised the hinder feet to be shod in the same manner as the fore-feet, except in hilly and slippery countries, where the shoes on the hinder feet may be a little turned up behind.

The utmost severity, (says Lord Pembroke), ought be inflicted on all those who clap shoes on hot. This unpardonable laziness of farriers in making feet fit shoes, instead of making shoes fitting feet, dries up the hoof, and utterly destroys them. Frequent removals of shoes are detrimental, and tear the foot, but sometimes they are very necessary. This is an inconvenience which half shoes are liable to (though excellent in several other respects), for the end of the shoe being very short, is apt to get soon into the foot, and consequently then must be moved.

The shoe recommended by Mr Clark did not differ very much from that of Olmer. He does not, however, recommend the hollowing of the surface of the shoe next the foot. Mr Clark recommended that the hoof and frog should not be pared or cut away without necessity, and was much against raising the heels with calkins; to the use of which he preferred that of an ice nail. He, however, admits, that sharp calkins may be necessary in hilly countries.

The shoe originally used at the veterinary college by Method of the first professor, was very similar to that of Olmer; the veterinary college when Mr Coleman succeeded to the professorship, adopted the half-moon shoe introduced by Lafoffe. This was, however, soon given up, as experience showed that it was not adapted to the generality of horses in this country. Within these few years, a method of shoeing has been introduced by Mr Coleman, which appears in most instances preferable to any former method. We shall therefore consider it pretty much at large.

Mr Coleman has laid down two general principles, by which the practice of shoeing for all horses, in every country, must be invariably followed. "So long as nails and iron are employed to protect the hoof, the crust is the part that should receive the nails, and the prelude of the shoe; and the sole of every horse employed for every purpose, is a part that should not be in contact with the shoe." These are Mr Coleman's general rules, and to these it must be added, that the frog Operations. Frog should, in almost every case, be allowed to come into contact with the ground, where this is practicable, whenever the horse sets down its foot.

Two general circumstances are to be observed in shoeing; the cutting of the hoof, and the application of the shoe. Some parts of the hoof require to be removed, before the shoe can be applied; while others must be carefully preserved. These circumstances are at least of as much consequence as the form of the shoe, but are not in general so fully attended to.

In Mr Coleman’s method of shoeing, he first recommends that a part of the horny sole between the whole length of the bars and crust, be pared away with a drawing knife, as the heels of the sole cannot receive the preasure of the shoe, without corns being produced. The sole must therefore be laid hollow, that it may not come in contact with the shoe. This he considers of the greatest consequence. The heels of the shoe must be made to rest on that part of the hoof where the bars unite with the crust. See fig. 19. If the heels have been previously lowered by means of the buttress, there may perhaps not be left sufficient sole to admit of the application of the drawing knife, without penetrating to the sensitive sole; so that it is better, first to cut the sole, as it may then be easily determined how far the heels may be lowered, and the toe shortened, with propriety. When the hoof is cut in this way, the sole readily descends when the hoof touches the ground, without being obstructed by the shoe; and stones, or other foreign bodies that have gotten between the shoe and the hoof, are thus readily pulled out. It is found by experience, that the sole never suffers from stones and gravel, when there is sufficient space left between the bars and the crust. The cavity between the sole and shoe should also be left sufficiently wide after the shoe is applied, to admit of the introduction of a large horse-picker, especially between the bars and the crust. If the sole should be naturally concave, a shoe that has a flat surface next the hoof will not touch any part of the sole when applied to the crust; and even should the sole be flat, or rounded in the middle or towards the toe, yet the quarters and heels may generally be made sufficiently hollow by the drawing knife, to avoid preasure on a flat shoe.

If it is found that a shoe with its upper surface flat, does not leave a space large enough to admit the picker between it and the sole, it is necessary to make either the sole or the shoe a little hollow. Sometimes the sole appears ragged and in flakes, and of considerable thickness. It is then proper to make the whole of the sole hollow with the drawing knife, before attempting to lower the heels or shorten the toe. When the sole is made hollow, the shoe will rest only on the crust; but if we cannot hollow the sole, we must, to prevent preasure, make the upper surface of the shoe hollow. As the hoof is always growing, and is preserved from friction by the shoe, it is necessary to pare the toe of the crust about once in every month. The more we can remove from the toe of the crust, in hoofs that are not well shaped, the sooner we shall be able to apply a shoe of the proper form and thickness.

"The bars and frog should never be removed. Where there are ragged and detached parts of the frog, it is better that they should be cut with any small knife, by the groom, than by the farrier; for if the latter is once allowed to touch the frog, the sound parts are generally destroyed. Where the frogs are not large and projecting, and the heels are higher than the frogs, then it is advisable to lower the heels, which may be done by a rasp, or the buttress; for in every case we are to endeavour to bring the frog in contact with the ground. We should never lose sight of this principle, that the frog must have preasure, or be diseased. If the frog does not touch the ground, it cannot perform its use; and no organ can be preserved in health, that does not perform the functions for which it was made. Nevertheless, where the frog has been disfigured for the functions for a considerable period, and become soft, it must be accustomed to preasure by degrees."

When it is necessary for the horse to work, though his frog is soft and diseased, it must be gradually accustomed to preasure, by cutting down the hoof about one-tenth of an inch at every fresh shoeing, that the frog may become hard, and equally protuberant with the heels. If the horse be not required to labour, much advantage will be derived from allowing him to stand in the stable without shoes.

The feet of most horses have been deformed by bad shoe to be management. It will therefore be necessary to use a particular shoe to each particular form of hoof. Any one form employed indiscriminately for all feet, cannot be alike successful for all. It is from not having sufficiently attended to this simple fact, that the shoe recommended by the veterinary college has not been more generally adopted. It is therefore necessary to vary the length, breadth, and thickness of the shoe, according to the form of the hoof to which it is to be applied. If the heels or fore-feet are two inches and a half or more in depth; if the frog be found and prominent, and the roads dry, the toe of the hoof only requires to be shortened, and afterwards covered by a short shoe, which may be made of the usual thickness at the toe, but must be thinner gradually towards the heel. The proportional thickness of a shoe of this kind for a common saddle-horse, as recommended by Mr Coleman, is three-eighths of an inch at the toe, and one-eighth at the heel. By means of such a shoe the frog is completely brought in contact with the ground; the heels are expanded; and corns, thrushes, and canker are prevented. The horse may continue to wear such a shoe as long as the weather is warm, and the ground dry.

Race-horses, who generally have the heels high, and the crust thicker and stronger than heavy horses, may generally wear short shoes, at least on the fore-feet. But such as have weak legs, bent knees, long pasterns, or low heels, must not wear such a shoe.

A long shoe is necessary in wet weather, and even in summer, when the heels of the hoofs are low. In winter, when the heels are too high, they should be lowered gradually, by means of a rasp, rather than suffered to wear down, by being exposed to the ground with a short shoe; for moisture is very destructive to the hoof; and thus as great a part of it may be removed as is necessary. Besides, when a horse has been accustomed to high-heeled shoes, if he was suddenly made to wear those with thin heels, the frog might be bruised or inflamed, and the muscles and tendons of the leg considerably strained. It is therefore necessary to bring the heels of the shoe to the proper degree of thinness gradually, Operations dually, observing that the heels of each succeeding shoe be made somewhat thinner than those of the last. In general, as much as possible of the horny part of the hoof next the toe is to be removed, and as little iron employed next the heels every time of shoeing, till the feet be brought as nearly as may be to their natural shape.

In horses that have been accustomed to wear shoes of an equal thickness all round, and where the frog is healthy, we may in general apply a shoe, much thicker at the toe than the heel, by paring down the toe, and taking nothing from the heel; and if a horse appear to suffer no inconvenience from a thin-heeled shoe, during the first month after it is applied, it may be continued with safety, and will greatly improve the hoof. In young horses, however, that have never been shod, and in horses just taken up from grass, the toe seldom admits of being pared down, and a thin-heeled shoe cannot be applied at once.

In all cases where the frog does not embrace the ground with a thin shoe, the heels must be lowered; and if the horse has been accustomed to wear high-heeled shoes, both the shoe and the hoof must be gradually lowered, till the frog can safely and easily perform its proper function.

A few horses require to be shod in a manner different from that which we have described, but still dependent on the same principles.

Different weights of shoes are required for different horses. Mr Coleman lays down the following proportions, for horses of various descriptions.

A moderate-sized coach-horse will require a weight of shoes and nails, from eighteen to twenty ounces; an inch wide, and half an inch thick at the toe, and three-fourths of an inch wide, and one-sixth of an inch thick at the heels.

An ordinary saddle-horse will require only from 12 to 14 ounces; and the shoe may be three-fourths of an inch wide at the toe, and half an inch at the heel, and three-eighths of an inch thick on the outside of the toe, but only one-eighth at the inside of the toe, and at the heel.

The shoe most recommended by Mr Coleman, is concave on its upper surface, where the sole is flat or convex, but it is flat on the rest of the upper surface; but if the sole admits of being hollowed, the whole upper surface may be flat. It is regularly concave on its lower surface next the ground; and it is fastened to the cruff by means of eight nails placed round from the toe backwards, so as to leave a part of the shoe about an inch and a half from the heel. Hunting-horses usually require an additional nail on each side, next the quarter. The nail-holes are made with a punch of a wedge-like form, and to correspond to this the heads of the nails are made conical, so that as long as any part of the head of the nail remains in the hole, the shoe cannot easily come off.

For hunters, and such horses as run in shafts, it is recommended by Mr Coleman to turn up the outer heel; but, as in this way there is often some inequality of position, the outer heel of the foot is to be lowered, while the inner heel of the shoe is somewhat thickened. By these means cutting is avoided.

In such horses as have weak low heels, Mr Coleman recommends the use of the bar-shoe, as the bar affords a support to the frogs, without wearing out the operations, heels. When the bar-shoe has been employed long enough to admit of the heels growing to the proper size, the ordinary thin-heeled shoe may be adopted.

The method recommended by Mr Coleman, as described above, has been for some time followed with considerable success by the board of ordnance, whose horses, as well as those of the British cavalry in general, are now shod after this manner. The method has, however, met with considerable opposition, partly from such as do not understand the principles on which it is founded, and partly from its having been too hastily adopted, in cases to which, as Mr Coleman himself allows, it is not generally applicable.

Fig. 19. and 20. illustrate Mr Coleman's method of shoeing.

Fig. 19. represents the hoof turned upwards, to show the manner in which the shoe is applied. It may be seen from this figure that the web of the shoe is hollow; that the heels at aa are narrower than the other parts of the shoe, and that the nails are placed all round from the toe backwards. Fig. 20. shows that the heels of the shoe are much thinner than the point, and also shows the manner in which the nails are riveted or clinched on the outside of the hoof round the toe and cruff.

The only remaining method of shoeing that we shall here mention, is that of the ingenious Mr Morecroft. This gentleman has acquired much celebrity by his invention of caulking shoes, by sinking them in dies, by which means horses may be fitted with any shoes best adapted to their hoofs. Mr Morecroft's shoe differs from Officer's, in being concave within for more than half its width. He condemns the use of calkins, on the principle that the public roads are now much more solid than when calkins were in general use; and, consequently, that instead of sinking them into the ground, they rather tend to raise the heels above it, and thus the frog is prevented from receiving the necessary pressure. Mr Morecroft, however, allows calkins to heavy draught-horses, for whom he recommends two on each shoe; but in lighter horses of the same description, one on the outside of each shoe. The latter is also recommended for hunters, but for other riding horses, he forbids the use of calkins. The number of nails in Mr Morecroft's shoe is usually eight, but in heavy draught-horses they are not to be placed on the sides of the shoe, but all round at equal distances, leaving a space at the heels of about two inches or two inches and a half. In frosty weather, Mr Morecroft recommends nails with a lozenge head, or a double counterlink, terminating in an edge instead of coming to a point, which greater breadth of surface prevents its being rubbed away so fast as a point. The thickness in the middle gives it strength, and the regular taper to the shank causes it to apply exactly to the side of the hole in the shoe, by which it is equally supported, and prevented from bending or breaking.

Mr Coleman considering pressure as necessary to the healthy action of the frog, has contrived a method of artificial affording this pressure in those cases in which, from difficult feet, or bad management in shoeing, it cannot naturally receive it; and where, if the heels were lowered, in order to bring the frog in contact with the ground, there would be danger of straining the tendons. Mr Coleman's patent artificial frogs are intended to produce Part III.

FAR R I E R Y.

Operations, due pressure on the natural frogs, while the horses are standing in the stable, and thus to give time for the growth of the heels, and to avoid the evils that would arise from lowering these too suddenly, or from allowing the frog to remain elevated above the ground. For the particulars of this ingenious invention, we must refer to Mr Coleman's pamphlet.

Where oxen are worked in farming buffaloes like horses, it is generally thought necessary to defend their hoofs in a similar manner by means of iron shoes. The form and manner of fitting these do not appear to be universally the same in all places; nor are we acquainted with the methods usually practised. We know that M. St Bel recommended the following methods; either to shoe the ox with a flat plate of iron, having five or seven nail-holes on the outer edge, accompanied with a projection of four or five inches of iron at the toe, which puffing the cleft of the foot, is bent over the hoof; or with eight shoes, one under each nail; otherwise with four, one under each internal nail; or only two, one under the external nail of each fore-foot.

CHAP. II. Of Cafting.

There are several tedious and painful operations that we are sometimes obliged to perform, and which it would be difficult, or impossible to execute, were the animal left at full liberty to resist us. It is, therefore, necessary to render ourselves completely masters of him, by throwing him down on the ground, and in a convenient situation, so as not to expose him or ourselves to injury. This operation is called cafting, and is usually thus performed.

The first object is to prepare a thick bed of straw or litter, not less than eight feet square, to prevent the animal from being hurt in the fall. If the stable be sufficiently large to admit of the bed being made there, it is to be preferred, as, during the operation, to prepare for which cafting is necessary, the parts operated on will suffer less from exposure to the air in the stable, than without doors.

But, if there is not room in the stable, the bed must be made in the stable-yard, or rather, if possible, in some field or park adjoining.

The animal is now to be brought to one side of the bed; a strong leather strap, with a buckle at one end, and having an iron ring fixed to it, at a convenient distance from the buckle, is to be fixed round the pattern of each of the four legs, in such a way, that the rings of the straps that are round the fore-feet shall be directed backwards, and those of the straps on the hind-feet shall be opposite to these; while the buckles point outwards, to prevent hurting the animal. A pretty strong cord, ten or twelve feet long, is to be fastened to the ring of that strap that has been placed on the fore-foot on that side of the animal which is farthest from the bed; from this ring it is to pass through the ring on the hind-foot, on the same side, from which it passes through the ring on the other hind-foot, then through the ring on the other fore-foot, and lastly, through that to which it was first fastened. The animal being thus fettered, a number of men are to place themselves beside him, so that he may be between them and the bed, while others are to stand on the opposite side of the litter. Now, the men that are beside the animal, laying hold of the end of the rope, are to pull gradually with considerable force, so as to bring the four feet of the animal as near as possible together. When this is done, the men on the other side, standing in a row, one at the head of the animal, another at his chest, a third at his haunches, a fourth at his tail, &c., pull the animal toward them and complete his fall.

It is necessary to observe that the men who pull the rope, and those who receive the animal on the bed, must not act at the same time; as in this case the shock would be so great and sudden, as probably to occasion some accident, either to the men or to the animal. It is also proper to remark, that the animal must be cast in such a manner, that the part to be operated on may be fully in the view and reach of the operator.

When the animal is once on the bed, his head must be held down by a man, and it will be proper to cover his eyes. Another assistant must stand by the cord, which for greater security, should be fastened with a knot at the first ring.

There are some little niceties to be observed in casting an animal, according to the operation that is intended to be performed on him; but of these we shall speak, when we describe the operations themselves.

CHAP. III. Of Bleeding.

Bleeding is distinguished into general and local. General bleeding is performed for the purpose of taking away a quantity of blood from the general maws, and consists in opening some large vein, or some considerable branch of an artery. The vein usually opened, in horses and cattle, is the vein that runs along the neck, and which is called the jugular vein. This vein may be easily felt, as it is generally considerably raised above the muscles.

The vein is usually opened by means of a fleam, which is forced into the vein, by striking it with a small wooden mallet, called by farriers a blood-flick. There are many objections to this mode of bleeding. In the first place, it is extremely clumsy; and, if the vein happens to roll, which is very commonly the case, a large wound may be made in the skin, without drawing blood. Again, these animals, especially horses, are easily frightened by any sudden motion of the hand; and some persons have the way of shaking the blood-flick before they give the stroke; and, in doing this, they often use more exertion than is necessary. The animal alarmed at these strange motions, tosses up his head, and thus renders the stroke uncertain.

Many prefer the ordinary lancet used by surgeons; and, in several cases, particularly of local bleeding, this is the most convenient instrument. But in opening the jugular vein, we do not consider it as much superior to the common fleam. When this latter is employed, the back of it should be made of considerable thickness, as, when it is too narrow, as is commonly the case, when the instrument is struck with the flick, it sinks into the channel of the vein, which is often not opened, as the prominent muscles of the neck receive the stroke.

For most purposes of bleeding, we would recommend the spring-fleam, as being easily applied, and much more certain in its effect.

It is a common practice with grooms and farriers, to tie a rope or other ligature about the neck of the animal, neck. Operations animal, previous to the bleeding in the jugular vein. They do this from a supposition that the vein will thus swell the more readily, and that it will be opened with greater certainty. But this ligature is in most cases unnecessary, and will at some times be highly dangerous.

Where exercise is not improper before bleeding, it will be sufficient that the animal be gently trotted previous to the operation, as thus the circulation will be promoted, and the superficial veins will be sufficiently filled with blood. Where general exercise is improper or inadmissible, the filling of the vein may easily be promoted by briskly rubbing the neck for some time with a wisp of straw or hay; and just before applying the fleam, it will be proper to press with one finger upon that part of the vein that is between the shoulder and the place where the fleam is applied.

The danger of a ligature will appear both from reason and experience. When the ligature is fastened round the neck, it produces a swelling of the vein on each side; and thus the circulation being in a great measure impeded, and the return of much of the blood from the head prevented, an accumulation of blood takes place in the vessels of the brain. If the ligature be continued round the neck, which must happen when, by want of dexterity of the operator, or by the horse being frightened, the vein has not been opened at the first attempt, the stagnation of the blood in the head goes on to an alarming degree, and the horse not unfrequently falls down in an apoplectic fit. "In such cases," says Mr Clark, "I have observed the operator greatly disconcerted, and desirous of any further attempts to draw blood at that time, being prepossessed with the idea that the horse was vicious and unruly, although the very treatment the horse had just undergone rendered bleeding at this time the more necessary, in order to make a speedy revulsion from the vessels of the head; therefore a ligature or bandage ought never to be used till such time as the opening is made into the vein, and even then it will not be necessary at all times, if the horse can stand on his feet, as a moderate pressure with the finger on the vein will make the blood flow freely; but if the horse is lying on the ground, a ligature will be necessary."

But further, the concussion or shock the horse receives from his falling down, in the above situation, which will always happen if the ligature is too long continued, may cause a blood-vessel in the head to burst, and death may be the consequence.

The place where the vein is to be opened is of some consequence, as, when the opening is made too far from the head, where the vein lies deep among the muscles, both the vein is not so easily opened, and the wound is not so readily healed. The most proper place for opening the jugular vein is about an inch below the joining of the small branches that come from the lower jaw. This is generally about a hand-breadth from the head, but it may be easily seen by the swelling of the vein when pressure is made on its trunk.

Before opening the vein, it is usual to wet the hairs that lie above it, and to stroke them in the direction of the intended orifice. This is a good practice, as the instrument thus passes through the skin more readily, not having to overcome the resistance of the hair. In mentioning the direction of the orifice, it is worth while to remark, that this should neither be longitudinal nor directly across the vein, but rather oblique; as the flow of blood from an oblique orifice is most easily stopped.

When the vein is opened, it is highly proper in all cases to catch the blood in some convenient vessel. It is a very absurd practice, although it is commonly adopted, to allow the blood to flow at random on the ground or on a dunghill, by which means no precise estimate can be made of the quantity of blood taken away. This may either be so small, as to be of no advantage; or it may be so considerable as to produce fainting, before the operator thinks of stopping the orifice.

For the purpose of measuring the quantity of blood taken away, Mr White recommends a graduated vessel, capable of containing five quarts; every pint being marked on the inside of the vessel, so that the quantity of blood that is taken off may be exactly known. The blood should always be preserved, that we may judge from its appearance of the nature of the disease, and whether it is proper, or not, to repeat the operation. If the blood continues fluid for a considerable time, it shows that there is an inflammatory state of the body; and if a jelly-like substance, of a whitish or light buff colour, and rather firm consistence, appears on the surface after the blood has cooled, and especially if the surface is hollowed, we may be certain that the animal's complaint is of an inflammatory nature, that the bleeding has been proper, and must be repeated, if the symptoms continue or increase; but if the blood coagulates quickly, is uniformly of a dark liver colour, loose, and easily broken, with a considerable quantity of water upon its surface, it denotes debility, and shows that the disease arises from a weakness of the system; that instead of bleeding, tonic and cordial medicines are to be employed, with everything that may tend to restore the animal's strength.

When a sufficient quantity of blood has been taken away, it is for the most part necessary to secure the orifice, in order to prevent future accidental bleeding. This is usually done by thrusting a common pin through the lips of the wound, and twining about it a little horse hair. As in this way the wound often rankles, and becomes a sore difficult to heal, which we are disposed to attribute to the brass pin employed, as often as to any other cause; we would recommend a pin of silver, or at least polished steel. The pin need not pass through more than the skin, and in some cases when the horse can conveniently be fastened to the rack after bleeding, the pin may be entirely dispensed with.

As it is often required to bleed on either side of the neck, or on both sides, it is proper that the operator should be able to bleed with either hand. This is indeed not quite so necessary in bleeding horses and cattle, as in the human subject; but it will be often found very convenient in both.

In some cases, especially in inflammation of the brain, where a sudden and copious loss of blood is required, it becomes necessary to open the temporal artery. This is easily effected, as the artery is situated very superficially, about an inch and a half backwards from the upper and outer corner of the eye. It is most conveniently opened with a lancet, and when a sufficient quantity of blood has been drawn, the flow is in general very easily stopped by making continued pressure upon the artery; or, if this should not succeed, and a dangerous effusion Topical bleeding is useful in several cases, as in inflammatory affections of the feet, which are often relieved by opening the coronary veins, or the vein that encircles the coffin-bone; in inflammation of the eyes, in which blood may be often drawn, from the angular veins, with considerable succus; and in affections of the mouth, where it is sometimes useful to draw blood, by clarifying the bars of the mouth, or even, in some urgent cases, by opening the veins of the palate. Topical bleeding is best performed with a lancet.

Almost the only method that is practised for bleeding sheep, or dogs, is to cut off a joint or two of the tail; and this is certainly often productive of good consequences, as the flow of blood is sometimes pretty considerable. Unfortunately, however, we can seldom have recourse to this mode of bleeding more than once or twice, whereas cases often occur in which it is necessary to repeat the bleeding. It is also a cruel method, and we see no reason why the veins in these animals may not be opened like those of horses and cattle. In the sheep, indeed, the thickness of the wool will commonly prevent bleeding in the neck, but the temporal artery and the veins of the foot may be opened without difficulty; and in most dogs we may bleed in the jugular-vein with nearly as much ease, as in the horse or cow.

**CHAP. IV. Of making Rowels and Setons.**

Rowels in horses and cattle are much the same as rowelling in the human body. The operation consists in incising the skin, so as to insert between it and the cellular membrane some foreign body, which is kept there, in order to produce and keep up a suppuration, or running of purulent matter. The operation is usually performed in the following manner. An incision is made through the skin by means of a very sharp pair of scissors, or what appears better, a sharp knife. The finger is then introduced below the skin, so as to separate it from the flesh all round, as far as the finger will reach. A piece of leather, about the size of a crown-piece, and of a circular form, with a hole cut in the middle, is then inserted between the skin and muscles, having been first anointed with some stimulating ointment. A small piece of tow or caddice spread with the same ointment, is put over the hole in the centre of the leather; the skin is laid down over all, and the part is covered with a pledget, also covered with ointment, to keep out the external air.

The leather is left in this situation for two or three days, during which the parts adjoining the rowel swell, and at the end of the time there appears a discharge of a yellowish matter, which gradually becomes thicker and whiter. In three days at farthest the part must be examined, and the plug removed from the central hole, to allow the matter to flow out. The rowel is now complete, and may be continued as long as shall be found necessary. The action of the rowel is easily explained; the leather introduced excites a degree of inflammation between the skin and the flesh, and no means being taken to check this, it goes on, like most other inflammations of fleshy parts, to suppuration. Thus a discharge is produced from the part, which is found to have considerable effect in checking inflammation of some more important organ near which the rowel... Operations. Rowel has been inserted. Thus, in inflammation of the lungs, after copious bleeding, a rowel in the chest, like a blister in the human body, is found to have considerable effect in checking the progress of the disease.

Rowels may be placed in most of the fleshy parts of the body; but they are most commonly inserted in the belly, the breast, the inside of the thighs, the outside of the shoulders, and the hips. They are sometimes placed between the jaw-bones, below the tongue; but this is very improper, as a good suppuration can seldom be brought on in this place.

It is sometimes found necessary to make several rowels at the same time; but they should always be placed, as nearly as possible, to the seat of the affection which they are intended to relieve.

Besides dangerous inflammations, rowels are found serviceable in large swellings of the hind legs, in obstinate cases of gout, and in strains of the shoulder.

Though rowels are thus found extremely useful in many cases, they are, like many other operations performed on brute animals, sometimes made where they are unnecessary or improper. Where there is considerable debility, the insertion of a rowel would be very injurious, as it would not suppurate kindly, and as the discharge produced would tend still farther to increase the debility. The discharge in these cases is usually thin and ichorous; sometimes they are perfectly dry, and not unfrequently a mortification is produced. When a rowel is found to be attended with any of these effects, it must be immediately removed, and the parts must be fomented with a warm decoction of the chamomile-flowers, and some stimulating herbs; or must be bathed with spirit of wine or oil of turpentine. If gangrene should have come on, it will besides be necessary to administer cordial and strengthening remedies.

Setons are inserted through an opening made in two opposite parts of the skin, and the extraneous body introduced is a cord.

The opening is made by means of a sharp-pointed instrument with an eye at the other end for receiving the cord. The sides of the instrument must be proportioned to the opening to be made, and the size of the cord to be inserted.

Setons are particularly useful for the purpose of gradually draining off matter from abscesses or suppurating tumours, that are either so deeply seated as not to be easily opened in any other way, or so large that the sudden discharge of matter from them while opened by the knife, would be attended with bad consequences. They are best employed in large abscesses of the back withers, and the upper part of the neck behind the ears. Setons are also attended with the advantage of draining off the matter without exposing the inside of the abscess to the air.

The method of inserting the seton for the purpose of opening an abscess is this. When it is found that there is a considerable accumulation of matter, the needle, furnished with a cord of the proper size, is to be introduced at the highest part of the tumour, and brought out towards its lowest part, so that the matter may more easily drain off. The cord, which must previously be rubbed with stimulating ointment, is now to be cut from the eye of the needle, and then fastened together at both ends, to prevent its being pulled out; but if the cord should not admit of being thus tied, a small Operation button of wood may be fastened on each end. It is better, however, if possible, to tie the ends together, as every time the fore is dressed, the seton requires to be drawn a little round. When the discharge appears to be nearly stopped, except what evidently arises from the presence of the cord, this may be gradually removed, by drawing out a single thread of it at every dressing.

In introducing the needle, great care must be taken to avoid large blood-vessels and nerves; and where there is a danger in encountering these, it is better to pass the needle through a sheath. This may easily be done, by first making a small opening with a lancet at the upper part of the tumour; and through this introducing the sheath, which is to be pushed down till it reaches the part at which the needle is intended to come out. The needle in this way will pass through the sheath without danger of wounding any important nerve or vessel.

CHAP. V. Of Firing.

This operation consists in applying to the skin, or firing other parts of the body, a metallic instrument heated to a greater or lesser degree of redness. The instrument is called a cautery, and the operation was well known among the ancient surgeons, by the name of the actual cautery.

The instruments employed for firing are usually made of iron, sometimes of copper; but iron is to be preferred. They are of various forms, according to the part to which they are to be applied, and the purpose for which the operation is to be performed. These will be considered in describing the cases to which firing is applicable.

The operation is found of use on several occasions:

1st. In order to oppose the progress of mortification. With this view a cautery shaped like a knife, with a blunt edge and a thick back, is to be employed. This form will also answer for many other cases. There should be several instruments of the same kind, that when one becomes too cool, another may be ready of the proper degree of heat. The heat of the iron intended for the present case should be that of a cherry-red. In applying the iron, the parts adjoining to the mortified place are to be passed over with the edge of the instrument in successive parallel lines, so as the heat may penetrate to the living parts, and thus produce such a degree of healthy action as may enable them to throw off the mortified flesh. When the iron has been applied for a sufficient time, which must be regulated by the nature of the part, and the extent of mortification, the wound is to be covered with a pledget spread with some stimulating ointment.

2d. Firing is employed to brace the skin, and to strengthen the sinews. The instrument above described is used on this occasion, but its heat must be somewhat greater. The mode of applying it is to pass the edge lightly and quickly over the skin, describing parallel lines from one end of the part to the other. When one iron has been used in this way, a fresh one is to be taken, and made to retrace the lines first formed, beginning where the last iron left off; and this is to be repeated as often as appears necessary, taking care not to destroy the texture of the skin. It is recommended Part III.

Operations, by some to apply the hot iron, so as to burn away the hair, for some time previously to firing the skin; as much time is otherwise lost before the proper impression can be made by the iron. After firing a blister is sometimes applied, as this is thought to increase the good effect produced by the iron. When firing is employed on the hind legs, or on any part where the operator would be exposed to danger from the horse's kicking, it is necessary to confine the legs by means of fetters.

3d. This operation has been found useful in spaying, ring-bones, old callous swellings of the back flanks; and in wind-galls. For this purpose the irons are used as already directed. It is the custom with some farriers to apply a blister in these cases before firing, in order to reduce the swelling; as they suppose that firing employed without this precaution would tend to fix the swelling, and render it incurable. There is probably little foundation for such an idea.

4th. Firing is very frequently had recourse to by way of a flytrick in stopping or checking profuse bleedings, from accidental wounds, or surgical operations. The iron employed with this view has generally a rounded extremity, except in the operation of docking, where an iron in the form of a ring is generally employed.

5th. Another use of firing is in wounds of the joints, or other circumscribed cavities, where it is employed to promote a kindly circulation, and consequent granulation of healthy flesh. It has been employed in these cases by Mr Coleman, with considerable success.

6th. Firing has been found one of the most effectual remedies in those superficial ulcers that accompany farcy or glanders in the horse; and,

Lastly, The use of the hot iron has been found the only certain means of preventing the dreadful effects arising from the bite of a mad animal, when properly applied after cutting out the bitten part.

CHAP. VI. Of Docking.

The honour of having introduced this most useful and humane practice, belongs, we believe, solely to this country. It appears that it was in use in England, so long ago as the end of the eighth century; for at a council held there, about that time (concilium Calcute-tenis, or council of Calchute), there was a canon enacted, expressly forbidding this practice, as indecent and abominable.

It does not appear that this operation is performed among the Arabians, or other eastern nations; or at least, if it be, it is not intended as an ornament to the animal, but either from necessity, when the tail is disfigured, or by way of mark, to distinguish some particular horse.

Docking has been practised in Germany for about 300 years; and probably much longer in France. It was certainly unknown to the Italians at the latter end of the fifteenth century; for we are told, that when the army of the emperor Maximilian was in Italy in 1497, the Italians were much surprised to see his cavalry mounted on docked horses.

It is strange that prejudice and false taste should lead mankind to deprive their horses of a part, which, to the eye of reason and unsophisticated nature, must appear not only an ornament to the animal, but as designed by the Creator as a protection against flies, gnats, and innumerable other winged enemies, which harass them in the summer months. It is true indeed, that in Britain, where the summer heats are in general not so lasting, or so violent, as in the more southern countries of Europe, these insects are not always so troublesome as they are found in those climates. But even here they are sufficiently so, to render the protection of the tail necessary; and when our cavalry are unhappily sent to the continent, the loss of the horses' tails proves a very serious obstacle to the success of the troops. More than one instance of this has occurred. At the battle of Dettingen in 1743, great part of the British cavalry were absolutely dismounted, from the death of the horses, occasioned in a great measure by the torment which they experienced from the bite of gad-flies, and other insects; and at the battle of Minden, in the seven years war, the cavalry of the allies were thrown into so much disorder by these petty enemies, that they had nearly lost the battle. Lord Pembroke declares, that he has seen the cavalry horses belonging to our army, fireeating, rushing against each other, refusing their food, and absolutely devoured by flies, for want of their tails to brush them off; while those of the horses of the foreign cavalry that had not been deprived of this necessary defence, were cool, tranquil, fed well, and were in good condition. From the inconveniences which our cavalry have suffered from the want of the horses' tails, it has been for some years the custom to employ long-tailed horses.

The principal reasons that have been assigned for this absurd practice, are, that a long tail is extremely inconvenient to both horse and rider, when travelling through dirty roads and bully forests; and that when the tail is of its ordinary length, the animal cannot carry it in that fine, arched, cocked-tail direction, which seems to form one of the chief beauties of the modern racer.

We apprehend that few horses enjoy such an ample length of tail as that of the redoubted Hudibras; of whose horse we read that,

"His draggling tail hung in the dirt, Which on his rider he would flirt, Still as his tender side he pricked With arm'd heel, or with unarm'd kickt."

As to the beauty of a cocked-tailed horse, we profess ourselves not competent to judge; but with due deference to the gentlemen of the turf, and the respectable fraternity of jockeys, we should humbly conceive (we speak with submission) that a horse with a long tail is a much finer object than one that is perpetually perking and wriggling his tail in the air, and exposing his bare breech to the broad glare of open day.

Docking is usually performed on horses, by laying the Mode of tail upon a block, and chopping off the part by means performing of a cleaver or hatchet struck with a mallet. Perhaps the operation would be rather less bungling to perform the operation by means of a knife, and it would not take up much more time. When this is done, the hair must be previously clipped away, that the knife may cut more easily; and previous to making the incision, the skin should be drawn up forcibly towards the rump. The incision may be made by beginning on one side, and cutting round from below upwards, so as to perform the whole. Operations, whole as nearly as possible at one stroke. When the skin and muscles have been completed divided, the part of the tail is to be cut off at the joining of two of the bones as nearly as possible to the edges of the wound, still keeping the skin drawn up. When the part has been removed, the flesh is to be feared all round with a hot iron, to stop the effusion of blood. The iron employed in France for this purpose is formed like a ring, so that it is easily applied to the flesh without injuring the bone. The wound must be covered from the air, and the animal must live rather low to prevent inflammation.

The practice of nicking, or cutting across the muscles that draw down the tail, so that those which pull it upwards may exert their full power, is still more inhuman and absurd than that of docking; and as we will contribute nothing towards extending this abominable practice, we shall omit the operation altogether.

**Chap. VII. Of Cropping.**

Taste and fashion have introduced another operation, by which the ears of horses and dogs are changed from their natural shape and size, to those which are considered by their owners as more handsome or agreeable. The ears of the horse and the dog are seldom of such a shape or size, as to render them inconvenient to the animals, or to unfit them for the purposes for which nature has designed them. This may, however, sometimes happen; and there are some cases of wounds or diseases that may render cropping necessary; but in performing this operation, it should always be kept in mind, that no part of the animal is made in vain, no more of the ears should be taken away than what is absolutely necessary. We not unfrequently see horses and dogs cropped close to their head, a practice which is cruel and absurd, and which is always followed by more or less deafness, and exposes the animals to much inconvenience from the weather. In those dogs that are employed in rabbit warrens, or for similar purposes, where they are required to enter burrows, cropping is attended with the worst effects, as the ears of the dog are unavoidably exposed to the particles of sand and earth that he breathes away in his passage through the burrow.

The operation of cropping scarcely requires description. In the dog it is usually performed by means of a pair of scissors, but these should be very sharp. In the horse, more nicety is required; and a particular instrument, called the cropping iron, is required, and a shape of the size of which it is intended the ear shall be, is applied to the ear, to mark the line of section. After the ear is cut, the skin and muscles recede considerably from the grizzly part; but this seems of little consequence, and the wound heals in a few days without any other attention, than confining the animal within doors, and keeping him on a moderate, cooling diet. Horses' ears are sometimes trimmed, as the grooms call it; that is, they are deprived of the fine soft hair that lines the inside of the cavity. This practice is equally absurd with cropping, as will appear from the following observations of Mr. Clark.

"The ears of horses, as of other animals, (says Mr. Clarke), are covered on the inside with a short down, intermixed with long hairs, which line the external cavity of the ear, which seems designed by nature to prevent harsh sounds from making too great an impression upon the brain, and likewise to prevent the cold air, rain, dust, flies, &c. from annoying the internal ear. The means commonly used to remove this down, &c. is by the scissors, the flame of a candle, or that of a burning torch. Both the latter are cruel and barbarous, and cause a deal of pain to the animal, not only from the blisters that sometimes rise on the ears after this manner of fingering them, but likewise from the means that are used to make horses stand with patience to undergo the operation, that is a twitch on the nose, and perhaps, if he is troublesome to the operator, one put on the ear. It is to be observed, that horses are very much guided, or directed by the sense of hearing. This is obvious in those that hear distinctly, from the motion of their ears, and the direction they give them to whatever quarter any sound comes from, the attention they pay to what passes around them, or to what is spoke to them. Many of them, particularly the finest kind, as they only are liable to this kind of treatment, have the sense of hearing considerably blunted, if not rendered quite deaf from the above operation.

As this operation is generally first performed on young horses at the time they are breaking, it is the more hurtful; as the uncommon sounds, as the rattling of carriages, drums, &c., which are entirely new to them, and to which they are then more exposed on the roads or in streets, must make the greater impression on the sense of hearing; and perhaps it may be owing to the above cause only, that many horses are timorous to pass carriages, and remain so ever afterwards.

Another disadvantage which attends this operation upon the ears of horses, is, that they will not go on cheerfully when travelling in opposition to the wind, more especially if it rains; for as the wind and rain get free access into the ears, they are continually flapping their heads and endeavouring to turn from it; and those who are of a more impatient temper, will wheel suddenly round, in order to avoid what gives them so much uneasiness. They are then said to be reticent; the whip and spurs are applied by way of chastisement for a supposed fault only.

From what has been said, it will be obvious, from the practice of taking away the natural covering from the inside of the ears, that the internal ear must be exposed to be considerably injured, particularly from cold, dust, &c., which blunts the sense of hearing, and perhaps causes deafness; for it is observed in those horses who have been much used to this treatment, that they lose that lively, active motion of the ears, and appear dull and inattentive to what passes around them, and even to the voice of their keeper."

**Chap. VIII. Of Castration.**

It is found of use to deprive the males of several of the domestic animals, especially of horses and cattle, of the means of propagation, either to render them more mild and tractable, or, in the case of cattle, to promote their fattening, and render their flesh less rank. It has been disputed whether the castration of the stallion is productive of such advantages as are not counterbalanced by the loss of strength and spirit, which the animals sustain. Part III.

FAR R I E R Y.

Operations sustain by the operation. It is not our intention to dis- cuss this point, and we shall here only describe the usual modes of performing the operation.

The most prudent mode of castrating an adult or grown horse, appears to be the following. Let him be thrown on some convenient spot, on the off side, and when down, let the off hind leg be drawn towards the neck, by which the scrotum will be fairly exposed.

Holding the scrotum firmly, make a cut at once through it, not of too great length, but sufficient to admit the teat being pressed out; this being done, apply the clamps or a pair of nippers on the cord within an inch of the teat, and hold the clamps sufficiently tight to stop the flow of blood, but not to bruise the cord; the stone may then be cut off with a scalpel, or it may be seared off with a burning knife. If it is cut off with a scalpel immediately before the clams let go their hold, fear the end of the cord. Some apply a little powdered resin on it before searing, after which the clams may be loosened. When this is finished, proceed to remove the other in the same manner.

After both are removed, a pledget of lint, wetted in warmed spirits, may be introduced just within the edges of each wound; but no salt should by any means be introduced, as is the practice of some farriers; nor will any kind of bandage be easily retained, and if anything of this kind is used, it should be very loosely applied, so as not to irritate.

When this operation is performed on a full grown horse, if he is at all fat, he should be previously bled, and kept rather low; and it will be prudent to choose mild weather for the operation; and the place likewise he is put into after the operation, should be of a moderate temperature.

Sometimes there is a considerable degree of inflammation, and when this happens, it is by no means proper to trot the horse about as is commonly done, but to bleed and purge, and apply a solution of sugar of lead to the parts. It will also be of advantage to insert a feton smeared with blistering ointment into the inside of the thigh.

Some operators separate the epididymis from the teat, and suffer it to remain, by which means they think that a portion of the animal's spirit is retained. A similar custom is said to prevail in France; but the French operators object to it, on the idea that it produces fulvous fores in the part. The fact is, that when any portion of the teat is suffered to remain, though it cannot secrete semen, yet it has some action going on within, by which it produces some influence both on the mind and form; and as such, the future growth of the animal may perhaps be slightly affected by it, and perhaps his temper too, but the addition to the latter may probably not be a very favourable one.

Where the operation is to be performed, the best time is probably when the foal is about three months old, though some prefer a much more advanced age, as six, or even twelve months, and more in some cases. In all animals there is, however, the least danger of inflammation while they are young in performing such operations. Besides it is better to cut colts before they have any propensity to hanker after mares, and get bad habits. When the foals are early, and the weather is not too hot, the latter end of May or beginning of June may be a good and proper season.

Vol. VIII. Part II.

Some of the Yorkshire breeders, however, think that Operations, they find advantage in deferring the operation till the horses are two years old, as they suppose they become the stronger and handlomer for it. And where the operation is performed at one year old, they find that the foals have not recovered the check they sustained by weaning before they experience another in this operation. They experience no greater difference in their recovery at two years old than one. The foals should be kept up some time before the gelding is to be performed.

The castrating of male lambs is performed at different periods in different districts; but it seems the most proper to be done in the first fortnight in the stronger sort of lambs, and in those of the weaker kind from a fortnight to three weeks, or a month old, according to circumstances. Some, however, advise its being done at a much later period. When done early, there is, however, the least danger of too much inflammation coming on, if the lambs be in a healthy condition. When performed while very young, on tender, delicate lambs, mortification may sometimes be apt to come on and destroy them.

CHAP. IX. Of Spaying.

Spaying is an operation performed on the females, Spaying, chiefly on cattle and dogs, to prevent their producing young. It consists in taking away the ovaries, or those appendages to the womb in which are formed the rudiments of the young. It is supposed that it is attended with considerable advantage, in cows or heifers, as it greatly promotes their fattening. In bitches, it is generally employed to prevent the unpleasant circumstances that often occur in the time they are in heat.

Spaying is usually performed after the animal has been newly impregnated, as at that time the ovaries are larger than before impregnation, and are of course more easily discovered. In performing the operation, a cut is made through the integuments of the belly, between the haunch-bone and the last ribs, and through this opening the fingers are to be introduced. If the animal has not been impregnated, a roundish hard substance will be felt attached to the loins. This is to be drawn out and cut off, and that on the other side is now to be felt for, drawn out, and cut away. The ovaries, as has been said, will be much more readily found, especially the inmost one, when the animal is impregnated, as the young within the horns of the womb afford a good direction to the finger. It is sometimes necessary, when the animal is not in a state of impregnation, to make an opening on each side of the belly, one for the extraction of each ovary; but when this is found requisite, it will be better to delay the second operation till the animal is in some measure recovered from the first. When the ovaries have been cut away, the openings must be closed by means of a stitch through the integuments of the belly, and must be carefully covered with sticking plaster, to prevent the admission of the external air.

Mr Daniel remarks, that this operation does not always succeed in bitches, unless done by a skilful person, who can be relied upon. If it be ill done, although the bitches can have no puppies, they will notwithstanding go to heat, which defeats the purpose. There is a difference of opinion, whether a bitch should be spayed.

Operations. Spayed before or after she has had a litter of whelps; Mr Daniel, however, has tried, and found both periods to answer. The best time is 14 or 15 days after she has taken the dog, and when the puppies just begin to be knotted within her. All the roots of the veins should not be taken away; her strength and swiftness will be injured by so doing. They should be kept low for several days before the operation is performed, and fed on thin meat for some time after.

*Daniel's Rural Sports.*

Chap. X. Of Delivery in Difficult Labours.

In general, Nature is all-sufficient for bringing forth the young of domestic animals, and man has little to do, except to take care that the females be not in such a situation as may expose themselves or their young to injury. It is proper always to watch a mare, or a cow, that is near the time of bringing forth; and to be at hand, to afford affluence where necessary. Mares do not often require assistance, as with them, difficult labour is uncommon. Where this does occur, the directions we are about to give for the cow, will in general answer for the mare.

Cows, particularly the short-horned species, often need the affluence of the accoucheur. The natural presentation of the calf, is with its head and fore-feet, the nose between the feet, and the back upwards. Downing enumerates seven preternatural positions: namely, 1st, Reverse presentation, or tail first. 2nd, Fore-feet, no head appearing. 3rd, Side-belly upwards, head reversed over one shoulder, legs appearing. 4th, Fore-feet, with head under the brisket. 5th, Head alone, or one fore-leg only with it. 6th, Head and one leg, or head alone. 7th, Calf lying on its back, its four legs folded nearly together, and close up to the cow's back; the head appearing, or doubled back, even with the ribs, on one side or other; one hind-leg, perhaps, appearing.

The following general rules are given by Mr Lawrence.—Timely affluence before the cow is exhausted. Extraction never to be attempted in an improper position. Supply the hand and arm with warm water and fresh lard. Examination best made, the cow standing, and in the interval of pains. In pulling at the feet, inclose the claws in the hand, that the horn may not bruise the cow. Navel string bursting, and the usual flux of blood, of no consequence. Instruments to be used only in the last resort, and by experienced and steady persons only. The proper hook is of hard iron, four inches long, with a loop for the cord at the straight end.

In a natural position, if the cow should want help, the position of the calf may be ascertained after the waters have been seen. A cord ought to be in readiness, to attach to the fore legs of the calf, in order to assist each natural exertion. The head to be kept clear of obstruction.

Preternatural position. No 1. as above. No attempt to turn the calf (this position being favourable for extraction), but use expedition, for fear it be suffocated. Press the haunches back with the palm of the hand, take hold of the bend of the hough of one leg, pull at it, and reach the foot; both feet may thus be brought forth. No 2. Reduce the head to its proper situation, between the fore-legs, either by hold of the nose, or the face-bone. A long arm is needful, which must be kept Operations. to the full extent in the body, that infant advantage may be taken of every throe, the fingers being properly fixed. No 3. Gently move the calf back, and bring the head forth to the legs. No 4. Push the calf back to find the head; pull at the nose; this requires adroits, but it is useless to employ force, until the head be in its proper place. No 5 and 6. Push the calf back against the shoulders and brisket; the feet will be found folded under the belly; bring the feet forward, one at a time, the hand being gently placed on the bend of the knee. Should the head be too much swelled and bruised, to be returned, it must be skinned and amputated. Direct in a straight line from the poll to the nose; force the skin back over the first joint of the neck, divide the head from the body, pushing the latter back to obtain hold of the knees. The loose skin must be previously wrapped over the ragged bone, and an assistant should have fast hold, in order to guide it clear of the haunch-bones of the cow; should it hitch there, put back instantly. No 7. If one hind-leg appear, put it back; the calf cannot be brought forth with a hinder and fore-leg together, and the difference between the knee and hough will be immediately discovered. The head being doubled back, must of course be reduced to its proper place. The cow being strong and quiet, the business may be effected with care and patience; but should the hook be positively necessary, hold must be taken, either in the sockets of the eyes, cavity of the ears, or in the jaw. The calf of droopy in the calf will be sufficiently apparent by its preternatural size; use the knife carefully, should that be necessary, to pierce the belly of the calf.

There is a very material obstruction which frequently happens to the calving of cows. It is called a horned ring of the lye or calf-bed, when the pallage of it is contracted into a very small circumference, infomuch, that face, at the full time of gestation, it will not admit to much as the smallest hand, and grows so finewy or horned, as renders it utterly impossible for the cow to calve without affluence, and many cattle have died under this dreadful inconvenience, when it might have been easily prevented; but so little has been known hitherto of the diseases peculiar to black cattle, that many thousands have fallen victims to untimely death, that a simple remedy or operation might have saved.

In the calf before observed, it must take a considerable length of time, before it is contracted, as it is often found; but no suspicion or dread can reasonably take place, until near the time when the beast has arrived at the end of nine months, her full time of bearing young: when they generally make a regular preparation, or falling of the parts of generation, for a few days, or weeks before calving; but in cases of this hornedness of the calf-bed, it is observed that they are backward in making these necessary alterations, preparatory to the approaching change; and when this is noticed, more than usual observation ought to be taken, for when they do not prepare in a regular manner, they seldom have the efforts of nature in due course, for the delivery of their burthen.—But when the beast is observed sick for calving, and has reached the end of her time, and any dread of this apprehended, there is no danger or impropriety in searching with the hand, in order to be satisfied, whether that part is open, or grown. PART IV. HYGEIOLOGY; OR, THE MEANS OF PRESERVING THE HEALTH OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

Before we enter on the consideration of the diseases, that affect domestic animals, whose medical treatment is to form the subject of the remaining part of this article; it will be proper to lay down some instructions for the management of these animals in a state of health, with a view to that most important object, the avoiding of the causes of disease. The preservation of health must ever be considered as one of the principal objects of the medical practitioner, and has exercised the pens of some of the most eminent physicians in all ages. But the consideration of this subject is still more necessary in the treatment of the inferior animals, than in that of man. In the former the cure of disease is rendered much more difficult and precarious, on account of the obscurity in which the symptoms are often hid, and the difficulty which we frequently experience in investigating the causes of morbid affections.

The management of domestic animals in a state of health, chiefly respects the habitations in which they are placed, when taken from their native fields; their food and drink; cleanliness, and exercise.

CHAP. I. Of Stables, Cow-houses, and Kennels.

In a state of nature, all the animals at present under our consideration, are constantly exposed to the open air, and only seek for shelter from the inclemencies of the weather under woods and thickets. The young of all these animals when domesticated, except the dog, are for a long time left in a similar state, till, for the convenience of their masters, it is found necessary to place them in habitations. The structure of these, that is of stables, cowhouses, and kennels, and the method of treating the animals confined in them, is of the utmost consequence; as on these the animals' health and comfort must in a great measure depend.

1. Of Stables.

Stables should be built on a dry soil, that is somewhat elevated; or, at least, they must not be built in a built on a hollow, or in the neighbourhood of boggy or marshy land. The damp cold air, arising from moist, low situations, is extremely prejudicial to the health of all animals, particularly horses, and, as we shall see hereafter, to sheep. It renders them subject to colds, rheumatism, and not unfrequently to fever. Stables built in these situations are therefore always dangerous; and more particularly so, when the animals return to them after having been heated by violent exercise or labour.

Stables should be roomy in proportion to the number of horses that it is proposed they should contain. Per-room, perhaps no stable should be made to hold more than five or six horses, as many inconveniences arise from keeping too many of these animals in the same apartment. Not only is the air thereby much more vitiated, but the rest and sleep, so necessary to repair the fatigues of the day, are thus prevented or disturbed. Some horses will not sleep, or even lie down, if not perfectly at their ease; and hence, in large stables, that are made to contain a dozen or more horses, as is often the case in livery stables, bles, and such as are attached to large inns, the frequent entrance of grooms, ostlers, and other persons with lights, into the stable, and even the restless noise of some of the horses, who are more watchful, or have been less fatigued than others, must be a great disturbance to these latter. Where necessity requires a long range of stables, it is better to have them divided, by thick partition walls, into separate apartments, each made to contain not more than five horses. The additional expense of this would be trifling, compared to the greater ease and comfort of the animals.

It is usual in large stables, for the sake of keeping more horses conveniently under the same roof, to make them double-headed, as it is termed; that is, to have a range of stalls along each wall, with a space between, for persons to pass to and fro. Stables of this kind are very improper; the space between the two ranges is often so narrow, that when the opposite stalls are occupied at the same time, the horses can reach each other with their hind feet, especially when standing, as they often do, at the full length of their halters. Hence, in the contests that often arise between quarrelsome or restless horses, very severe bruises, and even lameness, are not unfrequently the consequences of the animals being within each other's reach. The danger that threatens passengers in these narrow spaces is also not small; we have often trembled, when obliged to pass between two rows of horses, kicking and wincing under the curry-combs, where the intermediate space did not exceed three or four feet. If double-headed stables must be used, the space between the ranges of stalls should be at least eight feet.

The roof of stables should not be low; for, as the foul and vitiated air, generated by respiration and the exhalations of animal bodies, naturally ascends to the highest parts, the horses, who usually carry their heads very high, are, when the ceiling of the stable is low, fully exposed to the noxious influence of this vitiated atmosphere. This is not the place to enlarge on the vitiation that the air undergoes from the action of the animals that are confined in it; this subject has already been fully considered in the article Chemistry when speaking of respiration; and, from what has been there delivered, the reader will see the necessity of pure air to horses and other animals as well as man, and will be able to judge of the propriety of the above maxim, and some others which we shall presently lay down.

The walls of the stable should be of stone or brick, and by no means of wood; they should also be left bare, or at least only covered with plaster. The temperature of the air, in buildings of stone or brick, is much more equable than in those built of wood, they are not so easily penetrated by the heat of summer, or the cold of winter, and they are also attended with another important advantage, that they resist the spreading of fire.

The stalls in which the horses are to stand should be divided from each other by strong wooden partitions, that should rise sufficiently high to prevent the horse from stepping over, but not so high as to impede the free circulation of air, and admission of light from one stall to another. The breadth of each stall should be such as will freely admit of the horse turning himself, and stretching at his full length when he lies down; but they should not be so wide as to allow of his kicking against the partition. The floor of the stall should have a gentle declivity, from the manger backwards. This allows the urine and water to run easily off; it also relieves the fore quarters of the horse, and adds much to the grace of his appearance behind. Too great a slope, however, must be avoided, as when the declivity is too rapid, all the weight of the horse is thrown on his hind legs; and, as it is extremely uneasy for the animal to remain long in this position, he is obliged to press his body forward, which he cannot accomplish, without keeping the hind legs always on the stretch; the pastern-joint, from its situation, receives the whole additional weight, and the ligament which connects it is invariably strained in all horses which are kept in this sort of stable for any length of time.

A slope of one inch in six feet will be sufficient to answer every purpose.

This declivity should terminate in a hollow space a few inches from the end of the stall, forming a sort of gutter, extending the whole length of the stable, and passing out through the wall at each end, where iron bars should be placed, to admit of the water, &c., passing out of the stable, which is the intention of this gutter, but preventing the intrusion of rats, and other noxious animals.

The floor of stables is commonly paved with stone, or hard bricks made for that purpose. This kind of flooring has the advantage of being more durable than any other; but it is not without its inconveniences. The stones or bricks become smooth by wearing, and, when the stable is wet, the horse, especially if he be very frisky, is apt to slip, and endanger straining or otherwise injuring his limbs. Again, by the paving, or stamping, to which these animals are often subject, the pavement may be loosened or broken. For these reasons, it would perhaps be better that at least the stalls should be floored with strong oaken planks well seasoned, and laid across the stall, with their extremities below the partitions, and having their joining edges accurately adapted to each other. A flooring of this kind has the advantage of being more elastic, and of preserving a more equable temperature than pavement; and it is not liable to the inconveniences which we have mentioned, as attending this latter. A wooden flooring is indeed expensive, but this is more than counterbalanced by the advantages to the horse. It is of little consequence how the rest of the stable is covered; some gentlemen floor their stables with a sort of cement, which in course of time becomes as hard as stone, and has the advantage of being perfectly smooth and even. The gutter should of course be well paved.

The manger for receiving the horses' corn should be about a foot broad, and five or six inches deep. The manger is usually made of wood, and when this is the case, the boards composing it should be closely joined, that the corn cannot get through between them. The front of the manger should rise about three feet, or a little more, from the ground; should slope a little, and should terminate above by a strong rounded border. This, if the manger be made of wood, should be covered with tin plate, or white iron, as horses are very apt, when without food, or when allowed to remain long in the stall, to bite the front of the manger, and thus acquire a very bad habit, which farriers call crib-biting. Some choose to make the manger of stone, which The manger is sometimes made to extend the whole length of the stable, when it is in general divided into several cavities, one for each horse. It is of little consequence whether it be one continued cavity, or whether there be a separate manger for each stall; but the manger should by no means be supported on legs, so as to make it moveable, as is sometimes done; as this prevents the litter from being conveniently flowed below the manger, and exposes the horse or the manger to accidents. It should therefore be firmly fixed at the back to the wall of the stable, and to each partition of the stall. Sometimes a hollow is made at one end of the manger, or at one end of each division of it, for the purpose of holding water. When this is done, there should be a hole in the bottom of this cavity fitted with a plug, to draw off the water when the horse has done drinking, or when the manger has been washed.

In the middle of the front of the manger, in its thick edge, there is usually fixed an iron ring, turning easily in an eye bolt, for the purpose of passing through the halter, by which the horse is fastened. Sometimes, instead of this ring, a hole is made through the border of the manger for the halter to pass through; but as the halter does not slip backwards and forwards easily through such a hole, and wears very fast by rubbing against the wood, the iron ring is to be preferred. The horse should always be fastened in such a way, as that the halter shall slide backwards and forwards with every motion of the horse's head; and he should on no account be tied by the halter, as this exposes him to accidents, by twisting the halter about his neck or legs.

The rack should be placed at such a height above the manger, as that the horse can easily reach it, to pull out the hay; it should be very strong and firmly fixed, and should incline a little outwards from the wall of the stable. The bars of which it is composed, should not be above four or five inches aunder, that the hay may not fall out and be wasted.

One circumstance particularly to be attended to in the construction of stables is, to preserve a free circulation of air.

The generality of stables are by much too close and warm; nor a chink is left for the free admission of air; the door, and windows (if there are any), are made so close, as perfectly to exclude the air; or, if this is not the case, the crevices are frequently stopped with hay, under the idea that horses cannot be kept too warm. This is a most absurd and mistaken notion; and is contradicted both by reason and daily experience. When we consider that horses in a state of nature, or even in their usual pastures, are perpetually exposed to the open air, and that, under these circumstances, they are more vigorous and active than under the most attentive care of their masters, we must be convinced of the impropriety of keeping them for hours together in the foul and heated atmosphere of the ordinary close stables. Whoever enters one of these stables when the door is first opened in the morning, after it has been closely shut up all night, will be able to judge from his own sensations, whether such an atmosphere can be wholesome to the animals that breathe it. Besides the great heat of the stable, which, if many horses have been shut up in it all night is nearly intolerable, the air will be found highly impure from the continued respiration of so many animals, and the steams arising from the exhalations of their bodies, which have probably sweated profusely from having been so long confined in an atmosphere so foul and heated. Add to this the impregnation of the air by the effluvia arising from the litter, &c.; and it is not easy to conceive a more unhealthy situation for an animal, who, to perform the offices required of him with activity and vigour, should be in the full possession of all his strength. Now it may easily be supposed, that such an air as we have described, cannot be calculated to strengthen the body of the horses. On the contrary, it must be in a high degree weakening and relaxing. In this relaxed state, the horse is probably taken out immediately into the open air, whatever may be the season or weather, and made to enter on his daily task. The effect which such a sudden change must have on the constitution of the strongest horse, need not be described. The sudden action of the cold and probably moist air on a body that has been exposed for so many hours to the heated air of the stable, must be productive of the worst consequences to the health and vigour of the animal. Accordingly, fevers, colds, rheumatism, asthma, and a number of other formidable diseases, may be traced to this debilitating source.

We should think, that the analogy of nature would have taught men to avoid such absurdities. We learn from those authors who have written on the natural history of the horse, that the Arabians, who live in tents, and are extremely careful in the management of their horses, allow them to stand all day, when not employed, at the door of the tent; and at night bring them within the tent, where they lie down in the same apartment with their master and family, sheltered indeed from the dews of the night, but freely exposed to the circulation of air that must constantly prevail in these temporary dwellings.

To avoid the inconveniences arising from confined Mode of air, the stable should be made high and roomy; the ventilator-door and windows should not be made too close; and the stable should be provided with proper ventilators. Perhaps a good method of preserving a free circulation of air in the stable at all times, would be to carry up a flue diagonally through the wall at each extremity, terminating above in a sort of chimney; and below, within the stable, in an opening sufficiently wide in any part of the wall that is not immediately within the stall.

The free admission of light into stables is nearly of Windows, as much consequence as that of air. It is a very erroneous opinion which is maintained by some grooms and stable-keepers, that horses feed best in the dark. These animals naturally love the light, and are much more cheerful and spirited in stables where this is freely admitted, than in the dark and dismal hovels that we sometimes find attached to farms and farm houses. There is one bad consequence that follows keeping horses in a dark stable, which does not appear to be sufficiently attended to. By being kept so long excluded from the light, the horse's eyes become weak, and unable to support the full glare of open day. The pupils being so long, Hygeiology long habituated to an unusual degree of dilatation, do not readily contract when the animal is brought out into the open air; hence his eyes being offended with the strong light, to which he is so little accustomed, are perpetually winking and watering; the horse appears as if half blind, and starts and flumbles at almost every step.

The stable should, therefore, be furnished with glazed windows, in number proportioned to the size of the building. In general, no stables should have fewer than two windows; and they should be placed in such a situation, as that the horses may not receive the rays of light too directly on their eyes. Where the stable has only one range of stalls, this point can be easily effected, and in such stables, the windows should always be placed at the back of the horses. But in double stables it is not easy to place the windows so as not to inconvenience some of the horses, since, on whichever side of the stable they are made, the horses on that side are exposed to the full glare of the light; another argument against double stables. The windows should by all means be fitted; and should be made to draw down from the top, as well as to be thrown up from below. They should not be made too small, and should be carried up as near the ceiling of the stable, as is compatible with the strength and symmetry of the building. Windows constructed in this way not only add much to the appearance of the stables and to the comfort of the horses; but they afford one of the best means of promoting a free circulation of fresh air through the stable. For by throwing one of them up, and drawing another down, the ventilation becomes nearly as complete as possible.

Nothing has astonished us more, when viewing the handsome offices attached to some of the gentlemen's houses in this country, than to see the deficiency of the stables in the article of windows. When viewing them from without, we have congratulated the animals confined in them on the comfort of light and air, which they must enjoy from the fine sash-windows, which we saw on each side of the stable door. How great has been our astonishment on entering the building, to find all gloomy and dark within; and that the fine sash-windows which we thought we had seen at a distance, were nothing but efforts of the painter to deceive our senses, and to present an appearance of what certainly ought to have been a reality!

We must be permitted here to draw what we hope will not be considered as an invidious comparison between the Scotch and English method of lodging their horses. In England we have rarely seen such miserable hovels as, in many parts of Scotland, are used to supply the place of stables. We have indeed in the former country seen the stables sometimes very small, or even consisting of a thatched building not very well defended from the weather; but they are for the most part tolerably well ventilated, and we believe scarcely ever without windows.

It is a common practice to build stables of two stories, the upper story forming a loft for the purpose of keeping the horse's hay and corn; and in gentlemen's stables, where the building is sufficiently large, it is usual to have apartments on the upper story for the grooms and other servants employed about the stables to sleep in.

The apartment employed as a hay loft has usually a vacancy in that part of the flooring which is immediately over the rack, for the purpose of more conveniently supplying the horses with hay. This mode of building stables has its convenience in an economical point of view, and these apartments in the upper story add much to the showy appearance of the building; but there are several material objections to this construction.

1. The hay and corn being kept immediately over the stable, are constantly exposed to the foul and heated air and putrid steams rising up from the stalls through the rack, and are thus rendered liable to be heated and mildewed; while the dust rising from the shaking of the hay into the rack is very prejudicial to the lungs of the horses. On this account it is much better, where this can be conveniently done, to keep the hay and corn in some place distinct from the stable, and bring from time to time a sufficient quantity of hay nearly to fill the rack, into which it might be put while the horse is abroad.

2. Another serious objection to having lofts and chambers above the stable, is that the building is thus much more exposed to accidents from fire, owing to the carelessness of the servants. And,

3. These apartments above the stable render the latter much too close and warm.

Where, from convenience or fancy, a gentleman chooses to build his stables in the manner which we have just described, it will be advisable to have the flooring above the stable made as close as possible, and covered with thin bricks or stones for the purpose of checking the progress of fire; and for preserving the hay and corn as much as may be from the steams of the stable, a partition wall may be raised from the extremity of the flooring immediately over the rack all the way to the roof of the loft, with a door opening over the rack in each stall. The entrance to the hay loft or chambers above the stable should be without, and by no means, as is generally the case, by a trap door and ladder within the stable. If, as we frequently see in gentlemen's offices, the stables are built on each side of the coach-house, the entrance to the rooms above may be conveniently made by a stair from the coach-house.

The building of which the stable forms a part, should be as much as possible detached from other buildings, so as to admit of a free circulation of air all around.

It is a vile practice which is common on many farms and in some inns, to have the dung-hill or midden, should be close to the stable. This nuisance should be removed apart from as far as possible from the door and windows of the stable, as the heat and noxious vapors arising from the fermenting dung impregnate the air to a considerable extent.

It is of great consequence that the stable be kept clean swept and clean. It should therefore be regularly swept every morning, and every part of the litter that is wet and dirty should be removed to the dunghill, while what is clean and dry should be put up close below the manger, unless where the horse is lame, or has any affection of the feet or limbs, which renders it necessary for him to stand upon soft litter. Where the horse is perfectly healthy, no litter should be allowed in the day time, much less should the stall be crammed with litter, as is often done, and is suffered to remain in this situation for many days, for the purpose of increasing the quantity of manure. Nothing injures the feet Hygeiology feet of horses more, or more frequently produces softness of the hoof, canker, and greasy heels, than allowing them to stand night and day on hot, fermenting dung. It is also impossible for the horse to lie down in comfort in such a hot-bed; and if the poor animal is obliged to recline himself for a time, he is soon compelled to rise again, and repeatedly making the same attempt at rest, and finding it impracticable, he is forced at length to stand altogether, perhaps shifting his legs from one part of the stall to another, to avoid the heat of the dung.

Lord Pembroke is of opinion that after working, and at night of course, as also in lamenesses and sicknesses, it is good for horses to stand on litter; it also promotes itching, &c. At other times it is a bad custom; the constant use of it heats and makes the feet tender, and causes swollen legs. Moreover it renders the animal delicate. Swelled legs may frequently be reduced to their proper natural size, by taking away the litter only, which, in some stables, where ignorant grooms and farriers govern would be a great favoring of phthisic and bleeding, besides straw. "I have seen," (says he), "by repeated experiments, legs swell and unswell, by leaving litter, or taking it away, like mercury in a weather-glass."

It is a very common practice to keep horses, while in the stable, covered up with warm clothing. This is in some cases necessary, especially when they are under a course of phthisic, or are otherwise so delicate, as that they would be liable to injury from too much exposure to the air. But its indiscriminate use is highly improper, as it tends to render the horse too delicate, and exposes him to the danger of catching cold whenever he goes out into the air. While a horse is in complete health, and stands idle, he requires very little, if any covering, unless the stable be extremely cold, or ill sheltered. When indeed he comes into the stable, much heated by violent exercise or hard labour, it may be proper to throw over him a single cloth, that he may cool gradually. Some grooms think it necessary, besides enveloping the horse with body clothes, to gird them fast round his belly with tight rollers; and this is done with the view of taking up the horse's belly, as they term it. The practice is exceedingly absurd, for these tight rollers impede the circulation in the superficial veins, produce difficult breathing, and if they be applied, as is often the case, after eating, they greatly obstruct digestion.

To finish the subject of stable economy, we have only to make a few remarks on currying, or dressing horses.

Friction employed on the horse's skin is not only necessary to keep him clean, and to promote the insensible perspiration, by freeing the skin and hair from impurities, but it is exceedingly useful when considered as a kind of exercise. It promotes the free circulation of the blood, which is much impeded by the horse standing long idle in the stable; and it much improves the appearance of the horse's coat. Horses should therefore be regularly dressed, at least twice a-day.

There are, however, some cases in which general friction ought not to be employed; such are cases of internal inflammation, especially of the bowels; or when there is a discharge of sharp ichorous matter from any part, especially the legs and heels. In these cases the affected parts should not be rubbed, as it would tend to increase the pain and distress arising from the inflammation.

2. Of Cow-houses, or Byres.

After what we have said on the construction of stables, we need not here enlarge on that of cow-houses or cattle byres, as these buildings, so far at least as respects their outsides, are constructed on similar principles. We shall take occasion, when treating on the manner of feeding cattle, to describe a byre that appears to us to afford a good model for buildings of this kind.

It is of material importance in the wintering of young stock, to keep them more warm, and sheltered from wet, than is usually done, as by this means they thrive fatter, with a less consumption of food, than in the contrary circumstances. This may be effected, either by tying them up in stalls, in houses for the purpose, or by keeping them in good sheds in well inclosed yards.

The question of feeding the cattle tied up, or loose in the yards, in winter, has not been yet decided. Each method has probably advantages. In the first, the cattle thrive better than when left at liberty to run about the yards. Mr Marshall found that in Yorkshire, cattle kept tied up, and regularly fed with straw in a moderate proportion, did better than in the southern parts of the island, where left loose in the midst of greater plenty. Whether this effect is to be ascribed to the greater warmth, the resting better, or the being fed more regularly, and eating with an appetite, he cannot determine. Some experiments of Mr Young's also lead to the conclusion that cattle flock thrive better when tied up. They likewise show that the practice of tying up is the only one that can be had recourse to, where straw is not in great plenty, and the quantity of the stock very inadequate to its consumption.

In the latter method there is the advantage of a large supply of manure, especially where the farmer has the convenience of litter. Where however the farmer has convenience, the former method is probably in general the most beneficial. In either mode of management much attention is necessary to keeping the stock constantly supplied in an evenly proportioned manner, as in this way there will be great advantage, both in the saving of food, and the condition of the animals.*

Dickson's Agriculture, vol. ii.

The necessity of providing shelter for cattle in bad weather, is now we believe pretty well understood by every intelligent farmer; and experience has proved that proper buildings erected for winter feeding are attended with considerable advantages. The erection for this purpose at Hafod in Wales, the residence of Thomas Johnes, Esq., M.P. for the county of Cardigan, and one of the most eminent improvers of the present time, seem to be calculated upon a moderate scale. The whole length of the building is fifty feet, the roof shelving, its chief height being fourteen feet, the lower extremities, one seven and a half, the other six feet. A stone wall running up to the summit, parts the feeding-house from the other and smaller apartment, which is a receptacle for dung. Width of the feeding-house, nineteen feet within-side. Stalls each twelve feet long by four feet two inches wide. Gangway three feet and a half, at the heels and tails of the cattle, leading from the doors, the first door being for the cattle, the other for Hygeiology for the attendants. Similar doors at the opposite ends of the building. Running water in troughs, with racks, and mangers. The cattle lie on wooden platforms, perforated for the passage of the urine. The urine runs, and the dung is pushed through apertures in the wall, each of which is two feet square, and one between every two stalls. There are 12 wooden flaps or windows to give light and air, to each stall. The dung pit is about twelve feet wide, sunk some feet deep in the earth, extending the whole length of the building. The walls are built partly with stone, and in part with wood, the roof with larch wood, as an experiment of its durability in that exposure.

According to Mr Lawrence, the round or quadrangular form might perhaps, either of them, be more economical as to space and materials for a building to contain a considerable number. The oxen would most conveniently stand around with their tails toward the wall, contrary to the usual practice, for the more easy throwing out the dung from a gangway, through apertures purposely made in the wall, into a pit, under cover, sunk around the building. The area within would, of course, be for feeding, and every necessary purpose of attendance. A store-chamber above completes the building, the chief objection to the form of which, is the greater expense attendant upon the reversed position of the cattle, which perhaps is compensated by the great saving of labour, in the more easily getting rid of the dung. The gangway will in course be sufficiently wide to admit the beasts to and from their stalls; the dung aperture in the wall may be closed in cold weather.*

Of all domestic animals, sheep are the most exposed to the inclemencies of the weather. This arises chiefly from their numbers, which renders complete shelter very difficult; but even in the case of a small flock, the prejudices of many feeders have prevented their procuring proper shelter for their sheep, under the idea that it would render them too lazy to provide for themselves. These prejudices, however, are gradually wearing away, and few sheep-farms are at present unprovided with shelter, either of trees or buildings. Mr Findlater, in his able survey of Peebles, strongly recommends shelter for sheep. "It would be (says this gentleman) for the interest of every proprietor of sheep farms, to encourage the farmer to rear shelter of trees, by allowing him the seedings of the plantation, and becoming bound to pay the farmer, at the rate of perhaps eight-pence or ten-pence a piece, for every tree left standing at specified distances, at the expiry of his lease; such an interest communicated to the farmer, would give the most effectual security for the protection of the trees. Shelters are also procured by buildings, enclosing a square open area in the middle, furnished with shades, on every side. Stalls (that is circular spaces of area, proportioned to the size of the flock, enclosed by a five or six feet wall of stone, or sod, without any roof) were the primeval shelters invented by our forefathers. The circular figure of the building causes the drifting wind in snow storms to wheel round it, without rising over it, and depositing the snow in the calm region within. The sheep are fed, in winter storms, with such provision as can be procured, under the trees, in the sheds, and within the circles. Even where no feeding is administered, much advantage results to the animals, from mere defence against the weather; and they are much more alert in searching for natural food, so soon as the storm ceases. The mode of acting of the sheep gives a pretty certain indication of the weather to be expected: Upon the near approach of a storm, those accustomed to shelters are observed to make for their shelters. Upon the near approach of thaw, their sentiment leads them to be less industrious in digging the snow for food, as if conscious that such labour was no longer necessary."*

According to Mordaunt, who wrote about the middle of last century, sheep pens and houses, were then not uncommon in Essex and Gloucestershire. He directs the pens to be made at some convenient corner of a pasture, or where several fields, commons, or pastures meet, so as to be common to them all. They should also be erected on a dry spot of ground, and stones laid at the bottom to keep the sheep dry and clean, whilst under examination. The pens to be divided into partitions to hold about forty sheep.

"The sheep-houses, for warmth in the winter season, are made low, and a third part longer than broad, and rather large, the sides lined with furze or boards, for warmth; the bottom laid with large stone slabs, and very level, that the urine run not away, but soak into the litter. It would be proper to have the sunny side well lined with moveable hurdles, that when the sun shines it may be laid open to give the sheep a refreshment, by letting them into some close or croft, wherein the sheep-house stands: the house to be well covered."

3. Of Dog-kennels.

It is usually recommended to erect a particular building, for the sole purpose of a kennel; and certainly where the proprietor's fortune will admit of it, such an appropriate building is to be preferred. A common barn has, however, often been employed as a kennel; and Mr Daniel says, that the excellence of the hounds kept in such a building has been rivalled by few that were lodged in the most sumptuous edifices.

Whatever may be the form or original intention of the building, cleanliness is absolutely necessary, both to the nose of the hound and the preservation of his health. The sense of smelling is so exquisite in a hound, that every stench must be supposed injurious to it; upon that faculty all our hopes depend, and nostrils clogged with the effluvia of a dirty kennel, are ill adapted to carry the scent over greatly fallows, or guide one through the foil of deer, or over ground tainted by sheep. Dogs are by nature cleanly; where they lie, if they can avoid it, they seldom dung. Air and fresh straw are essential to preserve them healthy. They are subject to the mange; naughtiness very much contributes to this, and although at the first appearance it may be easily checked the remedies that are used are in themselves strong in their operation, and will do no good to the hounds' constitution. Let the cleanliness of the kennel, therefore, be carefully attended to; a resort to these remedies will then be unnecessary, and all injury to hounds from this source will be prevented.

On the presumption that a kennel is to be erected, its site is strongly pointed out by Somerville. Upon some little eminence erect And fronting to the ruddy dawn, its courts On either hand wide opening to receive The sun's all-cheering beams, when mild he shines And gilds the mountains tops.

But this selection of a high situation is incompatible with a running brook; and as these two advantages cannot be united, water is to be preferred, with the aspect to the morning sun as much attended to as possible.

The number of its inmates must determine the size of the kennel; and the architecture should be neat, without being uselessly expensive. The most magnificent is the duke of Richmond's at Goodwood, which cost £10,000, and is sufficiently extensive for two packs of hounds. The building comprises five kennels, two 36 by 15, three 30 by 15, and two feeding rooms 20 by 15 feet, with stoves to warm the air, when too cold.

The huntman and whipper-in have each a parlour, kitchen, and sleeping-room.

The nearer to the house the kennel is placed the better. There are reasons against its too close approach, but they yield to others which forbid a great distance. To mention one, derived indeed from a vulgar saying, "that the master's eye makes the horse fat;" recollect that the inspection of the kennel, is even more needful than that of the stable; for in both, cleanliness is no less essential than food.

The kennel should be of sufficient dimensions at its first building; room for two kennels should be under the same roof; when there is but one, it is seldom sweet; and when washed out, the hounds, particularly in winter, not only suffer during the time of cleaning, but as long afterwards as it remains wet. The second kennel affords opportunity for drafting the hounds intended to hunt the next morning. In a few days they will be drafted with little trouble, will readily answer to their names; and with equal ease as a shepherd numbers his sheep, you may count your hounds into the hunting kennel.

In a morning, upon the feeder's first entering the kennel, he should let the hounds into the outer court; the door of the hunting kennel, when not occupied by the drafted hounds for that day's hunting, should be opened in bad weather to shelter them; the lodging-room should then be thoroughly cleaned, the windows and doors opened, the litter well shaken, and the kennel made sweet, before the hounds are again shut into it. Every omission prejudicial to the hounds should be immediately pointed out to the feeder, who must be made to remedy it; and also observe that the great court and the other kennels are equally objects of his attention.

The lodging-room should be bricked, and flopped on both sides to the centre, where should be a gutter to carry off the water, that when walked, the floor may be equally dried: but flagstones, or large square bricks termed pannonds, are far preferable; there are fewer interstices, and consequently less filth or water can there accumulate, and the surface is sooner dry. Let the floor be kept in thorough repair, that no water may remain in any cavity, until the mason can be had, when at any time wanted; let the stagnant water be carefully stopped up; for nothing is more hurtful to hounds, than damp, or more refreshing than warmth after hard work.

The kennel should have three doors; two in front and one behind; that in the back to have a lattice window in it, with a wooden shutter, which is to be kept always closed, except in summer, when it should be left open the whole of the day. This door has a twofold utility, it serves to carry out the dirty straw, and being opposite to the window, will admit a thorough air, when the lodging-room is cleaned, which will much contribute to render it sweet and wholesome. The front doors will be useful in drying the room when the hounds are out; and as one is to be shut and the other hooked back, so as to allow a single dog to pass, they are not liable to any objection. The large centre window should have a folding shutter, which at night, according to the weather, may be wholly or partially closed; and thus the warmth of the kennel may be regulated as is judged most salutary. The two great lodging rooms are exactly similar, and having a court belonging to each, are distinct kennels situated at the opposite ends of the building. In the centre of the boiling-house and feeding-yard, a lesser kennel, either for hounds that are drafted off, hounds that are sick and lame, or for any other required purpose, is on each side; at the back of which, it being but half the depth of the two larger kennels, are places for coals, &c. for the use of the kennel. There is also a small building in the rear for hot bitches.

The inner-court floor should be bricked or flagged, and flopped towards the centre like those of the lodging-room; and water brought in by a leaden pipe, should run through the channel in the middle. In the centre of each court is a well sufficiently large to dip a bucket for the purpose of cleaning the kennel. To keep these from wanting repair, they should be faced with stone, and to that of the feeding-yard a wooden cover should be fixed. The benches, which must be open to let the urine through, should have hinges and hooks in them all, that they may fold up when the kennel is washed. They should be made as low as possible, that when a hound is tired, he may have no difficulty in jumping up, and at no time be able to creep under them. Recollect that if, owing to the smallness of the hound, as in beagles, it should be difficult to make the benches sufficiently low, it will be proper to nail a ledging projecting downwards in the edge, or the benches may be faced with boards at bottom, to prevent the hounds from creeping under.

A large brick court in front, having a grass court adjoining, and a brook running through the middle of it, completes the kennel. This court should be planted round, and also have some lime trees and some horse chestnuts near the centre for shade. Some posts bound round with straw, rubbed with galbanum, may be placed so as to prevent the hounds from making water against the trees. The brook may be used as a cold bath for hounds lamed, in the flitie, in strains, or for other purposes for which the cold bath is required. A high palings should inclose the whole, and which, to the height of four feet, should be close, the remainder being open, with an interval of two inches between the pales. At the back of the kennel should be a thatched house, fenced at the sides, to contain at least a load of straw. Hygeiology a pit for receiving the dung, and a gallows for the flesh. If a piece of ground adjoining to the kennel can conveniently be enclosed, for keeping such horses as may be brought alive for the use of the hounds, it would be of great service, as the disorders of condemned horses are not always ascertained; and an opportunity may thus be offered of investigating their nature and progress, which may prove advantageous in future similar cases. The hounds may also be brought into this field, to empty themselves after feeding; and the draught for the next day's hunt can be here made with greater accuracy than when they are confined to the kennel.

Stoves are used in some kennels; but a good feeder, and the mop properly applied, render them unnecessary. Should ticks prove troublesome at any time, the walls of the kennel should be well washed; and if that should fail to destroy the ticks, they must be white-washed with lime.

When the hunting season is over, one kennel will be sufficient, and the other with the grass-yard adjoining to it may be allowed to the young hounds. This separation, which should continue till the season commences, is necessary for preventing many accidents that might otherwise happen at this time of the year. Should there be conveniences, it will be proper to keep the dogs separate from the bitches during the summer months. When hounds are very riotous, the feeder may sleep in a cot in an adjoining kennel; if the dogs are well chastised at the first quarrel, his voice will afterwards be sufficient to keep them quiet.

**Chap. II. Of Diet.**

In preserving the health of domestic animals, much will depend on the quantity and quality of their food, and on the manner in which they are supplied with it. This subject, therefore, requires some share of our attention. We have already, in the article Agriculture, treated pretty much at large on the different kinds of food that are most proper for horses, sheep, and cattle; and have here little to add on that head. Our principal object in this chapter will be, to consider the best means of dispensing food to the different classes of domestic animals, and to describe what are considered the most beneficial methods of preparing the food in those cases where its preparation appears to be necessary.

The natural food of the horse is the simple herbage of the field, and on it alone he can be constantly kept in a high state of health and vigour, so long as he shall not be required to labour; and whilst he is employed in labour, grass in some form, either dried or green, seems absolutely necessary to his maintenance in a healthy state. Hay, straw, and corn of various kinds have been, from the earliest times, the common food of horses; but in Britain, and indeed in France and Germany, during later periods especially, they have rejected all other species of horse-corn; from a well-grounded preference in favour of oats and beans; the latter for draught-horses chiefly, or as substantial auxiliaries to the oats, imparting as strong a nourishment as the constitution of the horse will properly bear, and at the same time of a cleansing nature; and are, moreover, the best and cheapest in-door fattening for almost all domestic animals.

The species of corn usually given to horses in many countries is barley, the bulky provender is straw, both of which in warm climates, are said to be nearly equal in nutriment to our oats and hay. With us, barley is apt to fester horses, and make their urine red, especially at its first being given. Wheat is often given to horses of the great upon the continent; it is said when Philip of Spain was in this country, his jennets were fed upon wheat during the time of scarcity, and this gave great umbrage to the people.

There seems to exist no particular difference of quality between the white and the black oats, they being equal in weight and thinness of bulk; these criteria, and their being short, are the best marks of their goodness. It is equally well known that they should be some months old when used, as new oats are apt to swell the belly and produce gripes.

New beans are improper for horses, for the same reason. The best remedy is to dry them in a kiln. Old beans should be split, and given either with bran or chaff; or the best way would be to break them in a mill. Mr Lawrence fed cart-horses with beans for nearly seven years, without experiencing any ill effect from such food; but the horses laboured very hard. Beans contain more solid nourishment than oats, but of a less salutary nature.

Grains constantly loosen a horse, and impoverish his blood; bran scouring and weakens the entrails; both of them are good occasional dietetic alternatives.

Carrots are said to purify and sweeten the blood, to amend the wind, and to replenish after the wastings occasioned by disease orordinate labour. Mr Lawrence informs us that he has been accustomed to use them for years in all forms, and to all descriptions of horses. They are either given in spring or autumn to high-fed horses, as a change of diet, at the rate of one feed per day, in lieu of a feed of corn, or as full substitute to others. They ought to be washed clean, and, if large, cut into flat and sizeable pieces. The quantity of carrots for a feed is from half a peck to a peck.

The usual periods of feeding with corn are in this country, morning, noon, and night. The quantities feeding each time either a quarter or half a peck, with or without about two handfuls of beans, according to the horse's state of body. Much greater care than is common ought to be taken in fitting the oats clean from dust, and the dung of mice. Water should be allowed without fail twice a day. There is an error not unfrequent among stable people, who suppose water to be at best but a kind of necessary evil to horses, and therefore think it a point gained whenever they can find an opportunity to abridge the quantity. But how well founded a horse may shift with little or no water while in the field, and while feeding on succulent meat, much mischief may ensue from its being withheld; and this may produce colic, gripes, inflammation of the bowels, perpetual longing, and a danger of drinking to excess on every opportunity.

The well-known use of hay is to dilate the body of the horse, to satisfy his appetite with bulk and quantity, as corn does with compact and solid nourishment. British hay, the best in the world, contains great nourishment, Hygeiology nourishment, and will keep a horse and even fatten him; but he is unable to labour upon hay alone, and experience has shown that Breckin's observation of the constant use of hay injuring the sight of horses, particularly if suddenly put on such food after good keeping, is very just. Hard upland hay is the best for race and coach horses; and it should be of a fine, greenish colour, fragrant scent, and full of flower. It is said that horses and cattle prefer such hay as has been sweated, or which has undergone a partial fermentation; and it is even thought that they grow much sooner fat on heated hay than on such as has been gotten up dry and cool. There can be no doubt that sweated hay contains a considerable quantity of sugar, formed during its state of fermentation; this may render the hay more palatable to the beasts, but we have some doubt whether it be so wholesome as fresh well-coloured hay. Clover-hay, and hay of artificial grasses, from its goodness, is appropriated to cart-horses. Without attempting to ascertain the precise quantity, it may be said that hay should be given as often as a horse has a keen appetite for it; but great care should be taken that so much be never allowed at once, as that he shall leave it, and blow upon it. At night a considerable quantity of hay is usually left in the rack, and this is no doubt absolutely necessary for horses who are hard worked during the day, as night is their most leisure time for feeding; but it admits of doubt whether horses who live in a state of luxury, and are but little worked, should be indulged in much hay at night.

It will obviously occur to most people, that the quantity and quality of a horse's food should be proportioned to his labour; that horses who are lightly worked, will not in general require so much or so nourishing food, as those who are constantly kept to hard labour. It is evident that when horses stand idle, and are at the same time fed, they are exposed to many dangerous diseases, as inflammation, staggers, arising from a too full habit of body; and these diseases will be more likely to come on when a horse that has been thus fed is suddenly put to hard labour, or obliged to make any unusual or violent exertion. But this must not be carried too far. Horses should not, because they have little work at the time, be entirely confined to grass, or grass and hay, unless they are at pasture, and are never worked. For while a horse stands in the stable, and is liable to be called upon at any emergency, his diet should be so regulated, as that he shall neither be so fat and full of blood, as not to perform occasional work without difficulty and danger, nor on the other hand, so poor and weak, as to be incapable of supporting exertion without injury to himself or rider. All horses that are fed on grass and hay alone, are too weak to perform a good day's journey without stumbling. A moderate quantity of corn or other hard food, should therefore be allowed to such horses as stand constantly in the stable, or who, while at pasture, are occasionally worked.

Mr Clark observes, that throwing great quantities of clean grain before horses at one time is very improper; as they eat it too greedily, and swallow whole mouthfuls of it almost dry. The moisture in the stomach, or water drunk immediately after eating, causes the grain to swell, and thus the stomach is greatly distended, and loses its contracting power on the food. By the pressure of the full stomach on the intestines, the passage of the food backwards is obstructed, and the confined air, arising from the indigested food, not having a ready passage backwards, and horses not possessing the power of belching, the air becomes rarefied to a great degree, the horse is seized with colic pains; as these increase he becomes convulsed, and in many cases the stomach bursts. Out of a number of cases where the above was discovered on dissecting the bodies, Mr Clark mentions the two following.

"A young draught-horse was fed in the morning with too great a quantity of barley mixed with peas, and had been allowed to drink water immediately thereafter. He was yoked to a two-wheeled chaise, in order to travel a few miles, and was observed about the middle of the day to be very uneasy, frequently attempting to lie down. As soon as he was unyoked he lay down and tumbled about, frequently lying on his back, starting up suddenly and turning his head towards his belly. He continued thus in great agony till towards next morning, when he died. Upon opening his body, the stomach was found burst, the barley and peas mostly entire, only greatly swelled, and the whole contents of the stomach spread through the abdomen.

"The other case was a horse who had been fed with too great a quantity of oats and barley, and had been allowed to drink water freely afterwards. He was seized with gripping pains, so that he frequently lay down and tumbled, seemingly tortured with the most acute pains. He died next day. Upon opening his body, the stomach was found distended to an enormous size, but was not burst. Its coats were very thin, from the great distention it had undergone, that its cohesion was almost destroyed, and had more the appearance of a coat of mucus, or slime, than the stomach. The oats and barley were for the most part entire as they were swallowed, only greatly swelled from the moisture they had imbibed.

"From the cases now related, it will appear how necessary it is not to allow horses to eat too great a quantity of clean grain at a time, but to give it in small quantities, and repeated the more frequently. At the same time, it will show the propriety of mixing with it a little chopped straw, or hay, in order to make them chew it more thoroughly before they swallow it. This process also prepares the food for being properly digested, and not a single grain of it is lost."

The method of feeding horses with bruited grain and cut straw is recommended by the earl of Pembroke, in his excellent treatise on horses, as exceedingly proper. "Every grain (says he) goes to nourishment: none is to be found in the dung; and three feeds of it go further than four as commonly given which have not been in the mill. But wheaten straw, and a little hay sometimes mixed with it, is excellent food. To a quantity of corn, put the same quantity of straw. It obliges them to chew their meat, and is many other ways of use."

Mr Lawrence disapproves of the use of straw, as containing no nourishment. In this he probably goes too far, as both horses and cattle are in straw-yards often fed with little else. He prefers chaff, or cut clover hay, to mix with the corn, especially for cart-horses. Mr Lawrence, however, allows that cutting up Hygeiology up unthrashed oats for food is a good practice, particularly when hay is scarce; as thrashing and dressing of the oats are thus saved, and it is an economical expenditure of the oats, which are moreover very fresh, and agreeable to the horse.

It has of late been recommended to bruise the corn in a mill, before giving it to the horse, and it is certainly a good practice, as there is thus little danger of its passing through the bowels undigested. It is usual only to bruise the corn, but Mr Lawrence thinks that it is better to grind them as fine as possible. Whole corn, with whatever it may be mixed, will, much of it, be swallowed in that state; a great deal only half masticated, which will elude the digestive powers of the animal, and be ejected from his body crude and unbroken. This is particularly the case with brood-mares and young stock, the bellies of which are full of slippery grats; such should ever have ground corn, and mash should always be made with it. Ground buck-wheat agrees well enough with horses, but that species of corn is the least substantial.

Mr Lawson, a merchant of London, has lately published an essay, on the use of Mixed and Compressed Cattle Fodder, intended as food and fattening for horses, oxen, sheep, and hogs. His plan is, to grind, cut, mix and compress all the articles in present use, as food for cattle, with some additional ones of his own recommending; and to keep the mats stowed in casks, or other close storage. He gives a detailed account of all the instruments necessary in the process, the most commodious methods according to his own practice, and various tables of expense and quantities.

With respect to the drink of horses, we have little to remark. Their water should be as pure as possible, as muddy and hard water is not only very unpleasant to the horse, but probably lays the foundation of gravelly complaints. It is a very absurd custom, which is however very prevalent, to gallop the horse after watering, with the view, according to the groom's idea, of warming the water in his belly; for if the horse has drunk heartily, as he is very often improperly allowed to do, any violent exertion immediately after cannot but occasion great uneasiness. It is, however, a good practice to ride the horse moderately before watering; but care should be taken, not to throw him into a perspiration, as drinking cold water in this state is attended with considerable danger.

The feeding of cattle is of considerable importance to the farmer, and has of late been much improved. Both the food and the manner of administering it must be different according to the age of the cattle, the season of the year, and the purposes for which the cattle are fed.

It has been well observed in a late useful practical work, that in the winter the yearlings should be fed with hay and roots, either turnips, carrots, or potatoes; and they should be thoroughly well fed, and kept perfectly clean by means of litter. At this age it is a matter of great consequence to keep such young cattle as well as possible; for the contrary practice will inevitably stop their growth, which cannot be recovered by the best summer food. If hay is not to be had, good straw must be substituted; but then the roots should be given in greater plenty, and with more attention. To steers and horses two years old, the proper food is hay, if cheap, or straw, with baits of turnips, cabbages, &c.*

Mr Donaldson thinks the advantages of green winter food for live stock, so great, that there is no way in which it can be applied with greater benefit than "by giving the young cattle a daily allowance during the first two or three winters." Whenever straw is employed as fodder for young stock, without the above forts of food, if it be not very good, or slightly mixed with some grassy material, a little hay should always be blended with it, in order that it may be preferred in proper condition. It is also of consequence that the animals be served with this sort of fodder, in a regular manner, as where too much is given at a time, Mr Marshall has remarked, that they do not thrive so well.

The following observations of Sir John Sinclair merit every attention.

"Some intelligent graziers recommend the following mode of feeding and fattening cattle. Suppose there are four inclosures, of from six to ten acres each, one of them should be kept quite free from stock till the grass has got up; and then the prime or falling cattle, should be put into it, that they may get the best of the food: the second best should then follow; and the young store after all, making the whole feed over the four inclosures in succession, as follows.

1st Inclosure. Free from stock, till ready for the best cattle.

2nd ditto. For the best cattle, till sent to No. 1.

3rd ditto. For the second best, till sent to No. 2.

4th ditto.* For the young cattle, till sent to No. 3.

No. 4. is then kept free from stock till the grass gets up, and it is ready for the prime cattle. The proper size of inclosures has never yet been ascertained by experiment; probably from 10 to 30 acres is the best; but the size should be varied, as small ones are better calculated for grass, and large ones for corn. Probably the best plan to adopt is, to feed cattle entirely in the house, or feeding them as it is technically called. In that case, small inclosures must be preferred, as the shelter they afford is extremely favourable to the growth of the herbage.

The larger a bullock is, he must take the more food to support him. It is desirable to change his food often, and to give him frequently, but little at a time, which makes him more eager to eat. After his kidneys are covered with fat, he will take less meat every week. It is better, therefore, to ascertain the quantity he eats, by the week, than by the day.

Fattening cattle, to be sold immediately from the farmer's house, and not sent to market, should be kept moderately warm. If kept too hot it makes them perspire, and their skins to itch: this vexes them, and they rub themselves against any wall or post within their reach, which is much against quick feeding. Currying and combing them are useless practices; and washing them, at least once a-week, is of great service. Bleeding is now exploded, as an old and unnecessary practice.

In some parts of the kingdom, the whole attention of the farmer is dedicated to fiddling, or, in other words, to feeding calves, for supplying the market with veal. In Essex, this plan is reckoned more profitable than the dairy, and next to grazing. But the profit there must depend much upon the immediate neighbourhood of... The particulars connected with this branch of rural economy, will, it is probable, be fully detailed, in the improved Agricultural Survey of Effex, in so far as regards that and the neighbouring districts. But as the mode of fuckling, adopted in some parts of Scotland, is extremely different, it may not be improper to give a short account of it in this place. As soon as the calf is dropped, it is put into a box made of coarse boards, four feet and a half or five feet long, and four feet, or four feet and a half high, and about two feet wide, according to the size of the calf. The boards are not put so close but that a sufficient quantity of air is admitted; light is, however, carefully excluded; and the box has a cover for that purpose. The box stands on four feet, which, at one end, are four inches high, but at the other, only two inches; and, as there are holes at the bottom, all wetness is drained off. The bottom is also covered with straw or hay, which is changed twice a week. For seven or eight days, milk is but cautiously given, for unless a calf is fed moderately at first, it is apt to take a loathing to its food. It should be bled in about ten days; and afterwards, as much milk given it fresh from the cow, either twice or thrice a day, as it will take. The bleeding should be repeated once a week; and at all times when a calf loathes its milk, and does not feed well, bleeding ought to be repeated. These frequent bleedings prevent dilutions from plethora, to which calves are subject, even when not fed too high, and still more so when they are. A large piece of chalk should be hung up in the box, which the calf will lick occasionally: this contributes nothing to the whiteness of the veal; but it amuses the animal, and corrects that acidity in the stomach which might otherwise be engendered, and which certainly often takes place. A cow calf is reckoned the best veal; if a bull calf is fuckled, he ought to be cut when about a week old, otherwise the veal will neither be so good nor so white. By this mode of treatment, calves are kept clean, quiet, warm, and dry; the veal they furnish is excellent, and they are soon ready for the market; and, on the whole, it seems to be preferable to the practice of stupifying them with spirits, or with laudanum, so common in other places where a different system is pursued.

The supposed necessity of beginning to feed oxen at an early age, is a great objection to their being generally used, as they are hardly trained properly to work, before it is thought necessary to fatten them, after which they do very little work; but, in consequence of the improved mode of fattening by oil-cake, &c., there is no difficulty to fatten oxen, even at twelve years of age, which is a material circumstance in their favour.*

It is now very generally understood, that the more cleanly and comfortably cattle are kept, and the cleaner and better the order in which their food is presented to them, the better they will thrive, and consequently the sooner they will fatten, and the heavier they will be. With these views, and with the additional view of saving a greater proportion of the dung and urine of the cattle than is usually done, so as to increase the quantity of manure as much as possible, a byre has been constructed by Mr Hunter of Blackness in Forfarshire, which has been found on trial, completely to answer the ends proposed. The byre consists of two apartments, an inner apartment, or byre for feeding the cattle, and an outer apartment or barn for containing the turnips and fodder.

At the proper season when the turnips are completely ripened; and the turnip feeding commences, the turnips are gathered together on the field in large quantities, and two or three men with coarse turnip knives made from old scythes, cut off the whole of the roots, carefully cleaning the turnips at the same time, from any earth which may adhere to them. The turnips are then carted to the turnip barn, the door of which is wide enough to allow the carts to back in, and throw them down. Here the men with their turnip knives are again ready immediately to cut off the whole green tops or shaws of the turnips, and these green tops are immediately given to cows, young winterling cattle, sheep, &c., who readily eat them when fresh. The turnips, now quite clean, are piled up in one end of the barn like cannon balls, and will keep in excellent order for months together. Should the winter storm set in, a small quantity of clean dry straw laid over them, will effectually preserve them from being injured by the frost. The other end of the barn receives the straw and litter for the use of the byre. The advantages proposed to be derived from this method of treating the turnips are, 1. The preservation of a great many of the best turnips, which, if allowed to remain on the field during winter, are unavoidably spoiled by the effects of the weather, and the alternate operations of snow, rain, and frost. 2. The green tops being cut off fresh and good, are immediately consumed, in place of being entirely lost if allowed to remain on the field. 3. It saves much labour and trouble, both to men and horses, to lay in a stock of turnips at once, in place of going to the field every day, whether good or bad, and when, as the fields are necessarily wet and soft, the horses, carts, and harness, are severely strained, and the fields poached and cut up.

Lastly, By having a couple of months supply of turnips in the barn, you are never under the necessity of using frosted turnips, which are often little better than lumps of ice. And even if you should not incline, or find it convenient, to lay in too large a stock of turnips at once, still you can take the advantage of any good fresh day, as it occurs, to add to your stock of turnips in the barn.

At right angles to the turnip barn, stands the feeding byre, constructed as follows. At the distance of about three feet and a half from the great side wall of the byre, there are constructed on the ground, in a straight line, ten troughs for feeding ten large cattle; these are of hewn pavement on all sides, and at the bottom; and they are divided from each other by divisions or bridges, likewise of hewn pavement. These troughs are so constructed, that there is a small and gradual declivity from the first or innermost, to the last and outermost one; and the bridges separating them, being made with a small arch at the bottom, a pail or bucket of water poured in at the uppermost, runs out at the undermost one, through a stone spout passing through the wall, and a sweep with a broom, carries off the whole remains of the turnips, &c., rendering the whole troughs quite clean and sweet. The whole food of the cattle is thus kept perfectly clean at all times.

In a line with the feeding troughs, and immediately over Hygeiology over them, runs a large strong beam of wood, from one end of the byre to the other, which is strengthened by two strong upright supporters to the roof, placed at equal distances from the ends of the byre, and the main beam is again subdivided by the cattle stakes and chains, so as to keep each of the ten oxen opposite to his own feeding trough and stall.

The three and a half feet of space betwixt the feeding troughs and outer wall of the byre, lighted at the farther end by a glazed window, is the cattle-feeder's walk, who passes along it in front of the cattle; and, with a basket, deposits before each of the cattle the turnips into the feeding trough of each.

To prevent any of the cattle from choking on small turnips, or pieces of large ones, as they are very apt to do, the chains at the stakes are contrived of such a length, that no ox can raise his head too high when eating; for, in this way, it is observed, cattle are generally choked. However, in case it still should happen, that an ox chokes on a turnip, the cattle-man, or feeder is provided with a ramrod, made of a piece of strong stiff rope, with a small round polished wooden head at the end of it; this he introduces into the mouth of the ox, and so gently knocks the turnip down his throat, without either difficulty or danger to the animal. That the cattle-feeder may be always at hand to attend his cattle, a small apartment with a window in it, in which his bed is placed, is constructed immediately off the corner of the byre, so that he is ready, even in the night-time, in case of any accident happening, to give assistance.

At the distance of about five feet eight inches from the feeding troughs, and parallel to them, is the dung groop and urine gutter, neatly and substantially built with hewn stone. Here, too, like the troughs, there is a gradual declivity from the inner and upper to the outer and lowest end; so that the moment the urine passes from the cattle, it runs to the lowest end of the gutter, whence it is conveyed through the outer wall of the byre in a large stone spout, and deposited in the urinarium outside of the wall. At this place is a large inclosed space, occupied as a compost dung-court. Here, all sorts of stuff are collected for increasing the manure; such as, fat earth, cleanings of roads, ditches, ponds, &c., rotten vegetables, &c.; and the urine from the byre being caused to run over all these collected together, which is done very easily by a couple of wooden spouts moved backwards and forwards to the urinarium at pleasure, renders the whole mass in a short time, a rich compost dunghill; and this is done by the urine alone, which in general is totally lost. The dung of the byre again is cleaned out several times each day, at the two front doors of the byre opposite to the groop, and deposited in the dung-court; so that, in this way, too, the byre is kept in as good order as any stable, and the cattle as clean as horses. Along the edge of the dung-court, a few low sheds are constructed, in which young beefs, sheep, or swine, &c., are kept; and these consume the refuse and remains of the turnips from the great feeding byre.

In the side wall of the byre, and opposite to the heads of the cattle, there are constructed three vents, or ventilators; these are placed at the distance of about two feet four inches from the ground in the inside of the byre, and come out immediately under the casing of the slates on the outside. The inside openings of these are about 13 inches in length, seven in breadth, and nine in depth in the wall; and they serve two good purposes. 1. The breath of cattle being specifically lighter than atmospheric air; the consequence is, that, in some byres, the cattle are kept in a constant heat and sweat, because their breath and heat have no way to escape; whereas, by means of the ventilators, the air of the byre is kept in proper circulation, which conduces as much to the health of the cattle as to the preservation of the walls and timber of the byre, by drying up the moisture produced from the breath and sweat of the cattle, which is found to injure those parts of the building.

The method of giving cows their food by the milk-farmers in the vicinity of the metropolis, where this business is carried on upon the most extensive scale, is thus stated in the valuable Agricultural Survey of that district. "During the night, the cows are confined in stalls; about three o'clock in the morning, each cow has a half-bushel basket of grains; when the milking is finished, a bushel basket of turnips is given to each cow; and very soon afterwards they have an allotment in the proportion of one bushel to ten cows, of the most grassy and soft meadow hay, which had been the most early mown, and cured of the greenest colour. These several feedings are generally made before eight o'clock in the morning, at which time the cows are turned into the cow-yard. About twelve o'clock they are again confined to their stalls, and served with the same quantity as they had in the morning. When the afternoon milking, which continues till near three, is finished, the cows are again served with the same quantity of turnips, and about an hour afterwards with the same distribution of hay, as before described. This mode of feeding generally continues during the turnip season, which is from the month of September to the month of May. During the other months of the year they are fed with grains, cabbages, tares, and the other foregoing proportion of second cut meadow hay, and are continued to be fed with the same regularity until they are turned out to graze, when they continue in the field all night; and even during this season they are frequently fed with grains."

As the grains employed in feeding cattle cannot always be procured fresh as they are wanted, it becomes a desirable object to preserve them for a length of time. They are preserved in some places by putting them into pits dug in the earth, into which they are trodden down, and afterwards covered to a moderate depth with dry earth. In this way being defended from the action of the air, and thus prevented from fermenting, they may be kept for a considerable time during the months of summer, when brewing is not carrying on; they may also be kept by placing them down into casks placed upon stands, so as to elevate them a little from the ground, and having their bottoms pierced with holes, to carry off the superabundant moisture.

Food of Dogs.

A good feeder is very essential. He should be of young, active, industrious, and good tempered, for the sake of the animals entrusted to his care, who, however they may be treated by him, cannot complain. He must strictly obey any orders that his master may give, both We must however remark, that barley meal should never be given by itself to hunting hounds during the hunting season, as its heating quality renders them exceedingly thirsty; and when out, they take every opportunity to lap water.

The meat should never be given to the dogs too hot, and should be mixed up to as thick a consistency as may be. The feeding troughs should be wide at the bottom, and have wooden covers, and they should not be made too long; five or six troughs that are easily moved, are better than two or three that are unwieldy.

The boiling for the hounds, mixing of the meat, and preparing it for them at proper hours, will of course be taken care of by the huntman. He must constantly attend the feeding of the hounds, who should be draughted according to the state they are in at the time. Some hounds are better feeders than others, and some require less meat than others; a nice eye and great attention are required to keep them all in equal flesh. This is what constitutes the merit of the huntman, and shews him to be well qualified for his office; but few are sufficiently attentive to this. The hounds are fed in a hurry, without examining them before they begin. To ascertain properly the condition of a pack of hounds requires no small circumspection.

The huntman should call each hound by name, letting him in to his food as he is called; this uses them to their name, and teaches them obedience. A hound should always approach him who calls on him; and if he touches him with a stick, he should follow wherever he is led.

The thin and tender feeding hounds being first turned out to the feeding room, will have the opportunity of picking where they choose. Such hounds as are in low condition, had better be drafted off into a separate kennel. Thus selecting those that are poor, we proceed to the feeding of the rest with less trouble and more accuracy; but those that are drafted off, when more flesh is mixed with the meat, must be let in to feed one by one as they answer to their names; or they may be better fed than taught. Thus the hounds who want flesh, will all have a share of it; and if any of them be much poorer than the rest, they should be fed again, as such hounds cannot be fed too often. Unless peculiarly good, a soft waxy constituted hound will scarcely ever be worth the attention that is given him; and after a hard day is frequently unserviceable for some time. It must be recollected, however, that such hounds as are tender, or lean feeders, cannot be fed too late, or with too rich meat. Should any hounds appear to get too fat, they must not be suffered to eat their fill, but the rest may eat as much of the meat as they please.

Once a week, or fortnight at most, during the hunting season, the hounds should have a pound of sulphur given them in their meat; and when the season is over, they should have half a pound of antimony added to the sulphur, and well mixed with the meat. On these days, the hounds should all be let in to feed together, and such as require flesh, have it given to them afterwards. Greens boiled in their meat once a week, is likewise proper. A horse killed and given to hounds whilst warm, after a very hard day's hunting, will make an excellent meal, but they should not hunt again till three days after it. The bones broken are good food for poor hounds, as there is considerable nourishment in them. Sheeps trotters are also very sweet food, and in a scarcity of horse flesh, bullocks paunches may be employed with advantage.

It is customary with some to shut up the hounds for two hours after they have returned from hunting, before they are fed, and the other hounds are shut up with them to lick them clean; but probably this practice does more harm than good, as the idle hounds will disturb the tired dogs more by their licking, than this will make amends for. Besides, hounds shut up on their return from hunting, will not afterwards readily quit their benches, as, if much fatigued, they will seek repose rather than food. It is therefore a better way when the hunt is nearly over, to send forward a servant to see the meat prepared, that the dogs may be fed immediately on their return. If they have had a fever day, they should be fed again afterwards. When hounds are fed twice, they should be kept separate from the hounds that were left at home, till after the second feeding, and it will be still better if they are not put together till the next morning. It is the best plan to feed the hounds that have been out twice. Some hounds will feed better the second time than the first, and besides, the turning them out from the lodging house refreshes them, and allows them to stretch their limbs; and if the kennel is cleaned out, and the litter well shaken up, they will afterwards settle themselves better on their benches. It is at all times proper, after feeding, to turn out the dogs into the grass court, as this contributes very much to the cleanliness of the kennel.

**Chap. III. Of Exercise.**

Nature dictates the necessity of exercise to almost every animal, and a greater or less proportion of it is necessary to enable them to perform their functions with health and activity. The proportion requisite for this purpose is, however, not the same in all animals. Sheep and cattle require but little exercise, much of which, indeed, appears to be incompatible with the manner of their eating; for, as they require a second mastication of their food by rumination, a considerable time is necessary for this process, which cannot be properly performed, unless the animal be entirely at its ease. It is found, however, that such of these animals as are kept without exercise, or are wholly cooped up in houses, for the purpose of fattening them more speedily, are neither so healthy, nor afford such fine and wholesome meat, as those which are permitted to rove at large in their native pastures. It is to the horse and dog that exercise seems the most essential. These animals require the greatest proportion, and are most injured by the want of it. The observations we are about to make will chiefly apply to the horse.

Such horses as are constantly employed in active labour have, of course, sufficient exercise; but it often happens that those which are kept by gentlemen, for their pleasure or convenience, are, when their labour is not required, permitted to stand whole days in the stable, without any other exercise than being ridden perhaps twice a day to a neighbouring pond. In cities and large towns, even this exercise is often not permitted them. They are in the mean time plentifully fed with rich, hard food, and thus pampered, they are rendered liable to the attacks of many acute diseases; and when their exertions are required, they cannot perform their usual labour with their usual ease. It is therefore necessary that such horses as are not regularly worked should receive daily a moderate proportion of exercise, and should be accustomed to such a degree of labour as may counterbalance the effect of high feeding, and enable them to undergo occasional exertion. A horse who is kept in the state of regular leisure is said to be in wind. The exercise of a horse that is not constantly worked should not, however, be excessive, or be carried beyond the commencement of fatigue, as this would wear out the horse without necessity. It is an absurd practice which some people pursue, to send out their horses every day to be galloped and rattled along the roads, or perhaps over the streets, for the purpose of keeping them in wind. This is wrong, even where the horse is in good health and sound condition; but when it is practised with finew-strained, or founded horses, as is not uncommon, it must be productive of considerable mischief.

In general, two hours a-day will be sufficient for the purpose of preserving the health of the horse, and this may be taken at once or twice in the day, as may be most convenient. If possible, the owner should ride his own horse in these exercising jaunts, for the groom will probably do the horse more injury than benefit.

Some horses require more exercise than others. Gentlemen's horses that are merely kept for light riding, will do with but little; but hunters and racers require a greater proportion, and should seldom have less than three hours a-day. This, however, must depend in a great measure on the quantity and quality of their food, as the food and exercise must in general be proportioned to each other; but in all cases care must be taken that the horse's labour do not exceed his strength. Young horses are not equal to much exertion, and should therefore be exercised but lightly. Many horses have been destroyed by the neglect of this precaution, especially in the army, where it is not unusual to receive horses as recruits of four or even three years of age. These horses, when they reach the regiment, to which they are probably brought from a considerable distance, are in general weak and in low condition, and are probably suffering from some acute disease, brought on them by exposure to cold and wet during their journey. They are of course very unfit for labour, and require at least three or four weeks' rest, before they can with propriety be brought to go through their exercises in the riding school. According to Mr. White, however, they are seldom allowed the half of that time, but are brought too hastily into the school, without reflecting that, as they are unaccustomed to such exercises, or indeed at that early age to any kind of work, it must become exceedingly fatiguing to them; and to young horses in a state of debility, especially if they are not immediately attended to, when brought sweating from the riding school, such labour must often be followed by the worst consequences.

Where a horse cannot be conveniently taken out to the fields or roads, for the purpose of exercise, expedients have been thought on to exercise them within the stable, or in a yard adjoining. The stable can answer for this purpose only when it is very large, and he may then be made to trot backwards and forwards till he begins to sweat, with some advantage. We have heard of the governor of a certain town, who fell on a good expedient to exercise the horses of a large body of cavalry that had been received into the town, just before the enemy laid siege to it. As there was no possibility of riding out the horses, he caused a number of the troopers to stand about the horses, two or three at each horse, and whip them so as to make them fly from one side of the stall to the other, till both men and horses were sufficiently heated. It is said that by this means the horses were kept in a pretty good state of health, whereas they would otherwise have been much diseased.

When a horse comes in from work in a profuse perspiration, he should not be suffered to stand to cool at the stable door, but should rather be walked gently about, if the weather will permit of it, or else be tied up in his stall with a cloth thrown over him. If he is in a violent sweat, it is a good practice to stroke off the sweat with a sharp-edged stick, as is usually performed on race-horses immediately after running the course. If he is much fatigued, it will also be not amiss to give him a little strong beer, a small draught of which will considerably refresh him. The French commonly give wine in these cases; but their wine is very weak, and is probably not so wholesome for horses as our ale.

It is very common with the drivers of coaches, and many grooms, to throw cold water over the legs of horses, when they come to the end of their journey, sweating and fatigued. Some even ride them into the water on these occasions, or throw it over a great part of their body. This is a very dangerous practice, and gives occasion to several diseases of the legs, joints, and feet. It is more especially to be avoided when the horse has been long sweating, as when in this state he is too much weakened to bear the shock of the cold water with impunity. When a horse is overheated without much sweating or fatigue, the practice would probably not be attended with danger, and bathing him with cold water at that time would perhaps be even beneficial, especially if he were immediately rubbed dry, and covered with a light cloth. But as it is difficult to hit this nice point, this practice must be employed with caution, and should never be trusted to the indiscriminate prudence of a groom or coachman. The instances of horses having been plunged into cold water when overheated, without sustaining any injury, are easily explained from the above remark.

M. Lafoffe makes the following remarks on the exercise of horses. "A horse on a journey may travel five hours at a time, if not hurried onwards; a manege horse one hour; a cavalry horse may manoeuvre two hours; a coach horse, at a slow pace, six hours. But it is proper that saddle horses should not be overloaded, and that the load of a horse in harness should be in proportion to his strength, in order to perform those proportions of labour, to establish which is a difficult point; all depends on quickness. We will say generally, that a saddle horse, well formed, and muscular, may thus carry at a slow rate, two-thirds of his own weight, and run in a chair, with double and one-half of his weight. It is easy to see from this, that the load of a saddle horse should be less if he is put on the trot, and less still if he is made to gallop. The draught horse, on the contrary, lightens his load by speed; which, however, he cannot long continue without tiring, and being out of breath.

"The disorders which proceed from hard work are, founder, fret, and most inflammatory diseases. There are others that proceed from sudden transitions from heat to cold, or, on the contrary, such as inflammation of the lungs, colds, glanders, rheumatisms, and dropsy of the breast. These are particularly frequent and dangerous to cavalry horses. They have existed at all times; but the present system of manoeuvres renders them much more common than formerly; they are a species of endemic disorders, which alarm many regiments, and make them dread the consequences. But there can be no doubt they may be avoided in a great degree.

1. By taking no horse into a regiment under four years old, and those only which are well formed. 2. By giving them forage of good quality. 3. By airing them in the stable, and 4. By avoiding to put them in a sweat, which is a state contrary to nature. This forced perspiration dries up and impoverishes the blood, spoils the finer fibres, the vessels lose their reaction; hence the stagnation of the humours, which produce tumours and farcy. It would be advisable then to avoid accidents after a repetition of military exercises by walking the horses quick, and afterwards slowly, until they have regained their natural warmth. By this means a repercussion of the humours may be avoided. For the same reason, a horse should neither be watered, fed, or dressed while sweating; on the contrary, if he must be put into the stable, take off the saddle, rub him down with straw, and cover him with a cloth."

PART V. VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

IN treating of the substances employed in the cure of the diseases that affect domestic animals, we shall first describe the usual forms in which they are administered, with the most approved methods of exhibiting each, in the various cases to which they are applicable. We shall then enumerate the remedies themselves, arranged under certain heads or classes, as is usually done by writers on the materia medica; for the sake of bringing together under one view, those articles which are suited to the same purposes. We shall not at present, however, describe the articles made use of, as most of them are employed in general medicine, and a particular account will be given of them in the article Materia Medica. Our object here will be to point out the doses required for the animals of whose diseases we are about to treat; and the particular cases to which they are adapted. To each class we shall subjoin a number of receipts to which we shall have occasion to refer, when we come to the treatment of the diseases. The most usual forms in which medicine is exhibited, to horses and cattle, are those of powder, ball, drench, ointment, poultice, and fomentation.

**Powders.**

There are not many substances which admit of being administered in the form of powders; for as it is necessary to mix these with the food of the animal, they must of course be composed of such articles as do not impair to the food any very strong or disagreeable taste. The substances chiefly given in the form of powders are antimony, sulphur, nitre, and some of the aromatic seeds, &c. They should be reduced to the finest powder, and should be thoroughly mixed with the corn or bran that is placed before the animal. Those powders which do not readily dissolve in water, such as antimony, sulphur, and the powder of seeds, should be moistened before mixing with the food, as in this way less of the medicine will be wasted. Emetic tartar, and all articles that require to be given in a small determinate dose, cannot properly be administered in this form.

In giving powders mixed with the food of horses, much will depend on the delicacy of the animal's taste, and on the state of his stomach at the time. Some horses will readily take their food mixed with medicinal powders, while others refuse every article offered to them in this form. When this is the case, or when the medicine thus administered appears to disagree with the animal's stomach, this mode of giving it must not be repeated; but the medicine must be administered in some other form.

Powders are also sometimes used externally either to sores and ulcers, or blown into the eyes.

**Balls.**

The form of ball or bolus is one of the most common in which internal medicines are administered in farriery. It is extremely convenient, as there are very few articles that do not admit of being given when mixed up into a ball; as they are, from the peculiar conformation of the animal's throat, more easily administered than any other form that can be given by the mouth. Some articles, however, especially such as easily evaporate at the usual temperature of the air, as ether and volatile alkali, and such as speedily liquefy or deliquesce by exposure to a moist atmosphere, are not so properly given in the form of balls. Substances, too, which require a very large dose, do not easily admit of this form, and are best given in infusion, or mixed with water in the form of a drench.

It is best to prepare balls as they are required, or at least not many days before they are needed, as by exposure to the air they become hard, and do not easily dissolve in the stomach; they may even pass through the bowels nearly unchanged. But what is of still more consequence, giving a hard ball may endanger the animal's life, by its sticking in his throat. Mr White says, that he has known several instances of horses being destroyed in this way. Sometimes the horse's jaws are so narrow as not to admit of introducing the hand between them. In this case, the ball may be fixed lightly on the end of a stick or cane, moderately pointed; or, what is still better, placed loosely in a kind of cup fixed on such a stick or cane; and thus thrust to the back of the tongue.

The ball should be made not round, but nearly of the shape of an egg, and rather less in size. The mode of administering balls to horses requires some dexterity. To give a ball with ease, the operator should extend his fingers so as to surround one end of it, while the whole hand and the thumb opposite to the finger that surround the ball must be contracted into as small a space as possible, as the smaller the hand, the greater will be the ease with which the operation is performed, both to the farrier and the horse. The animal's mouth is usually kept open by means of an instrument called a balling iron, that is formed like a ring, with an opening sufficiently large to admit the hand, and which is covered with cloth, and placed between the horse's jaws; thus preventing him from shutting his mouth, or hurting the operator with his teeth. When the ball is held in this way, in the right hand, the tongue of the animal is to be drawn out with the left hand towards the left side, and the ball is to be adroitly placed beyond the root of the tongue, and immediately on quitting the ball, the tongue is to be let go, and the horse allowed to raise his head. The ball is now in such a situation that it cannot be thrown back, and will be gradually swallowed. In holding the tongue, it is proper to keep it pretty firmly against the lower jaw, as this position greatly facilitates the operation. Balls are usually wrapped up tightly in paper, to prevent their disagreeable taste, but the paper should be very thin and delicate, that it may easily give way when the ball enters the stomach. Wafer paper, which is employed for administering boluses in the human subject, would be an improvement in farriery, which may be easily adopted, as it is by no means expensive.

When the balls are composed of very hot or stimulating ingredients, it is proper to give the horse drink before administering them. It is best to give the drink first, as horses in particular will not readily drink after receiving a ball. If the ball has been composed of any medicine that possesses a corrosive quality, or is otherwise very irritating, as arsenic, corrosive sublimate, blue vitriol, or the like, it is necessary to give the animal, previous to the operation, a considerable quantity of some mucilaginous drink, as of water-gruel, or linseed tea.

When a ball is properly administered, it gives the animal very little fatigue, and may be repeated much more frequently than any other form of medicine. It is therefore extremely convenient.

The ingredients composing a ball should be mixed up with some fugitive substance, as molasses, honey, or extract of liquorice softened in water, rather than with any gummy or mucilaginous substance, as these latter soon become hard by exposure to the air.

When a number of balls of the same kind are made at once, great care should be taken in mixing the ingredients in the most accurate manner, otherwise a much greater quantity of the active part of the medicine will be found in some of the balls than in others.

Though we have mentioned the use of the balling iron, in administering balls to horses, some grooms and farriers are very expert in giving the ball without this instrument. DRENCHES.

This form is chiefly suited to those remedies that are easily soluble in water, or which readily mix with that fluid, and which have not any very disagreeable taste. Hence all mucilaginous substances, some resins, and many of the aromatics, may be given in this form. It is proper, in compounding a drench, that the substances composing it be thoroughly mixed with each other. It not unfrequently happens, that oils or balsams are given by way of drench, without any pains having been taken to combine them fully with the watery part of the medicine; and when substances that would admit of being finely powdered, are administered in this way, the carelessness of grooms or farriers is too often such as to give them in a very coarse state. In the former case the oil or balsam swimming in the liquid hangs about the mouth and throat of the animal, and by its unpleasant taste renders him averse to the repetition of the medicine; in the latter case, it is evident that the remedy is not reduced to that state in which it is capable of exerting its full effect.

Drenches are usually administered by means of a horn, which is that of an ox or cow, with the larger end cut into the form of a spout. Sometimes when a horn is not at hand, a bottle is employed; but this is very improper, as in the horse's struggling, which often happens in administering a drench, the neck of the bottle may be broken, and occasion much mischief.

In giving a drench by means of the horn, the animal's tongue is to be held down with the left hand, as in giving a ball; and when his head is sufficiently raised, the drench is to be poured cautiously into his mouth. Every stable should be provided with a drenching horn.

In preparing drenches, farriers almost always make use of ale or beer, as the menstruum or diluent; but this is often very absurd, and can be proper only in the preparation of cordial drenches. Those of a cooling nature should be mixed, either with common water, or with some mucilaginous infusion.

Drenches are seldom given with dexterity, and thus a considerable quantity of the medicine is frequently spilled. This circumstance renders them often very inconvenient, particularly in cases where there is any swelling or painful affection either of the mouth or throat. Under such circumstances it is scarcely advisable to administer medicine in the form of a drench; as, independently of the resistance given by the horse, which will certainly waste much of the medicine, the forcing of a drench down his throat, when it is in an inflamed or irritable state, may be followed by very unpleasant consequences. Mr Clark says that he has frequently observed a simple solution of nitre in water, sweetened with honey or molasses, when given in cases such as we have described, to occasion violent coughing, trembling and panting, inasmuch that the poor animal was like to drop down, merely from the acute pain he suffered, from a medicine being administered to him in the form of a drench at such a critical period.

Even the position in which the horse's head is placed to receive a drench may, in these cases, excite the most violent pain, from the diffusion which the muscles of the throat undergo, when the head and tongue are held in so awkward a situation.

The great advantage of a drench is, that remedies exhibited in this form produce their effect much more speedily than when given in the form of a ball, which may take a considerable time to be dissolved in the juices of the stomach. Drenches are therefore particularly suited to urgent cases, in which it is necessary to give immediate relief.

CLYSTERS.

This form is suited to a great variety of purposes, and is not administered so often as with propriety it might be given. Not only purges, which are very commonly administered in this way, but also every class of remedies, may be exhibited in the form of a clyster. The clyster should be composed of no substances that are not either entirely soluble in water, or may be thoroughly mixed with any watery fluid, as to pass readily through a slender tube.

The instrument employed for administering a clyster is, as in the human subject, a pipe and bladder, but the bladder should be that of an ox, and of the largest size; to the extremity of which must be fitted a pewter pipe about a foot long, and about half an inch in diameter, having the extremity which is to enter the gut made completely smooth, that it may not injure the internal coat of the bowel.

Previous to administering a clyster, it is often necessary to free the great gut from a quantity of hardened excrement which it may contain. This is best performed by means of the hand, and the operation is called raking, or back-raking. The hand is easily introduced, as the diameter of the great gut is in the horse very large. Care must be taken before introducing the hand, to grease it well with oil or hogs lard, and to have the nails cut perfectly close, for fear of injuring the gut. This mode of extracting the hardened excrement is frequently required, and will succeed when medicine would probably only serve to increase the animal's distress.

Large syringes are frequently employed for the purpose of administering clysters; but such instruments are exceedingly improper, as their tubes are very short, and they are very difficult to manage, especially if the animal should prove restless from pain, as frequently happens in cases of colic; where, as we shall see, clysters are very frequently required.

Clysters are peculiarly requisite in those cases where medicine cannot be conveniently given by the mouth; as in locked-jaw, or when there is any obstruction in the throat, or wound of the tongue. In such circumstances horses may frequently be kept alive for many weeks, by the frequent exhibition of nourishing clysters.

OINTMENTS.

Ointments are employed in farriery, merely as an application to sores, or in some cases of eruptions of the skin. They cannot be employed as in the human body, to introduce remedies into the system; as on account of the hair that covers the body of quadrupeds, Poultices.

Poultices are frequently employed, either for the purpose of maintaining a long-continued heat and moisture about a part in which we are desirous to produce suppuration, or for correcting the unpleasant smell that sometimes arises from foul ill-conditioned ulcers; or lastly, they are applied to check inflammation. In the first case they are always applied warm, and should be renewed repeatedly, till the proper effect is produced; as if old poultices are suffered to remain long on a suppurating part, they tend to check the suppuration instead of afflicting it. In the two latter cases poultices are usually applied cold.

Poultices should always be composed of such substances, as admit of being reduced to a soft mass, either by boiling or pounding, as otherwise they would fret and irritate the parts to which they are applied. This must be particularly attended to in such poultices as are laid over large open ulcers, or any part that is highly sensible.

Fomentations.

These are intended to relax and soften the parts to which they are applied, and in this circumstance they nearly resemble the first kind of poultices, only that fomentations are always in a liquid form, being composed of some infusion or decoction of herbs. The mode of applying a fomentation is, by wetting a large flannel cloth in the warm liquor, wringing it slightly, and then applying it as warm as can easily be borne over the part to be fomented.

In the following list of the articles of the veterinary materia medica, we shall call the substances by those names by which they are usually known to the common people; but we shall add by way of synonyms the scientific names, as derived from the modern systems of natural history and chemistry. In fixing the doses of each article, we shall, unless particularly mentioned to the contrary, only specify the dose proper for horses and cattle; but it would be proper for the reader to keep in remembrance, that the dose for a sheep or a dog will be about one-half or one-third of that for a horse or cow.

In classing the remedies we shall adapt the arrangement given in a late compendium of the materia medica. Most writers on the materia medica of horses, have arranged their articles in alphabetical order. Mr White has done this, in his excellent veterinary materia medica and pharmacopeia. Such an arrangement does very well, if intended to answer the purpose of a dictionary; but for practice, it is better to have the articles classified according to the sensible effects which they appear to produce in the system; as in this way the practitioner has before him all those remedies that are of the same nature, and may select from among them such as he thinks will best suit the particular case that he has in hand.

It may be necessary to observe, that the weight intended in this part is troy weight divided according to the apothecaries, and the measure English wine measure.

Emetics.

It will have appeared from our description of the stomach of the horse, that this animal is in general incapable of vomiting. Emetics, therefore, as calculated for him, form no part of the veterinary materia medica. We do not know that emetics are given either to sheep or cattle, but to dogs they may be often given with advantage. A few substances, however, will answer this purpose, as in general a little gruel, or a little mustard mixed with warm water, will be sufficient to vomit a dog. The following substances may be ranked in this class for dogs.

a. Antimony. Sulphuret of Antimony. Emetic Tartar. Tartrate of Antimony and Potash. Dose from two to four grains.

b. Antimonial Powder. Oxide of Antimony with Phosphate of Lime. James's Powder. Said to have been given with success in the distemper. Dose from eight to ten grains, repeated every three or four hours, according to the evacuation produced.

c. Mercury. Turpith Mineral. Yellow Sulphate of Mercury. Used also for the distemper, and in cases of recent poisoning. Dose about half a drachm. Also recommended in canine madness.

Receipt.

1. Take of turpith mineral, five grains; And emetic tartar, one grain. Give in a little milk after bleeding.

2. Expectorants.

These are remedies that are calculated to produce or keep up a discharge of mucus from the lungs, or windpipe, and are thus fitted to relieve coughs and thicknesses of wind, or asthma.

a. Ammoniac. Gum Ammoniac. A gum-resin, Dose from three to five drachms, in the form of ball. Commonly combined with squill, or some other powerful expectorant, preceded by a purging medicine. Particularly suited to chronic coughs.

b. Asafoetida. Ferula asafoetida. Lin. A gum resin; dose about half a drachm, in a ball.

c. Balsam of Peru. Myroxylon Peruforum. Lin. Dose from one to two drachms in combination in a ball, assisted with other expectorants. In chronic coughs.

d. Balsam of Copaiva. Copaifera balsamum. Lin. Dose about an ounce, in the same form and cases as the last.

e. Balsam of Sulphur. Dose from half an ounce to an ounce.

f. Barbadoes F A R R I E R Y.

f. BARBADOE'S TAR. Petroleum Barbadoense. Lin. Employed sometimes in chronic cough; but not so good as other expectorants.

g. GARLIC. Allium sativum. Lin. The cloves of the root beaten to a paste; dose from one to two ounces; made into a ball with liquorice powder, or boiled in water into a drench. In similar cases.

h. SQUILL. Scilla maritima. Lin. Dried root powdered; dose about a drachm, in a ball, with other mild expectorants.

i. STORAX. Styrax officinale. Lin. Strained storax. Dose two drachms, in a ball. As a substitute for balsam of Tolu, in obstinate coughs.

Receipts for Expectorants.

2. Take of gum ammoniac, three drachms; Castile soap, two drachms; Powdered squill, a drachm. Mix with honey or molasses into a ball.

3. Take of camphor; powdered squill, each a drachm; Balsam of copaiva, half an ounce; Aromatic powder, two drachms. With honey, mix into a ball.

4. Take of balsam of sulphur, four ounces; Barbadoes tar, two ounces; Oil of aniseed, two drachms; Powdered liquorice root, enough to make a mass, to be divided into balls, each weighing about an ounce and a half, for a dose.

5. Take afaetida, half an ounce; Powdered ginger, a drachm and a half; Prepared ammonia, half a drachm; Honey, &c. enough to make a ball.

3. SUDORIFICS.

These are such medicines as are intended, either to keep up or bring back the infensible perspiration, or to excite profuse sweating. They are also called diaphoretics. See Materia Medica.

Few medicines are employed in farriery with a view to excite sweat. In the dog, it is well-known that this effect can scarcely be produced by any means; and in the horse it is found extremely difficult to produce any sensible sudorific effect by means of medicine. This may indeed be excited by violent exercise and warm clothing; but these are ill suited to the cases in which sweating would be most desirable. The infensible perspiration may, however, be gently encouraged by some powerful sweating medicines; and in cattle these may not unfrequently be given with advantage.

a. AMMONIA.

MINDERERUS'S SPIRIT. Acetate of Ammonia. Recommended by Mr White as a gentle diaphoretic. Dose from eight to ten ounces in form of a drench. In febrile complaints.

b. CAMPHOR. Laurus camphora. Lin. Dose from one to two drachms, in form of a ball. In fevers.

c. ANTIMONY. Sulphuret of Antimony. Very commonly given to horses for the purpose of improving the fineness of their coat. Dose about an ounce, in powder mixed with the food.

d. EMETIC TARTAR. Tartrate of Antimony and Potash. Dose from one to two drachms; in a ball or drench.

ANTIMONIAL POWDER. Oxide of Antimony with Phosphate of Lime. Dose about two drachms.

e. UNWASHED CALX OR OXIDE OF ANTIMONY. Dose two or three drachms, in composition as below.

f. NITRE. Nitrate of Potash. Dose about one ounce in a ball, with one or two drachms of camphor; or alone in a drench.

g. OPIUM. Papaver somniferum. Lin. Seldom given alone, though it might probably be administered with great propriety, in doses of two scruples to a drachm.

Receipts for Sudorifics.

6. Take of nitre half an ounce; Camphor, a drachm and a half; Calomel, powdered opium, a scruple; Molasses, enough to make a ball. In fever.

7. Take of unwashed calx of antimony, two drachms; Camphor, a drachm; Opium, half a drachm; Compound powder of tragacanth, two drachms. Honey enough to make a ball. In fever. To be repeated occasionally.

8. Take of emetic tartar from one drachm to two; Compound powder of tragacanth, three drachms; Honey enough to make a ball.

9. Take of emetic tartar, a drachm and a half; Ginger, two drachms; Camphor, half a drachm; Opium, a scruple; Oil of caraway, ten drops. Molasses enough to make a ball. For horses that are hide-bound, and have unhealthy looking coats.

10. Take of antimonial powder, two drachms; Caraway seeds powdered, half an ounce; Ginger, a drachm; Oil of aniseeds, twenty drops. Honey enough to make a ball.

11. Take of unwashed calx or oxide of antimony, two drachms; Prepared ammonia, ginger, of each a drachm; Opium, half a drachm; Powdered aniseeds, half an ounce; Molasses, enough to make a ball.

4. DIURETICS.

These are remedies that are intended to produce a diuretic more than ordinary discharge of urine. See Materia Medica.

Diuretics. Diuretics are frequently given to horses, not only in cases of dropical swellings, especially of the legs, but in gout, and in many eruptive diseases; in running ulcers, cracks, or ulcers about the heels; in baldness of different parts of the body; and in some cases where there appears to be a difficulty in flaring.

They are usually given in the form of balls, but some of them by way of powder mixed with the food. Before exhibiting diuretics, bleeding is sometimes requisite. These cases will be stated in their proper place. It is also proper, during the use of diuretics, that the animal should take regular exercise; and occasional drink should be given, to promote their operation. The use of them should not be continued too long, as they are found to produce considerable weakness.

a. Balsam of Copaiva. See Expectorants. This medicine, when given as directed under expectorants, frequently acts as a diuretic.

b. Camphor. See Sudorifics. Dose about two drachms, mixed with nitre in a ball. In spasmodic difficulty of flaring.

c. Nitre. Nitrate of Potash. Dose about one ounce, in the form of powder, ball, or drench. In fevers and strangury.

d. Potash. Subcarbonate of Potash, or Vegetable Alkali. Dose a drachm or two.

e. Rosin. Dose from two to four drachms repeated occasionally, in the form of powder with the food. Rosin is a good diuretic in cases of swollen legs and greasy heels, but is seldom given, except to cart-horses.

f. Soap. Castile Soap. Dose from two to six drachms, in composition.

g. Tobacco. Nicotiana tabacum. Lin. Sometimes given by grooms for fining a horse's coat.

h. Turpentine. a. Common turpentine. b. Venice turpentine. Dose from half an ounce to an ounce; in the form of emulsion.

i. Oil or Spirit of Turpentine. Dose from one ounce to two.

Receipts for Diuretics.

12. Take of Castile soap, powdered rosin, of each three drachms; Nitre, half an ounce; Oil of juniper, a drachm. First beat the soap and oil of juniper together, and then add the other ingredients, to make a ball.

13. Take of nitre in powder, half an ounce; Camphor, oil of juniper, of each one drachm; Castile soap, three drachms. Rub the camphor and oil together, then add the soap and nitre, and as much flour as is sufficient to make it into a ball.

Take of rosin and nitre, each half an ounce. Mix into a powder, to be taken with the food.

5. Purges. These medicines are well known. They are generally considered of two kinds; laxatives, or such as gently move the bowels, and are intended merely to empty them of excrement; and purges, or such as, besides this effect, are intended to stimulate the exhalent vessels of the intestines, and produce a considerable discharge of liquid stools. (See Materia Medica.) As either order may in general be given so as to produce either of these effects, according to the quantity in which it is administered, we shall consider them together.

Purgative medicines are given with considerable advantage to all the domestic animals, in many cases of disease, which will be pointed out hereafter. They are very commonly, however, given to horses, by grooms and ordinary farriers, by way of alternative or preventive of disease; or in order, as they think, the better to prepare them for some unusual exertion. The reason given for this practice is, that the horse is foul in the body, or full of humours, and the purgatives are given to expel this morbid accumulation of humours.

"This sort of evacuation (says Dr. Bracken, who is improperly one of the first that pointed out the absurdity of this minute practice), seems very much to quadrature with the outward fumes, and makes the ignorant part of mankind, horses whose heads are fuller of humours than their horses, imagine that purging medicines carry off the offending matter in most disorders; never considering the general rule, which ought still to be kept in mind, viz. that in proportion to any one evacuation being heightened or increased, most or all of the other natural evacuations are proportionally diminished.

It must be remembered that the intestines of the horse are exceedingly long, and the large intestines are so constructed as in many cases to retain the food or excrement for a very considerable time. Purgative medicines given to a horse are often retained for 24 or 36 hours; and if these have been of an irritating quality, it is evident that the unnecessary exhibition of them may often produce considerable mischief. Mr. Blaine says, that when horses die after the exhibition of strong purges, which according to him is not unfrequently the case, he has always found the large intestines more or less inflamed.

It is found that after giving a horse a strong purge, he is often incapable of returning to his usual work for many days; it is even said for a month. Hence it will easily appear how absurd is the practice of those who physic their horses without necessity. Mr. John Lawrence is, however, still an advocate for purging horses now and then, and is of opinion that the mischief done by purges is to be attributed to the coarseness of the medicine, rather than to its purging effect. He declares, that after 30 years experience, he has never known purging do harm, if the aloes employed was of the finer sort.

Veterinary practitioners differ with respect to the time of administering a purge. Mr. Blaine recommends it to be given in the morning, when the horse is to be allowed to fast from 9 or 10 o'clock to 12 or 1. Then a lock or two of hay, or about two handfuls, is to be given him, and after this he is to have the ball, with a horn... horn full of warm ale, or water-gruel, immediately after it. He is then to fast for another hour, when he is to be allowed the moderate use of hay. He should have all his drink a little warm; should be walked about gently during the remainder of the day, and should have a warm bath at night. Next day he is to be again moderately exercised at intervals, till the purge begins to operate; but if the weather is severe, he must be covered with body clothes, and care must be taken not to have the stable too warm when he returns. Mr Clark recommends a bath of bran to be given about an hour before the bath, and says that in this way he has always found the medicine to operate in a gentle and easy manner.

It is a common practice with many people to ride their horses very hard before giving them a purging medicine, with the view, as they term it, to stir up the humours, which being thus set afloat, will more easily be carried off by the purge. To say no more with respect to the absurdity of the doctrine, we may remark that the practice itself is highly dangerous, as a purge administered after such violent exercise, will seldom fail to produce inflammation in the bowels, fevers, or some other disorder, which, though it may not at the time prove fatal, may lay the foundation of blindness, incurable lameness, or some other disorder that may render the horse useless. Violent exercise, after administering a purge, is equally to be avoided, as it may produce sweating, and thus counteract the purgative effect; or, what is as bad, it will tend to increase the weakness that seldom fails to be brought on by purging.

We have been the more particular in our observations on purging horses, as it is a matter of considerable consequence, and as the effect of indiscriminate purging in this animal is little understood.

**a. Aloes.** *Aloe perfoliata.* Lin.

- Socotrine aloes. Dose from five to nine drachms. - Barbadoes aloes. Dose from half an ounce to an ounce.

Of these the latter is commonly employed for horses. It is best given in form of a ball, mixed with soap, as prescribed at present. In most cases where purges are required.

**b. Castor Oil.** *Ricinus communis.* Lin.

Dose from a pound to a pound and a half. In fevers and worms. Though Mr White says, he has given it in the latter case without effect.

**c. Epsom Salt.** See Sulphate of Magnesia.

**d. Gamboge.** *Stalagmitis gambogioides.* Lin.

Seldom employed in horses, though recommended by Mr White as a useful medicine in worms.

Dose from two to three drachms, in a ball with Castile soap.

**e. Jalap.** *Convolvulus jalapa.*

Dose in the dog twenty to thirty grains.

**f. Common Salt.** Muricate of Soda.

Dose from four to six ounces in a drench, or in a larger dose by way of clyster.

**g. Soap.**

Chiefly used to combine aloes and other purgatives into a ball.

**h. Mercury, or Quicksilver.**

**i. Calomel.** Sul-muriate, or mild muriate of mercury.

Dose from one to two drachms, usually mixed with other purgatives.

In liver complaints, obstinate cases of grease, chronic inflammation of the eyes, and dropical swellings of the hind-legs.

**k. Glauber's Salt.** Sulphate of Soda.

Dose about a pound. Best given in the form of a clyster. In fevers, and inflammatory complaints.

**l. Epsom Salt.** Sulphate of Magnesia.

As the last.

**Receipts for Purges.**

14. Take of Socotrine aloes, five drachms; Castile soap, half an ounce; Oil of caraway, ten drops; Molasses enough to make a ball.

A moderate dose for young or delicate horses.

15. Take of Socotrine aloes, an ounce; Castile soap, half an ounce; Calomel, a drachm and a half; Oil of mint, twenty drops; Molasses enough to make a ball.

16. Take of Barbadoes aloes, half an ounce; Compound powder of tragacanth, two drachms; Salt of tartar, a drachm and a half; Syrup enough to make a ball.

This is given as a laxative by Mr White, who declares that he never saw any ill result from giving Barbadoes'aloes, though Mr Blaine and Mr Lawrence are of opinion, that Socotrine aloes is always to be preferred.

17. Take of water-gruel, a gallon; Glauber's salt, half a pound; Oil of olives, or linseed oil, a pint.

To be given warm by way of clyster. In fevers and inflammations of the bowels.

18. Take of powdered jalap, a drachm; Powdered ginger, half a drachm; Syrup of buckthorn, enough to make a ball.

For dogs.

**6. Errhines.**

These remedies are suited to produce a considerable discharge from the nostrils, and with this view are sometimes preferred to horses in cases of flaggers or violent headaches. They must, however, be given with caution, and not till after bleeding and other evacuating means have been used. They are always administered in the form of powder, which is blown up the nostrils, usually through a quill.

**a. Asarabacca.** *Afrum Europaeum.* Lin.

The dried leaves in powder.

The snuff, usually sold by the name of cephalic snuff, is chiefly composed of asarabacca mixed with some aromatic.

7. Sialogogues.

These remedies are given with a view of increasing the flow of saliva or slaver. They are seldom employed in veterinary medicine, though it is probable that salivation might be productive of good effects in the locked jaw, to fatal to horses, and in the distemper in dogs.

a. Ginger. *Amomum zingiber.* Sometimes tied about a horse's bit by way of a masticatory, as it is called.

b. Mercury. Calomel is the only mercurial that can properly be employed to excite salivation in the horse and dog; and it will scarcely produce this effect, if given by the mouth. It is best to rub the gums with it twice or thrice a day, till the proper effect is produced. See Stimulants.

8. Emollients.

These are such remedies as are calculated, either to relax the body, or to abate acrimony. The former are sometimes divided into diluents and relaxants; the latter are usually called demulcents, although diluents are also commonly given to obviate acrimony.

a. Barley. *Hordeum distichon.* Lin. The use of barley as an article of food, has been already noticed. A decoction of it forms a part of most emollient douches and clysters.

b. Chamomile. *Anthemis nobilis.* Lin. The dried flower. In infusion or decoction by way of fomentation.

c. Gum Arabic. *Mimosia nilotica.* Lin. In powder. Dose two or three ounces or more, by way of a drench.

d. Gum Dragant. *Astragalus tragacantha.* In infusion, so as to form a mucilage. In inflammatory affections of the lungs, bowels, or bladder.

e. Hog's Lard. An ingredient in most ointments and liniments.

f. Lintseed. *Linum usitatissimum.* Lin. In infusion, by way of drench or clyster. In purging or scouring.

g. Liquorice. *Glycyrrhiza glabra.* Lin. The root in infusion, or the powder. Seldom employed except to render douches more palatable, or in powder to mix up balls.

h. Marshmallows. *Althea officinalis.* Lin. The dried root in decoction, by way of drench or clyster. In internal inflammations, or irritation from strong purges.

i. Olive Oil. A principal ingredient in ointments and liniments, and also frequently given by way of drench or clyster.

k. Starch. Very serviceable by way of clyster dissolved in warm water, either to obviate acrimony in inflammation of the bowels, and scouring; or by way of nourishment, combined with a little opium, in cases where food cannot be given by the mouth.

l. Warm Bath. Seldom employed, on account of its inconvenience, although it would be probably one of the best remedies in spasmodic complaints.

Receipts for Emollients.

19. Take of lintseed, four ounces; Boiling water, three pints. Infuse for some hours, and add to the strained liquor of nitre an ounce, honey sufficient to make a palatable drench. For two doses.

20. Take of marshmallow root sliced, four ounces; Water three pints. Boil together till the liquor be reduced to a quart, and to the strained decoction add of Powdered gum arabic an ounce; Lintseed oil two ounces; Honey sufficient to make it palatable. For two doses. The above decoction, before the other ingredients are added, forms a good emollient fomentation.

21. Take of starch, two ounces; Water-gruel, two quarts; Mix for a clyster. To be given frequently in scouring or purging. If they are not kept up for a sufficient time, two or three drachms of laudanum must be added.

9. Cooling Remedies.

These are called refrigerants by medical writers, and cooling remedies are supposed that they act by diminishing the temperature of the body. See Materia Medica. They are peculiarly suited to cases of fever and inflammation.

a. Nitre. Frequently employed in fevers and inflammations, except those of the kidneys, and in catarrh. Dose about an ounce, dissolved in water-gruel, or some mucilaginous decoction, by way of a drench.

b. Sal Ammoniac. *Muriate of Ammonia.* Externally, as a lotion against inflammation.

c. Spirit of Salt. *Muriatic acid.* May be employed as a refrigerant in fevers, when largely diluted with water, or water-gruel.

d. Sugar of Lead. *Acetate of Lead.* Employed externally, dissolved in soft water; by way of lotion or embrocation, for strains or bruises; and in the form of a poultice with oat-meal, to check inflammation.

e. Goulard's Part V.

F A R R I E R Y.

Materia Medica.

e. Goulard's Extract, or Vegeto-mineral water. Is merely another form of the same remedy.

f. Vinegar. Acetous acid. Employed externally in similar cases.

g. Vitriolic Acid. Sulphuric acid. Useful in similar cases with the muriatic acid, but requires to be largely diluted.

Receipts for Cooling Remedies.

22. Take of nitre, one ounce; Emetic tartar, two drachms. Dissolve it in a sufficient quantity of water-gruel, for a drench.

23. Take of sugar of lead, half an ounce; Vinegar, two ounces; Rain-water a quart. Dissolve for a lotion.

24. Take of sal ammoniac, an ounce; Vinegar, four ounces; Spirit of wine, two ounces; Soft water, half a pint. Dissolve for a lotion. Both these lotions are employed in external inflammation.

25. Take of cream of tartar, two drachms; Nitre, an ounce; Water-gruel, a quart. For a drench in fevers.

26. Take of emetic tartar, a drachm; Glauber's salt, eight ounces; Water-gruel, a quart. In similar cases attended with coliciveness. To be repeated every six hours.

27. Take of extract of lead, half an ounce; Distilled vinegar, Olive oil, of each two ounces. Mix well together, into a liniment. For sore backs.

28. Take of marshmallow ointment, half a pound; Sugar of lead rubbed fine, an ounce. Mix for an ointment.

Astringents

10. Astringents.

Astringents are such medicines as are supposed to produce a degree of rigidity in the muscular fibres, and thus to increase its power of action, or to prevent morbid discharges. Such as are intended to prevent unusual discharges of blood are called styptics. For the action of astringents, see Materia Medica.

a. Alum. Superfulphate of Alumina and Potash. In powder, from half an ounce to an ounce, in the form of drench or ball. In purging, diabetes, &c. Externally by way of lotion, or in a fine powder sprinkled on the part. In grease.

b. Bistort. Polygonum bistorta. Lin. Vol. VIII. Part II.

The root in powder, from half an ounce to an ounce; or in a larger dose, in the form of decoction, for a drench. A powerful astringent in cases of purging, and recommended in hemorrhages.

c. Galls. Quercus cerris. Lin. Nut galls. In powder, infused in boiling water as an external application.

d. Iron. Muriate of Iron. A powerful astringent, though rarely employed in veterinary practice. It may be given in cases of obstinate purging, or diabetes, in doses of a drachm or two, by way of drench.

e. Japan Earth. Mimosa catechu. Improperly called an earth, as it is a vegetable extract. Given in powder, from two drachms to four, in purging and diabetes.

f. kino. An extract similar to the former, and adapted to similar purposes.

g. Logwood. Haematoxylon Campechianum. Lin. Extract of logwood. Dose from two to four drachms in a ball.

h. Oak Bark. Quercus robur. Lin. In powder. Dose about two ounces, in the form of a ball. Externally by way of decoction.

i. Pomegranate. Punica granatum. Lin. The dried fruit in powder. Dose from half an ounce to an ounce. Chiefly given in the scouring incident to horned cattle.

k. Tormentil. Tormentilla erecta. Lin. The root in the form of decoction, by way of a drench. An ounce or an ounce and a half in three pints of water, boiled to a quart. In similar cases with the last.

l. Vitriolic Acid. Sulphuric Acid. Diluted Vitriolic Acid. Used externally by way of lotion, in obstinate cases of grease, and to foul ulcers. Not given to the horse internally.

m. Zinc. White Vitriol. Sulphate of Zinc. Chiefly employed externally, in inflammations of the eye, and as a lotion to foul ulcers, and to check inflammation. Seems to have little effect on the horse, but may probably be given to cattle with some advantage in cases of debility.

Receipts for Astringents.

29. Take of powdered oak bark, an ounce; Powdered ginger, two drachms; Opium, a drachm; Solution of glue, enough to make the mass into a ball. In profuse itching, with a drench of oak-bark decoction after it. 30. Take of kino, two drachms; Alum, half an ounce; Ginger, a drachm; Castile soap softened with water, two drachms; Powder of oak-bark, enough to make a ball. In scouring or purging.

31. Take of white vitriol, Sugar of lead, each one drachm; Soft water, half a pint. Mix. For eye-water, in inflammation of the eyes.

II. STRENGTHENING REMEDIES.

These are commonly called tonics by medical writers. Many of them are astringents, and have been already enumerated.

a. GALANGAL. *Maranta galanga*. Lin. The root in powder; dose about an ounce. In weakness of the stomach.

b. GENTIAN. *Gentiana lutea*. Lin. The root in powder; dose from half an ounce to six drachms.

EXTRACT OF GENTIAN. Dose, a drachm or two, in a ball in composition. In indigestion and weaknesses of the stomach.

c. HORSE CHESTNUT. *Efculus hippocastanum*. Lin. The bark in powder, or its decoction. Dose of the powder about an ounce.

d. IRON.

SALT OF STEEL. Sulphate of Iron. Dose about half an ounce. Generally in composition. In similar cases.

e. MYRRH. A gum resin. Dose in powder, from two to four drachms, in a ball. In weaknesses of the stomach, and general debility.

f. OAK BARK. *Quercus robur*. Lin. Dose in powder about an ounce. In general debility, succeeding to violent diseases.

g. PERUVIAN BARK. *Cinchona officinalis*. Lin. Dose of the powder from one ounce to two. Seldom employed in veterinary practice on account of its expense. Said to be inferior to many other tonics in the horse.

h. QUASSIA. *Quassia excelsa*. Lin. The wood and the bark of the root. Dose in powder two or three drachms, in a ball, or infused in water by way of a drench.

i. BLUE VITRIOL. Sulphate of Copper. Recommended as a powerful tonic, but requires caution in its use. Dose about half a drachm, gradually increased according to its effects. A considerable quantity of drink should be given, either before or after it. In cases of debility that resist other tonics.

Receipts for Tonics.

32. Take of powdered gentian, half an ounce; Ginger, two drachms; Honey or molasses, enough to make a ball.

33. Take of powdered horse chestnut bark, an ounce; Myrrh, in powder, Castile soap, each a drachm; Water, enough to make a ball.

34. Take of powdered cassia buds, a drachm; Extract of gentian, a drachm and a half; Honey, enough to make a ball.

35. Take of powdered oak bark, an ounce; Aromatic powder, two drachms; Salt of tartar, a drachm; Molasses, enough to form a ball.

36. Take of salt of steel, two drachms; Infusion of quailia, (2 drachms to a quart of water) a quart; Dissolve for a drench.

12. STIMULANTS.

These are such remedies as are suited to increase the action, either of the whole circulating system, or of some particular part or organ. They are at present usually divided into diffusible and permanent, the former being such as produce a considerable stimulating effect, which is soon followed by a degree of quietness or torpor, proportioned to the quantity that had been administered; as wine, alcohol, ether, and probably opium; the other sort being such as produce no very considerable effect, unless repeatedly exhibited for some considerable time.

Most of the stimulants are called cordials or aromatics; and under this class, we rank those medicines which have been called carminatives, or which are calculated to expel wind from the stomach and bowels, epiphanics or blistering substances; and under this class we may also reckon most of those remedies that are called alteratives, or such as are supposed to produce some change in the constitution or habit of body. The stimulating remedies employed in farriery, as in human medicine, are very numerous.

a. AMMONIA, or Volatile Alkali. Prepared Ammonia. Carbonate of Ammonia. Dose from half a drachm to two drachms, in a ball newly prepared. In the latter stages of fever, attended with great debility.

b. Spirit of Sal Ammoniac. Water of Carbonate of Ammonia. Chiefly used externally. Caustic Volatile Alkali. Water of Ammonia. Used externally mixed with oil into a liniment, in cases of strains, bruises and swellings of the back finesse.

c. ANISESEED. *Pimpinella anisum*. Lin. The seed in powder. Dose about an ounce, in a ball.

d. BALSAM d. Balsam of Copaiva. See Expectorants.

In flatulent colic or gripes.

e. Barbados Tar.

Externally mixed with oil of turpentine or sweet oil into an embrocation. In strains and bruises.

f. Cantharides, or Spanish fly. Lytta vesicatoria.

Tincture of cantharides. Externally by way of embrocation in similar cases.

Blisters are well known to be those remedies that irritate the skin to which they are applied, so as to raise the scarf-skin into a bladder containing a watery fluid, which is the serous part of the blood. By abstracting this from the general mass of circulation, they produce an evacuation, proportioned to their extent, from the part to which they are applied, and are thus extremely useful in producing a determination of blood from some neighbouring and more important part.

Blisters are of considerable use in veterinary practice. According to Mr White they are very efficacious in dispersing callous swellings, the effects of strains, bruises, &c. Their beneficial effects are very great in removing the inflammation of such parts as are remote from the surface. In inflammations of the internal parts of the foot, they generally give relief when applied to the part, especially if the auxiliary remedies are not neglected, such as raising the hoof, paring the sole, soaking the horny part of the foot in warm water, or by the application of a poultice to it, and administering a purging medicine. For curbs, wind-galls, spasms, &c., no remedy is more efficacious than blistering. It is also productive of salutary effects in inflammation of the internal organs. For instance, when the lungs are inflamed, the determination of blood to the diseased part is lessened by extensive blistering of the sides, and considerable relief is afforded in this way.

By the unskilful treatment of broken knees, a callous swelling is often left in the part, for the removal of which it is always necessary to have recourse to blistering. If blisters are freed from all caustic ingredients, and properly made, no injury to the hair will result from their application; and if one should fail of producing the desired effect, the practice may be followed without danger till that object is attained.

g. Blue Vitriol. Sulphate of Copper.

Employed externally to foul ulcers, either in solution, or by touching their edges with a crystal of it; to produce healthy granulations. Also in some inflammations of the eye by way of lotion.

h. Burgundy Pitch.

As an ingredient in stimulating ointments and plasters.

i. Capsicum, or Cayenne Pepper. Cap. annuum. Lin.

The dried pod in powder.

Dose about a drachm, in a ball, with milder stimulants. In flatulence and indigestion.

k. Caraway. Carum carvi. Lin.

The seeds and their essential oil.

Dose of the oil from half a drachm to a drachm, in a ball, as prescribed presently. In weakness of the stomach, flatulence, and indigestion.

l. Cassia. Laurus cassinia. Lin.

The bark and flowering buds in powder.

Dose, from one to three drachms. Used as an ingredient in many cordial medicines. Chiefly for affections of the stomach.

m. Cloves. Eugenium caryophyllata. Lin.

The flowering buds.

n. Oil of Cloves.

Dose, 20 or 30 drops. In gripes and sickness of the stomach.

o. Cummin. Cuminum cyminum. Lin.

The seeds and their essential oil.

In a dose of from half a drachm to a drachm, in similar cases.

p. Oil of Cummin.

Dose, from half a drachm to a drachm. In flatulent colic.

q. Fennel. Anethum fennicum. Lin.

The seeds in powder.

Dose, an ounce or two.

r. Ginger. Amomum zingiber. Lin.

The root in powder. One of the most useful stimulants, and preferable to most others in veterinary practice.

Dose, a drachm or two. In weakness of the stomach, indigestion, and flatulent colic.

s. Grains of Paradise. Amomum grana paradisi. Lin.

The seeds. Chiefly employed as a stimulant for cattle, as a cordial.

Dose, from three to six drachms.

t. White Hellebore. Veratrum album. Lin.

The root in powder. Chiefly used externally in blisters, and for diseases of the skin. Formerly employed as a purge for horses, but now deservedly exploded, as by far too violent.

u. Horse Radish. Cochlearia armoracia. Lin.

The fresh root in infusion or distilled water. Insultation and indigestion.

v. Mercury.

Calomel. Dose, from 15 grains to half a drachm. In farcy, glanders, &c.

Wherever calomel or other mercurial preparations are given, the animals should be kept warm, should drink their water a little warmed, and should take regular exercise in dry weather.

w. Corrosive Sublimate. Muriate of Mercury.

Employed internally in solution, in doses of about 15 grains, gradually increased. In farcy and glanders. Externally by way of lotion, to foul ulcers and eruptions of the skin.

No preparation of mercury seems to produce so great a degree of weakness in the horse as this. Its effects must therefore be carefully watched; and besides the regulations laid down above; the horse must be kept on a more nourishing diet than usual.

x. Red Precipitate. Nitrated Oxide of Mercury.

Externally to ulcers, either sprinkled on their surface, or mixed into an ointment; in which latter form it is very useful in chronic inflammation of the eyes.

y. Nitrate of Mercury. See Receipts, No 49.

z. Mint. Mentha sativa, Lin. The essential oil. Dose, about a drachm. In weaknesses of the stomach, &c.

aa. Mustard. Sinapi nigrum. Lin. The seed in powder. Externally mixed with water into a paste, or liniment, in cases of internal inflammation.

bb. Peppermint. Mentha piperita. Lin. The essential oil. Dose, about half a drachm. In similar cases with mint.

cc. Pepper. Piper nigrum. Lin. Dose, from half an ounce to an ounce, in powder. In flatulent colic.

dd. Spirits. Whisky, Gin, or Brandy. Dose, from a gill to half a pint. To cattle in the flatulence proceeding from eating too much green food.

ee. Salt. Muriate of Soda. Given with good effect to sheep in the rot.

ff. Tar. Commonly given by country farmers to cattle when hoven from clover.

gg. Turpentine. Oil of Turpentine. Dose, an ounce or two. In flatulent colic. Externally by way of embrocation. In cases of indurated swellings, strains, and bruises; and for cattle after the bite of the gad-fly.

Receipts for Stimulants.

Cordial Balls.

37. Take of caraway seeds powdered, six drachms; Powdered ginger, two drachms; Oil of cloves, 15 drops; Treacle enough to make a ball.

38. Take of powdered aniseeds, half an ounce; Turmeric, an ounce; Powdered cassia, two drachms; Treacle enough to form the ball.

39. Take of caraway seeds, and grains of paradise, each in powder, three drachms; Ginger, a drachm; Oil of mint, 30 drops; Honey enough to form the ball.

Stimulating Ointments and Liniments.

40. Take of yellow basilicon, half a pound; Red precipitate finely ground, two ounces; Mix well together. For foul ulcers.

41. Take of hog's lard four ounces; Oil of turpentine, an ounce. Melt together on a slow fire. In similar cases.

42. Take of oil of turpentine, Oil of olives, each two ounces. Mix for a liniment. For strains and bruises.

43. Take of verdigris finely powdered, an ounce; Venice turpentine, half an ounce; Olive oil, an ounce. Melt the turpentine and oil together, and when nearly cold, add the verdigris. For foul ulcers.

44. Take of hog's lard, four ounces; Bees wax, an ounce; Venice turpentine, three ounces; Red precipitate finely ground, two ounces. Melt the three first together, and when nearly cold, sprinkle in the powder. This is Mr White's receipt for the digestive ointment, commonly employed by farriers for dressing rowels and ulcers.

45. Take of camphor, an ounce; Oil of turpentine, two ounces; Rectified spirit, four ounces. Dissolve. For old strains.

Stimulating Lotions.

46. Take of blue vitriol, an ounce; Water, four ounces; Vitriolic acid, 10 drops. Mix. For similar cases, and for the mange.

47. Take of blue vitriol, half a drachm; Water, half a pint. Dissolve for a lotion. In inflammation of the eyes.

48. Take of tincture of opium, two ounces; Water, six ounces. Mix for an eye water. In similar cases.

49. Take of aquafortis, two ounces; Quicksilver one ounce. Dissolve in a gentle heat, taking care to avoid the fumes. This forms a nitrate of quicksilver, and when diluted with a proper quantity of water, is one of the best applications for the foot-rot in sheep.

13. Antispasmodics.

There are such remedies as are calculated to remove spasmodic affections of the muscles, or convulsive affections, and are therefore frequently employed in cases of locked jaw, epilepsy, &c. Few remedies of this class are used in veterinary practice. Such as are more peculiarly of this nature are mentioned below. They generally consist of stimulants or of anodyne remedies.

a. Camphor. Dose, about two drachms, in a ball combined with opium and stimulants. In locked jaw.

b. Ether. Sulphuric Ether. One of the most powerful antispasmodics. Dose, about an ounce, mixed with a pint of water. This should be given as expeditiously as possible, otherwise much of the ether will evaporate. In obstinate cases of flatulent colic.

c. Opium. Dose a drachm or two. The latter quantity generally in clysters.

Tincture of Opium. Dose, from half an ounce to an ounce, repeated occasionally, in most spasmodic complaints.

Oil of Turpentine. Dose, about two ounces. In flatulent colic.

Receipts.

50. Take of camphor, a drachm; Essence of peppermint, two drachms. Grind together, and add Of water, a pint; Ether, half an ounce. Mix. To be given immediately, In violent cramp of the stomach.

51. Take of tincture of opium, an ounce; Oil of juniper, two drachms; Dulcified spirit of nitre, a drachm; Water, a pint. Mix.

52. Take of tincture of opium, two ounces; Cold water-gruel, a quart. For a clyster. To be repeated frequently. In locked jaw.

14. Anodynes

Are those remedies which are given for the purpose of procuring sleep, or alleviating pain. They are commonly called narcotics, and many of them are by most medical writers denominated sedatives.

a. Fox-Glove. Digitalis purpurea. Lin. The leaves in powder. Dose, half a drachm, increased gradually according to its effect. In violent internal inflammations and swelling of the legs.

b. Hemlock. Conium maculatum. Lin. Leaves in powder. Dose, about a drachm, gradually increased.

Extract of Hemlock. Dose, about a drachm. In obstinate coughs attended with irritability.

c. Henbane. Hyoscyamus niger. Lin. The leaves in powder, or the seeds. Dose, about a drachm.

Extract of Henbane. Dose, about a drachm. A solution of this extract has been found useful, applied to the eye, in chronic inflammation.

d. Hop. Humulus lupulus. Lin. The dried cones in powder.

Dose a drachm or two, in a ball.

The hop has been shewn to be a powerful narcotic, and has succeeded in producing sleep in some cases where opium has failed. It has not yet been introduced into veterinary practice; but we think it deserves a trial, as being much cheaper than opium.

e. Opium. Dose, about a drachm by the mouth, and two drachms in a clyster.

f. Poppy. Papaver somniferum. Lin. The dried heads boiled in water, by way of fomentation.

Receipts.

53. Take of opium, a drachm; Powdered aniseeds, half an ounce; Castile soap, two drachms; Molasites, enough to make a ball.]

54. Take of camphor, a drachm and a half; Opium, a drachm; Ginger, two drachms; Honey, enough to form the ball.

55. Take of tincture of opium, two drachms; Decoction of poppyheads, a quart. Mix for a clyster.

56. Take of extract of hemlock, two drachms; Peppermint water, half a pint; Ether, half an ounce. Dissolve the extract in the water, and add the ether at the moment of exhibition. For a drench. In putrid fever, or gangrene.

57. Take of bruised poppyheads, four ounces; Hemlock leaves green, a large handful. Boil gently in a gallon of water for about an hour, and strain the decoction. In wounds and bruises attended with considerable irritability.

15. Worm Medicines.

There are few cases in which worm medicines are given in veterinary practice. In the horse they are seldom required, and do not often prove effectual. In the dog, indeed, they have been employed more frequently, and may be used with more probability of success. The remedies of this class are generally of two kinds, either such as are violent purgatives, and in this way expel the worms by the violence of their operation; or, they are such as act mechanically on these animals, irritating and tearing their tender bodies, and thus forcing them to relinquish their situation.

a. Castor Oil. Dose, about half a pound.

b. Gamboge. Dose, two or three drachms in a ball.

c. Mercury. Calomel. Dose, for a horse, two or three drachms; for a dog, about half a drachm, in a ball with purgatives.

d. Salt. Dose, from four to six ounces, in a drench, or double the quantity by way of clyster.

Said to have proved frequently successful in expelling worms, when followed by a brisk purgative.

e. Sal Indus. A salt lately procured from the East Indies, said to be successful in expelling bots from horses; but Mr White thinks that other worms have been mistaken for bots, in the cases where it has been successful. Dose, about four or five ounces in a drench.

f. Tin. Powder of Tin. Dose, about an ounce, mixed with honey. This promises to be one of the most effectual medicines in cases of tape-worm, that are so common to dogs.

Receipts.

58. Take of calomel, jalap, each half a drachm; Honey enough to make a ball. For dogs.

59. Take of tin powder, Quicksilver, of each two drachms. Grind together till they be thoroughly mixed; then add enough of sugar to form a powder, to be made up into a ball with catile soap, softened with water.

60. Take of sal indus, four ounces; Alum, half an ounce; Water, a pint. Dissolve for a drench. For the botts in horses.

16. Chemical Remedies.

Many remedies are given internally, or applied externally, which seem to act merely chemically, either by combining with an acid or alkali, and thus neutralizing it, by checking putrefaction, or correcting the ill smell that is produced by it; or, in external applications, by destroying or corroding the parts to which they are applied. This class will therefore comprehend,

1. All those medicines that have been called antacids or absorbents, which are given to correct acidity in the stomach and bowels.

2. Antalkalines, or those acid substances that are given more rarely to correct alkalinefence.

3. Antiseptics, or those that are supposed capable of obviating putrefaction.

4. Caustics or escharotics, which are intended to corrode the skin, or to take down fungous or proud flesh in ulcers.

a. Alum. Burnt Alum. Sometimes applied to ulcers, to wear down proud flesh.

b. Ammonia. Spirit of Sal Ammoniac. Water of Ammonia. Dose, a drachm or two, in a drench, for acidity in the stomach and bowels.

c. Antimony. Butter of Antimony. Muriate of Antimony. Sometimes applied to foul ulcers. A violent caustic.

d. Charcoal.

Given internally in powder, to correct the bad smell in violent purging; and when powdered fine, may be sprinkled on large flanking fores, with the same intention.

e. Lime. Lime-water. Dose about a quart, in acidity of the stomach.

f. Chalk. Carbonate of Lime. Dose, an ounce or two. In violent purging attended with acidity.

g. Silver. Lunar Caustic. Nitrate of Silver. Employed to eat down proud flesh, or destroy horrid excrescences.

h. Spirit of Salt. Dose about two drachms, mixed with a quart of water by way of drench.

i. Vinegar. Given internally as an antiseptic, diluted with an equal quantity of water, or used externally to wash foul ulcers.

k. Vitriolic Acid. Dose, a drachm or two, as under spirit of salt.

l. Yeast or Barm. Employed to make fermenting poultices in cases of flinking ulcers.

Receipts.

61. Take of prepared chalk, an ounce; Powdered ginger, two drachms; Honey enough to make a ball. In purging attended with griping.

62. Take of purified soda in powder, Powdered gentian root, each two drachms; Powdered cassia, a drachm; Treacle enough to form a ball. In indigestion, with acidity of the stomach and bowels.

63. Take of charcoal in powder, Powdered oak bark, each an ounce; Treacle enough to make a ball. In violent purging, producing very fetid stools.

64. Take of oat meal, Powdered charcoal, of each four ounces; Thin yeast, a sufficient quantity to make a poultice. To be applied to foul ulcers.

65. Take of aquafortis, an ounce; Filings of copper, half an ounce. Dissolve in a gentle heat, taking care to avoid the fumes. For a caustic, in canker of the foot. It may be made into an ointment for the same purpose, by mixing with hog's lard.

66. Take of fresh burnt quicklime powdered, Soft soap, of each equal parts. Mix at the time of using. A mild caustic, useful in destroying parts of the skin where necessary.

67. Take 67. Take of corrosive sublimate, half a drachm; Ardent spirits, two ounces. Dissolve for a lotion. Useful as an application to the callous edges of ulcers.

17. MISCELLANEOUS REMEDIES.

a. EGGS. The Yolk. Sometimes employed among the common farriers as a remedy for broken wind, but appear to be useful only for the purpose of combining oily substances with water.

b. ELECAMPO. Enula helenium, Lin. The root in powder. In the form of ointment for the itch or mange.

c. GLASS. Powdered glass is sometimes blown into the eyes of horses, to remove specks on the cornea.

d. LEAD. White Lead. White Oxide of Lead. Sometimes used by way of ointment in some diseases of the skin.

e. DIACHYLON PLAISTER. Litharge Plaister. Employed in making charges or strengthening plasters.

f. BAYS. Laurus nobilis, Lin. Oil of Bay. Sometimes used in ointments for the mange.

g. STAVESACRE. Delphinium staphyagria, Lin. The seeds in powder. Employed to destroy vermin, being sprinkled on the skin.

h. ZINC. White flowers of Zinc. White oxide of Zinc. In ointment, to sores and ulcers.

Calamine. Impure Carbonate of Zinc. Employed to make the common brown cerate.

Receipts.

68. Take of sulphur vivum finely powdered. Powdered elecampane root, each two ounces; Hogs lard, enough to form an ointment. For the mange.

69. Take of sulphur vivum powdered, four ounces; Salt butter, six ounces; Train oil, Oil of turpentine, each one ounce. Mix well together into an ointment. These two ointments are useful applications in the mange.

70. Take of hogs lard, four ounces; Tar, two ounces. Melt together into an ointment. Employed to anoint the backs of sheep or cattle, when bitten by the gad-fly.

71. Take of burgundy pitch, four ounces; Barbadoes tar, six ounces; Bees wax, two ounces; Red lead, four ounces. Melt the pitch, tar, and wax together, and when the mixture is nearly cold, stir in the red lead, and continue stirring till it is firm. This is Mr White's receipt for making charges, or strengthening plasters. In cases of wind-galls and old strains.

Before concluding this part, it will be proper to make a few observations, on the custom that prevails to much among grooms and farriers, of administering medicine to horses, by way of preservatives of health, or preventives of disease. It is very common among these gentlemen to give men to bleed or physic a horse at least twice a-year, viz., in the spring and fall, though he be in never such good health, or good condition; to give him sulphur and antimony now and then to keep his coat fine; and to administer a cordial ball, or a dose of diaphoretics occasionally to improve his appetite. If he is to undergo any unusual exertion, as riding or hunting, it is judged necessary by these sagacious practitioners to prepare him for the work, by bleeding, purging, and sweating below a load of body clothes in a clole, hot stable. In pursuing this custom, they indeed only imitate what they practice on themselves on similar occasions. As they deem it necessary to have themselves bled every spring and fall, or once a quarter, to take physic once a month, and to sweat themselves to make them ride or run more lightly in a jockey match, they naturally conclude that their horses should be treated in the same manner, and should undergo the same preparation.

If an animal is in a perfect state of health, nothing more is required to render him capable of performing the functions for which he is intended. It is only when there appears some derangement of the system, or when the state of the body is such as to threaten the attack of some dangerous disease, that it is necessary to call in the assistance of medicine. We shall soon have occasion to mention cases of this kind, and to show how the threatened danger is to be avoided. It must be remembered that those substances that are called medicines, are such as produce some effect on the body, that is in general either unnatural, or is greater than what commonly takes place in a state of perfect health. If then we give medicines to an animal in this healthy state, we either excite the organs to some unusual exertion, or we check those exertions that are natural and healthy; and in either case, we must do harm. Besides the custom of giving medicines when they are unnecessary, renders them less efficacious when they are absolutely required, to ward off or obviate any disease. It is found that most remedies, when employed habitually, require to be increased in quantity in order to produce the same effect, and if continued too long they sometimes cease to produce their effect at all. With respect to some remedies, it is found that their habitual use is attended with dangerous consequences. Frequent bleeding tends to produce fatness, and a plethoric state of the body; the frequent use of cordials and stimulants stimulates the circulation too much, and produces such a rigidity of the fibres, as lays the foundation of apoplexy, palsy, and other dangerous disorders. It is well known, too, that when the action of the stomach is too much excited by the habitual use of stimulants, it in time loses its tone, and becomes incapable of healthy digestion, unless roused by a greater quantity of its accustomed stimulus. It is therefore obvious that when an animal is in perfect health, all that is required to keep him so, is the proper regulation of diet, exercise, cleanliness, and other circumstances that have been mentioned in the fourth part of this article.

We cannot better illustrate the absurdity of the usual methods methods of preparing horses for a race, than by the following case, which fell under the observation of Mr Clark of Edinburgh. "Two military gentlemen betted their horses to run against each other on the sands of Leith for a considerable sum, and this was to take place three weeks after the bet. The horses were to be ridden by their own grooms. Captain R's was a poney about 13½ hands, Captain M's was a gelding about 15 hands high. Both grooms were bred at Newmarket, and were keen advocates for bleeding and purging, though both the horses had been kept on dry food, and in the best order, and the interval of time for such treatment was very short. This bleeding and purging was in order to prepare them the better for running. Captain M's horse was bled once, and purged twice. Captain R's was bled once, and purged once. Both were sweated in the stable with a great load of clothes; and their stables, though separate, were kept uncommonly hot, and closely shut up day and night, though it was in the midst of summer. From this treatment the horses soon lost their appetite, and in the course of eight or ten days their strength was so much exhausted that they were scarcely able to go through their usual exercise on the sands. In this situation Captain R. considered his bet as lost, and expected nothing less than the loss of his poney, on which he felt a high value. Luckily, however, the groom, who was rather corpulent, had put himself under a course of physic, to bring himself down to the proper weight, and was unable to proceed in his plan of purging and sweating the horse. The poney was therefore provided with another groom, and was put under the care of Mr Clark, who, feeling the absurdity of the plan which had hitherto been observed, ordered his clothing to be reduced to a single rug, and the stable windows to be thrown open, to admit the fresh air. The poney soon recovered his appetite; and his activity, strength and spirits were in a great measure restored. Captain M's horse in the meantime was continued under the debilitating regimen. When the race came to be decided, though at starting the odds were considerably in favour of Captain M's horse, yet his opponent won the race with considerable ease.

PART VI. OF THE DISEASES INCIDENT TO DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

IN treating of the diseases of domestic animals; we shall class them in two great divisions: in the first of which we shall consider most of those morbid affections which are usually called local and symptomatic, or in general those simple affections of the several functions, that are most easily understood, and require the least complicated mode of treatment. In the second of these divisions we shall treat of the more complicated diseases, or those in which the whole system is more or less affected, and of which the treatment is more difficult, and in general more precarious.

When an animal is diseased, he is affected with some or other of the following symptoms.

1. Of Sensation. He labours under too acute sensibility; or, He is affected with pain or itching. His sensibility is unusually diminished. His sense of smelling is more or less impaired. He hears with difficulty, or not at all. His vision is more or less impaired. He is unusually watchful. His sleep is disturbed; or, He is unusually heavy and drowsy.

2. Of Motion. He is either affected with irregular, involuntary motions or spasms; or, His moving powers are impaired.

3. Of Digestion. His digestive organs perform their functions too quickly. His digestion is impaired; or, He does not digest at all. He is affected with sickness, with flatulence, or wind in the stomach and bowels.

4. Of Absorption. He is unusually fat; or, Unusually lean. He is affected with some watery swelling.

5. Of Circulation. His circulation is too rapid; or, It is too slow; or, It is irregular. He has some effusion of blood.

6. Of Respiration. His breathing is hurried; or, It is difficult. He is affected with cough; with sneezing, hiccup. His breath is hot; or, It is cold. His skin is unusually hot; or, It is unusually cold.

7. Of Secretion and Excretion. His secretions and excretions are either unusually copious. He stales profusely. He has a purging; or, His skin is unusually moist. The secretions and excretions are morbidly diminished. He stales with difficulty, or not at all. He is coltive. His skin is unusually dry.

8. Of 8. Of Generation.

His venereal appetite is excessive; or, It is morbidly impaired. He is impotent.

When a practitioner comes to examine one of these animals whose health is deranged, he will naturally inquire into all or most of the above particulars, and they will in general apply to all the four animals of which we are treating. There are some other questions which peculiarly relate to horses, and which it more especially becomes a farrier to ask; as, Whether his flanks work. Whether his ears are cold; or are in constant motion.

In what manner he walks. Whether he looks earnestly at his sides. Whether his eyes appear drowsy. In what manner he carries his head. Whether he kicks his belly. Whether he appears devious to lie down, but afraid to do so. Whether he sometimes lies down on one side, and then immediately turns to the other. Whether he lies down and flies up again repeatedly. Whether he leans upon the manger. Whether he stands off from the manger. Whether he paws his litter. Whether his nose runs. Whether or not he passes much wind.

It will also frequently be of consequence to ascertain the following particulars.

Whether the horse is usually in a poor condition. How did the disorder begin? How long has it continued? How long is it since he ate or drank? Has he ever had the disorder before? If he has, what was usually given him on these occasions? Does the disorder come on at any particular times? Has he been observed to pass any worms? How long he has been bought, and what price was paid for him. Was he bought of a horse-dealer, or of a private person? Of a friend, or at the public market?

Having ascertained the necessary particulars, it is proper to consider whether the disease is of such a nature as has in general been easily removed; or whether the expense and time of cure will be sufficiently compensated by the value of the horse; for it must be remarked, that in general a horse or other domestic animal is worth no more than the price he would fetch at the public market. Unless, therefore, the animal is a favorite, or has some particular good quality which greatly enhances his value, it may happen that the expense and trouble of cure may amount to more than the animal is worth. In such a case it would be both prudence and mercy to kill him, unless we wish to attempt his cure for the sake of experience. These observations of course equally apply to cases that are generally deemed incurable.

Having found that the disease is of such a nature as to give hopes of a speedy or perfect cure, it will next be proper for the practitioner to consider what is the speediest, safest, and cheapest method of treatment. In particular, he ought to consider whether any immediate remedy be necessary, in order to check the violence of the distemper; more especially whether any immediate evacuation is required, as bleeding, purging, blisters, rowels, &c.

He must also be particular in examining whether the disease be of a contagious or infectious nature, that the affected animals may be kept in a separate place from those which have not been attacked.

As the general nature and theory of disease will be considered at large under the medical department of this work, we have only in this article to detail the symptoms as they occur in the domestic animals; to point out the causes and seat of the disease, as far as they have been ascertained by observation and deduction; and to lay down the most approved methods of treatment adapted to these animals. Observations with respect to the theory of diseases would here be out of place, and we shall seldom hazard them, except in some of those specific complaints which appear to attack solely the animals of which we are treating.

It may not be improper to remark, that diseases, like the objects of natural history, have been arranged in two methods. One of these is the natural method, in which they are classified according to their seat or cause. The causes of diseases are the foundation of Dr. Darwin's system. In the first section of this part we shall attempt to classify the morbid symptoms according to their seat, or the functions which they attack. The other method of arrangement, or the artificial method, is that in which diseases are arranged according to some obvious and remarkable symptoms. This is best calculated for the purpose of recognizing the disease when seen, and is the method employed by most physicians. The diseases in the second section of this part will be arranged in this way.

SECT. I.

CHAP. I. Of Morbid Affections of Sensation.

Most animals are occasionally subject to a morbid degree of sensibility, either of the whole nervous system, or of some particular organ. This morbid sensibility is generally called by medical writers, irritability; but this name is improper, as it implies an affection of the muscular parts; whereas the symptom we are now considering is an affection of the nervous system.

Some horses naturally possess a morbid degree of sensibility, which appears by their starting on the sudden approach of any object, by the peculiar tenderness of their skin that makes them wince and tremble under the currycomb, and by the extreme sensibility that they evince at the least touch of the whip or spur. Such horses are in general very active and spirited; but they require a cautious and prudent rider, who must rather endeavour to soothe and encourage them, than use any harsh or violent means.

This increased sensibility is not easily removed by art, but generally decreases as the horse grows older. It is best counteracted by living in a large well-aired stable, by being kept on hard coarse food, and by lying with as little litter below him, as is sufficient to prevent him from injuring himself against the pavement of the stable. In dressing him the currycomb should not be too sharp, and should not be employed too freely.

When excessive sensibility arises from a delicacy and weakness of habit, strengthening medicines will be of use, and cordials may occasionally be employed.

There is a symptom nearly allied to this, which sometimes appears. The animal affected gathers himself together, and brings his four legs as close as possible below him, and creeps as it were all on a heap. This symptom often attends nervous diseases, and fever affections of the bowels. It is generally considered as a sign of great danger, and is not unfrequently the forerunner of mortification.

At the commencement of several acute diseases, especially those of the brain, animals betray an unusual sensibility to the effects of light and sound. When this happens, the place where they are kept should be darkened, and they should be as little as possible disturbed with noise.

There is a peculiar restlessness and anxiety with which animals are sometimes affected. This is not unfrequently their only complaint, or at least we cannot perceive that they are affected with any obvious or well-marked disease, but it is most commonly a symptom attending violent disorders, especially of the inflammatory kind; and generally preceding the fatal termination of dangerous chronic diseases. Animals thus affected are continually moving about, and often lie down; if they are at liberty, they seek out the most sequestered and gloomy parts of the pasture, and frequently change their place: if they are tied up, they appear to listen to, or observe, every thing that passes round them; they are restlessly attentive to the various objects near them; but although their eyes appear fixed, and wide open, they do not steadfastly regard any object; they are perpetually turning from side to side, and if they feel pain in any part, they often turn their heads mournfully towards it, sometimes groaning or panting. If this state has continued long, the animals become still more restless, are perpetually shifting about, scraping with their feet and pawing the litter; their ears become cold, and their hairs bristle up.

These latter symptoms are considered as denoting great danger, especially when the animal looks steadfastly at his sides, or stares with his eyes without appearing to take particular notice of any object.

When anxiety appears to be the only symptom, without any signs of inflammation or convulsive affection, it is generally a mark of nervous weakness, and requires cordial and strengthening remedies, nourishing diet, and gentle exercise without labour: but if it is a symptom of some violent disease, it can only be removed by the general treatment of that disease; and in this view, will come to be considered hereafter.

Animals are sometimes affected with dejection or loss of spirit. This is not unfrequently the attendant of fatigue brought on by excessive labour or unusual exertion; and is therefore most commonly seen in horses. It appears by the animal's leaning his head on the manger, standing still in the same place, and appearing to move with pain or difficulty. His limbs are stiff, his skin hard and dry, his eyes look sad, he has no appetite for meat; if he lies down, he remains immovable, or if obliged to rise, immediately falls again when left to himself.

In general, if the fatigue produced be not extremely great, it gradually goes off with rest and quiet, especially if it has been found practicable to employ the means that are presently to be recommended; but if the exertion to which the animal was exposed, has been too great for its strength, the consequent depression may prove highly dangerous, or even fatal. In this state his urine is crude and watery, and, if a male horse, he seems scarcely to have the power of drawing for the purpose of making water; and his excrements are dry and scanty. If taken out in this condition he moves with pain and difficulty, trots slowly, or lifts his feet very little above the ground, carries his head very low and his ears depressed over his forehead; he often flinches, and not unfrequently falls on his knees, and appears very little sensible of the whip or spur. If a horse in this state has any sores or ulcers about him, they become hard, or flabby, assume a dull appearance, and the matter proceeding from them becomes thick and viscid. Rowels very frequently dry up; and if he is affected with any eruption of the skin, this commonly disappears.

To prevent the bad consequences that are likely to follow the state which we have now described, it is proper, as soon as we find a horse much fatigued, to spread a bed of litter for him to rest on; and as soon as possible give him a cordial bath, or drench. The strength of this must not, however, be in proportion to the degree of fatigue or depression; as experience has shown, that when a powerful cordial is given in a state of excessive weakness, it proves too much for the animal, and frequently excites fevers or inflammation. The horse's limbs should be bathed with warm water, and then rubbed thoroughly dry. After this he should be left to his repose, and if it be not too late at night, he may in a few hours have a warm bran mash. When a little recovered, he must be gently rubbed all over, but especially his limbs, without currying; he should be put upon a nourishing diet, and exercised but little. These means, varied according to circumstances, will in general bring the horse round, unless the symptoms are extremely violent; when they will commonly terminate in fever, or in some chronic disease, especially dropsy.

The train of symptoms which we have been describing, are most commonly the effect of fatigue; but they may arise from other causes. They are more or less the attendants of decay, and they are generally the forerunners of fever or inflammation of the brain.

Sometimes these animals are affected with a great degree of infirmity or torpor; they are heavy and listless; lie much; are not easily disturbed; are inattentive to the objects around them; seem to be insensible to pain, and move heavily and unwillingly. These symptoms require particular attention, as in most cases they denote some dangerous affection of the brain, and are very commonly followed by apoplexy or staggers; or by epilepsy; or they are the attendants (especially in sheep) of water in the head. Wherever they are observed to take place in an animal that has been full fed, with little exercise, especially if he appear fat and full Diseases of blood, and the pulse be found full and strong, the eyes red or heavy, there is danger of apoplexy; and the animal should immediately be bled and purged, be gradually put on a lower diet, and use gradually more exercise. These changes must be made by degrees, because too sudden changes may produce the very effects against which we are guarding.

A great degree of torpor and insensibility is often produced by excessive cold, or by being kept long in an impure atmosphere. Where they have taken place from either of these causes to a dangerous degree, the application of heat must not be too sudden, as it will tend to extinguish the small remaining spark of life, and produce apoplexy, or mortification, where any external part has suffered from cold.

The head may be affected with dizzinesses, or giddinesses, commonly called turn-flick, from various causes. It may arise from great weakness, or it may be the consequence of plethoria, or fullness of blood. In the latter case, it is a pretty sure mark of approaching apoplexy or staggers; and the animal must immediately be bled, and put on a lower diet, with gentle exercise. In sheep, dizzinesses is a common symptom of flurdy, or water in the head, a complaint which will be considered hereafter. It will be evident that when this affection appears in animals that are lean, meagre, and in low condition, it shows the necessity of a more full and nourishing diet.

The only morbid affection of the external senses, that we shall here consider is blindness, a defect which is of most consequence in the horse, though it may occur in all the domestic animals.

The eyes of a horse, when perfectly sound, have the cornea or outer covering, and the humours that are seen through it, perfectly clear and transparent; there should be no specks, or dragons as they are called, in either; no greenness or glazy appearance of the pupil, and this should readily contract when suddenly exposed to a clear light. Buffon observes, that in a sound eye, two or three foot-coloured spots appear through the cornea above the pupil.

When a horse has a defect in his vision, without being perfectly blind, he appears dull, fearful, and retive, starts at suddenly approaching any object, carries his head high, or to one side; moves his ears alternately, or turns one forwards, while the other is turned backwards; and usually hangs back on his bridle or halter, and lifts his legs up very high.

Partial blindness is a symptom of several diseases in the horse: it usually attends great weakness, especially when this has been brought on by hard work and low feeding; it is a common attendant on locked jaw, and generally precedes the staggers. It of course is one of the effects of old age.

When proceeding from debility, it generally goes off in proportion as the strength is restored by rest and proper nourishment; when it is a symptom of other diseases, it goes off when they are removed. The blindness of old age is incurable, and in the horse we believe no method has yet been discovered of relieving the defect by art.

It is generally allowed, that it is better to have a horse totally, than partially blind; as when quite blind, he is not liable to start, or be shy; and when sure footed, well fed, and managed by a careful rider, there is little danger of his stumbling or falling.

Total blindness either proceeds from a defect in the optic nerve, by which this is rendered incapable of receiving the impression of light, or from an opacity or muddiness in the cornea or humours, by which the transmission of light through them is obstructed.

The first species of blindness, or that depending on a glazy eye, defect in the optic nerve, is generally called by farriers glazy eyes, and by medical writers, it is termed amaurosis, or gutta serena.

It is known by the peculiar glazy appearance of the eye, which seems perfectly clear, so that an ordinary observer would not suppose that there was any defect in the horse's eye. On examining the eye however more attentively, it will be found that the pupil is considerably dilated, and preserves the same size in every change of light; not contracting, as usual, when the light to which it is exposed becomes stronger. There is also a greenish appearance of the eye in this disease.

The causes of glazy eyes are not well ascertained. It has followed a blow on the head, or inflammatory affections of the brain or its membranes, but it has come on sometimes imperceptibly, and where these diseases, or any other evident cause has not appeared.

This disease in the horse has hitherto proved incurable.

The most common cause of blindness in the horse, is an opacity of the lens, or crystalline humour of the cataract eye. This disease is known by the name of cataract, and is sometimes called by farriers, moon blindness, or a horse that has a cataract is said to be moon-eyed.

It is in general easily discovered that a horse labours under a cataract, as, when the disease is confirmed, an obscenity or muddiness may be seen in the centre of the pupil, occupying more or less of the opening, according as the cataract is more or less extended. The opaque spot is generally of a dull white or yellowish colour. Sometimes the crystalline humour is so fixed to the iris, or that moveable coloured part in the middle of the eye, as to obstruct its motion, and then the pupil retains the same size in every light; or if the adhesion is partial, the pupil of the eye assumes an irregular shape.

It must be observed, that in this disease, the iris is not always so immovable as in glazy eyes; though when the cataract is fully formed, the pupil is generally enlarged, and contracts very little on the approach of a strong light. Sometimes the lens comes through the pupil altogether, and floats in the watery humour, in the fore part of the eye.

The cataract in horses is said to be always a consequence of inflammation in the eye, which will be considered in the second section of this part.

The only method that appears likely to remove the cataract, is an operation by which the opaque lens may be thrust down below the pupil, or entirely extracted from the eye; but neither couching nor extraction can be recommended in the horse, as the removal of the lens would still be attended with a defect of vision that would render the animal of less use, than if he were totally blind.

Another cause of blindness, and also a consequence of inflammation, is opacity of the cornea. There may be either a diffuse whiteness or muddiness in the cornea, that is more or less extensive; or, there may be specks that or warts growing on the outside of this coat, so as to obstruct the passage of the rays of light. Sometimes the opacity of the cornea is only slight, producing partial blindness; but frequently it is universal, and then the horse cannot see at all. This universal opacity of the cornea is sometimes, though improperly, called cataract. It sometimes disappears for a time, and the eye seems nearly as clear as ever; but it generally returns in no long time.

General opacity diffused through the substance of the cornea, does not readily yield to remedies. Attempts have been made, by clarifying the vessels on the white of the eye, or by stimulating applications to the cornea, to rouse into action the absorbent vessels of the eye, and thus remove the opacity; but these attempts seem to have been attended with little success. Specks or warts on the cornea, if they are not too large, may generally be removed by the knife, or by repeatedly blowing into the eye a powder composed of powdered glass and white vitriol. But, if these specks are attended with any general opacity of the cornea, little benefit is to be expected from these operations.

As the skin is so intimately connected with sensation, we shall here consider some of the more simple affections of that organ, that are not generally attended with fever. It is not uncommon for excrescences or warts to grow on the skins of domestic animals, particularly on horses and oxen. Sometimes they are hard and firm; at others they are soft and sprouting; in some their root is smaller than their head; in others the base is the largest part. The sprouting kind of warts are called by the farriers anger-berries, ambury or ambury, and are not uncommon among oxen. As these are largest at the base, they can, like all of that description, be removed only by touching them daily with some caustic, as lunar caustic, or butter of antimony. Where the wart has a small root, it may be best removed by tying a strong waxed thread round the root, tightening it now and then as it gets loose till the wart drops off. It is in general not proper to remove warts by the knife, unless they are of such a firm consistence as not to bleed on being cut, and to admit of the application of caustic after cutting.

There sometimes appears on the skin of the horse, a scurfy eruption at the bending of the knee, or the bending of the hock. The eruption generally appears in both places at once, and is called by farriers, the Mallenders and Sullenders; a term which they have borrowed from the French. When considered separately, the eruption of the knee is called the mallenders, and that of the hock the sullenders.

These eruptions may generally be traced to want of cleanliness, and are, in most cases, easily removed, by washing the parts with soap and water, and applying an ointment, composed of mercurial ointment and camphor; or either of the ointments marked No. 41. and No. 70. in the receipts.

When a horse's skin is hard, dry, and unusually tight about the body, the animal is said to be hide-bound. This tightness about the skin is usually the effect of hard work and improper food; and commonly attends lingering diseases, in which the fat is gradually wasted or absorbed. It must therefore be considered rather as a symptom of disease than as a disease itself: but, as is the case with most remarkable symptoms, it has often been regarded as a primary disease; to remove which, by sweating and relaxing remedies, is the principal object of the practitioner.

The proper remedies for this affection, when it is not a symptom of some lingering disorder, are nourishing diet, with plenty of green food, particular attention to cleanliness, by frequent dressing, and the occasional use of boiled barley and warm mash.

Horses that have a lean, unthrifty-like appearance, suffer with their coats looking rough and ratty, are said by the grooms to labour under a surfeit. Whence has arisen the application of this strange term to an appearance that seems so opposite to what is generally understood by a surfeit, we are not aware; but an affection of the skin, under the name of surfeit, is thus described by Mr Lawrence: "Its confirmed state is attended with eruptions, and sometimes with swellings of the legs and joints, and in the latter case is usually to be looked upon, as the termination of some chronic disease, or a consequence of the improper use of mercurial physic. Surfeits are styled dry or wet; in the former, the skin is covered with a thick dry scurf, with scabs, and small hard tumours like warbles; in the latter, a sharp briny ichor issues from the poll, neck, withers, quarters, and hinder legs, in the bend of the hock, causing great stiffness and inflammation; this is probably analogous with scurvy in the human body, and will often attend cart-horses, with foul and unwholesome blood, at stated periods. The too free use of beans will produce the wet surfeit."

"The cure of surfeits depends almost entirely upon internal alternatives, with a very small attention to external applications. As to the latter, perhaps, frequent cleansing, with a good strong lather of soap is generally sufficient, but where the eruptions are hard and fixed, and the scabs do not peel off, I know of nothing better than to rub them frequently with the strong mercurial unction, keeping the horse well clothed, and giving warm water in the interim. The warm bath if the animal is strong."

One of the most common diseases of the skin among mange in domestic animals, is what is commonly called the mange horses, in horses, cattle and dogs, and the scab or itch in sheep. Its symptoms differ but little in the different species of animals, and we do not remember to have seen the disorder well described by any writer. The following description of the mange in horses by Mr Feron, is perhaps among the best that have been published. "The mange is a contagious chronical disorder which manifests itself in the skin, on which sensible eminences of a roundish figure rise up; these being scratched, a fluid oozes out, of a hot and corroding quality, that excoriates the found skin wherever it runs, in a little time forming a dry, scaly, crusty eruption, which in its progress spreads over the whole surface of the body; and the skin becomes unequally thick, thin, hard, and loathsome. If the disorder has been neglected, or ill-treated, the animal falls off from his food, grows lean, and the legs fweel; in this state the patient has frequent fits of shivering and trembling, and a slight fever arises, terminating in farcy or the glanders, by which he is easily destroyed."

A disease similar to this, if not of the same kind, affects cattle, especially such as are ill fed, and not kept clean. It is commonly called by herdsmen, the scab or Diseases, or scurf; and is thus described in a popular treatise on cow-doctoring.

Skin stiff, and fits fast to every part of the carcass, as if too small for the body. It makes its first appearance about the head and jaws of the animal, with a scurfy, pale, and dry texture; and the beard begins to scratch against everything that comes in its way: it then shows itself along the back, and behind the shoulders; and if timely aid be not procured, the animal will tear its skin till it bleeds violently, which ought to be prevented, if possible, as the scabs which are the consequence of bleeding, much retard the efficacy of the ointment, and the loss of time confirms the disorder.

This disease is incident to sheep in some particular pastures, situations, and flocks, more than to others. The predisposing cause seems to be a relaxed habit of body, produced by poverty or lameness, though some sheep are subject to it that are fat, and otherwise in good condition. The disease seldom seems to originate with such sheep, but to be conveyed to them by infection.

Dogs are exceedingly subject to the mange, and readily catch it from each other. The appearance of the disease in dogs, is familiar to everyone, as there are few more common and disgusting sights than a mangy dog. A dog in this state is very unfit for any active exertion, as the affection of the skin renders him stiff and sore even in his limbs. A friend of ours had a greyhound, that, when he was clean, was one of the swiftest runners in the country, and had gained the prize in many a coursing match. This dog caught the mange, and while in this situation was several times, sent in pursuit of a hare; but now, puts generally escaped him.

This disease has sometimes been attributed to animals, such as are found in the symptoms of the itch upon the human skin; and analogy seems to be in favour of this idea. It is, however, evidently connected with poor living, and want of cleanliness.

In the treatment of the mange, we are to rely chiefly on the use of external applications, such as ointments, composed of sulphur, of some preparation of mercury, or hellebore roots. The receipts marked No. 68 and 69 are well adapted to the cure of this disease. Sometimes internal remedies, such as sulphur and gentle laxatives, are required; and the greatest attention must be paid to cleanliness, diet, and exercise. It may be necessary in some cases, especially where the animals that have caught the disease, are very full of blood, to bleed and give cooling phthisic previous to the application of ointment; and in all cases the skin should be thoroughly washed with soap and water, both before and after anointing. The animals should always be confined till they are quite free from the disease.

Mr Feron, who considers the mange in horses as a general affection of the system, and not merely a local disease of the skin, strongly recommends the use of blisters, which he has seen act as a specific. "The local treatment, and the only one to be depended upon (says this gentleman), consists in a judicious application of blisters, used after the following manner; viz. if the whole body is affected, the one half must be blistered one day, and the other in three days after. This must be done at different times, in order to prevent the cantharides from operating too violently upon the kidneys and bladder; but if this happens, let the animal be bled, and clysters frequently injected. But the best way to avoid this, is to leave off all kinds of internal medicines, during the action of the blisters. When they begin to operate, the skin must be fomented with warm water three times a-day, in order to wash out a quantity of yellow matter, discharged by the action of the blisters, and to encourage the growth of new hair." We do not pretend to dispute the efficacy of Mr Feron's blistering practice in removing the mange, but we doubt whether the blistering one half of the body with cantharides may not be productive of more serious consequences than the disease which it is intended to remove. At any rate, the expense of the method, and the torment which it must occasion to the poor animal, must greatly prevent the general application of the remedy.

In Mr Findlater's survey, quoted above, are the following judicious observations on the treatment of sheep labouring under the scab.

" Sheep that are regularly tarred, or smeared, are seldom infected with this disease. If the disease be partial, perhaps the best remedy would be to clip the affected parts as bare as possible, and rub them occasionally with the common smearing ointment, to which may be added a little Venice turpentine. They should also be washed, once or twice a week, with black soap and water. But if this prove ineffectual, or if the disease has gone to a great extremity, the animal should first be washed as clean as possible, in a pond, or rill of water, to purge away all the accumulated virus, or infecting matter, from the wool. A little black soap may be of great use in washing. Then the whole body may be smeared with juice of tobacco; and after the animal becomes dry, may be rubbed with butter mixed with powdered brimstone; or brimstone mixed with the smearing ointment would answer better. A little of the sulphur may meanwhile be thrown down its throat. If this treatment, being twice or thrice repeated, after an interval of several days, should prove ineffectual, recourse must be had to the mercurial ointment, composed of three ounces of hogs lard, well rubbed in a mortar, with half a drachm of finely powdered corrosive sublimate; or the same proportion of corrosive sublimate, well mixed with three ounces of the common smearing ointment, will answer equally well. The animal being smeared with this ointment, will soon be effectually cured. Meanwhile the diseased animal should be invigorated or put upon substantial food."

In a note Mr Findlater mentions an observation of Mr Loch's of Rachan, that the matter discharged in the scab mixing with the wool, and drying, forms a hard impenetrable crust, which he has observed of half an inch in thickness; that it is vain to think of curing it by any external application, till this is removed; and that you might as well attempt to cure a man of the itch, by rubbing butter and brimstone upon his coat, instead of his naked skin; that the scurf thus formed, must be removed by soaking and washing it with warm lime-water and soap, and scraping it clean to the quick with a blunt knife. It may then be successfully cured by the ointment; or, what is more cleanly and more easily prepared, by means of a lotion made by dissolving half a drachm of corrosive sublimate in a quart (chopin) bottle of whisky and water. Mr Loch has always Diseases always found this lotion effectual, after two or three applications.

It has been proposed by a correspondent of the Farmer's Magazine, to inoculate sheep for the scab, in order to render it milder. Even should inoculation have this effect, which is by no means certain, it does not appear necessary, in a disease that is so easily cured.

Besides the several applications that we have mentioned, a variety of ointments and lotions are recommended by writers on dogs. Mr Beckford advises that as soon as a mange spot appears on a hound, it should be well rubbed with a liniment composed of a pint (mutton) of train oil, half a pint of oil of turpentine, a quarter of a pound of powdered ginger, and half an ounce of gunpowder. It is also recommended that the dog should have a purging ball now and then, and should be kept from fleas meat. There is a variety of the mange in dogs, called the red mange, which it is said is best cured by mercurial ointments.

Most of the domestic animals, especially when young, are troubled with lice. Calves are sometimes louly, if they have been hard kept during winter, by being turned out in severe weather, fed on poor diet, and not kept clean. The best means of destroying these vermin is by rubbing their hide with an ointment composed of slaves-acre, or cayenne pepper, mixed up with hogs lard.

Young whelps are very subject to lice; but they may be easily removed by washing with a lotion formed by steeping a pound of tobacco in three English pints of small beer, or by rubbing the skin well with train-oil.

Fleas are best destroyed by washing the dogs frequently with soft soap and water.

Sheep are often infected with vermin of various kinds, which harass the animals exceedingly; and not only do much mischief to the wool, but even eat into the animal's skin.

The sheep fly abounds most in the southern parts of the island, and is chiefly troublesome to lambs. The most effectual means of protecting the lambs from the insect appears to be to smear the fleece with any kind of rancid oil.

Another species of insects that infect sheep is commonly called tick, or kedd, the hippobosca ovina of naturalists.

The smearing ointment generally prevents, or kills this insect. But if this should not happen, or if the sheep are not smeared, insects of every kind may be effectually killed, by slightly rubbing the parts affected with mercurial ointment, composed of three ounces of hogs lard, rubbed up with half a drachm of finely powdered corrosive sublimate. To this may be added, a little of the spirit of turpentine. Coal-oil is powerfully destructive to insects of every kind; but whether it may not prove injurious to the health or fleece of the sheep, has not yet been ascertained by experiment. A decoction or distillation from the gall-plant, which abounds in many moors and muirs, is known to be very fatal to insects of every kind; and a sheep may be safely washed with this juice. The juice of tobacco is also much recommended as a poison for those insects which infect sheep.

The last species of insects are chiefly hurtful to sheep among the insects which prove most troublesome to horses, sheep, and cattle, are those of the genus Oe. trus, some species of which are generally known by the name of gad-fly. The best account of these insects and their effects, that we have seen, is that of Mr Bracey Clark, published in the third volume of the Linnaean Transactions, from which the following account is chiefly taken.

Mr Clark describes five species of Oe. trus, viz. Oe. bovis, Oe. equi, Oe. haemorrhoidalis, Oe. veterinus, and Oe. ovis.

We shall at present describe the effects only of the first and last species.

The Oe. bovis, as its name imports, chiefly attacks Gail-fly, or cattle, through the skins of which it pierces, in order to deposit its eggs. The pain which it inflicts in doing so, appears to be much more severe than what is excited by any of the other species. When one of the cattle is attacked by this fly, it is easily known by the extreme terror and agitation that seizes the whole herd. The unfortunate object of attack runs bellowing from among his fellows, to some distant part of the pasture, or to the nearest water, holding his tail, from the severity of the pain, extended straight from the body, in a line with his back, with a tremulous motion, and stretching out his head and neck to the utmost. The rest of the herd, infected with the like fear, though not attacked, fly also to the water, or disappear to different parts of the pasture.

"Such is the dread and apprehension in the cattle, for this fly, says Mr Clark, that I have seen one of them meet the herd when almost driven home, and turn them back, regardless of the stones, sticks, and noise of their drivers; nor could they be flopped till they reached their accustomed retreat in the water."

When one of these flies happens to attack oxen that are yoked in the plough, there is often considerable danger, as the animals become quite ungovernable, and will often rush directly forwards with the plough, through hedges, or whatever opposes their career.

Horses, steers, and the younger cattle, are in general most frequently attacked by this fly; the strongest and most healthy beasts seem constantly to be preferred by it, and this circumstance is said to be a criterion of goodflesh held in much esteem by the dealers in cattle. Tanners also have remarked, that their best and strongest hides have generally the greatest number of holes in them.

The larvae of this species, as of most of those we are to mention, are generally termed bots, but this name is most frequently applied to the larvae of the Oe. equi.

The complaint produced by the puncture of this insect in the skins of cattle, is called puckeridge, and is not unfrequently attributed to the bite of the goat-fucker. For the destruction of the larvae thus deposited, it has been recommended to insert a red-hot wire into each of the holes made in the skin; but this is a formidable remedy, and will probably do as much harm to the skin as the bots themselves. A more rational practice that is sometimes in use, is to press the parts, and rub them well with a little oil of turpentine, or some other stimulating application, or a little oil of turpentine may be injected into each hole. The larvae of the *Oe. bovis* are commonly known to the country people by the names of *worms*, or *worms*, or *woolworms*. During the summer, sheep are often observed to gather together in clutters, endeavouring carefully to guard their heads. Mr Blaine says that this is to protect themselves against the attacks of this insect, which attempts to lay its eggs on the inner margin of the nose, which when it has effected, these eggs become larvae, and creep up into the frontal and maxillary sinuses.

It is not easy to discover the manner in which this insect deposits its eggs, owing to its obscure colour and rapid motions, and to the great agitation into which the sheep are thrown by its attack; but the subsequent motion of the sheep, and the manner in which they attempt to defend themselves against their enemy, leave no room to doubt, that the eggs are deposited on the inner margin of the nostrils.

The moment the fly touches this part of the sheep, they shake their heads, and strike the ground violently with their fore feet, at the same time holding their noses close to the earth; they run away, looking about them on every side, to see whether the fly pursues; they also smell to the grass, as they go, lest one should be lying in wait for them. As they cannot, like horses, take refuge in the water, they have recourse to a rut, or dry dusty road, or gravel-pits, where they crowd together during the heat of the day, with their noses held close to the ground, which renders it difficult for the fly conveniently to get at the nostril.

Observations on these flies are best made in warm weather, and during the heat of the day, when by driving the sheep from their retreats to the grass, the attack of the fly, and the emotions of the sheep, are easily observed.

The nostril from repeated attacks, and the consequent rubbing against the ground, becomes highly inflamed and sore, which occasions their touch to be so much dreaded by the sheep.

It is said that this fly also deposits its eggs in the skin of the sheep, but we are not certain how far this has been proved by experience; although there is no doubt that there are sometimes found in the sheep's skin, maggots that must have been produced from eggs deposited by some insect. They prove extremely troublesome to the animal, eating into the skin, and producing ulcers. If not discovered in time they may even destroy the life of the sheep. The remedy is to clip the infected parts bare, wash them well with black soap and water, and apply the smearing ointment. If this does not succeed, recourse must be had to the method recommended, in No. 337.

When sheep have lain about for a long time in wet and marshy pastures, or have been kept in woods or copses in a starving condition, their fleeces become so completely soaked with water, that the wool rots off from the skin. This is what is called the *pelt-rot*. If sheep be suffered to continue long in this condition, they become heavy and low-spirited, and will sooner or later be destroyed. If, however, they be attended to in proper time, they may be saved by driving them to a good straw-yard, pulling off their ragged and rotten wool, and rubbing on a good coat of tar, grease, and turpentine. Care must also be taken, to provide them with plenty of good wholesome nourishment.

The skin of all animals, especially on the most delicate parts of it, is subject to excoriation or chafing. This is of most consequence in the backs of horses fretted with the saddle, and the udders of cows by rubbing against their thighs, when they are cat-hammed, &c., and go close behind. Both the udder and thighs of the cow are sometimes quite raw, and ulcerated. The best remedy in these cases, is to wash the parts well with warm soap and water, and afterwards bathe them frequently with a mixture of Goulard, and camphorated spirits.

The teats of cows are sometimes chapped, which is commonly owing to want of cleanliness in the milkers. When this happens, the treatment recommended above for chapping may be followed, or if this does not succeed, the teats may be anointed with what is called unguentum nutritum. If the teats are very painful, the cracks may first be bathed with a little laudanum, and afterwards filled up with finely powdered prepared chalk.

There are many other diseases that affect the skin of these animals; but some of them are so trifling as not to require particular notice, and others being intimately connected with some general derangement of the system, fall more properly to be considered in the next section of this part.

**Chap. II. Morbid Affections of Motion.**

The function of motion may be morbidly affected in various ways, but all these tend more or less to impede or disturb the natural motions of the animal.

The muscles are often affected with irregular motions, producing violent involuntary contractions, called convulsions or spasms. These are often symptoms of some dangerous derangement of the brain or nervous system, as locked-jaw, epilepsy, canine madness, &c. Convulsions of this nature, being intimately dependent on the primary disease, can only be removed by such means, as are calculated to carry off the disease, of which they are the symptoms. Irregular action of the muscles commonly attends great debility, whether it be brought on by hard work and low diet, or by disease. In either case, it is commonly a very dangerous symptom. We cannot properly consider the treatment of convulsion here; but it will be considered in the next section, when we come to treat of convulsive or spasmodic diseases.

The affection that we are chiefly called to consider of lameness in this chapter is lameness, a very comprehensive term, as it includes almost all the local affections of the extremities. Lameness is a complaint that is exceedingly common among horses and dogs, especially the former; in whom it more particularly demands attention, as it so materially affects the value of the animal. A knowledge of the nature of lameness, and the method of treating it, can only be acquired by an investigation of the causes by which it is produced.

The causes of lameness are extremely numerous and various. We shall endeavour to classify them, so as to render our inquiry as little tedious and difficult as may be.

1. Lameness may be produced by a stiffness of some stiff parts of the muscles, tendons, or ligaments, arising either from excessive labour, from bruises, wounds, or some diseased affection of the joints. It is well known, that when the muscles of an animal are exerted for any unusual length of time, or in a more than ordinary degree, they become fatigued, and cannot for some time perform their functions with their accustomed ease. In general, after proper rest and careful treatment, the stiffness gradually goes off; and in a day or two the animal is able to exert himself as usual; but if care has not been taken to rub him well down, and provide him with a well littered bed, and especially if he has been exposed to cold while sweating and fatigued, this stiffness may continue for many days, or may even degenerate into permanent lameness. Animals that have acquired this permanent stiffness of their limbs, always move with considerable difficulty, when first taken out; but in general when they have been long in exercise, and are become warm, the stiffnesses and lameness in a great measure disappear, but they commonly return again when the exertion is over.

Where the stiffness has not continued long, it may in general be easily removed, by frequent friction of the limbs, first with a wisp of hay and the brush, and afterwards with some warm liniment or embrocation, such as has been described among the stimulant receipts.

If it does not yield to this treatment, recourse may be had to warm fomentations, and gentle exercise must be persisted in. If the lameness should still continue, it will probably be occasioned by a strain of some ligament, or an injury done to some part of the limb.

Any of the muscular parts may be bruised by falls or blows; and if the bruise takes place on the limbs, or in their neighbourhood, lameness may be the consequence. A bruise is almost always followed by a swelling of the bruised part, occasioned by the rupture of small vessels, that pour out their fluids into the cellular membrane. If the bruise is slight, the swelling will soon subside; but if the injury has been considerable, and much blood has been poured out, inflammation and consequent suppuration will take place, and the part will become an abscess. If the injury has been still greater, and the texture of the parts has been destroyed, mortification will probably come on, and if the bruise be extensive, will be attended with considerable danger.

The treatment of bruises will be different according to the degree of the injury produced. In slight cases the object will be to promote the absorption of the effused blood; and this will be best answered by bathing the part with warm vinegar and water, or camphorated spirit. If there is considerable inflammation, and it is not judged proper to encourage a suppuration, the parts must be frequently bathed with a solution of sugar of lead, with a little vinegar; or, where the part admits of a bandage, it will be better to form a cold poultice of oatmeal mixed up with such a solution, and kept constantly applied to the part and frequently moistened with the solution to prevent its becoming hard and dry. If a suppuration should appear unavoidable, it will be proper to encourage it by a frequent application of warm poultices renewed as often as they become cool, or, where these cannot be applied, by repeatedly fomenting the part with flannel wrung out of warm water. When the suppuration is complete, the swelling must be opened with a lancet, or by means of a feton; and the sore must be treated as we shall presently describe with respect to ulcers. If mortification takes place, the parts must be frequently fomented with the fomentation directed in No. 57, of the receipts; and the animal's strength must be supported by nourishing food, and the occasional use of cordial and strengthening remedies. If the mortified part be very extensive, it may be necessary to make incisions towards the edges with a knife, to promote the separation of the flough; or firing may be employed, as directed for this purpose in No. 175.

It sometimes happens that after the inflammation which attended a bruise has subsided, a permanent hard tumour is left, that prevents the free motion of the muscles of the part. This may arise either from a thickening of some ligament, or the cellular texture, or it may proceed from an excrescence formed on the bone, in consequence of the bruise. The treatment in such cases will be presently described, when we come to consider splints, ring-bones, and other tumours that commonly produce lameness.

Horses are very liable to receive severe bruises in the Tread, or back part of the foot, either from the tread of another overreaching horse, as often happens in the army, by a horse in the rear-rank treading on the heels of one in the front-rank; or, by a horse overreaching his hind foot, and thus bruising the heels of the fore foot. From the manner in which this accident is produced, it has received the names of tread, and overreach. Sometimes the bruise is so slight as to be productive of no farther ill consequence than a temporary lameness; but if the tread has been very violent, the edges of the part trodden on may be so much bruised as to produce considerable inflammations, or even a mortification. In ordinary cases it is sufficient to wash the part carefully with warm water, to clear it of dirt and gravel, then apply a pledget dipped in spirits, and bind up the foot, so as to exclude the external air; when the bruise, if slight, will probably soon heal. But in some cases matter is formed, which makes its way downwards towards the sole, forming what is called a quitter. Quitters may also take place from a puncture in the foot, by a nail or other pointed body, the effects and treatment of which will be presently described.

In a newly-formed quitter, it is of consequence to ascertain, whether it has been produced by a prick or a tread. In the former case the matter usually makes its way upwards from the punctured part towards the coronet; and here the practice generally followed by farriers is, to fear the upper orifice with a hot iron, which answers no other purpose than to confine the matter within the wound, where it must produce extensive ulceration and destruction of important parts of the foot. In the latter case, where quitter is produced by a tread, and where the tissue formed is very superficial, the use of the cautery may be very proper; and if it can be so applied as to inflame the whole extent of the wound, it may entirely carry off the disease. According to Mr. Blane, there are too general methods of curing quitter; one by removing a part of the hoof, cutting away the diseased parts, or suffering them to flough off or exfoliate. The other, to apply caustic to the diseased surfaces, introducing it within the confines, thus destroying the ulcerated parts, and allowing the healthy parts to throw them off. The latter is called by farriers coreing out a quitter, as they suppose that the core or flough that comes away formed a part of the complaint. Mr Blaine objects to removing the hoof, as it would take up a considerable time before new horn can be formed; and it is probable that in the new hoof there will be a false quarter, which will render the horse unfound, besides that, during the formation of the new hoof, fresh sinuses may be produced.

In the method of cure by caustic, he thinks that the disease may be completely removed in three or four weeks, whereas the other method may require as many months. The mode of applying the caustic is, to examine carefully the extent and direction of the sinuses, and then to fill them up with powdered blue vitriol, verdigrise, or corrosive sublimate. Mr Blaine has found that a paste made of corrosive sublimate, mixed up with flour and butter, forms a very good caustic for this purpose. Some of it is to be introduced by means of a probe, to which a piece of sponge is fastened, which must be carefully introduced in every direction, so as to touch all the diseased parts, after which the whole foot is to be bound up; but the bandage must not be applied too tightly. In two or three days the dressings are to be renewed, and this is to be repeated at intervals till the floughs come away, when a healthy action of the parts will take place, and the cure soon be completed. Another method of introducing caustic, by which the sinuses may be completely filled, is to mix up the caustic with hog's lard, and roll the mats into small pellets within gauze-paper, which may be easily introduced into the cavities.

Many farriers have fallen into a mistake with respect to the nature and treatment of quittor, that has been the ruin of many horses. They suppose, that during the progress of this disease, a bone is formed which they call a quittor bone; and they think it necessary to remove this bone, before a cure can be completed. This error seems to have arisen from an opinion of Laffitte, who conceived that the derangement which accompanied this disease originated in the cartilages being affected, which he affirmed were capable of being thus diseased, but incapable either of exfoliating like bone, or sloughing like ligament; and therefore that to promote a cure, the whole of the lateral cartilage on the affected side must be removed. But his first premises were erroneous, for cartilages are vascular, as we know by their being tinged with bile, and by their being at times absorbed; this is particularly the case with the lateral cartilages, which in almost all old horses are partly absorbed. As they are vascular, they must be capable of living action; though it is slow, and hence where disease exists, they will exfoliate like other parts. This practice of Laffitte has in this country been for some time tried among many of the more intelligent farriers, and was still further propagated by the late Professor St Bel. Many horses have been ruined by this injudicious practice; for the future elasticity of the foot, which is in a great measure dependent on these cartilages, must be lost; besides the necessary removal of the hoof to get at the cartilage, a false quarter almost always remains*.

Wounds are frequently inflicted in the soft parts of horses and dogs, and these are more common in the legs, feet, and joints, than in any other parts. The treatment of wounds must depend in a great measure on the part where they are inflicted, and the form of the instrument that produced them. A clean cut made in the muscular parts is easily healed, by applying flaps of sticking plaster as soon as possible, so as to keep the edges of the wound close together; or where plaster cannot readily be applied, by taking a flitch or two through the edges of the wound, and tying the flings gently together. When the edges are found to adhere, the flings must be cut away, and the holes which they made will soon fill up. If any considerable blood-vein has been wounded, it will be proper to secure it, if possible, by means of ligature, rather than by applying any styptic substance. All wounds should be made as clean as possible, before any attempt is made to heal them. Sometimes the wound is so situated that it will not admit of being sewed up; but in these cases we may in general pass silver or steel pins from the edges, at about an inch distance from each other, and twist a thread crooked from one to the other, so as to form what is called the twisted suture. In all cases where sutures are used, it will be proper to apply a sticking plaster over the edges of the wound. If the wound should not heal by these means, a formation of matter will take place, and then the sore is to be treated as a common ulcer, taking care that its edges be always kept as near together as may be, by sticking plaster or a bandage.

If the wound is very large, it may excite considerable inflammation and fever. In these cases, if the animal is plethoric, it will be proper to bleed him, or at any rate to administer cooling remedies. If, on the other hand, there has been much loss of blood, or if the wound shows no disposition to heal, and the matter formed is thin and ichorous, an opposite plan of treatment will be required. The animal must be supported by nourishing food, and strengthening remedies.

The most troublesome wounds are those of the feet and joints, as they are in general very difficult to be healed.

Wounds in the feet are not uncommonly produced by the horse treading on sharp stones, broken glass, the feet, sharp bones or nails. These are generally punctured wounds, and will be considered presently. Sometimes a deep wound is made on the coronet, by a sharp part of the heel of the shoe on the opposite foot, or any other substance penetrating downwards between the coffin-bone and the hoof, or between the lateral cartilages of the coffin-bone and the joint. Wounds of this kind are attended with much danger, from the difficulty of evacuating the matter that may be formed, or of producing that healthy action in the parts that is necessary to make them heal. In such cases Mr Feron recommends the application of a blister, extending from the fetlock to the foot, so as to produce external irritation, which may relieve the internal parts. In the meantime the foot is to be kept in a vessel of warm water all day, and a large warm poultice of bran and water is to be applied round it at night. The intention of this practice is to prevent suppuration, but if this should, nevertheless, take place, and if matter should be formed between the hoof and the sensitive laminae; the suppuration is to be encouraged, and we are to endeavour to prevent the formation of sinuses, by rasping the hoof very thin, just below the seat of the wound, so that we may be able to make an orifice for the evacuation of the matter downwards. Mr Feron advises advices to delay this opening as long as possible, and when it is performed, to take care that the lamina be properly pricked after the operation, to prevent coming out through the hoof, and forming an incurable sandcrack, or false-quarter. The bathing the foot in warm water, and the application of the bran poultice, must be continued till the foot is perfectly healed. If proud fleas should appear through the opening that has been made in the hoof, it is to be pared away with a sharp knife, then fixed, and covered with a small pendent spread with soft ointment, on which is sprinkled a little powdered blue vitriol. It is evident that, during the cure, the horse must be kept perfectly at rest; and it is recommended to administer diuretics, and now and then a gentle dose of physic, to keep the bowels moderately open.

Wounds in the joints are commonly attended with very serious consequences, as it frequently happens that the capsular ligament is divided, and in this case the synovia or joint-oil constantly exuding through the opening, prevents the disposition to heal. A wound in the joints is common among horses in the army, and such as are employed in hunting; and a horse that has received such a wound in general becomes perfectly useless, from the improper method of treating these wounds that has in general prevailed among farriers. By their treatment, either an incurable sinus is produced, or a secretion of bony matter takes place within the joint, forming what is called an anchylosis or stiff joint. The method generally practised by ordinary farriers is, to inject within the joint a mixture of turpentine and oil of vitriol, a solution of corrosive sublimate and lime water, or some other corrosive substance. The more rational of them content themselves with an injection of tincture of myrrh. All these substances produce such a high degree of inflammation within the joint, as not unfrequently to destroy the animal.

Of late, a much more rational mode of treatment has been adopted by Mr Coleman, and is described in the first number of the Veterinary Transactions.

The following is the method recommended by Mr Coleman for treating wounds of the joints and capsules.

"Where a joint, a mucous capsule, or the sheath of a tendon is opened, the first application necessary is the actual cautery. The instrument most proper for the operation should be made of iron, two feet in length, rounded at the extremity about the size of a small button, with a wooden handle. The temperature of the iron should be moderately red. If it be black, the heat will not be sufficient to produce a proper discharge of lymph, to close up the wound; and if it is white, it will destroy too much of the surrounding parts, and perhaps do mischief to the ligament. Although the operation in itself is very simple, yet some knowledge of the structure and economy of the parts, for the purpose of applying the cautery with the best possible effect, is necessary. The object in view is to produce a glutinous substance to close up the cavity, and before the slough is removed, for granulations below to supply the place of the lymph; but if the ligament itself be destroyed by the cautery, it must, like other dead parts, separate from the living and come away, and then the joint will still be opened. It is, therefore, of importance not to destroy the ligament of joints with the hot iron, but confine its application to the external soft parts. In these cases, it is generally proper to cauterize the whole external surface of the wound; and if the discharge is not immediately stopped, the iron has probably not been applied sufficiently deep, or too cold, to produce a proper discharge of lymph. Where a cure is possible to be effected, the actual cautery will frequently close the cavity and stop the discharge. Sometimes, however, in the course of one, two, or three days, the discharge appears again by the sides of the lymph, and then the same operation should be repeated. In some instances Mr Coleman has had occasion to apply the hot iron five or six times, and nevertheless succeeded ultimately, without the least lameness. The same treatment is likewise to be recommended for penetrating wounds into the chest and abdomen. The lips of the wound should be cauterized, and, if requisite, repeated in the same manner as is recommended for wounds of other cavities. When the cavities of veins become inflamed, some little variation is necessary in the treatment, as accidents of that nature are frequently attended with consequences different from the opening of other cavities, and require a trifling alteration in the treatment. When a hemorrhage takes place, it may be very generally stopped by the application of the cautery; but if this fails, and the parts are too much swollen to admit of a pin, there is no other remedy than to take up the vein by a ligature above the diseased parts; and there may be instances in which it may be advisable to tie up the vein below. In general, however, the actual cautery will prevent the necessity of a ligature; and if it fails, tying up the vein will succeed only in those cases where the vein above is free from disease. In general, the vein is thickened and inflamed, and if a ligature be applied on a vessel in a state of inflammation, the disease will be formed, and the vein inflame above. In a case that occurred to Mr Goodwin, veterinary surgeon at Oxford, where the jugular vein was tied, an abscess took place over the occipital bone, commonly termed the poll evil. That disease, however, most probably did not originate in consequence of the tube being obliterated, for in most successful cases of inflamed veins, the sides of the vein unite and destroy the cavity. After the orifice of the inflamed vein, from the application of the actual cautery, is closed, a considerable degree of swelling frequently remains, and this may be removed by a blister. When abscesses form in the adjacent parts, they should be treated in the same manner as common abscesses."

A puncture of some part of the lower surface of the foot is a frequent occurrence. It may arise from the wounds prick of a nail in shoeing, from a nail picked up in travelling; or from glass, flint, or any other sharp body. Injuries of this kind are proportioned in their effects, to the parts punctured, and not entirely to the depth of the wound. A puncture of the frog penetrating even to the fleshy frog, is not usually so serious, as that which penetrates the sole; hence a wound anywhere at the hinder part may penetrate deeper with impunity than towards the centre, and likewise in the front, though considerable inflammation usually follows from this last. When the capsular ligament is wounded in these cases, the consequence may be very serious, as a stiff joint is commonly produced. When it is found that the capsular ligament has been wounded, the external opening must be enlarged, and a hot iron must be applied to the surface of the skin that covers the wounded part of the ligament, in order to heal up the internal opening. Considerable irritation commonly attends a punctured wound of the tendon, or its sheath; and it is best removed by enlarging the wound that is made through the horny part, and keeping the feet for some time in warm water. When matter appears in either of these cases, it must be let out, and the wound must be healed in the usual manner.

The most usual case of punctures is that which arises from a nail in hoeing taking a wrong direction, when instead of penetrating the outer surface of the crust, it turns inwards, and thus wounds the sensitive laminae. This is known to the smith at the time by a peculiar feel in the stroke he gives, and by the flinching; when, if the nail is immediately removed, and has not penetrated far, the wound heals by the first intention; but if it is suffered to remain, it produces inflammation and suppuration. As soon as this is discovered, a depending orifice should be made for the matter, by making an opening in the line of the hole at which the nail entered. It is always prudent, when a nail has penetrated, and lameness follows without matter appearing, to remove the shoe, and enlarging the opening to apply a pledget of tow dipped in spirits of wine, which will frequently prevent any future effects: but whenever matter has formed, it is indispensible necessary; for otherwise the matter will proceed upwards, and coming out at an opening on the coronet, it will form a quitter. When by this treatment the matter has gained a depending situation, and the inflammation has subsided, the part may be dressed with any mild ointment; but if the matter should increase in quantity, it will be proper to pour a solution of white vitriol within to promote a stoppage of the discharge, and of the extension of the ulcerative process. In every puncture, when the heat and inflammation appear considerable, bleeding at the toe is a prudent measure, as it cools the vessels.

Dogs are frequently wounded with thorns in their feet or knees, and the thorn may be so deeply lodged, that it cannot easily be extracted. When the foot is wounded with a thorn, the best application is a plaster of black pitch, which is said to have succeeded when every thing else has failed. If there is much inflammation, it will be proper to apply a poultice over the plaster. When a dog is wounded in the knee, if there is reason to suppose that a thorn is left in the wound, the same applications will be proper; and when the thorn comes away, if there is still an oozing of fluid from the orifice, a red-hot iron must be applied, as in the wounds of the joints in horses. If no thorn is left in the wound, a little digestive ointment rubbed upon the part, and a subsequent application of a poultice made with Goulard and crumbs of bread, with proper rest, will probably soon effect a cure.

Lameness is not unfrequently produced by a stiff joint, or what the surgeons call ankylosis. This is generally the effect of an injury done to the articulating surfaces of the bones that compose the joint, causing the formation of new bony matter, which gets between the bones, and unites them together. A stiff joint may perhaps be sometimes prevented by the timely use of blisters and firing; but when completely formed, the lameness is incurable.

2. The second head of causes that produce lameness will comprehend strains, fractures, and luxations.

Strains may take place in any of the muscular parts, or ligaments, but they most commonly happen in the fleasty part of the shoulder, or in some of the ligaments of the feet.

A strain in the muscles of the shoulder, has been generally called a shoulder-flip, under the idea that the shoulder-bone has been disjointed, or the blade-bone pushed out of its place; but the fracture of the parts shews that the former of these accidents can scarcely happen, on account of the great strength of the capsular and other ligaments that surround the shoulder joint; and a dislocation of the blade-bone is, by the extent and strength of the muscles that unite it with the ribs, nearly impossible, unless by such a force as is sufficient to destroy the texture of the muscles, and tear the limb from the body. A strain of these muscles, and of the ligaments that surround the shoulder joint, is, however, by no means an unfrequent occurrence, but affections of other parts are often mistaken for a shoulder strain, as we shall see presently. A strain in the shoulder, when first received, is generally attended with considerable inflammation and swelling of the part, which are usually sufficient to distinguish it from other affections. When the strain has continued long, and the inflammation has subsided, the distinction is not so easy.

In cases of recent shoulder strains, it will be proper to draw blood from the plate vein, and if the inflammation is extensive, to administer a purge, and keep the animal rather low, to keep down the inflammation as much as possible; and it will be proper to bathe the parts frequently, with some astringent lotion, or with a warm fomentation, as directed under bruise. A rowel may also be placed in the chest, or a feton in the inside of the fore-leg. Complete rest is necessary; and to render this the more perfect, the horse should be fitted with a patten shoe, and should have a bed of litter constantly below him. When the inflammation has subsided, gentle friction, and the occasional use of astringent lotions, will in general soon restore the use of the limb; and as soon as the horse can bear it, moderate exercise may be employed.

Injuries done to the ligaments and tendons, are also usually called strains; but if we understand by this term, the inflammation of the strained part, the appellation is improper, since the tendons appear to be entirely without tendons, elasticity, and the ligaments nearly so. These parts cannot, therefore, be properly strained, though by unusual exertion, their texture may be so far injured as to produce stiffness, inflammation, and swelling, but will have the same effect in causing lameness, as a strain.

Injuries of this kind are more dangerous than mere muscular strains, their treatment is more difficult, and the cure more tedious. The treatment usually adopted by ordinary farriers, is to apply the same astringent and stimulating lotions, as in strains; but here they commonly do harm, as they generally produce a greater secretion of coagulable lymph, which still more obstructs the motion of the part, and renders the lameness permanent.

One of the worst cases of these injuries, is what farriers When a horse trips or stumbles, and makes an unusual effort to save himself from falling, or when the heels are lowered in shoeing too suddenly, or too much at once, so as to throw too great a weight upon them, there often happens such a sudden or violent contraction of the flexor muscles as may produce a partial laceration, or even rupture of the flexor tendon, or its sheath. This injury is attended with considerable inflammation, and the consequent lameness is of the worst kind. A great stiffness and swelling is produced, and there is commonly an effusion of fluid, which is at first serous, and may again be taken up by the absorbent vessels; but if improper applications are employed, coagulable lymph may be poured out, so as to obstruct the motion of the part, and produce that swelling, or permanent enlargement, that we sometimes see in the neighborhood of the tendon, after what is called a strain of the back finews.

When a horse is strained in the back finews, he puts forward his leg and foot in a loofe, faint, and faltering manner. Mr Lawrence gives the following directions for ascertaining whether or not a horse is injured in the back finews. To try how far the horse has been injured, let him be walked about for half an hour, when the swelling of his legs will in all probability subside. If you then observe the tendo achillis, or main finew, distinct from the flank; if, on pressing it with the finger towards the bone, you find it firm and tense; if you discover by the feel, no soft spongy finews between the flank and the tendon, no extraordinary pulsation, but that all is well braced and wiry, you may conclude the swellings not dangerous. A person of experience, with a nice discriminating finger, will scarce ever fail to detect lameness in the back finews.

Mr Feron is of opinion that the injury which we have described is not done to the flexor tendon, but to the ligaments of the neighboring joints. He says, that "on the direction of a strain supposed to be in the back finews, we discover no affection in the substance of this part, which on the contrary appears perfectly sound. But on examining the ligaments of the fetlock, coronet, and foot, we find them to be the seat of the disease; we find also, that if the accident has been violent, and of long duration, the whole vascular system of the leg is found affected, but never, or very seldom, the back finews; it is in this violent state that we observe sometimes one or two swellings along the tendons. It is also on this account that the pain is so great, and so hard to be cured, in consequence of the considerable irritation which takes place in the surrounding parts." So the increase of thickness of the leg, is nothing more than the effect of the disease; but not the disease itself, as farriers, grooms, &c., suppose it to be. Nevertheless, we said before that the back finews or tendons were void of feeling in a state of health and incapable of extension. It may be very true that this injury is not commonly seated in the tendon; but we cannot agree with Mr Feron, that this part is never the seat of it, especially as he himself allows that a rupture of the tendon may take place, of which he has seen different instances. It is not difficult to conceive that the same exertion which when in a great degree is capable of rupturing the tendon, may in a smaller degree produce a partial laceration, or a strain in the back finews.

A horse labouring under this injury, even after the inflammation has subsided, is extremely weak and stiff in the joints of the foot; but when he has been for some time at work, the lameness in some measure goes off. This has led some persons to suppose that a strained horse may be worked sound; but this is a very erroneous opinion, and the practice of continuing to work a horse that has been newly strained, under the idea of removing the stiffness, is equally cruel and injudicious.

The treatment of strains or injuries of the ligaments or tendons must be such as will most effectually prevent inflammation, and promote the absorption of the effused fluid. Local bleeding from the veins of the part, and warm fomentations frequently repeated, seem to be the most advisable; and a bandage should be always applied where the nature of the parts will admit of it, and should be continued till the lameness is removed. Various stimulating applications have been recommended in these cases, as soon as the inflammation has subsided, such as oil of turpentine, camphorated spirit, varnish, &c.; but they must not be employed while any considerable inflammation remains. It is somewhat remarkable that Mr Feron recommends astringent and stimulating applications in the text of his work, and says there that they may be employed with safety; but, in a note at the foot of the page, he speaks of having inferred those astringent prescriptions for the purpose of satisfying the different opinions, but that he is fully convinced, by a long experience, that warm fomentations and warm poultices of bran and water, are infinitely preferable in strains or contusions, to these expensive prescriptions, and are always to be tried first.

It will be proper to elevate the heels of the horse's shoe by calkins, and Mr Blaine recommends that the heels of the hoof be encouraged to grow, or that a thick-heeled shoe be used. If there still remains much swelling, firing will prove one of the most effectual remedies, as it will both promote the absorption of the effused fluid, and will produce such a degree of contraction of the skin as will answer the purpose of a permanent bandage. In such cases the cautery must be applied, so as to make perpendicular lines on the skin.

Dogs are very subject to strains; and where there are strains of flight, a mixture of spirit of wine and oil of turpentine, the stiffest or strong Goulard, applied before a fire, is the most useful remedy. Sometimes from blows or other accidents, such as slipping their hind-legs, or getting them entangled in the bars of a gate, hounds are lam'd in their stifles, as it is called. In general the above applications and long rest will remove the lameness; but when a considerable quantity of coagulable lymph has been effused, it is not easily re-absorbed, and the lameness continues. When this happens, some huntsmen recommend the operation of cutting for the stiffle, and Mr Daniel speaks of a huntsman who used to perform this operation very dexterously in the following manner. The bone is laid bare by a transverse cut, and upon it is found a substance like a stiff jelly, which is the cause of the lameness, and is in fact the coagulable lymph that has been effused. This jelly is taken away, and a wire is run through the ball of the hind-foot on the contrary side, and twisted in such a manner as to keep that leg from touching the ground, so that the hound may be compelled to use the lifted leg. In this way the dogs were always cured. The same huntsman recommended that that when a dog had been entangled in a gate or flite, he should, as soon as released, be taken by the hind-feet, and twisted round five or six times, turning with him; and it is said that this prevented any ill consequence from the bruises that he received in the flite, while endeavouring to disengage himself.

Some of the ligaments or tendons of the extremities are now and then ruptured. This is not a common case, but it may happen, either to the suspensory ligament, or the back finew.

A rupture of the suspensory ligament is found most likely to happen to young horses while breaking, and to cavalry horses while under training. The accident is generally called breaking down, as when it happens the horse appears unable to support himself. The fetlock is brought almost to the ground, and the limb is evidently exceedingly weak; but the horse can bend his foot when he raises it. This circumstance distinguishes a rupture of the suspensory ligament from that of the flexor tendon or back finew; as, in the latter case, the power of the flexor muscle being destroyed, the horse is unable to bend the foot.

It appears from the observations of Mr Coleman, and some experiments that have been made by Mr Feron, that the flexor tendon has little or no effect in giving support to the heels; but that this office is almost entirely performed by the suspensory ligament. Hence, when this is ruptured, the horse loses one of his principal stays, and the foot is of course unable to support its usual weight, whence the horse breaks down.

A perfect cure of this accident can seldom be expected; and the only way to relieve the animal will be to obviate the inflammation as much as possible, and to elevate the limb, and especially to raise the heels, in order to relax the injured parts. An intermediate substance will in time be produced between the two parts of the broken ligament, that will enable the horse to walk and perform some of his functions, but he cannot afterwards be depended on for the road or the field.

When it is ascertained that the back finew has been ruptured, which is discovered by the inability of the horse to bend his foot backwards, it is generally recommended to kill the horse, as a cure is by most deemed impracticable. Mr Blaine recommends to bend the limb from the ankle downwards, and to keep it in that situation by throwing the animal, when he thinks that a perfect cure might be made. There would, however, be considerable difficulty in keeping the limb in such a confined situation for so long a time as would be necessary to unite the ruptured tendon; and after all, there is the greatest probability that a very slight exertion would produce a fresh rupture.

Fractures of the bones may take place in any part of these animals, but they are most common in the feet of horses and the legs of dogs.

The navicular, coffin, and small pastern bones of a horse are not unfrequently fractured, and Mr Feron speaks of a small pastern bone being broken into seven pieces. It is not surprising that these bones should be broken, when we consider the immense weight that is generally sustained by them, and the great exertions which a horse sometimes makes to recover a fall.

These bones, when broken, will be united by a callus, provided that the limb be kept in such a situation as to prevent motion; but this can rarely be effected, even in cases where the bones of the foot are fractured, still less in those cases where a fracture of the larger bones has taken place.

One of the most common fractures of the bones in a horse is that of the ridge of the ilium, or haunch-bone, of the horse. This bone, from the projecting angle formed by its ridge, is peculiarly exposed to injury; and when the ridge is unusually prominent, as sometimes happens, or when the horse is more than commonly lean, the probability of fracturing this bone is still further increased.

Fractures of the haunch-bone may be occasioned by falls, by blows, which are often given by brutal riders and carters, with the butt end of a large whip, or perhaps a broomstick, and they are very commonly produced by striking the haunch violently against a post, or the edge of a wall, when the horse turns too sharply round a corner, or passes swiftly through a narrow gateway.

It may be ascertained that such an accident has taken place, by the pain the horse feels in the part, and where the fracture is considerable, by the cracking of the parts of the broken bone against each other, but still more certainly by an evident cavity of the haunch, from the depression of the ridge. The muscles of the belly in the upper part of the flank will appear sunk in, especially when the horse lies down, and will form a sort of hollow between the haunch and the ribs. The horse, when he attempts to move, will be as lame as if one of the bones of the leg were broken, owing to the extreme pain that motion excites in the muscles, that before being severely bruised, have lost one of their principal attachments.

When an accident of this kind has happened, it is necessary to keep the animal perfectly at rest, as nothing but repose can produce a reunion of the fractured bone. The parts may be gently rubbed with some stimulating liniment, as in other cases of bruises, and some recommend the application of a charge, or strengthening plaster. It sometimes happens, where only a small part of the bone has been broken off, the horse completely recovers his former activity; but more commonly such a deformity is produced by the ridge of one haunch remaining lower than that of the other, and by the callus that forms between the end of the divided bone, as to render the horse more or less permanently lame.

When the legs of a dog are broken, it is easy, by means of splints, to keep the limb in such a situation as to effect a union of the broken bone; and we have not unfrequently met with cases of this kind, where a complete cure has been effected in the course of a few weeks.

The ribs of a horse are sometimes broken, either by falls, or from the brutality of their keepers, as by striking them with the heavy handle of a whip or cudgel. If the end of the fractured rib does not penetrate into the chest, so as to wound the lungs, a cure may in general be readily effected, by fastening a bandage round the body over the seat of the fractured rib, and keeping the horse at rest and on a low diet.

Luxations or dislocations of bones are exceedingly uncommon in the horse, owing to the great strength of the Diseases, the ligaments that surround the joints. These may, however, sometimes happen, and we are by no means of Mr Blane's opinion, that the immense strength of the muscles in a horse would prove any obstacle to the complete reduction of such a luxation. If, indeed, we endeavoured to reduce the luxation by pulling and hauling at the luxated limb, in order to overcome the power of the muscles, and thus produce a counter extension, which is still, we believe, the method generally employed by surgeons to fet a dislocated limb in the human body, we shall most certainly be disappointed. But if, instead of this vain attempt, we place the limb in such a situation as that the power of those muscles which are the antagonists of the muscles that keep the limb in its dislocated place, may be fairly exerted, there will probably be little difficulty in replacing the bone in its socket, as the very strength of the muscles will assist us in the operation.

3. Lameness is very commonly the effect of tumours of the mucous bags or capsules, or of excrescences formed on the bones of the legs and feet, or on the hoof.

In most of the joints there are appendages or membranous bags, called bursae mucosae, or mucous bags, that are filled with a mucous fluid secreted into their cavities, for the purpose of afflicting the motions of the muscles and tendons near the joint. It often happens that these mucous capsules are enlarged, either from hard work, which is a very common cause of their enlargement, or from some injury done to the neighbouring parts. When the enlargement is but small, it is of little consequence, but when the bags become unusually distended, their size impedes the motion of the joints. These tumours have received different names among grooms and farriers, according to the place where they are seated.

Wind-galls. When the mucous bags that are situated near the paterns become enlarged, the tumours are called wind-galls.

Bog-spavin. When the enlargement takes place in the mucous bags on the inner side of the hock, the disease is called bog-spavin.

Thorough-pin. When the tumours are seated in the upper and back part of the hock, between the gemelli muscle and the tendons of the great flexor muscle of the foot, the affection is called thorough-pin.

When the swelling is situated at that part where the tendon of the gemelli muscles is inserted into the point of the hock, it is called capulet or capped hock.

Of all the various swellings, the wind-galls are the most likely to produce lameness, and next to them the bog-spavin. The capulet and thorough-pin are seldom of much consequence.

In the treatment of wind-galls and similar tumours, the object is to remove the unusual swelling, and to prevent its return. The swelling can be removed only by evacuating the contents of the tumour, or by promoting its absorption. The former was recommended by Dr Bracken, and appears to have been successful in a few cases. The tumour is opened with a sharp knife; and when the fluid has been evacuated, an echarotic substance composed of burnt alum, white vitriol, and red precipitate, is applied to the wound, to produce such a degree of inflammation as may contract its cavity. Probably firing would have a better effect. Mr Coleman and the alveus of the veterinary college, are much adverse to this operation, and certainly where it can be avoided it is not desirable. Absorption of the accumulated fluid may often be produced by the application of blisters, and other stimulating applications; but this is most certainly effected by producing pressure on the tumour, by means of a bandage applied round the part, with a bolster or compress immediately over the swelling. When the unusual enlargement has been reduced, its return is best prevented by firing the skin, so as to produce a considerable degree of contraction.

Horses are subject to various excrescences on the splints, bones, or exostoses, as they are called, which, when they form near the joints, or below the tendons of the muscles, generally produce lameness. These excrescences have received various names, according to their situation. When they are formed about some part of the knee or cannon bone, they are generally called splints, though farriers often call the excrescences at the knee effeteles; and when there are two small bony enlargements near each other, they are called fuszes. The excrescences at the knee are not very common, and when they occur, are generally the effect of a wound; but splints about the cannon bone are very common, especially among young horses, owing to the blood-vessels in them being larger in proportion to the absorbents than in old horses; and hence the deposition of bony matter may, in certain cases of injury, be greater than what the absorbents are able to take up again. These excrescences are easily produced in young horses, by any blow or other injury that is capable of producing considerable inflammation; as striking part of the cannon bone which is the usual seat of splints in what is called the speedy cut, or by producing unusual pressure on one side more than on the other. Although a splint may not be in the neighbourhood of any material tendon, it may still produce lameness by the pain which it excites; but when it interferes with a tendon, or some important ligament, lameness must in general be the consequence.

When an excrescence appears on any of the bones that enter into the formation of the hough, it is called vin Bone-spavin. It is most frequently found on the upper and inner part of the small metacarpal bone, or on some of the wedge-like bones on the inside of the hock. In the former situation it is often produced in consequence of the outer heel having been raised by calkins; and in what are called cat, cow, or flickle-hammed horses, it is often brought on by their natural deformity, though in these latter cases the excrescence is most commonly formed on the inside of the hock.

An excrescence situated on the back part of the hock towards its point, is called a curb. This is sometimes formed on the bone, but it is frequently only an unusual hardness and swelling of some of the ligaments.

When an exostosis forms on the lesser patern bone, Ring-bone, producing a hard swelling round the coronet, it is called a ring-bone. A deposition of bone over the lateral cartilages is sometimes also called by the same name.

The treatment of all these excrescences is much the same, and our object must be, either to excite the absorbent vessels to increased action, so as to remove the bony excrescence, or to take this away by means of an operation. The former of these is not likely to be successful, Diseases, except in the early stage of the complaint, when the bony matter is not completely hardened. If the excrescence be discovered in time, blisters are to be applied over the part, and repeated frequently, and strong mercurial ointment, or an ointment composed of corrosive sublimate and blistering ointment, is to be applied over the part, and gentle friction should be frequently employed on those parts of the limb that are above and below the swelling. By these means the excrescences may sometimes be removed; but when they have become too hard, these stimulating applications will scarcely excite the absorbents to sufficient action. The only method to which we can then have recourse is an operation long ago practiced by the old farriers, apparently with considerable success. The bony excrescence is laid bare, by making an incision through the integuments, and then the excrescence is cut off by means of a sharp chisel struck by a mallet. After this the skin is to be laid down over the part, and we are to endeavour to heal the wound as soon as possible, by sticking plaster and a proper bandage. Firing is much employed by the French for the removal of ring-bones and other excrescences. Mr Lawrence recommends that in firing a ring-bone, the instrument employed should be thinner than usual, and that the lines described should not be more than one-fourth of an inch distant from each other, being crossed obliquely like a chain.

Sometimes an inflammation takes place on the lower part of the hoof, between the sensitive and horny soles, or between the outer crust and the binders, producing a slight effusion of blood, and leaving a considerable tenderness in the part. When the hoof is examined, after being perfectly cleaned, there is commonly seen a discoloured spot, sometimes red, but more usually blue, or blackish, like what is seen below one's nail, when the finger is jammed. The affection is commonly called by farriers a corn. (In Scotland, we believe it is called a stone-crust), though it is by no means similar to a corn in the human foot. Horny excrescences which might properly be called corns, are sometimes however produced on the horse's hoof; and of this nature, we suppose, were the corns on the feet of Giefar's horse.

This complaint is always owing to an improper pressure on the horny sole, by which the sensitive sole is squeezed between it and the coffin bone. Hence a quantity of blood is effused from the vessels of the sensitive sole, which, if it remains for any length of time, produces an unusual tenderness in that part of the hoof. Corns are generally produced by shoes that are too hollow next the hoof, so as to allow a stone to get between the shoe and the sole, and thus press upon the latter; or it may be produced by the shoe being made too short or too narrow, and thus indenting itself upon the sole between the binders and the crust.

The best manner of treating a corn appears to be, to remove that part of the sole which is immediately below the seat of the affection with a drawing knife, taking care not to cut farther than the seat of the effused blood; then to insert a pledget dipped in tincture of myrrh, into the opening. No pressure must be applied upon the part, and a piece of the shoe opposite the corn should be cut out, to prevent pressure from taking place. The horse must be allowed to stand quiet, on a level surface, and must not be worked till the horny part of the sole that has been cut away shall be renewed; and even then it would be proper to turn him to grass for some time, without shoes, or with very small tips of iron at the toes.

4. Lameness may be produced by many injuries of the feet, brought on by hard work, bad shoeing, or other ill treatment.

When horses are ridden hard on pavement, or hard dry roads, especially if the frog has been pared down, or even the crust cut away too much in shoeing, the battering produced on the hoof frequently brings on an inflammation of the sensitive part within. This may happen also to cart horses made to draw heavy loads, under similar circumstances.

When the horse's hoof is not very delicate or tender, this battering sometimes only produces a stiffness, or swelling of the legs, and contraction of the sinews. This state is commonly called goggling, or a horse that has his feet thus battered, is said to be goggly.

If inflammation is excited within the hoof, a most Founder, painful species of lameness is produced commonly called founder, or the horse thus lamed is said to be foundered. The complaint is also called foot-founder, to distinguish it from a disease which we shall describe hereafter, and to which farriers sometimes give the name of body-founder. This inflammation may take place in any of the feet, or in all; but it is most commonly produced in the fore-feet: and as, from the pain which the horse experiences, he endeavours to throw as much as possible of his weight, upon his hind-feet, and appears unable to support himself on his fore-feet, he is said to be down before.

This complaint most commonly takes place in horses; but it may take place in cattle or sheep, brought on by hard driving, on hard stony roads, when sent to fairs, or markets. In these animals, however, the complaint seldom proceeds to such a height as in horses; and it is in them more easily relieved.

The symptoms of founder are thus described by Mr Feron. "Foundered horses have a general stiffness of the fore-hand, attended with a considerable acute pain of the joints, ligaments, and muscles, connected with it. The pain which the animal suffers on moving the joints, obliges him to keep the flexor muscles in a constant relaxed state, which position ultimately produces an entire debility and stiffness of every joint which composes the fore extremity of the animal. If the horse has been neglected, or the disease so rapid in its progress that it cannot be removed, the symptoms will increase so rapidly, that in a very little time we may observe the cuticular veins become turgid and varicose, similar to the lymphatic enlargement in farcy. In this state, exercise considerably increases the pain and violence of the symptoms, the animal falls off his food, his health becomes very much impaired, and a general decay of the whole limbs, particularly observable in the extensor muscles of the fore-arm, soon renders the animal useless for activity."

When the complaint affects the fore-feet, the horse throws his hind-feet as far forward as possible, which leads those who do not understand the nature of the complaint to suppose that the horse is affected with a weakness in his loins. When it is feated in the hind-feet the horse throws his body forwards, in order to relieve. lieve the hind-feet of their weight. In this case the horse is supposed to labour under an affection of the chest, which has been called chest-founder.

The complaint usually comes on very rapidly, and sometimes appears a few hours after hard riding, or after the application of other causes, that will immediately be mentioned.

It may be easily known that a horse is foundered, as he can scarcely walk on first coming out of the stable, and evidently labours under great pain. Like many other affections that produce lameness, the horse appears to be relieved by exercise, but this relief is only temporary; and exercise only tends to increase the disease.

Mr Feron says, that, on dissecting the feet of foundered horses, he has frequently found the membranes of the joints thicker than in their natural state, and sometimes a disposition to anchyloysis, or stiff joint; which in some of the joints was evidently observed.

The founder is very commonly produced by battering the hoofs on hard ground. It may be brought on by any causes, that are capable of exciting inflammation in the internal sensitive parts of the foot. It is frequently produced by washing the legs of a horse, while sweating; and according to Mr Feron this is so evident, that if we observe the horses belonging to public coaches, in whom this practice is very common, we shall see that fifteen out of twenty labour under the torture of this disease. Founder may also proceed from allowing the horse, while sweating and fatigued, to stand long in a cold, damp air.

In the treatment of founder, the great object is to remove the inflammation, which is best done by bleeding in the veins of the foot, and the application of blisters about the joints. The toe of the affected foot must be removed, and the toe of the crust may then be pared to the quick, in order to produce a discharge of blood from the vessels of the affected part. It will be proper to pare the whole of the crust as thin as possible, especially at the heels and quarters, in order to allow the frog to come in contact with the ground. Blisters are now to be applied round the fetlock, down to the foot. Mr Feron recommends immersing the feet in warm water 24 hours after blistering, keeping them there all day, and applying a large warm poultice of bran and water at night. Mr Blaine, on the other hand, advises the use of cold astringent lotions, as Goulard or sal ammoniac in vinegar. Sometimes the pain in the feet is so violent, that the horse can scarcely bear to support himself upon them, and indeed if he could remain quiet, it would be better to let him lie down. But if he proves restless, he may be partly supported by means of a sheet drawn round him, with its corners pulled up to the ceiling of the stable by pulleys, so as to let the horse's feet just touch the ground.

The horse must be kept rather low, and if the inflammation is very great, or if there is any fever, it will be proper to administer cooling remedies, such as the drenches marked 22 and 25 in the receipts. The belly must be kept moderately open, and all exercise must be avoided.

Sometimes after the inflammation has subsided, the lameness still continues. This may be owing to the formation of horny matter between the sensitive and horny sole. Mr Blaine recommends that this be removed by cutting away the horny sole; but we much doubt whether this operation would be attended with the desired effect.

Founder, properly so called, can take place only in those animals that have horny hoofs; but a similar affection not unfrequently occurs in the feet of hounds, dogs, after a long and fatiguing chase. It consists in an inflamed state of the feet, produced by long running, especially over hard or stony ground. When the dogs come home their feet are hurt and swelled, inflamed, and sometimes cracked or chapped. The dog evidently feels considerable pain, and if he lies down for a little, he can scarcely be made to rise again. Dogs in this state are said to be flubbed in the feet, and are often so much lamed, that they cannot be taken out again for some days.

When the inflammation is but slight, it requires but little attention, as the dog will himself allay the swelling and pain, by constant licking. When, however, the feet have been much bruised, the cracks pour out a bloody or purulent matter, and the case requires greater attention. The feet should first be bathed with warm water, and great care taken that no dirt or gravel be suffered to remain between the claws or in the cracks. After bathing, the feet may be rubbed with some digestive ointment, and a cold poultice composed of crumbs of bread well moistened with vinegar and water, should be tied round the affected foot.

The hoof of the horse frequently becomes lengthened, contracted, and contracted at the heels and quarters. This unnatural shape is commonly the effect of bad shoeing, by which the frog is deprived of the necessary pressure on the ground, and thus the heels are prevented from expanding, while the nails that are fixed in the quarters contribute to prevent expansion there, and thus the hoof is unnaturally lengthened at the toe. This contraction is considerably increased by the heat of ordinary stables; and by the evaporation that takes place from the hoof while the horse stands within doors, on account of the vacancy left below the frog, while the heels are elevated above the ground. Contraction of the hoof causes lameness, by producing an unnatural degree of pressure on the sensitive parts within, especially on the sensitive frog, which is not unfrequently inflamed in these cases.

The remedy for this defect is, to bring the frog gradually to press upon the ground, by lowering the heels; but as, in the very sensitive state to which the feet are commonly brought by contraction, it might be dangerous to apply pressure to the frog at once, it is advisable to lower the heels gradually, in the manner directed in No. 146. If the frog is much diseased, as sometimes happens, a bar shoe should be employed, by which means slight pressure may be made by fixing an iron plate from the heels of the shoe towards the toe. The best means of producing pressure in these cases would probably be to employ Mr Coleman's artificial frog. The upper part of the hoof should be rasped thin, especially at the quarters, as these parts of the hoof will then be more easily expanded by the motion of the lateral cartilages. The lower part of the hoof should also be kept moist, especially the frog.

Mr Blaine remarks, that dark-chestnut horses are more subject to contracted feet than others, and he relates a case of a mare belonging to himself, who had all her feet contracted. These he endeavoured to expand by Diseases by means of jointed shoes, furnished with a sliding bar, which was kept in its situation by means of pegs, so that in this way the heels of the shoe might be gradually widened, by moving the cross bar farther towards the toe. This method is very ingenious, but Mr Blaine acknowledges that it did not fully answer his purpose.

When the heels have been gradually lowered so far, that the frog can bear the proper pressure, the horse should continue to wear a thin-heeled shoe; but if he is not required to be worked, it would be better to fend him out to graze without shoes, where the pasture is not too dry.

It often happens in cases of contracted feet, and in some other cases, when the frog does not receive the due degree of pressure, that a running takes place from the cleft of the horny frog, occasioned by a degree of inflammation which is followed by a secretion of purulent matter. This complaint is commonly called a running thrush. While it extends no farther than the horny frog, it is seldom attended with any serious consequences; but if it be neglected, the matter extends through the horny to the sensitive frog and sensitive sole, and produces canker or quitter.

Some horses have naturally a running from the cleft of the frog; and so long as this is slight, and the parts are kept clean, it is of little consequence. We know there are some persons who conceive a slight running thrush, as rather beneficial to a horse, and do not esteem it as a mark of unkindness; but we cannot agree with these gentlemen in either particular, as, though the complaint does not in itself absolutely render a horse lame, so long as his feet are properly attended to, it will, if neglected, degenerate into a foul ulcer, the matter of which may easily penetrate into the internal parts of the foot. A running thrush is very commonly the consequence of bad grooming, and suffering dirt and gravel to lodge in the clefts of the frog, and it is still more frequently produced in the common method of shoeing, by cutting and paring away the frog.

In the treatment of a running thrush, the principal objects are, to remove the cause that first produced it, and to stop the discharge of purulent matter. The latter is easily effected by applying to the part some stimulating liniment. Mr Blaine recommends for this purpose a composition of two ounces of tar, with five drachms of vitriolic acid, which is to be applied hot every day, by pouring it into the cleft of the frog from a spoon. The discharge, though easily stopped in this way, will soon return, unless the proper degree of pressure be given to the frog; and this is to be brought about by proper attention to shoeing the horse with thin-heeled shoes, taking care that the heels be lowered gradually, and slight artificial pressure be made on the frog, till it is become sufficiently healthy to bear the natural pressure of the ground.

When the matter of a running thrush infatuates itself upwards to the sensitive parts of the foot, it forms what is called canker, in which there is a considerable inflammation, producing a luxuriant unhealthy fungus, springing up from all the diseased surface that is exposed, and producing a great degree of tenderness, and what may be called a rottenness of the hoof. If this disease continues for any considerable time, it attacks the whole substance of the foot, extending to the tendons, ligaments, and bones, till at last the foot may absolutely drop off with disease. Mr Coleman considers canker as generally the effect of too much moisture applied to the foot or hoof.

To check the progress of a canker, the whole of the excrement that appears on the external part of the hoof, is to be cut away close to the surface from which it springs, and such parts of the horny sole as appear to be detached from the sensitive sole, should be removed, to prevent the matter from lodging in the internal parts. When the diseased part is fairly exposed to view, it is to be washed with a solution of some metallic caustic, such as nitrate of mercury, No. 49 of the receipts, or a solution of lunar caustic, in the proportion of a drachm to two ounces of soft water. This is best applied by moistening a pledget of lint or tow, and confining this upon the cankered surface, by applying a regular pressure by means of cross bars of iron introduced beneath the shoe. A continuance of these applications, while the frog is gradually exposed to pressure, will in general soon stop the progress of the disease, and when this is removed, the horny parts of the hoof that had been cut away will be gradually removed; and by shoeing the horse properly afterwards, the disease will be prevented from returning.

Cattle and sheep are subject to a disease very similar to canker in the horse, producing a discharge of fetid matter from between the claws of the hoof, or sometimes from only one claw.

This affection in cattle is commonly called the foul, or the cattle are said to be foul in the foot. Managers of cattle commonly divide this disease into two kinds, the foul, and the horny, which are said to require different modes of treatment. In the foul, a running of very offensive matter takes place from the heels, or between the claws of the hoof; and the animal appears exceedingly lame. The treatment in this case consists in cutting away all the soft and spongy parts, and then applying a caustic liquid, such as will presently be described, for the foot-rot in sheep. The parts are then to be covered with a pledget spread with mild ointment, or, what is very common among farmers, a piece of fat bacon may be wrapped round the part, tied on the foot, and suffered to remain for two or three days. In the mean time the animal should stand very clean, and be allowed to rest as much as possible.

The horny foul seems to be very analogous to corns in horses. The animal is very lame, and, on examining the foot, the hoof feels very hot, and, when hard pressed, the beast evidently feels much pain. There will commonly be found some part of the horn penetrating into the softer parts of the foot, either at the heel, or between the hoofs. In the treatment it is necessary to cut away these parts of the horn, as well as any part under which there appears much inflammation. For this purpose, it will probably be necessary to castrate the animal, but care should be taken that he be thrown on a soft place. After the hoof has been pared away, a rag moistened with vinegar and water should be tied on, and the animal must be sent to graze in a soft smooth pasture. If the inflammation and pain are very great, it may be necessary to bleed from the veins of the foot.

Foot-rot in sheep is called the foot-root, and is generally produced by their being kept on a wet soil. It is remarkable that salt marshes do not produce it. According to Mr Lawrence, frequent travelling to and from the fold, or by fiddling ewes from the hot dung of a sheep-house, will occasion it. Some are of opinion, that it originates from the same cause which occasions chilblains in the human feet; and this opinion is maintained in the essay on the diseases of sheep, affixed to Mr Findlater's Survey of Peebles, where it is stated, that the remote cause of the disease is weakness, and the immediate cause cause cold and wet, as standing in cold weather upon wet pastures, with the feet constantly soaked in water. Dr Wilkinson of Enfield considers moisture as the predisposing cause, and has found the disease to be produced from the sheep continuing in long grails during a mild winter. The same cause generally, although perhaps gradually, operates upon the whole flock, and then it has been supposed that the disease is contagious. The late Lord Somerville had a piece of pasture which always produced the foot-rot on any sheep that were put into it; but the disease was entirely prevented or rooted out by a careful selection of the sheep in order, by paring the hoofs of those that began to be affected, and by the use of caustics not too corrosive. These appeared to be the most proper means of stopping the complaint, and the best caustic application is said to be the nitrate of mercury. It is evident, that, during the application, the hoofs of the sheep should be kept as clean as possible. Whether its greater or less prevalence depends on the less or greater attention paid to the sheep, is not perhaps fully ascertained. It is, however, certain that the sheep of some districts are entirely free from it. We are informed, that in Tweeddale the complaint is scarcely known.

There is a disease in the horse's foot, in which the coffin-bone is forced backwards, and made to press unnaturally upon the heels, by which its edges being subjected to unusual pressure, become partly absorbed. Hence this bone losing its support, becomes pressed in its concave part, where inflammation is produced, and bony matter is thrown out, rendering the lower part of the coffin-bone convex instead of concave, and the sole is rendered unusually thin. This disease is called pumiced feet, and may be brought on in three ways; from improper shoeing, from inflammation, as in case of founders, and from a natural defect in the foot itself. It is said to be very common in wet soils. It is very commonly produced by applying the shoe red-hot to the horse's foot. Its immediate cause appears to be an inflammation of the sensitive laminae, by which a quantity of coagulated lymph or of bony matter is thrown out, that forces back the coffin-bone in the manner above described. When the disease is completely formed, it does not appear capable of being radically cured, but only admits of palliation. Mr Blaine recommends, that the growth of the sole should be encouraged by every means, but the foot should not be kept improperly moist. The best means would be, the turning the horse out without shoes in a dry pasture. No part of the heels or sole should be removed in this case, as the parts are already too slight. A shoe should be formed, if possible, that presents a hollow surface to the foot, and a plain one to the ground. This may be done, by making it of rather an increased thickness, which will admit of its being hollowed within, and bevelled from the outer to the inner edge of the web.

Sometimes perpendicular fissures or cracks are seen in the hoof extending between the fibres in a parallel direction from above downwards. These are called sand-cracks, and generally take place near the quarter, more frequently on the outer than the inner side, and oftener in the fore than the hind foot. These cracks sometimes come on suddenly, and then generally denote a contraction of the hoof. They are also said to have arisen from a wound in the vessel or part of the coronary ligament, bringing on a secretion of horny matter, which gets between the fibres of the hoof, and causes them to separate.

The means of preventing the crack from extending, are to thin the hoof where the crack has taken place as much as possible, and to make a transverse section a little way across at the upper part. If the crack should still continue to gape, it must be carefully covered, and the hoof bound round, so as to close it as much as may be, and the portion of the crust that rests on the shoe should be chambered away a little, by which means the divided parts will be more likely to come together.

When a wound has been inflicted on the coronet, the coronary ligament commonly becomes injured, and its vascular part does not secrete so much bony matter as usual. Hence there is a space left between the old horny matter of the hoof, and the new that is formed from other parts; and this produces what is commonly called a false quarter. A false quarter may also be produced, in consequence of a quitter extending upwards through the coronet. As the sensitive laminae within the hoof are liable to be pressed in this vacant space between the horny edges, thus causing violent pain, the false quarter is attended with a lameness of the worst kind; for as this interference of the lamina sometimes takes place suddenly, while the animal is in motion, the pain makes him shrink, and he not unfrequently comes down.

The only way of remedying this defect is, to excite such an action in the coronary ligament as may dispose it to throw out new horny matter, and thus fill up the vacant space. This is best effected by removing the surrounding horn, and applying blisters to the coronet, while the part of the hoof that is opposed to the shoe should be hollowed away as much as possible, to admit of the separated parts approaching each other.

When a horse in motion, especially in trotting, brings Cutting one foot so near another as to interfere, and thereby graze or wound one of the feet, he is said to cut. Sometimes the feet of a horse are in this way feverishly wounded, and temporary lameness is produced. In cutting, the horse may either wound the heels of the fore feet, with the toe, or side of the hind shoe, which is the most common case; or he may wound the fore part of the hind-foot, just above the hoof, by striking it against the heel of the fore shoe; or, lastly, he may bring two of the feet so closely together, as to wound the inner side of either.

Cutting may arise from a bad habit, or from a natural deformity of the feet, but it is very commonly the consequence of bad shoeing. When horses cut from turning out their toes, which is by much the most common cause, they are observed to have the inner quarter of the hoof lower than the outer, and the fetlock joints are thus nearer each other than those of horses which have their limbs straight. These facts led farriers to a conclusion, that if the inner quarters were raised to a level with the outer, and especially if made even even higher, the fetlock joints would be thrown further apart, so that the foot would pass the supporting leg without striking; Accordingly, it has been usual to make the inner quarter of the shoe higher than the outer, and this has been the common practice for a long time. Mr Morecroft, by making trial of a shoe, of a shape the reverse of what we have described, namely, having the outer quarter thick, and the inner thin, completely prevented cutting in the horse, on whom those shoes were tried, and the utility of the improvement has been confirmed by succeeding trials. According to Mr Blaine, the principle on which this is supposed to act is, that when a horse is at rest, he supports his weight equally on both feet; but, having his inner quarter much raised, in the common mode of attempting to remedy the defect of cutting, when one foot is elevated he must be supported obliquely on the other, and hence have a tendency to fall outwards; to prevent which he brings the moving foot nearer the supporting one, by which he strikes it. Considering it in this point of view, it is not difficult to account for our author's mode of reasoning on his method, which, by elevating the outer instead of the inner side of the supporting foot, must necessarily give it a disposition to lean inwards, and fall to the inside, which will throw the moving further from the supporting foot. But, ingenious as this mode of reasoning may be, it is to be feared, that by thus throwing an increase of weight on the inner side, we shall sometimes be in danger of producing evils, that will counterbalance the prevention of cutting.

Lameness may be produced by any one of the causes that we have mentioned, but it may happen that a combination of two or more of these causes takes place at the same time in different parts of the same limb: thus the foot may be pricked with a nail, and a strain may take place, nearly at the same time, in the sinews of the leg, or the ligaments of the joints; for the pain excited by the nail first makes the horse trip or stumble, and then, his making a sudden exertion to save himself, or ease the pricked foot, a strain of the ligaments or sinews frequently takes place. A similar complication is often produced in a horse that is affected with spavin, or other bony excrecences, as his exertion to save the limb that feels painful from the rubbing of the muscles or tendons against the spavin, may produce a severe strain in the muscles of the shoulder.

As the causes of lameness are so various, and the real seat of it frequently very obscure, a practitioner should be extremely cautious how he gives a decisive opinion with respect to either, before he has well examined the parts where lameness may take place, and enquired into every circumstance that may assist him in forming his opinion. For want of such precaution, and from a superficial examination of the part that is supposed to be the seat of the affection, egregious blunders and dangerous mistakes are not unfrequently committed, and applications have been made to parts that are really found, when it is afterwards discovered, to the confusion of the practitioner, that the real cause of the lameness was in a different place. Nothing is more common than for ordinary farriers to apply their liniments and embrocations to the shoulder, when in fact the affection that causes the lameness is located in the feet.

As, perhaps, in nine cases out of ten, the foot is the part that has received the injury, this should first be examined with the strictest attention, the hoof should be made perfectly clean, especially in its under surface, to see whether there be any crack or fissure, any discolouration, any particular heat, &c. The pastern and all round the coronet should be also carefully inspected; and, if nothing is found, the examination should be repeated next day, or even a third time. The foot is more particularly to be suspected of being the seat of the complaint, when the lameness makes its appearance soon after the horse has been shod, or has had his hooves fastened; as the foot may be lamed by a nail in floeing, though the point of the nail has not penetrated to the quick. The nail may be so thick, or may pass near the quick, as to press in a small part of the hoof upon the soft parts, thus producing exquisite pain, and perhaps inflammation. It is therefore proper always to remove the shoe from the foot of the affected limb, and if the cause of lameness is not very evident to wait a few days, to see whether the removal of the shoe has produced any alteration for the better.

No certain rule can be laid down for judging of the seat of lameness from the motion of the affected limb, though this is considered by some as one of the surest marks. The deranged motion in one part of the limb very commonly arises from sympathy with another part that is the real seat of the affection.

We have now, we believe, mentioned all the important cases of lameness, except the firing-halt, or click-spavin. This is an affection of the hind quarters, producing a sudden jerking of the legs upwards, when the horse attempts to move. It appears to be a nervous affection, and seems to be somewhat analogous to the chorea, or St Vitus's dance, in children. We do not know that this affection has ever been cured, but it is said that it may be palliated by allowing the horse to run much at large, and letting him remain untied in a large stable. Mr Lawrence recommends that, after a hard day's work, both hind legs be immersed in a warm bath up to the hocks, and kept there as long as the water continues warm, when they are to be rubbed perfectly dry, and the same bath and rubbing repeated in the morning. He also advises anointing the back sinews, and about the hocks, with strong camphorated ointment.

We have occasionally, in this and the preceding chapters, spoken of abscesses and ulcers, and their treatment; and we can add little here on that subject, as it will be fully treated of in the article Surgery; and the instructions to be there laid down will apply nearly as properly to the inferior animals as to man. We may just remark, that foul ulcers, and such as do not heal kindly, are perhaps more common in some of the inferior animals than in man; and hence they require in the former applications of a more stimulating nature, to excite a proper degree of healthy action in the ulcerated part. There are a few particular ulcers which call for consideration in this article, and we cannot, perhaps, treat of them in any part of the treatise more properly than under the morbid affections of motion.

There sometimes takes place an inflammation, and consequent suppuration in the mucous capsules, at the articulation of the head with the first vertebra of the neck, near the insertion of the cervical ligament. This affection is commonly called the poll-evil. It is almost always Diseases. always the consequence of an injury done to the back of the head, by a horse's hanging back in his collar, by striking his head against the rack or manger; and is very frequently produced by a blow given on the head by brutal coachmen or carters. An ulcer in this part is often very difficult to heal, and when it extends beyond the skin, the matter sometimes infuses itself below the ligament of the neck, and on each side of it, and it not unfrequently produces a caries or rottenness of the vertebrae. The cure of the poll-evil is most easily effected when the inflammation is first discovered, before suppuration takes place; as, when once matter is formed, it commonly produces sinuses in the loose cellular substance about that part of the head, and these are not easily healed. When, therefore, we have reason to suppose that inflammation has begun in the skin of this part of the neck, every means must be employed to prevent its progress towards suppuration. A blister should be immediately applied over the part, and when this has done its duty, a solution of sal ammoniac in vinegar, or vinegar and water, should be applied by means of a cloth kept constantly wet. If a suppuration appears inevitable, it must be encouraged by fomenting the part frequently with warm water, or by the repeated application of warm poultices; and when the swelling appears sufficiently ripe, it must be opened, which is best done by introducing a feton from the highest to the most depending part of the tumour, as directed in No. 173. The cord of the feton must be examined every day, wiped dry, and rubbed with a little digestive ointment, and the sore should be carefully excluded from the air.

If the suppuration has proceeded any length, before it is discovered, there will probably be a number of sinuses, or pipes, as they are called, with matter lodging in each. If it can be easily effected, it would be proper to lay these open, and make them communicate with each other, or, if their direction can be ascertained, a feton may be passed through each. When a proper opening has been made for the matter, and care taken that none of it lodges, the sore will soon heal, by the application of the proper stimulating ointments.

It is sometimes necessary to employ the knife in this case; but when this is done, the greatest care should be taken not to wound the ligament, or, as the farriers call it, the fix-fax of the neck. The best method of avoiding this is, to have the animal's head fastened very high to the rack, by which the ligament will be more slack, and the finger can be easily introduced below it, so as to be a guide to the knife.

We mentioned in No. 341, the chafing of the back with the saddle. There is another injury of a similar kind, that is often suffered by the withers, from the saddle being allowed to press on them too long. This pressure and rubbing sometimes produces an inflammatory swelling, which, if it be not soon discovered, goes on to suppuration, and produces a sore which farriers call fistulous withers, or a fistula in the withers. This is also a very troublesome ulcer, as the matter sometimes penetrates below the shoulder, and makes its way down the bones of the fore leg; or, by infusing itself among the vertebrae of the back, renders them carious. The treatment in this case is much the same as in the last; the inflammation should be disinfected as soon as possible, and if matter forms, it should be evacuated by means of fetons. It is frequently required to pass a feton through the tumour on each side of the withers, in order to produce a proper inclination of the orifice, to carry off the matter. When sinuses form, they must be opened, as in the case of poll-evil.

There is sometimes a species of ill-disposed ulcers in the external part of the ears of dogs, very difficult to heal. It is generally called conker. These, when they heal, leave hardened edges, which frequently break out again in the course of a few months. The best application in this case is lunar caustic applied to the edges, to encourage them to slough off; but if this should not be found sufficient, the best remedy will be to tear off the diseased parts with a red-hot knife, or they may be cut off by a simple incision.

Chap. III. Morbid Affections of Digestion.

In order that the food may be well digested, when received into the stomach, it is necessary that it undergo the previous operation of chewing; unless it be of such a nature, as to be easily soluble in the gastric juice, without this previous preparation. The latter is the case only with dogs, whose food consisting almost entirely of animal matter, requires little or no chewing. But the food of horses, sheep, and cattle in general, requires to be well chewed, either when first swallowed, or in sheep and cattle by subsequent rumination.

The mouth in these animals is sometimes swollen, sore-mouths or otherwise affected with sores or cracks, that it is with difficulty the animals can chew their food. Sometimes there are bloody chinks or chops in the palate, occasioned by thistles or other prickly plants, which are mixed with the hay, or grow up among the grass. These should be washed on their first appearance with salt and vinegar, applied by means of a rag tied to a stick. If neglected, these chops frequently become inflamed and ulcerated. If pimples arise, they must be opened when they begin to suppurate, by means of a pointed cautery. There are sometimes found within-side the lip of cart horses and other ordinary cattle, soft tumours, or pustules with black heads, which are called giggers, bladders, or flips in the mouth. They do not always occasion much inconvenience, but sometimes they grow to a large size, so as to grow troublesome, and prevent chewing. When this is the case, they must be removed, either by fattening a thread about their roots, as directed in the treatment of warts, where they are of such a form as to admit of a ligature; or by the knife, applying afterwards the hot iron or cautery. In performing this operation, care must be taken to draw the tongue to one side, so that it may not be wounded. After removing these excrescences with the knife and cautery, the mouth may be washed with a solution of white vitriol or alum. Excrescences of a similar kind, called barbs or paps, sometimes grow below the tongue, and must be removed where practicable by means of ligature, as it is dangerous to employ the knife. When these excrescences are neglected, there sometimes arise in the mouth little ulcers with white specks, very similar to the aphthous crusts that form in the human mouth. It is recommended by some writers to use the cautery on these occasions; but probably a detergent lotion, such as we have just recommended, will answer the purpose of removing them. The mouth or tongue of horses sometimes wounded with the bit or curb. When this happens, a lotion made with alum dissolved in water, and sweetened with honey, may be employed; and the bit should not be used again till the mouth is healed.

Many veterinary writers have described the disease in the horse's mouth called the lampas, which is stated to be an inflammation and swelling of the first bar of the mouth in a young horse, so as to prevent his chewing. We believe that Lafaute and Dr Brecken were the first to deny the existence of such a complaint, which is now generally discredited among most of our modern writers. We have no doubt that such a swelling may take place; but it can scarcely be attended with the ill consequences commonly attributed to it, or require such vigorous treatment as is usually recommended.

It may happen, that any of these animals shall have a difficulty of swallowing, from various causes; either from an unusual narrowness in the gullet, or from the morse attempted to be swallowed being too large. The latter very frequently happens to cattle who are fed upon turnips or potatoes; and the choking thus produced sometimes proves very dangerous, as, if the obstruction is not speedily removed, the animal will die for want of breath. The method commonly employed among country farmers for unchoaking cattle, as they term it, is to thrust down the throat a large stiff rope, ravelled at the end, and well greased. This often succeeds, but it is a clumsy method; and if the rope, by having been long used, or becoming dry, should lose its stiffness, it will be bent in endeavouring to force down the obstruction; or, if the ravelled end be not pretty large, or the obstructing morse of an irregular shape, the rope may pass between the side of the gullet and the obstruction, without this being removed. Several intelligent farmers have therefore laid aside the use of the rope, and have contrived an instrument similar to the probang employed by surgeons. An instrument of this kind has been already mentioned, in the description of Mr Hunter's feeding byre in No. 236. An account of one that appears to us to be more useful and ingenious, has been communicated to us by the reverend Charles Findlater, minister of Newlands in Tweeddale. It is the contrivance of Mr Charles Alexander, a farmer in Mr Findlater's neighbourhood, and has long been employed by him for the purpose of relieving choked cattle. The following is Mr Alexander's construction of his instrument, as politely described to us by Mr Findlater.

Take three small canes, of the thickness of the little finger, or thereabouts, of the length of 5 feet, that they may reach down the throat, and into the stomach of the largest ox. These canes are to be bound together by strong smooth twine rolled tightly about them (the circles of the twine touching each other), from top to bottom. Bees wax is then to be rubbed along the twine, to fill up any inequalities, and the whole rod is to be well oiled before it is used. There is a round knob at each end, the larger 2½ inches in diameter for larger cattle; the other less for lesser cattle. These knobs are formed of the twine rolled hard, and when formed may be strengthened in their position, by being sewed by means of a shoemaker's awl or brog, and a waxed bristle thread, such as they employ. The thread knobs are made tapering up the canes from their broad extremity; but it must be remarked that the surface of this extremity is not rounded like a clue, but hollowed into the form of a cup. The intention of this hollowed form is, to make certain of catching hold of the obstructing body; as, if the knob was round, it might pass by it. After the knobs are formed, they are covered with soft leather, which by its flexibility will adapt itself to the hollow end of the knob as soon as it reaches an obstacle. The knobs must be securely fixed to the canes, for if they fall off, they leave an indigestible substance in the stomach. Such is Mr Alexander's probang, the only improvements on which that we would advise are, to make the knobs of sponge, firmly fastened to the canes, by passing twine through holes bored in them, and adding at each end two or three bights of twine, for the purpose of catching hold of any obstacle, thus making the instrument almost exactly like a surgeon's probang. We think the sponge preferable to the twine, as it will not be so liable to injure the animal's throat by its hardness, will adapt itself more readily to the form of the obstacle, and may be more firmly fixed to the canes.

When cattle are put into a field of young clover, or rich grass, especially if they have previously been kept over-fed on poor or dry fodder, they are apt to eat voraciously or fog of their new repast, and the young succulent food, when sickened, received into the stomach, soon ferments, and produces such a quantity of air, as to swell the stomach to a violent and dangerous degree. Cattle thus affected are said to be over-fed, hove, or blown; or the affection of the stomach thus produced, is called over-feeding, or sometimes fog-ficking. If not speedily relieved, the animal's stomach not unfrequently bursts, from the inability to evacuate the accumulated air; for there seems, in these cases, to be a constriction of the gullet, so that the air cannot escape upwards, while the number of stomachs, and the spasmodic contraction produced by the unusual diffusion, prevents its passage by the anus.

The necessity of speedily relieving the animal, prompted the employment of what must at first have been considered as a very desperate remedy; namely, stabbing the animal. An opening is made with a sharp penknife into the paunch, in the thin part between the last rib and the huckle bone; and through this the air rapidly escapes. Sometimes the barrel of a quill is inserted into the wound, to prevent its closing before all the air that is produced during the fermentation of the food, has escaped.

Stabbing the animal, is a remedy that should not be had recourse to, but on the most urgent necessity; as the wound can seldom be made with such nicety as not to wound some important organ, especially some large blood-vessel. Indeed frequently the diffusion of the stomach, and consequently of the skin and muscles of the belly, is so great, that the moment the knife is introduced, a dreadful rent takes place, producing such a wound, as may be attended with fatal consequences.

Happily this operation is not often necessary, as it is found that the administration of some internal stimulating medicines will check the fermentation of the green fodder, and promote the absorption of the extracted air. Many farmers have for some time given tar with this intention, administering an egg shell full to each beast; of late, however, the use of ardent spirits has been introduced, and it is found that a pint or mutchkin of of whisky or gin, mixed with an equal quantity of water, is the most efficacious remedy. Laudanum has also been recommended, but probably it is not superior to common spirits (D).

It has been the practice with some farmers, to introduce on these occasions, the common rope employed in cases of choking, into the stomach, and move it up and down, so as to produce a gradual evacuation of the air; but we should suppose that the evacuation produced in this way must be extremely slow.

Dr Monro senior, professor of anatomy in the university of Edinburgh, some years ago contrived an elastic tube, that might be introduced down the throat into the stomach of the animal, and thus speedily and effectually evacuate the air. A description of this instrument, and the manner of employing it, appeared in an Edinburgh newspaper, we believe, with the doctor's authority. It has since been published in a popular treatise on the diseases of black cattle, entitled "Rowlin's Complete Cow-Doctor," from which we have taken it.

The doctor begins by observing, that the swelling of the belly is owing to the distention of the stomachs by fixed air, disengaged from the succulent grass in consequence of fermentation, the discharge of which by the mouth seems to be prevented by spasmodic contraction of the upper orifice of the stomach. He concludes that the cattle may with certainty be saved, if the air be drawn off in due time, without injuring the stomach and bowels; and he affirms that this may be done with great ease by passing a flexible tube down the gullet into the stomach.

The tube is to be composed of iron wire, as large as a common stocking wire, or about one sixteenth part of an inch diameter, twisted round a smooth iron rod, three eighths of an inch diameter, in order to give it a cylindrical form; and after taking it off the rod, it is to be covered with smooth leather.

To the end of the tube, which is intended to be passed into the stomach, a brass pipe, two inches long, of the same size as the tube, and pierced with a number of large holes, is to be firmly connected.

To prevent the tube from bending too much, within the mouth or gullet, in time of passing it down into the stomach, an iron wire, one eighth of an inch diameter, and of the same length as the tube, is put within it, which is to be withdrawn, when the tube has entered the stomach.

He has found that the space from the fore teeth of the under jaw, to the bottom of the first stomach of a large ox, measures about five feet, and he has passed such a tube, five feet and nine inches long into the gullet and stomach of a living ox. The tube ought therefore to be five feet long, that we may be sure of its answering in the largest oxen.

After the tube is passed into the stomach, it may be allowed to remain for any length of time; as when it is pressed to one side of the throat, it does not intercept the breathing of the animal. The greatest part of the elastic and condensed fixed air, will be readily discharged through the tube; and if it be thought necessary, the remainder of it, or the superfluous drink, may be sucked out, by a bellows fixed to the upper end of the tube, with a couple of valves, one at its muzzle, and the other at the side of it, so disposed as to allow the air to pass in the direction from the stomach upwards.

By means of such a tube, the air is not only more certainly discharged than by stabbing the animal; but the dangers avoided which the stabbing occasions, not so much by the irritation which the wound creates, as that the air, and the other contents of the stomach, getting into the cavity of the belly, between the containing parts and the bowels, excite such a degree of inflammation as frequently proves fatal to the animal. This tube may be also useful for the purpose of introducing stimulant medicines into the stomach, when the contraction at the upper orifice would prevent their being given without some such contrivance.

An instrument of this kind is sold in London, at Macdougall's, No. 15, Great Wind-Mill Street. It should be made of various sizes, for sheep, as well as cattle. According to Mr Blaine, Mr Eagles of Graffham farm, near Guildford, has simplified this mode of relief much, by the invention of an instrument, for which he was rewarded by the Society for the encouragement of Arts, with fifty guineas. This is simply a cane of considerable diameter, and five feet in length for oxen; to which is affixed a knob of wood, at the end to be introduced into the stomach. That for sheep is considerably smaller, and three feet long. This instrument, for its simplicity, is much to be preferred, as it is found to occasion the evacuation of the air as effectually as the other. In cases of emergency, and in a judicious hand, the flexible part of a common cart whip might answer the end.

Flatulence may be produced in horses, by eating greedily of rich food, to which they have been unaccustomed, or after having fasted long; especially if they drink much water immediately after. A horse in this state should not be taken out to work, as, from the distention of the stomach, there is danger of injuring the horse's wind, or even in some cases of bursting the stomach. If the distention has not proceeded to a great length, and if the horse is not colicive, gentle friction on the belly, and administering a ball made of some of the cordial seeds, will generally procure relief; but if the complaint proceeds to a great height, and there is gripping pain, attended with coliciveness, it becomes a case of flatulent colic; the descriptions and treatment of which will be considered in the next section.

When this flatulence comes to a great height, it affects the disease that is commonly called acute indigestion. It very commonly arises from the horse eating voraciously, after having been kept without food for many hours; especially if the food then given him be of a flatulent kind, such as grains or draft, young sweet grass, clover, or the like. The horse's stomach being naturally small, is easily distended by an unusual quantity of food, or by the air disengaged from such as easily runs into fermentation. Hence arise swelling and tightness of the stomach, and acute pain. The horse discontinues eating,

(D) The use of spirits in these cases was, we believe, first introduced by Dr Whytt of Edinburgh, who was in the habit of administering a pint (mutchkin) of gin on these occasions. Diseases eating, holds out his head, and appears exceedingly defrefted; he looks anxiously and mournfully at his side, stamps with his feet, and breaks out into cold sweat. If he is not soon relieved, the head becomes affected, and there appear evident marks of preflure on the brain. Symptoms very similar to those of flaggers follow, and the horse commonly dies apopleptic, or the stomach bursts.

As this affection is so dangerous, immediate relief is necessary. Stimulant medicines, such as are called car- minatives, as oil of anifeeds, effence of peppermint, or oil of turpentine, should be immediately admini- stered; and if there appears much determination of blood to the head, which may be known by a swelling and heaviness of the eyes, and the violent throbbing of the arteries of the temples, it will be necessary to draw blood pretty largely by opening one of these arteries. If the horse is bound in the belly, he must be raked, and have a strong purgative clyster with some aromatic substance in it, as anifeeds, or caraway seeds.

All these animals may occasionally swallow poison, and the treatment in these cases must depend in a great measure on the nature of the poisonous substance, where this can be ascertained. It is seldom that a horse, cow, or sheep is poisoned; but in the dog, this may frequently happen, either from accidents, or design. Dogs often pick up nux vomica, (which is the poison mostly used by warreners,) and which usually causes convulsive fits, and soon kills. Apply immediately the following reme- dy. As much common salt as can be got down; hold the head upwards, and force open the mouth, and by fixing a stick across, prevent its shutting, whilst the throat is filled with salt; a sufficient quantity to purge and vomit will soon dissolve, and be swallowed; the stomach once cleared by a free passage obtained by stool, warm broth should frequently be given to prevent the faintness which might otherwise prove fatal. Two table spoonsfuls of eufor oil, added to the salt, would very much accelerate its action downwards.*

Arsenic is frequently given to dogs by design, or it may be picked up by them in places where it has been laid for rats. If the accident is discovered soon, the dog may sometimes be recovered by giving him a vomit of white vitriol, and drenching him well with sweet oil and milk; and when most of the poison ap- pears to have been thrown up, the rest may probably be rendered harmless by repeated doses of liver of sul- phur.

If a horse is poisoned, the danger is very great, as from his inability to vomit, the stomach cannot be clear- ed of the poison. But fortunately this accident scarcely ever happens; as arsenic, the most common poisonous substance, will produce little effect on the horse, unless given in a very large dose.

The stomach and bowels of all these animals may be infected by worms, but they are most common in the horse and dog.

The worms that most commonly infect the horse are what are commonly called the bots. They are not pro- perly worms, but are the larvae of several species of the Oefirus or Gadfly mentioned in No. 337.

The horse is attacked by 2 or 3 species of Oefirus, but more especially by the Oe. equi, which deposits its eggs in such a manner as that they shall be received into the animal's stomach, where they form the bots.

The method pursued by the parent fly, in order to lay its eggs in the most favourable situation for being received into the stomach of the horse, is extremely curious. It is thus related by Mr. Bracey Clark, who appears to have witnessed the process.

"When the female has been impregnated, and the eggs are sufficiently matured, she seeks among the horses' a subject for her purpose, and approaching it on the wing, she holds her body nearly upright in the air, and her tail, which is lengthened for the purpose, carried in- wards and upwards. In this way she approaches the part where she designs to deposit the egg, and suspending herself for a few seconds before it, suddenly darts upon it, and leaves the egg adhering to the hair, by means of a glutinous liquor secreted with it. She then leaves the horse at a small distance, and prepares a second egg, and poising herself before the part, deposits it in the same way. The liquor dries, and the egg becomes firmly glued to the hair. This is repeated by various flies, till four or five hundred eggs are sometimes de- posited on one horse. The skin of the horse is always thrown into a tremulous motion on the touch of this insect, arising from the very great irritability of the skin and muscles at that season of the year, occasioned by the continual teasing of the flies. The inside of the knee is the part on which these flies seem to prefer depositing their eggs, and next to this the side, and back part of the shoulder. It is curious that these parts are what are most exposed to be licked by the animal. In licking, the eggs adhere to the animal's tongue, and are carried into the stomach with the saliva.

"The bots attach themselves to every part of the horse's stomach, but are usually more numerous about its farther orifice, and are sometimes, though less frequently, found in the bowels. Their number varies considera- bly; sometimes there are not above half a dozen; at others they exceed 100. They most usually hang in clusters, fixed by the small end to the inner membrane of the stomach, to which they adhere by means of two small hooks.

"The body of the larva is composed of eleven seg- ments, all of which, except the two last, are surrounded with a double row of horny bristles, directed towards the truncated end, and are of a reddish colour, except the points, which are black. These larvae evidently receive their food at the small end by a longitudinal aperture which is situated between the two hooks or tentacula. The lips of this aperture appear somewhat hard, horny, and irregular.

"Their food is probably the chyle, which, being nearly pure aliment, may go wholly to the composition of their bodies without any excrementitious residue, though on dissection the intestine is found to contain a yellow or greenish matter, which is derived from the colour of their food, and shows that the chyle as they receive it is not perfectly pure.

"The growth of their growth and the purity of their food must occasion, what they receive in a given time to be proportionally small; from which probably arises the extreme difficulty there is found in destroying them by any medicine or poison thrown into the stomach. After opium had been administered to a horse labouring under a case of locked jaw for a week, in doses of one ounce every day, on the death of the animal I have found the bots in the stomach perfectly alive. Tobacco has been employed in much larger quantities in the same complaint, and has been also longer continued, without destroying them. They are also but rarely affected by the draff purgatives, which bring away in abundance the Tenia and Ascarides."

Mr Clark does not apprehend they are so very injurious to the horses as is generally conceived. When removed from the stomach a deep impression remains where they adhered, but whether they ever irritate it so as to bring on a fatal spasm of the stomach itself, or of the pylorus, or, by collecting round this passage, prevent the food from entering the intestine, has never been investigated with sufficient accuracy. The ignorant surmise of farriers on opening the stomach after death, and being presented with so singular an appearance as the bots, has without doubt very often occasioned the death to be attributed to these, though it is certain but few horses on our commons can escape them.

Infantiles have occurred of violent inflammation excited in the stomach by the bots. An example of this is related by Mr James Clark. He was once desired by a farrier in the neighbourhood who was indisposed, to visit a horse that had been a patient of his for some days, and report the situation he was in. When Mr Clark entered the stable, the servant was giving the horse a drink, which he was afterwards informed was composed of an infusion of linseed, in which was dissolved one ounce of nitre, with honey to sweeten it; and in the last hornful was poured, from a small phial, about half an ounce, or more, of spirits of hartshorn. The horse seemed very uneasy after the drink, he was soon seized with a violent trembling and shaking, a profuse sweat broke out all over his body, and run down his sides, as if water had been poured on him; at the same time his legs and ears were quite cold; he lay down seemingly in great agony; he was soon after convulsed all over, and died in about half an hour from the time the drink was swallowed. Mr Clark obtained leave to take out his stomach where he was, on condition he should sew up the skin afterwards, in order to prevent any bad smell in the stable, till he could be carried off. On inspecting the stomach, the coats of it were found greatly inflamed, and a mortification had taken place on one side, where it appeared of a darker colour, and here there was a small hole, through which a lead probe passed into the cavity of the stomach from the outside; the coats of the stomach were considerably thickened, and of a darkish red colour resembling the liver; at the same time the stomach was considerably distended and full of food: on turning it inside out, an incredible number of bots were found sticking all round the sides and lower part of it, so that it appeared entirely covered with them, sticking as closely to one another as bees in a honeycomb; and so firmly were the heads of these vermin fixed in the coats of the stomach, that endeavouring to pull some of them off when alive, they broke in two, and their heads remained sticking in the coats of the stomach.

The great irritation produced by such a number of these worms sticking in the coats of the stomach had no doubt occasioned at first an inflammation there, and from its continuance this was tending to a mortification, before the drench was given, and would have occasion-

Another species of Oeirrus, viz. the Haemorrhoidalis, also produces eggs, which when received into the stomach of the horse become bots. This insect has been termed haemorrhoidalis from the appearance of the bots when coming out of the anus of the horse, when they are very like the swelling produced by the piles or hemorrhoids. It was supposed by Linnaeus and some other naturalists, that this and the last species introduced their eggs into the bowels of the horse, by entering the rectum, mire per anus intrans; but this opinion is now fully refuted.

The part chosen by this insect for this purpose, is the lips of the horse, which is very distressing to the animal from the excessive titillation it occasions; for he immediately after rubs his mouth against the ground, his fore legs, or sometimes against a tree; or if two are standing together, they often rub themselves against each other. At the sight of this fly, the horse appears much agitated, and moves his head backwards and forwards in the air, to baulk its touch, and prevent its darting on the lips; but the fly, watching for a favourable opportunity, continues to repeat the operation from time to time; till at length finding this mode of defense insufficient, the enraged animal endeavours to avoid it, by galloping away to a distant part of the field. If it still continues to follow and tease him, his last resource is in the water, where the Oeirrus is never observed to follow him.

The teasing of other flies will sometimes occasion a motion of the head similar to this; but it should not be mistaken for it, as it is fever in any degree so violent, as during the attack of the Oeirrus.

At other times the Oeirrus gets between the fore legs of the horse while he is grazing, and thus makes its attack on the lower lip; the titillation occasions the horse to stamp violently with his fore feet, against the ground, and often strike with his foot, as aiming a blow at the fly. They also sometimes hide themselves in the grass; and as the horse stoops to graze, they dart on the mouth, or lips, and are always observed to poise themselves a few seconds in the air, while the egg is preparing on the point of the abdomen.

When several of these flies are confined in a close place, they have a particularly strong fetid smell; and I have observed both sheep, and horses, when teased by them, to look into the grass, and smell to it very anxiously; and if they by these means discover the fly, they immediately turn aside, and hasten to a distant part of the field.

The eggs of this species appear of a darker colour than the former, and we are unacquainted with the circumstances attending their passage to the stomach.

The larvae of the Oeirrus haemorrhoidalis, as well as the former species, appear to have been termed among the Romans, coelus, which seems to have been a general expression for any kind of soft imperfect animal, and to have been very analogous, and as extensively applied iii. p. 310, as the word grub is at present in the English language.

The presence of bots in the horse's stomach and bowels, is not always easily ascertained, as it is certain that great numbers have been found in the stomach after death, without appearing to have produced any unusual symptoms in the animal while alive. When, however, they have collected in any great numbers, or when the animal's stomach is peculiarly irritable, they are attended with the following symptoms. The horse has a dif- Diseases.

position to rub his tail frequently, without any apparent humour or eruption that should make it itchy; he eats heartily, and is yet always lean and out of condition. His coat is rough and flaring, such as we have described it to be in what is called a surfeit. There is also a fleshy paleness of the mouth and tongue, attended with an unwholesome cadaverous smell. The horse appears tucked up in his flanks, which often heave; he turns his head now and then, and strikes his belly with his hind feet. These latter symptoms indeed, as they only indicate griping pains, and often occur in ordinary colic, are not to be relied on, unless accompanied with the former. In cases of worms, it is said that the dung is yellowish, like melted sulphur, or is otherwise discoloured and very offensive. The surfeit mark, however, of the presence of bots is their being voided by the anus, where they are sometimes found sticking.

Treatment.

As the bots are extremely tenacious of life, it is very difficult to expel them, and where they do not occasion any considerable irritation or other bad symptoms, it will be better to let them alone till they come away spontaneously. But when it is judged necessary to attempt their expulsion, this may be done by administering the sal indus, as directed in No. 60 of the receipts, and after it a strong dose of calomel and aloes.

We have said the bots are not properly worms; but there are several species of worms that are very frequent in dogs, and are now and then found in the horse. These are the lumbrici, or long round worms; the acariides, or thread worms; and the tenia, or tape-worms.

The long round worms are seldom met with in these animals; but when they occur in the horse, they produce much uneasiness, and sometimes occasion colic and inflammation of the bowels. It is very difficult to expel these worms, as the only remedies by which this could be properly attempted, such as powdered tin and strong purgatives, cannot with propriety be often given to a horse, as, from the structure of his stomach, the former might produce considerable injury, and the latter are extremely debilitating.

Acariides are now and then found in the great guts of the horse, and sometimes prove troublesome, but are seldom or never dangerous. They are best removed by clysters of lime-water, followed by purgative clysters.

The tape-worm is seldom found but in dogs, where they are sometimes the cause of fatal diseases, especially to puppies. The symptoms of worms in dogs are, an itchiness of the nose and at the anus, both of which they are perpetually rubbing against every thing; swelling and hardness of the belly, lameness, running at the eyes and nose, and frequent purging of a slimy or stringy matter. There is also a peculiar staring appearance of the hair, which points the wrong way.

Mr Blaine says that the bowels of dogs are so irritable, that they will seldom bear strong physic, and that he knows of nothing that will certainly destroy the worms in their intestines. He has tried with various success, tin, quicksilver, pewter, calomel, and saffron, with other substances, but none of them appeared sufficiently certain to demand his confidence. When the worms are early detected, he thinks that purging doses of the compound powder of scammony with calomel, prove the most efficacious means. Mr Daniel recommends aloes, hartshorn, the juice of wormwood, with some flower of bismuth, mixed together into a ball, about the size of a hazel nut, which is to be wrapped up in butter, and given three or four times a week, letting the dog fast for a few hours each time, which, he says, will destroy the worms. He also says that they may be destroyed by giving the dog as much finely powdered white glass as will lie on a sixpence, for three successive mornings, mixed up with butter; and if the worms are not voided in that time, the dose of the glass is to be increased, and it is to be repeated for three other mornings, by which time it will scarcely fail of producing the desired effect.

There is a sort of concretion often met with in the stomachs of cattle, and sometimes in that of horses, which is partly composed of a chalky substance, and partly, or sometimes almost entirely, of hair evidently arising from the animal's licking off their hair and swallowing it with their saliva. The mass thus received into the stomach, being wholly indigestible, collects there, and forms these globular concretions which sometimes grow to such a size as to prove fatal.

The growth of these concretions is thought to be encouraged by the long use of hard dry food, without the animal's being allowed to feed from time to time on fresh green herbage. It is even thought that the timely use of fresh grass may prove the means of dissolving these concretions. Van Swieten, in his commentaries on Boerhaave, when speaking of chalky matters found in the liver and other organs, remarks, that sometimes there are concretions of the like sort found in this organ, but of a more friable texture, and of a whiter appearance, like gypsum or plaster of Paris. Such incrustations were often observed by Glisson in the pori biliarii, and its larger branches dispersed through the livers of oxen that had been fed in stalls with hay and straw during the winter season and without exercise. But these concretions are very friable, and they afterwards dissolve again, and pass out of the body when the cattle come to feed upon the fresh grass of the meadows; for in oxen that are slain in the spring or summer, they are very rarely to be found.

"In defective horses, (says Mr Clark) I have frequently met with chalky concretions in their livers and in the lungs, especially in those that have been fed long on dry food, and likewise round balls in their stomachs, sometimes of an oval shape. The latter seem for the most part to be composed of the dust they lick from their own bodies mixed with the hair. Whether the fresh grass dissolves them is not so certain; but that it causes these concretions to pass through the intestines, I have had a full demonstration. In May 1786, a horse that had been long fed on dry food was turned out to grass; in about eight or ten days afterwards, he was seized with violent griping pains, which lasted for about 24 hours, when he died. As the horse was very fat, the man who had the charge of him wanted to make something of his grease. In searching for it, he observed a large space of the intestines of a very black colour; and on feeling it, found something hard and weighty within them. He immediately cut it open with his knife, and took out a large oval hard ball, which measured four inches in length, and three inches and a half in breadth, and which I have now in my possession. That this concretion was originally formed in the stomach, Diseases of the stomach, there can be no doubt, as they frequently upon digestion have been found there, and nothing but its great bulk had hindered it from passing through the intestines.

The best means of obviating these concretions, is to allow the animal to feed occasionally on fresh green fodder; and, according to what has been said, this may sometimes remove them after they are formed.

Horses and other domestic animals sometimes labour under a loss of appetite. Animals may eat less than usual, or they may refuse to eat at all, either from a want of that sensation in the stomach, which we call hunger, or from a dislike that the animal takes at the food that is set before him. Want of appetite is a symptom of several diseases, particularly of fevers and internal inflammations. When this happens, it would be absurd to force food on the animal's stomach, as it could not be digested, and would only aggravate the violence of the disease.

Want of appetite very often attends very great fatigue. It is also very frequently the effect of an improper use of cordial and strengthening medicines. It may however, be the effect of weakness of the stomach, not brought on by those means. In such a case, cordials and tonics are very proper, and their use should be accompanied with gentle exercise.

This loss of appetite in the horse, is commonly called chronic indigestion, and is usually accompanied with a roughness and itching of the coat, the skin having the appearance which we have described in No. 328 under hide-bound.

An affection of a similar kind takes place in cattle, in whom it is called loss of the cud, from their not chewing the cud as usual. It is known by the animal's mourning, having no inclination to eat, or dropping his food, without swallowing it. It frequently arises from the stomach being loaded with hard food that is difficult of digestion, such as acorns, or coarse dry straw. It may also arise from a weakness of the stomach, which is not uncommon in hot weather, and may be brought on by confinement and want of fresh air. The treatment is much the same as in horses.

Horses are subject to an affection of the stomach, in which they sometimes eat voraciously, or greedily swallow substances that are indigestible. Horses labouring under this complaint are called foul feeders, as they eat clay, mortar, dirt, foul litter, or even the dung of other animals.

This is properly a symptom of indigestion, and seems to be owing to a peculiar acrimony of the gastric juice, and in most cases there is evidently an acid upon the stomach. The best remedies are bitters, and other strengthening medicines, combined with salt of tartar, or some other antacid. The receipts marked 61 and 62 are well adapted to these cases. These remedies should be assisted by pure air and regular exercise; and where coliciveness is present, it should be obviated by the use of warm laxatives. Care should also be taken to keep the stable clean, and to have a quantity of clean straw below the manger, that the horse may not be tempted to eat other substances that are more injurious.

A surfeit is sometimes occasioned by hounds eating putrid flesh, or that of horses that have died, or been killed when violently affected with the farcy. Arising from the former cause, the fatality which attended the hounds of Mr Finch in Kent, is a curious instance. In drawing the covers, the hounds met with the carcass of a diseased bullock, with which they gorged themselves; the contamination was immediate through the pack; they were generally seized with staggering convulsive fits, operating to so violent a degree, that eight couple of hounds died in the field in less than two hours, and it was supposed the whole pack would have fallen victims, but for the timely application of oil and other medicines. Mr Daniel, from feeding with the flesh of horses sent from a post stable, in which the farcy and the glanders had spread their ravages, had an opportunity of speaking to the latter; the hounds broke out all over in blotches, discharging a watery humour, similar to those occasioned by the farcy; they caused great stiffness, and were extremely painful. This inoculation took place, notwithstanding most of the horses were sent alive to the kennel, and were properly slaughtered, and none of the flesh was given raw to the hounds. Phytic, and taking them frequently to the salt water, and well rubbing the fores by hand with it, at length recovered them. For checking a common surfeit, ox gall and train-oil, equal quantities; the affected parts to be well rubbed, and some phytic taken inwardly will quickly restore them.

There are two diseases that affect the bowels, which we cannot consider more properly than at the end of this chapter. These are rupture and falling of the fundament. These may take place in any of the domestic animals, but they are more common in horses, as they are most frequently the effect of great exertion. Burstings or rupture, commonly proceeds from strains in labour, kicks on the belly, high and difficult leaps, especially when heavy laden. It may be produced by the goring of oxen, by being flaked, and by various other accidents. Gibbon says that he has known it produced by too deep an incision being made in inserting a rowel.

The bowel may be ruptured either at the navel, or through the rings at the back part of the belly into the ferotum or cod. The tumour, when not too large, will return on being pressed, as if it were merely flatulent, and the rupture or chasm may be felt. It is easy to conceive that such a defect is incurable, excepting possibly in a very flight case, and a very young subject; the intention must be to palliate, to render the animal as useful as possible, and as comfortable to itself. In a recent case, bleed, and give emollient and oily clifters, boiled barley, malt maltes, nitrated water. Foment twice a day with camphorated spirits, and vinegar warm; and poultice with oatmeal, oil, and vinegar.

Falling of the fundament is sometimes occasioned by a falling of long-continued loofeness, and is most likely to be produced in such animals as are of a weak and delicate constitution, but it is frequently brought on by hard riding or hard driving. Mr Lawrence says, that he has frequently seen it in hard-driven pigs. According to Soley, it is in horses sometimes the consequence of docking.

When this complaint is first seen, it may in general be easily cured. The gut should be returned as soon as possible, by pushing it up with the ends of two or three fingers wrapped round with a piece of soft linen rag gently greased; but before returning the gut it should be bathed with some astringent lotion, as a solution of Part VI.

FAR R I E R Y.

Diseases of alum or white vitriol, or port wine and water; and a little of either of these should be frequently injected. If the gut should become inflamed, it must be anointed with some cooling liniment, such as receipt No. 28. Care must be taken to keep the animal's bowels open, by frequent bran mixtures. If the complaint continues obstinate, nothing will effectually remove it, but cutting off a part of the protruded gut. This may be done with a common surgeon's knife, called a scalpel, but it is sometimes performed with a sharp red-hot cautery. The wound commonly soon heals, but the animal should not be worked for some time after; but should be allowed a long run at grass, or in a straw yard.

CHAP. IV. Morbid Affections of Absorption.

The absorbent vessels of the human body have been described in the article Anatomy; and the structure of these vessels, in the animals now under our consideration, is sufficiently similar to render a particular description of them here unnecessary. The function of absorption, and the derangements produced in it by disease, will be explained under those medical articles that have for their object physiology and pathology. It will be sufficient for us, in this place, to remark, that many of the disorders of the animal frame, are greatly influenced by the state of the absorbent system; and that some complaints seem chiefly to depend on the loss of the proper balance between the function of absorption, and that of circulation. Sometimes the absorbent vessels are too active, while the circulating system is proportionally languid; at others the absorbent system is languid, while that of the circulation is either unusually active, or continues in its natural state. The former seems to be the cause of lameness, coffinitis, and some other morbid affections; to the latter may be referred the several species of dropy. We shall here only consider two of these affections, lameness, and swelled legs, as most of our readers will expect coffinitis treated of as a morbid affection of excretion, and most of the species of dropy must be considered as general affections of the system; and therefore to be explained in the next section.

An unnatural degree of lameness may take place from many causes; as, 1st. From the want of a proper supply of food, whether from this being dispensed too sparingly in proportion to the labour of the animal, or from its not being sufficiently nourishing. Hence we see that such horses and dogs as are hard worked and ill fed, are extremely lean.

2d. In stallions lameness is often the effect of being suffered to cover too often, or too long at one season.

3d. It is a common attendant on several acute diseases, as fevers, some inflammations, especially dysentery, or what has been commonly called molen greefe.

4th. Lameness is a common attendant on old age. This symptom requires little attention, as it is seldom dangerous, except when it comes on very rapidly, and is attended with great weakness, and manifest signs of decay, in stallions that are too hard worked. It commonly soon disappears after the cause that produced it, or the complaint of which it is a symptom, is removed.

A swelling of the legs is very common to horses that are suffered to stand long in the stable, without being worked, or in some other cases that will presently be mentioned. There is a swelling of the legs that is the consequence of hard work, strains, or other causes, that excite inflammation; but what we are now considering is a dropical swelling, consisting in an accumulation of watery fluid below the skin, similar to the swelled legs of old people, and chlorotic girls. It may affect all the legs, but it is more commonly confined to the hinder extremities. The swelling generally takes place above the pattern and fetlocks; but if it continues long, it extends further up the legs, and the skin sometimes cracks, and there oozes out a watery fluid, or sometimes a purulent or greasy matter. In this last case it has degenerated into grease, which will be considered hereafter.

Swelled legs frequently take place in horses that are newly brought into the stable, or a straw yard; especially if they are not regularly worked, and their legs regularly rubbed down, at least twice a day. It is more certainly produced, if the horse should be suffered to stand long on hot litter. It is also not uncommonly the effect of wading through snow or cold water, especially when the legs are heated. It evidently depends on a decreased action of the absorbent vessels and veins of the legs.

It may in general be prevented by regular exercise, and frequent rubbing; but if it should occur in a horse that is too full of blood, it may be necessary to bleed and physic. If the swelling should continue obstinate, it will be proper to apply a blister to the part, or to rub the legs frequently with some stimulating liniment, and if the complaint is of long standing, it may be proper to insert a rowel in each leg; and the dispersion of the swelling may be assisted by rolling hay bands round the legs, by way of bandage. One of the most effectual means of preventing a return, will be firing, making perpendicular lines with the cautery from the fetlock to the coronet. Regular exercise and friction must be persisted in; and if the complaint is accompanied with general weakness of the system, a nourishing diet, and strengthening remedies must be added.

CHAP. V. Morbid Affections of Circulation.

The pulse in the inferior animals has been very little attended to by veterinary practitioners; indeed the various common farriers and cattle doctors scarcely know animals, whether their patients have a pulse, or where it may be most readily felt.

The strength and frequency of the pulse in its natural state, differs very much in the several species of the domestic animals. It is in general stronger according to the size of the animal; but its frequency diminishes in the same proportion, it being quicker in the smaller than in the larger animals, even of the same species. We cannot undertake to state exactly the average frequency of the pulse, in the several animals, and the accounts given by different authors vary considerably. Mr Clark says that the pulse of a horse in health, and no way terrified or alarmed, is from 36 to 40 beats in a minute. According to Mr Blaine, it ranges from 45 to 55, being generally from 45 to 50 in large horses, and from 50 to 55 in smaller horses. Dr Hales found that the pulse of an ox in health, did not exceed 38 beats in a minute. Mr Blaine, in his first volume, states the medium pulse of a dog at 80 or 90; but in his second volume p. 149, he says, that a dog has usually from 90 to 100 or 110 contractions in a minute, so that we may probably take the average at from 90 to 100. Perhaps the pulse of a sheep is slower by about 10 beats than that of a dog.

The pulse in the inferior animals may be most conveniently felt in the temporal arteries, which as we have said in No. 164 are situated a little backwards above the outer angle of the eye. It may be felt also at the corner of the lower jaw, on each side of the fetlock joint, on the inside of the hock, and at the heart.

As much is to be learned from the pulse, reflecting the nature of many diseases, and the degree of danger which they indicate; we earnestly recommend to our practical readers, that they take every opportunity of examining the pulse of these animals, when in a state of disease. We cannot here enter with propriety into an explanation of the morbid varieties of the pulse, as it would be only to repeat what is given in the pathological part of our work, to which we refer our veterinary readers; as the observations there delivered can be easily applied to the particular cases of horses, cattle, sheep, and dogs, by keeping in view the natural state of the pulse, in each species as above laid down.

There are two general states of the system, that may take place in all animals, and which are chiefly distinguished by the state of the circulation, as ascertained by the pulse. These are plethora, or fulness of habit; and debility, weakness, or inanition. The former is always attended with a fulness, and sometimes a hardness of the pulse; while in the latter, the pulse is weak and small, easily compressed or stooped by the finger, and is sometimes slower, but oftener much more frequent than natural.

When an animal has been kept for some time on a full nourishing diet, while he is at the same time confined within doors, and deprived of that regular exercise, which is necessary to carry off superfluities, he becomes fat, corpulent, and full of blood, or what we call plethoric. In this state the veins below the skin, from their being greatly distended with blood, are very prominent, excepting in those parts where they are bedded in fat; the pulse, as we have said, full, and commonly strong, but in some cases it feels oppressed, as if the quantity of blood were too much for the cavity of the artery. The pulse in these cases is frequently slower than natural. The animal becomes dull and sluggish, averse to motion, and if he is obliged to exert himself, evidently does so with difficulty, pants, and labours, and becomes soon fatigued.

This plethoric state is extremely common in horses and dogs that are pampered with high living, and little or no work. A horse in this state, though he may look well, is far from being in good condition, and is by no means fit for active labour. In fact, if such a horse is put to hard work, before he is properly prepared for it, there is the greatest probability that he will be completely ruined. Instances occur every day of full fed idle horses knocking up, or even dying on the road, and a long list of violent diseases is the consequence of this plethoric state of body. It lays the foundation of broken wind, inflammation of the lungs, phreny, and above all of staggers, or apoplexy. It is no uncommon thing to see a fat well-looking horse, fall down in convulsions, while drawing a heavy load, owing to the diminution of blood to the head, from so great an exertion, while the vessels are too much distended. Most lap dogs and others who are parlour guests, commonly die of apoplexy. A lady of our acquaintance had a fine fat lapdog, who seldom quitted the cushion that formed his bed, beside his mistress's chair, where he was fed with the nicest bits from the dinner table. Jack had been unusually heavy for a day or two, and one morning was found lying dead on his cushion; though he had the night before eaten a hearty supper.

To prevent the ill consequences that must arise from this plethoric state, these animals should be regularly exercised, and not suffered to eat too much. Where the plethora has already taken place, and where no dangerous symptoms threaten the attack of some violent disorder, the best method of bringing the animal into good condition, is to lower his diet gradually, and as gradually increase his exercise or labour; but where the symptoms are such, as indicate approaching apoplexy, or some other dangerous disorders, it will be necessary immediately to bleed and purge, and to take care that the animal be not put to any violent exertion, till he be brought into good condition.

We must here remark, that frequent bleeding with a view to obviate plethora, is extremely improper, as it tends to produce the very state against which it is employed. Bleeding, therefore, ought not to be had recourse to, except in cases of imminent danger.

There is a complaint that sometimes appears among hawks, or cattle, when they are suddenly put on high feeding, at hocks, after having been long accustomed to a poor and sparing diet. It is called by the graziers, Hawks or Hocks, and is probably of an inflammatory nature, but as it seems to depend entirely on a sudden distention of the blood vessels, and is speedily relieved by removing this distention, it may properly be considered in this place.

The complaint is said to begin with an uneasiness and swelling about the eyes, and about the glandular parts of the throat, which extends itself gradually over the whole body, to the legs and joints; and in cows to the barren and udder. The animal appears languid, dull, and heavy, and seems unwilling to stir from the place where he is; and when the disease has made some progress, he will not lie down till he is relieved. The legs become cold and numb, and as the swelling advances towards the hind parts, a copious secretion of saliva commonly takes place from the mouth, attended often with a swelling about the tongue. The disease is extremely rapid in its attack and progress, and if it be not speedily attended to, it will terminate in staggers, or some violent inflammatory disease.

The cure of this affection seems to depend entirely on bleeding, which should be performed as soon as possible, taking away a quart or two of blood at first, and repeating the operation some hours after, if the swelling is not diminished. It is recommended to rub the whole body well, both before and after bleeding, and if the mouth is much affected, it will be relieved by walking it frequently with salt and water. If there is any considerable heat, it may be proper to give a drench with nitre every four hours.

Inanition is a state of body directly the opposite of inanition, what we have described; and is produced by very different The artery that is most liable to be wounded in bleeding is the external carotid, which runs below the jugular vein, or sometimes a little to one side of it. This accident will, however, seldom happen, except when a ligature is used; but when this is employed, the jugular vein is pressed closely on the artery, that the point of the fleam or lancet may easily penetrate through the vein into the artery. M. Huzard alleges, that in this way even the wind-pipe may be wounded, together with the artery, and that the animal may be choked by the effusion of blood from the latter into the former.

When an accident of this kind has taken place, whether from bleeding, from wounds, or from the erosion of an artery by the acid matter of a foul ulcer, it is necessary to take speedy means for preventing the ill consequences that may ensue; for, though the wounded artery be not very large, such an effusion of blood may take place from it, as may greatly weaken the animal, if it should not prove fatal. If the artery is very small, the bleeding is easily stopped, either by applying such a degree of pressure, as may be sufficient to obliterate the cavity of the wounded vessel, or, what is often more convenient, by completely dividing it; after which the divided ends will contract so much as to prevent the further effusion of blood. If the wounded artery be large, it can be secured with certainty only by means of ligature. For this purpose, pressure must be made on the artery, between the wounded part and the heart, while an incision is made through the skin and muscles down to the place where the artery has been wounded, so that this may easily be discovered. Then a pretty strong thread, doubled and waxed, is to be passed round the artery by means of a crooked needle, with a blunt point, and is then to be tied fast about an inch above the wounded part. A similar ligature is to be fixed upon the artery at about the same distance, on the other side of the orifice, and the artery is to be cut across between the two ligatures. Thus, the further effusion of blood is completely prevented, and the wound may be healed in the usual manner. The part that was supplied with blood by the wounded artery, will, if the vessel was pretty large, be colder and less sensible than usual, but it will in general be sufficiently supported by the small branches of other arteries that join with the wounded vessels beyond the ligatures; and these branches will gradually become so distended as to supply the place of the divided artery, and restore the part to its proper functions.

It sometimes happens, that part of an artery becomes unusually dilated, forming what is called a true aneurism. This dilatation may take place in any of the arteries, but it is most common in the aorta or great artery within the body, and in the external carotid and popliteal arteries without. An aneurism of the external carotid is often seen in dogs, and sometimes in horses, especially such as are accustomed to draw heavy weights. An aneurism of an external artery is easily distinguished, by a considerable pulsation, which may be felt much more superficially than the ordinary beat of the artery, and is sometimes so remarkable, that it can be distinctly seen by the alternate heaving and sinking of the skin below which the swelling is situated. An aneurism of the aorta is not so easily distinguished in the inferior animals. The diagnostic marks by which it may be known... known in the human body, will be given in the article SURGERY.

Those aneurisms are attended with considerable danger, and those of internal arteries commonly soon prove fatal. Aneurisms of external arteries are attended with a swelling of the bones over which they lie, owing to the increased absorption of bony matter produced by the pulsation of the dilated artery; and these swellings commonly burst in no long time, especially if the animal be exposed to any great labour or exertion.

The treatment of these aneurisms is exactly similar to that of a wounded artery described above. It consists in securing the dilated artery, either by pressure on the side of the aneurism next the heart, or by means of two ligatures, one on each side of the tumour.

An effusion of blood into the cellular substance may take place from a vein, the orifice of which has not been properly closed after bleeding; or it may happen from the orifice in the vein not exactly corresponding to that in the skin, so that the skin gets over the orifice in the vein, and prevents the blood from flowing out. In this latter case there is said to be a thrombus of the vein.

When such an effusion of blood is observed, it is necessary to dilate the orifice in the skin, and to take away the clotted effused blood from below it. If the vein does not appear likely to bleed again, it will be unnecessary to pin it up; but if blood should still flow from it, it will be necessary to secure it by a pin. This, however, should not be suffered to remain too long, as it may produce inflammation and ulceration of the vein. Sometimes it is so long before the effusion of blood is observed, that the swelling is become considerable, and is attended with inflammation, or even suppuration. Where inflammation is present, but has not proceeded to suppuration, this latter may in general be prevented by keeping the part moist (after taking out the effused blood), with a solution of sugar of lead in vinegar and water. If matter is already formed, the swelling must be poulticed, or frequently fomented with warm liquors; and when the matter is let out, the sore must be treated as a common ulcer.

Sometimes the inside of a vein that has been opened in bleeding inflames, suppurates, and becomes a fistulous sore; and if this be neglected, the matter may extend to some important organ, as to the head, when the jugular vein has been opened, and produce death. When the vein is not very large, or the ulcerated part of it is inconceivable, it may commonly be healed by means of the actual cautery, or firing, as described in No 351; but if the wound is very large, or the ulceration very extensive, it may be proper to secure the vein by means of ligatures applied on each side of the ulcerated part.

When the enlargement of any part of a vein takes place, without the vein having been wounded, the swelling is called by medical writers varix, or the vein is said to be varicose. This swelling seldom takes place in any of the domestic animals except the horse, in whom sometimes the superficial vein that passes over the inside of the hock sometimes becomes varicose, and forms what farriers call a blood-spavin. The enlargement of this particular vein is always accompanied by bog-spavin, or an enlargement of the mucous capsules in the same part of the hock, and the former seems to be a consequence of the latter, being produced by the compression of the vein, by the swelling of the mucous capsule below it, whence an obstruction of the blood, and a consequent dilatation of the coats of the vein.

When the enlargement of the vein is not considerable, it requires no particular attention; but if it should increase so far as to be troublesome, methods must be taken for its removal. This may be effected, either by producing such a pressure on the vein as shall stop the circulation of the blood in it, or by tying up the vein with a ligature. In applying pressure, such a bandage should be adopted as may surround the whole hock, while the greatest pressure is made on the dilated vein. Mr Blaine recommends for this purpose a bandage including several of those elastic tubes, ladies' glove braces or tops are made of, which would occasion permanent pressure, and yet permit motion. But, should it still be found to refuse this, its removal must be attempted. For this purpose, an opening should be made above the enlargement, and then including the vein within a ligature, and an opening below likewise, including the vein also at that part; the enlarged part may then be punctured, to let out the discharging blood, and the remainder suffered to slough away.

CHAP. VI. Morbid Affections of Respiration.

In many complaints, especially fevers and inflammations of the internal organs, the breathing becomes hurried, and inspiration and expiration, but especially the former, are performed more quickly than in the healthy state of the body. This hurried respiration, in the inferior animals, is known by the rapid heaving of their flanks; and when it is attended with considerable heat and dryness of the skin, it denotes considerable danger. Any particular consideration of this symptom will, however, be more proper, when we come to treat of the particular cases in which it occurs.

The principal affections of breathing which we shall here notice, are those in which respiration is rendered difficult, without being attended with fever or inflammation. Horses are more liable than other domestic animals to difficulty of breathing, and one particular modification of it, broken wind, is peculiar to this animal.

There sometimes takes place within the nostrils a snore, or gathering of thick clotted matter, which, when it comes to any considerable height, very much obstructs respiration, and produces a snuffling noise when the air passes through the nostrils. This affection is called the snores, or snivels, and is almost peculiar to cattle. It is sometimes mistaken for a disorder of the throat, where it is imagined there is some obstruction; but when this rattling noise is found to attend the breathing of cattle, it may generally be discovered whether or not it be the disease in question, by a careful inspection of the nostrils. The swelling thus produced in the nostrils generally goes on to suppuration, and when it breaks the animal is relieved. The object of our treatment must therefore be to halt the suppuration by the application of warm stimulating fomentations or liniments. A very common application in these cases is the oil of bays injected up into the nostrils; but perhaps the steam of warm water would answer every good purpose, and might be easily applied, by putting a warm bran mahl into a canvas bag, and tying it to the animal's head; and this may may be repeated till the impostrume breaks. The animal should in the mean time be kept in a well-ventilated house, and should be fed on nourishing diet.

Cough is almost a constant attendant on colds, consumptions, inflammation of the lungs, and other pulmonary complaints; and when it occurs as a symptom of these diseases, no particular attention is to be paid to it, as our principal object is the primary affection. It frequently happens, however, that after the inflammatory affection is removed, an obstinate cough remains; and if this is attended with no considerable difficulty of breathing, and if the horse eats well, and appears thriving, the cough alone requires our attention. This kind of chronic cough is generally more considerable in the mornings and evenings, and after eating, and is generally increased by any violent exertion.

Chronic coughs, though generally a consequence of previous inflammation, may arise from a peculiar irritable state of the top of the wind-pipe; and if this be the case, the use of some narcotic substance, as opium or hemlock, may be proper. A very obstinate cough is often the consequence of preceding inflammation, and is attended with a peculiar noise, as if the aperture through which the air came was diminished. This kind of noise is called roaring, and it is found on dissection that the wind-pipe is contracted by a quantity of coagulable lymph, that has been effused during the inflammation. Mr Blaine has seen a preparation where the diameter of the wind-pipe was reduced to one-third of its original dimensions, and it has often struck him as not improbable that the grasping the wind-pipe hard, as is sometimes done to try the wind, may bring on inflammation, and occasion this affection.

These chronic coughs, especially the roarer, scarcely admit of a complete cure; but they may in general be mitigated, by keeping the animal warm, and by avoiding violent exertion. The food should be such as is easy of digestion, and does not produce much diffusion of the stomach. Tar is much recommended in these cases, especially for the cough, or hoofe, that sometimes occurs in cows. An ounce of tar, with the same quantity of vinegar of squills, and a little oil of aniseed is to be given every morning, in a quart or chopin of warm ale.

One of the most common defects in a horse's breathing is that which is called broken wind; the nature of which complaint has been of late much elucidated by Mr Coleman. According to Mr Lawrence, broken wind is discovered by the quick and irregular heaving of the flanks, and a more than ordinary dilatation of the nostrils; sometimes also, by a convulsive appearance of the body. But the usual method of trying the soundness of a horse's wind, is to cough him; which is performed by pressing the upper part of the wind-pipe with the finger and thumb. The strong, clear, and full tone of the cough, prove his wind to be sound; if, on the contrary, the note be short, whistling, and husky, the horse is asthmatic and unfound. Horses labouring under the worst stage of this disease, are styled, in the language of the repository, roarers; from the noise they make in work, of very little of which they are capable. Broken-winded mares are generally barren, although we have heard of one which bred a whole team of horses after she became so. In confirmed broken wind there is sometimes observed a palpitation of the chest, with constant contraction and dilatation, and now and then a considerable cavity or depression may be perceived.

The older writers had many strange opinions with respect to the nature of this complaint. Gibbon attributed it to an enlargement of the contents of the chest, and Dr Lover thought it proceeded from a rupture of the phrenic nerve. A friend of Bartlet supposed the disease to proceed from a morbid or obstructed state of the glands and membranes of the head and throat, the enlargement of which prevented a free passage to the wind. According to Mr Oliver certain glands, which are placed upon the air-pipe, at its entrance into the lungs, are become enlarged, and thereby the diameter of the tube is lessened; hence the received air cannot to readily make its escape, nor respiration be performed, with such facility as before; from which quantity of contained air the lobes of the lungs are always enlarged, as may be seen by examining the dead carcases of broken-winded horses.

It is now satisfactorily ascertained, that the immediate cause of broken-wind is a rupture of some of the air-cells of the lungs. The cause that most commonly produces such a rupture is over diffusion of the stomach, attended with hard and violent exertion. The horse being an animal that is always eating, will, when hungry, eat very voraciously, if he has an opportunity, and soon fills his stomach; and if, in this state, he is exercised violently, the circulation and respiration will be increased, but the lungs cannot expand sufficiently, because the diaphragm cannot defend from the pressure of the stomach. In this case, the circulation being hurried, the lungs do not undergo the necessary change, in consequence of their now being compressed. The animal then, endeavouring to take in more air, either actually occasions the cells to be ruptured, or something else to give way. If the cells are ruptured, the air escapes from them into the cellular membrane of the lungs, and there acts as foreign matter, or, at least, it cannot then produce the necessary change on the blood, when thus diffused; in consequence, difficulty of breathing arises from two causes: 1st, From the blood passing through the lungs before it has undergone its necessary alteration; and, 2ndly, from the rupture of the air-vesicles. The respiration is rendered slow, as is seen by the flanks being long in rising up, because there is no direct communication with the bronchia, as in the healthy state of the lungs; inspiration is, however, in a third of the time of expiration, which is seen by the sudden descent of the flank. The lungs, from containing more air, are specifically lighter than in the healthy state.

This local disease does not admit of a permanent cure, at least no medicine has yet had any such effect; but a temporary relief may be obtained, as we shall see hereafter. But we must not omit to mention here a most ridiculous practice which has sometimes been tried by common farriers, that of making an orifice above the rectum, and then introducing a machine similar to a musical instrument called a flageolet, with the idea of evacuating the superfluous air, or wind, which they suppose to have produced the disease.

Blistering the wind-pipe, rowelling the chest, and a small purgative of aloes and calomel now and then, have often produced a good effect.

A pound or two of rhot has been strongly recommended to Mr Coleman, as a specific; but, upon trial, it has been been found to have no obvious effect: it was thought that the hot would act by its specific gravity inclining the stomach further back into the cavity of the abdomen.

The treatment must be nearly confined to diet and exercise; the animal should have little hay, and water in particular must be administered with a very sparing hand. Those substances which afford most nourishment in the least compass, as carrots, corn, split beans, &c., should be given; the horse should always be worked upon an empty stomach; and, upon the whole, his diet should be small in quantity, but nourishing. By observing this method, a broken-winged horse may do a great deal of work, and be useful to the owner.*

According to Mr Blaine, internal medicines have sometimes been found useful in this complaint. Lime-water has been employed with advantage; and the use of tar is much recommended. Mr Blaine prescribes a mixture composed of two gallons of lime-water, four pounds of tar, and an ounce of fresh bruised squills, or garlic, of which an English pint (or nutchkin) is to be administered every morning.

A complaint similar to the foregoing often occurs in the horse, and is called thick wind. It proceeds from a very different cause, being always the cause of previous inflammation, during which coagulable lymph has been effused, as in the roarer. Thick wind may be distinguished from broken-wing, by the inspirations and expirations being equal in the former; while in the latter the respiration is not so frequent, and the principal difficulty consists in expiration, which is of course performed in longer time than inspiration.

Little can be done towards a cure of this complaint. We may prevent the disease by good management in the administration of the aliment, exercise, &c. Calomel has been employed to produce absorption, but without any great effect; a rowel under the jaw, and frequent applications of blisters on the windpipe, are the only methods capable of producing absorption of the lymph. Half a drachm of the digitalis, or fox-glove, in powder, twice a day, makes an admirable remedy in this, and local diseases of the lungs.

The breathing may be completely obstructed, either by the want of a regular supply of fresh air, or by the animals being obliged to breathe such kinds of air, as are unfit for respiration. The consequence of this impeded breathing, is a suspension of the vital powers, or, if the obstruction continues long, death will sometimes be produced. As suspended animation is always attended with more or less of an apoplectic state, we shall defer the consideration of those cases till we come to treat of comatous diseases.

**CHAP. VII. Morbid Affections of Secretion and Excretion.**

The fluids that are secreted, or separated from the general mass of blood, by means of the organs called glands, are in some cases secreted in an unusual quantity, in others their secretion is lessened, or their excretion or passage out of the body is obstructed. Thus in colds of the head, as they are called, in glanders, and in some other affections, an unusual running takes place from the nose; in inflammation of the eyes the secretion of tears is generally increased, sometimes diminished, while it sometimes happens that their passage from the lacrimal gland out of the eye is obstructed. Again the secreted fluids may undergo various changes in their colour, fluidity, and composition. Thus the urine is sometimes yellow, at others red, or blackish; it is sometimes extremely watery, at others very thick and muddy, and in one particular disease, the diabetes, it seems to lose altogether the properties of urine, and appears like a solution of sugar, or honey.

In the present chapter, we shall consider the morbid affections of the bile, and of the urine. We shall also make some observations on coliciveness and purging.

The principal morbid affection of the biliary system that takes place in the inferior animals, is the jaundice or obstruction to the passage of the bile, from the liver into the bowels, producing the disease called jaundice in the human body, and commonly known to farriers and cattle-doctors, by the name of the yellow.

This disease seldom takes place in the horse, for as it is almost always the consequence of biliary concretions, or gall-stones formed within the gall bladder, and as this animal has no gall bladder, the disease in question can seldom take place. It may however happen that an obstruction may take place in the common duct or pipe, that conveys the bile from the liver, either from concretions formed in the duct, from a spasmodic contraction of the duct, or from a schirrous or hardened state of the liver. The disease is however sufficiently common in cattle and sheep; and a description of the symptoms that mark the complaint in these animals will almost equally apply to the disease when it may take place in horses. According to Mr Denny, young horses are very subject to a variety of jaundice.

Its first visible sign is a yellowish tinge in the white part of the eyes, mouth, and tongue; the mucus and saliva, from the nostrils and mouth, are of a greenish hue, bordering a little upon the yellow. The beast is dull, and heavy, loathing all kinds of food, eating no more than a bare sufficiency for the support of nature; the skin is dry and itchy, especially behind the shoulders, where it can scarcely bear the touch. The beast has an utter aversion to exercise, or stirring from the place where they are, and if removed with the least degree of precipitation, will break into a cold sweat. Their urine is of a deeper yellow than usual, which has sometimes led to believe it was red water, or bloody urine. The dung undergoes a very considerable alteration in all stages of the disease, and its general colour is blueish or brown, and much resembling burnt clay; but it varies in colour according to the subject, or different circumstances and seasons. If the disease continues long the beast gradually pines away, and at last dies of a decline.

It is said that horses have sometimes died of jaundice, in two or three days; and in these violent cases a black fumous discharge has taken place from the mouth and nostrils a little before death. This is called by farriers the black jaundice, and after death the liver is found totally decayed. Mr Lawrence says that he has repeatedly seen cases of this kind. Gibbon speaks of an inflammatory species of jaundice, attended with delirium and madness; but this was probably a violent inflammation of the liver.

We have said that the immediate cause of this disease is an obstruction of the gall pipe, commonly owing to the formation of gall-stones. The formation of these concretions is most likely to take place, when the animals are deprived of their regular exercise, and are at the same time allowed too full a diet, or are given food of an improper quality. It is said to be very common in some of the cold provinces on the continent, where the cattle are stall fed during the winter; after which the most of them are attacked with it in the spring. It may sometimes be brought on by hard labour and poor living; but then it probably depends on a diseased state of the liver.

In the treatment of jaundice, our chief reliance is to be placed on the use of purgative medicines; and of these rhubarb, calomel, and aloes, seem to be the most proper; and during their exhibition, gentle exercise should be employed. Mr Denny says that much relief is often afforded in the jaundice of young horses, by giving a ball composed of an ounce of aloes, half an ounce of Venetian soap, and a drachm of calomel; every second or third night, and giving on the intervening mornings a ball of half an ounce of nitre, with the same quantity of powdered rosin, and of common soap. Mathees and warm water are to be given plentifully, and the horse must be kept warm by clothing, and fully exercised.

In cattle, a vomit of emetic tartar may be tried at the first appearance of the disease, as the effort of vomiting may assist in promoting the passage of the gallstone. If, however, the disease should arise in consequence of previous inflammation of the liver, vomits will be of no use, and the best remedies will be mercurial purgatives with soap. The food should consist of succulent and watery substances, especially of fresh grass; as it is found that when cattle affected with this disease are sent to pasture they commonly soon recover. Warm mathees of bran or malt should be given frequently, both to obviate coliciveness, and as being good articles of diet. If the disease should continue obstinate, and the use of mercurial medicines should be found necessary, the animal must be confined within doors, during night and bad weather; and a horse should during the exhibition of the medicines be covered with a flannel cloth. It will be proper, whenever the weather and other circumstances permit, to give the animal regular exercise in the open air; but if necessity obliges us to keep him within doors, the whole body, but especially the belly, should be well rubbed for a considerable time, twice or thrice a day. This friction will be proper, even though regular exercise can be taken in the open air.

Horses, and sometimes cattle, are subject to a profuse discharge of urine; but as the complaint of which this is a principal symptom, seems not to be seated in the urinary organs, we shall not consider it here, but shall treat of it among the general and more important diseases.

It often happens that there is an inability in these animals to retain their urine for any length of time; they are either obliged to void it very frequently, and in small quantities, or, what is more frequent, it drops away imperceptibly and involuntarily, forming the complaint called incontinence of urine. This complaint differs from diabetes, or profuse staling, in the urine coming away by drops, or in very small quantities at a time, whereas in diabetes it passes off in a full and copious stream.

Incontinence of urine is extremely common to dogs, and often arises in these animals from excessive venery, or from the violent efforts which they are sometimes, by the brutality of bystanders, obliged to make to separate themselves from the females. It is also not uncommonly owing to the presence of a stone in the bladder. M. Barruel, professor of the veterinary school of Alfort, had a little Spanish bitch, not above five inches high, and about seven years old, who was troubled with an incontinence of urine, unaccompanied by any other symptom; she was sprightly and well, and was in good condition. Not knowing what to attribute the complaint, M. Barruel tried a number of remedies, such as warm bathing and clysters of various kinds, but without effect; at last he killed the bitch, and found in her bladder a stone that weighed an ounce and 40 grains, a very considerable bulk, if we advert to the small size of the animal.

This complaint is less common in the horse, but it may arise in any of these animals from a paralytic affection of the sphincter muscle at the neck of the bladder; which is sometimes the consequence of the bladder's being unusually distended with urine. When there is reason to suppose that it is owing to this cause, the best remedy is a blister applied above the pubis, or the frequent application of stimulating liniments to the same part.

A difficulty of making water, or even an entire suppression of urine, is a very common disease among horses, and frequently occurs in sheep. The symptoms accompanying this affection, differ somewhat according to the causes which have produced it; we shall therefore consider it under several heads. One of the most common causes of a suppression of urine, is suffering the animal over a long time without stopping him from allowing him to stale; a circumstance which is often neglected by thoughtless people, while on a journey. From the urine being so long retained, the bladder becomes excessively distended; considerable irritation takes place, and when the distention has proceeded to a great height, the animal, though constantly stimulated to relieve nature, is not able to effect his purpose, owing to a paralytic affection that has taken place in the mucular coat of the body of the bladder, attended probably with spasmodic contraction of the sphincter. If the animal be not soon relieved, a considerable swelling appears above the pubis, accompanied with great uneasiness; the urine becomes absorbed, and is carried through the circulation to various parts of the body, producing an itching of the skin, and generally, in no long time, apoplexy and death.

Sometimes, however, before any considerable absorption can take place, the bladder either becomes inflamed, or bursts, and discharges its contents into the belly, producing there inflammation and mortification.

This complaint is, as we have said, very common among sheep, constituting an affection which in Scotland is called the watery bloaty. It is said that young and vigorous sheep are most liable to it; and according to the writers of the ingenious appendix to Mr Findlater's survey, the immediate cause of the disease, is feeding too freely on succulent diuretic food, and resting too long. long in their laires in the morning. It has been frequently observed, that this species of braxy is most apt to make its attacks upon Sundays, because shepherds generally sleep longer on Sunday mornings than other days of the week, and, of course, allow the sheep to remain too long in their laires. This disease may be prevented by avoiding too free a use of succulent diuretic food, and by moving the animals from their laires early in the morning, making them walk about for some time, in order to encourage them to pass their urine and purl.

In attempting to effect a cure, it may be known whether the bladder is affected, by a great fulness in the lower part of the belly, immediately above the pubis. The seat of the distemper being ascertained, a female silver catheter, or one of elastic gum, ought instantly to be passed through the urethra into the bladder of females. This will draw off the urine, and give immediate relief. But this will be attended with greater difficulty in males; and if attempted, must be done with a long and properly bent catheter or bougie. In either case, when this cannot be accomplished, a puncture may be made into the bladder with a trocar, directly above the pubis; taking care not to wound the intestines. By either of these methods, the urine may be discharged, and the animal relieved. In other respects, with a view to allay or prevent inflammation, evacuations should be procured by clysters and warm injections into the great gut.

2. In the case which we have been considering, the urine, though secreted as usual, could not be discharged; but a suppression of urine sometimes takes place from the secretion not going on as usual, owing to some affection of the kidneys, commonly an inflammation of those organs. We can scarcely with propriety consider this case here, but shall treat of it among the other inflammations in the second chapter of the next section.

3. Another case that may produce a suppression of urine, or a difficulty in passing, is a stone in the bladder, or gravelly concretions passing from the kidneys through the ureters or urinary pipes. We have just seen that a stone is sometimes found in the bladder of dogs; but doubts have arisen, whether this could take place in the horse. Examples of it are no doubt very rare, but we have sufficient proof that it may take place. Mr Clark of Edinburgh mentions that he has several stones taken out of different horses; and it is said that Dr Mead had in his cabinet one that weighed 11 ounces. M. Huzard gives an account of a dissection that he made of a horse that died of a suppression of urine, in whom the following appearances were observed. The bladder contained a considerable quantity of red and bloody urine. Its internal membrane was thickened, especially at its lower part; and it was also inflamed and gangrenous in several points. The ureter contained at about its middle, a fragment of a stone that entirely blocked up the passage of the urine, and had no doubt been the cause of this suppression. The stone was imbedded in a cavernous body like the kernel of a fruit. Within the bladder there was also a stone about the size of a large pullet's egg, broken into two portions.

If we consider that symptoms of gravel are by no means uncommon in the horse, that gravel is often found in his urine, and that calculous concretions have been frequently observed in his kidneys, we shall easily see that these cases are not so extraordinary as some may imagine. There is no doubt, however, that cases of a stone in the bladder cannot so frequently happen in quadrupeds, from their horizontal position, which prevents the stone from passing from the kidney into the bladder so readily as in the human subject. Hence the kidneys have often been found to contain stones of a considerable size, without the horse having been during life affected with symptoms of calculus.

When concretions form in the kidneys, they generally produce a great degree of irritation, and consequent inflammation; but if a horse is affected with a suppression of urine, there is reason to suppose that a stone is lodged in the bladder. The certainty of this having taken place may be very readily ascertained, by introducing the hand within the rectum, as the stone will, for the most part, be felt below the finger.

It is not probable that internal remedies can have any effect in cases of calculus in the horse. In the beginning of the complaint, when the symptoms are very slight, diuretic medicines may be tried, and will perhaps bring away the small sandy particles; but if a stone of any considerable size be lodged in the kidneys, the case is incurable. If the stone has got into the bladder, it may be extracted by making a cut into the bladder above the pubis, and taking out the stone by means of forceps, such as are employed by surgeons in the operation for the stone. In the mean time the animal may be relieved, by drawing off the urine from time to time by means of a catheter, which is easily used in the mare, and by preventing coliciveness. Too much labour or over exertion should also be avoided, and the animal should live chiefly on succulent food.

4. A suppression of urine may arise from an obstruction in or about the neck of the bladder. A curious case of this kind occurred to M. Huzard, and he has related the appearances on dissection, which were as follows.

There was at the base of the spermatic arteries, on the right side, a glandulous body about the bigness of one's fist, through which oozed a lymphatic fluid, that was whitish and thick, in some places appearing like pus. The bladder was enormously distended with urine, and extended into the belly beyond its usual limits; it was inflamed and thickened; the urine was nearly in its natural state. The neck of the bladder was filled with varicose excrescences, that completely obstructed the passage. These excrescences were red, and so hard as to resist the knife; they contained each a small particle of hardened blood, in which two parts were distinguishable. The bottom of the bladder was very black, and its surface of a reddish yellow; the whole of the urethra was red and inflamed.

It will be pretty evident, that, should a case like this occur, it is incurable. It sometimes happens that the urine appears unusually red, as if bloody. This affection may take place in any of these animals, and it is called bloody urine, puffing of blood, or red water. It is most common among cattle. It may arise from falls or bruises, from overtraining at hard work, as in horses from a hard run heat in racing, or after any violent exertion, such as a desperate leap; or it may proceed from inflammation of the kidneys.

When it takes place in cattle, the animals are affected with an almost incessant desire to stale; sometimes they Diseases. they make but little water at once; sometimes the urine comes away in its usual quantity. In this latter case, if the urine be deeply tinged, it is considered as a very dangerous symptom, and when it happens, the beasts leave the herd, and appear to feel considerable pain; they hold up their tail, and sometimes hold their back higher than common. In fact, these symptoms, which do not seem well understood by the cattle doctors, indicate an inflammation of the kidneys.

When this disease is occasioned by strains, bruises, or any violent exertion, there is reason to fear that inflammation may take place. This must therefore be guarded against by bleeding, cooling drinks, and succulent food; by avoiding exercise and every thing that can heat or irritate. It is a common custom to give nitre and other saline substances in these cases; but when there is any inflammatory affection in the kidneys, these salts are improper, as they tend to increase the irritation of these organs. The best drinks in such cases will therefore be thin gruel, linseed-tea, or bran-water.

Cattle are said to be most subject to the red water in the spring, or summer, while at grass; and it is supposed to be produced sometimes by sudden changes of the weather, by want of water, or the use of such as is unwholesome. Young cattle are more subject to it than those of more advanced age; hence particular attention should be paid to these young animals; as when the affection has once taken place, it is considered as highly dangerous. These are the opinions of cattle doctors, and we suppose they refer chiefly to inflammation of the kidneys, of which bloody urine is, as we have said, a prevalent symptom. This formidable disease will be considered more at large hereafter.

It appears that when cattle are sent from Europe, to the West Indies, the bulls when first put on shore are extremely liable to this complaint, which often proves fatal. It is attributed to the eager desire which these animals, after having been so long confined to a dry diet on board, have for green succulent food, in which they will of course indulge to excess the first opportunity. The remedies found most effectual are bleeding, and the administering of nitre and purging salts; but it might probably be prevented by housing the cattle immediately after they are brought on shore, and accustoming them gradually to their change of diet.

Sometimes the colour of the urine in sheep and cattle is nearly black, and they are then said to labour under the black water. This affection is not well understood, but it is probably a variety of the last. It is said to be produced by feeding on cold, wet land, and that simple removal of the cattle to a more favourable situation will often effect a cure. Mr Lawrence considers the black water as a symptom of incipient mortification of the kidneys, and commends bleeding, (unless in a cow), cordials and tonics, such as iron fillings, with bark, opium, nitre, in strong beer, if the progress of mortification be apprehended. We may remark, that, if mortification of the kidneys has taken place, which may in general be known by the stinking smell of the urine; all these remedies could produce no effect; and it would be much better to kill the animal it once, than be at the expense of time, labour and medicines, in attempting to effect a hopeless cure.

A scouring or purging is a very common disease in all our domestic animals; and in some of them it is very dangerous, and very difficult to cure. The complaint is somewhat different in the several species, so as to require a particular description in each. Some horses are liable to be affected with a purging from the slightest cause, and on every exertion. These horses are called by grooms way-bay horses, and they are said to have narrower chests and lanker bellies than others; and it is to this unusual deformity that the purging is generally attributed. Some horses are said to labour under a nervous diarrhoea; those that are chiefly subject to it are young, and of a weak and irritable habit. The complaint generally appears on them only when at work; and when they are suffered to remain idle, their bowels are sufficiently healthy. Mr Lawrence had a favourite young horse that was subject to this nervous scouring, and on whom he tried a variety of medicines to no purpose, as it was found that nothing but idleness could arrest the complaint. To use Mr Lawrence's words, "the nag whilst at play, was always fat as bacon, and very firm in body; but a week's work reduced his flesh, and caused him to dung like a cow." Horses of this delicate constitution require great care and attention, or they will not be of much use to the owner. They should have strong nourishment, but it should be given in small quantities at a time. Mr Lawrence recommends good old beans mixed with their oats, lucerne, or strong upland hay, with rice mathees, carrots, and occasional runs of grass.

A purging may be brought on in horses by a sudden change of diet, as from hay to grass, or from grass to hay. Hence, in such horses as are liable to disorders of the bowels, these changes should always be made very gradually. It is very commonly the effect of exposure to cold while the body is heated, and is one of the least dangerous affections arising from that cause. A purging may also be owing to irritating substances, such as crude, unwholesome, or undigested food remaining in the bowels; and in these cases it is often attended with pain, from the formation of an acid in the bowels.

A purging in horses is seldom dangerous, except when it arises to a great height, or continues very long, so as to produce a great waste of flesh, or very considerable weakness.

In general it is sufficient, in order to carry off a purging in horses, to avoid the causes which have produced it, where these can be ascertained; to wash away irritating substances from the bowels, by giving plentifully of diluting liquors, such as water gruel and linseed tea, or gradually to change the diet, if the purging seems to have arisen from improper feeding. If, however, the disease should continue obstinate, or be attended with unpleasant symptoms, means must be taken for checking or removing it. Some caution is requisite as to the plan of treatment to be adopted; as, if the complaint be checked too suddenly, some other dangerous affection might be produced. Veterinary writers differ considerably with respect to the treatment of diarrhoea in horses; some recommending gentle laxatives, as rhubarb, which Mr Lawrence considers as the safest anchor in these cases; while others strenuously advise against the use of purgatives, and recommend opium and astringents. Probably in most cases there is little need of laxatives, and after plentiful diluting, one of the best remedies will be clysters of starch or water gruel, with a small quantity of laudanum. If there is acidity in the stomach... flomach and bowels, prepared chalk or lime water may be given with advantage; and if there is considerable weakness, the strengthening astringent medicines may, in the latter stages, be used without hesitation. We agree with Mr Blaine, that these are less proper at the commencement of the disease.

In cattle this complaint is sometimes very serious, and farmers not unfrequently lose several of their animals by it in a season. This has induced them to call it the scouring rot. When the purging has continued long, it produces in these animals a general weakness and loss of flesh. Their skin sometimes hangs loose about the body; in other cases they appear hide-bound; the hair turns sandy, or of a grayish colour; their eyes grow pale; the pulse becomes weak and irregular; their excrements thin and flimsy, and frequently change colour, especially in the early stages of the disease; but when the complaint is pretty far advanced, the dung appears like half-chewed food; and in fact, in these cases the food appears to pass through the bowels without undergoing the digestive process. It is said that when the animals have been long affected with this scouring rot, they feel a great degree of distress and pain, when grasped on each side of the back-bone, just behind the shoulders; and this is considered as a sure mark that the beast has become tainted or unfeasted, from the scouring rot.

This complaint in cattle may arise from most of the causes that have been stated to produce it in the horse; but it is considered as being most commonly owing to their being overheated in driving, and to want of sufficient nourishment, either with respect to quantity or quality. It may be produced in cows, by their being constantly and too frequently milked, while they are deprived of proper nourishment; and it is not uncommonly produced by lodging on wet ground in autumn, and feeding on a coarse, unwholesome food.

In the treatment of this complaint in cattle, a number of strange remedies have been employed, such as hogs' dung, turpentine and butter-milk; dock root boiled in salt and water, and nettle root boiled in forge water. Among the most feasible receipts that we have seen, is one in Rowlin's Cow-Doctor, composed of three ounces of bole ammoniac, with two ounces of bay berries, and the same quantity of alum, of shavings of ivory, and powdered comfrey root, boiled in two quarts of skimmed milk, adding while boiling a handful of starch. This is to be given for a dose, for which, however, it is perhaps rather too strong. Mr Lawrence recommends that, on the first appearance of the scouring, the cattle should be taken to the home fold, and put on dry food, which will generally supersede the necessity of medicine. The remedy which Mr Blaine seems chiefly to rely on, is a decoction of an ounce of ipecacuanha, a drachm and half of nux vomica, half an ounce of galls, two drachms of alum, and 20 grains of white vitriol, in a quart of water boiled to a pint. Perhaps this decoction is rather too complex, and some of its ingredients may be spared. The receipt, No. 30, is well suited to these cases. It may be supposed that where the scouring has continued for any considerable time, the bowels are become extremely sore and tender. In this case, mucilaginous or oily substances would be of advantage, and they should be given frequently, both by the mouth and by way of clyster. Mr Lawrence recommends a pound of fresh mutton fat boiled in 3 quarts of milk until the fat is dissolved, to form a drink to be given warm. This, we doubt not, will answer extremely well. If the disease should go to an alarming height, starch clysters with laudanum may be given as a last resource. Mr Blaine remarks, that, in these cases, he should be disposed to try animal food altogether; giving broth to drink, or the blood of other animals, with meat balls forced down the throat; as he thinks it not improbable that thus a change might be effected in the constitution, which might pave the way to a cure.

Dr Dickson thinks that much advantage may be derived in these cases, from a strong decoction of hawthorn shavings and caffia, with powdered chalk, in the proportion of half a pound of chalk, four ounces of shavings, and an ounce of caffia, to be boiled together in two quarts (chopins) of water to three pints, (watchkins), adding the caffia towards the close of the boiling. A hornful of this mixture is to be given several times in the day, shaking it well every time.

Calves, when first weaned, are subject to a species of purging which sometimes proves extremely obstinate; and it is said that the principal reason of the calf-feeders giving them chalk to lick, is to prevent this purging. It appears that this disease will take place in calves, when they are fed on the milk of some particular cows; and that when the milk is changed the complaint goes off. The purging may in general be checked by boiling starch and bean flour in their milk; and if it still continues obstinate, a little ginger and laudanum may be added.

This disease is extremely incident to young lambs, pinning in and it is called by the shepherds pinning, because when lambs the purging has continued for any time, there flows from the fundament a glutinous matter that fattens or pins down the tail to the hips, and prevents any farther evacuation. When this is observed by the shepherds, they commonly seize the lamb, and after washing away the glutinous matter from the tail, so as to disengage it from the hips, they rub the parts with fine earth, or other fine powdery matter, to prevent their sticking in future. Something of this kind is very proper, but hogs' lard, or any other greasy substance, would answer the purpose much better. The disease is said to be produced by wet and cold in spring, together with the ewes eating too greedily of soft moist grass. It may be prevented or cured, by removing the flock to healthy or poorer pastures, that abound with astringent or aromatic plants.

Mr Findlater remarks that among lambs fed with their dams, upon the rich improved pasture of Lothian parks, pinning never occurs; whence it is probable that it originates from milk concocted from poorer pasture, which gives more curd than cream to the milk, rendering the excrements of the lamb more viscid. When the mothers have little milk, the lambs are very rarely pinned. Pinning is therefore considered as a favourable symptom of the lamb's being well nurled. It is not considered as a disease in Tweeddale; though, if not redressed, it would be productive of disease. It is considered as an accident to be guarded against, and which, like other accidents to which sheep are liable, requires the shepherd to be constantly walking through his flock. No Tweeddale farmer would, on this account, remove his ewes and lambs to poorer pasture, where the lambs... Diseases. Lambs would be worse nursed; as he knows, that if the pinned lamb is timeously noticed, and relieved by pulling up the tail, all danger is removed.

In dogs. Dogs are also very subject to this complaint, and it may be brought on in these animals by any of the causes which we have mentioned as producing it in the other species. In young dogs it is often the effect of worms, and in this case the stools are slimy, greenish, and sometimes bloody. Common loofenets in dogs may be removed by much the same remedies as in other animals, as by ipecacuanha, opium, with starch, or arrow root clysters, and prepared chalk, if there is any acidity in the bowels; but where it proceeds from worms, it cannot be effectually removed till they are expelled.

Purging must be carefully distinguished from dyttery, or what is called bloody-flux in the human species, and brakes/baw in sheep, as in this latter there are symptoms of inflammation, and commonly more or less of fever. The distinguishing marks of this disease will be considered hereafter, as we cannot properly treat of it in this place.

Coffivenets. Coffivenets, or binding of the belly, occurs occasionally in all these animals; but it chiefly calls for attention in the horse, as in him it is more frequent and more dangerous. It arises for the most part from want of exercise, when the horse is kept upon hard dry food, as oats or beans. It is a constant symptom of colic and of inflammation in the bowels, and the continuance of it always aggravates these complaints, and seldom fails to produce them where they were not before present.

It is best prevented by occasional change of diet; by giving the horse barley boiled, or green food now and then, where he cannot be frequently sent to pasture; and every night or two allowing him a mash of bran, or, if he is of a very colitive habit, of malt. Regular exercise and good dressing, especially friction on the belly some time after feeding, are also good preventives. If it should arise to any considerable height, the bowels must be emptied by back-raking, and the administration of softening, laxative clysters, which may be repeated every three or four hours till the bowels become sufficiently regular. Purges given by the mouth, though they may, after some hours, remove the coffivenets, seldom fail to do more harm than good, especially if the complaint has continued long; and there is considerable heat of the body, fulness of the pulse, pain in the bowels, or great irritation. In their cases, while the bowels are opened by clysters, it may be proper to take away a little blood.

Suckling calves are sometimes subject to coffivenets. When this happens, the chalk should be taken away, and half an ounce or an ounce of magnesia be given them in a pint of warm gruel; or if the coffivenets continue, a little rhubarb may be added.

Chap. VIII. Morbid Affections of Generation.

It has been wisely ordained by nature, that the inferior animals shall feel the passion of defile only at certain seasons; and these periods are generally so adapted, that delivery shall take place at such a time of the year as will be best suited to the rearing and feeding of the young animal. It is probable that in a state of nature these animals, whether male or female, do not experience inordinate desire, except at the proper periods; and when domesticated, the females are scarcely ever fallacious, except at these times. The males of these animals, however, in the domestic state, especially dogs, are occasionally subject to excessive lust, and all of them, during the periods assigned by nature, become sometimes very unruly, if not permitted to indulge their natural appetite. Should circumstances render it necessary to prevent them from indulging this propensity, they must be kept on a lower diet than usual, or have such food as contains least nourishment in the same quantity; and must be made to use more exercise than common. They must also be kept extremely cool, and horses should at these times have less litter to sleep on than usual.

It is of considerable consequence to those who make breeding an object, that the animals who are to copulate should not be indifferent to the act in which they are engaged. It sometimes happens that either the male or the female betrays a coldness or indifference, which may defeat the object of the breeder. When it appears that a stallion or a bull regards the mare or cow presented to him with tranquil air, or turns from her when he ought to do his duty, it is clear that something is wrong, and that the issue of such a forced connection would scarcely be worth the trouble of rearing. It is said that Spanish stallions are more subject to this indifference than others.

If an indifference of this kind should take place in an animal that is generally keen and vigorous, it would be wrong to employ any incitement to stimulate him to an action for which he has perhaps been unfitted by too much exertion of the same kind during the season; but where the animal is naturally thus cool, and has otherwise the requisite qualities of a good stallion or bull, it may not be amiss to employ some stimulating means before leading him to the female. He should be kept on a generous diet, and when particularly required, he may have a cordial ball given him, with a quart of good ale after it. This will generally answer the purpose, or, if it does not, the animal is unfit for his office, and should be discarded. It is a common practice among some grooms to insert a slice of ginger into the fundament of an indifferent horse, and this is said to have the effect of rousing his latent powers.

Indifference for coition is more likely to take place in the females of these animals, and it is no uncommon thing for a mare or a cow to refuse the male. In general this is owing to a poorness of diet; and these females should, like the males, before being taken to be covered, be put on a generous diet with moderate exercise. Probably all strong, stimulating remedies, such as cantharides, which are sometimes given, do more harm than good, as they may produce inflammation of some internal organ, without producing completely the desired effect. The cordial ball and strong ale are the most innocent remedies in these cases, and where nature is tolerably sufficient, they will be the most efficacious.

The parts of generation in these animals are subject to certain accidents or diseases, and it is necessary that we should notice the more common of these.

The horse is subject to what is called a falling of the penis. This consists in a relaxation, and total weakness of the parts destined to sustain and support it in its natural FAR R I E R Y.

It may be produced by various causes, as by too great exertion in labour; hence it is common to draught horses that are hard worked. It may also depend on a violent spasm of the muscles of these parts, as this is always succeeded by a proportionate relaxation and atony. It is not unfrequently produced when a stallion is made to cover too many mares in one season.

When the calf is flight, after returning the penis within the fleath, which should always be done, a pail or two of cold water, or of salt and water, may be thrown over it several times in the day, and the muscles may be anointed with some stimulating liniment. It has been advised to make superficial punctures about the yard with a sharp needle, and then to wash it with distilled vinegar; but we do not know whether this plan has been attended with the desired success. If the complaint continues obstinate, the penis must be bolstered up, and a charge applied over the back part of the fleath so as to leave sufficient room for the horse to make water. If the complaint is attended with a general weakness, tonics and cordial remedies must be applied.

When a cow has been delivered with more than usual difficulty, or has been very long in labour before procuring assistance, it not unfrequently happens that the womb is inverted, or, as it is commonly expressed, the calf-bed comes down. This accident is more likely to happen to some cows than to others, and is more especially incident to those of a weak habit of body, and such as are unusually wide between the thighs. In such cows it would be proper to pay more than usual attention about the time when labour is expected to take place, and the fall in which they are left should be made very commodious, that they may frequently lie down, as the great weight of their burden will have most effect while they are standing. When the calf-bed is come down, it should be returned as soon as possible, by the operator clenching his fist after greasing it and putting it to the middle part of the womb, which he is thus to push gently into its place, and when it is up, he must take care not to withdraw his hand too suddenly; but it would be better to keep it within the womb for a little, as it will stimulate the adjacent muscles to preserve the parts in the proper situation. After withdrawing the hand gently, the external parts should be bathed with camphorated spirits, and the beast must be watched, to prevent the same accident from taking place again. It is the practice with some to lead the cow down a hill after returning the womb, as it is supposed that this is greatly advantageous to the parts recovering their proper position. If proper assistance cannot soon be procured, the inverted womb should be laid on a clean soft linen sheet, and carefully covered from the air, the irritation of which might produce an inflammation. If the relaxation of the parts is so great that the womb still comes down, recourse must be had to a stay, to put behind, to prevent the womb from falling down; and some have recommended stitching it to the adjacent parts with a wax thread. Probably this operation would be attended with more danger than benefit.

Cows and mares sometimes suffer abortion, or as it is called, slip their calf or foal, before the usual time of labour. This accident may be brought on by violent exercise, especially by leaping hedges and ditches; by sudden frights, knocks, or bruises; and it is also said that it may arise from bad smells, and ardent desire in the mare or cow; but these latter causes are probably imaginary. It is advised by some to keep cows who have slipt their calves as free from having any communication with the rest of the cattle as possible, under the idea that the accident may become infectious; and it is declared that experience has shown, that without great care and management it may go through the whole stock, and even return the next season, if the same cattle are kept. We cannot vouch for the truth of these assertions, but if true, the circumstance is very remarkable.

When a cow or mare has slipt her young, unless this accident has been occasioned by great exertion, it is a proof that the animal is extremely weak, and she must be put on a more nourishing diet, and have strengthening remedies; but in general little is required after such an accident, but rest, and perhaps a warm bran mash. This latter may be frequently given to mares or cows during pregnancy, as colostrum may be a great means of producing abortion.

SECT. II. OF COMPLICATED DISEASES.

Many of the diseases, that have been treated of in the last section, are very important, and several of them highly dangerous; but those which we are now to consider, have a superior claim to our attention, either from their fatality, the rapidity of their progress, or their intimate connection with some of the most important or destructive maladies that affect the human race. They will, therefore, require a somewhat fuller discussion than we have thought it necessary to give to the diseases described in the last section.

We shall class them under the several heads of Fevers and Febrile Eruptions; Inflammations; Lethargic diseases; Spasmodic diseases; Dropsies; and Anomalous diseases; which will form the titles of as many chapters, the last comprehending those affections, of which the nature or causes have not been fully ascertained, with those that could not properly be reduced under any of the former heads.

For the general doctrine of fevers, inflammations, comata, spasms, and dropsy, we must refer to the medical articles of this work.

CHAP. I. Of Fevers and Febrile Eruptions.

All the domestic animals may be affected with primary fever; and this may be either of an inflammatory or putrid kind.

1. INFLAMMATORY FEVER. Synocha.

Inflammatory fever, as we believe, seldom seen as a primary or idiopathic complaint, except in the horse; and to the consideration of this fever, in that animal, we shall here confine ourselves. The symptoms are thus described by Mr Blaine:

"It is not easy to say what is the first symptom of fever in the horse; but from the effects that we see arise in some cases, it may be presumed that it is a cold fit. It is usual however first to observe this complaint, by..." Diseases by the loss of appetite, and dull heavy appearance of the animal; the extremities are cold, and the trunk hot, or the body is cold, and ears are hot. If a horse is attacked with common fever, while he is at grass, he is found restless, roving about the field, with an unsteady staggering air, and his head held low; if in the stable, frequently shifting his position, and is evidently restless and uneasy. His pulse is generally full, frequent, and hard, the two latter states of it are almost always present, but the former may vary. If the mouth is examined, it will be found hot and dry, and frequently smells strong; the breath is particularly hot, and there is often an increased redness of the inner membrane of the nose, even though there should be no primary affection of the lungs. The eyes are dull, heavy, and sometimes inflamed, and the horse starts, and is at times drowsy, but has no regular sleep. In this fever the secretions are generally diminished, therefore the dung is hard, and in small quantities; the urine sparingly made, and high coloured, and the excretions from the skin equally confined, giving it a dry harsh feel. The respiration is quickened, which is shown by the heaving at the flanks, and which must be distinguished from that difficulty accompanying inflammation of the lungs; in which case the air appears drawn through a part too small for it, as though we were to breathe through a quill; but in fever it is usually only simply accelerated.

"This forms the first stage of the complaint, and sometimes immediately succeeding to this, is an attack on some one particular organ, as the brain, lungs, bowels, or kidneys; in which case it ceases its primary affection, and becomes secondary and symptomatic; but when it remains purely of the febrile type, as the disease advances the symptoms become more irregular, seldom appearing the same in any two subjects, arising from particular states in the individual bodies, varieties in the treatment, or from some peculiarities in the disease itself. The pulse in this second stage continues hard, but loses some of its fulness, and increases in frequency; the skin becomes moister, the urine is secreted in rather larger quantities, and sometimes to these succeeds a purging; the watchfulness increases, and the horse is often observed in these cases to chew a lock of hay, and let it fall from his mouth again, as though infatuated of its escape.

"This disease seldom remains very long in this state; but there either succeeds a gradual abatement in the hardness and frequency of the pulse, the countenance becomes more lively, the muscular weakness increases; but the irritability lessens; the animal appears more tranquil; the secretions gradually return to their natural state; the mouth becomes moist, and the heat regular and equable; and thus is formed a resolution of the fever. This kind of fever, I believe, seldom terminates in a crisis, nor often by sweating; perhaps, it may sometimes by purging.

"But when to the foregoing symptoms, instead of their latter appearances, there succeeds great restlessness, or sometimes constant drowsiness, the pulse becoming very quick, as from 70 to 80 pulsations in a minute, preserving some of its hardness, and accompanied with profuse salting, though at others the urine remains high coloured, and small in quantity, and the thirst unabated; when to these are added great prostration of strength, a fatal termination may be expected."

We have said that simple fever is not common in diseases, sheep or cattle; but when it occurs in these animals, the symptoms differ little from those above described.

It must be remarked, that though the foregoing description will apply to most cases in horses, all the symptoms here laid down will not often be found in the same case; but they will vary according to the constitution of the animal and other circumstances. Sometimes the fever will have less of the inflammatory type, and will approach to what is called a low or nervous fever. Cases of low nervous fever are, however, very uncommon among horses. Mr Blaine says that he has met with no instance of this kind, but that he was assured by a Mr Bloxham, a veterinary practitioner of considerable observation, that he had met with a well-marked case of typhus fever. In cases that approach this low type, the heat of the body is more irregular than in the pure inflammatory fever, and the mouth often continues moist though drink be refused; and the secretions and excretions are usually not so much affected. Sometimes there takes place a discharge of glutinous matter from the nose, and the eyes are watery. The pulse in these cases usually ceases to be full after the first 24 or 36 hours; and though it still continues hard, it is more frequent than before, and becomes small and irregular as the disease advances. This low variety of fever is more dangerous than the true inflammatory fever, and requires more particular attention.

Inflammatory fever may be produced by any cause that violently agitates the body, and unusually accelerates the motion of the blood. It may be produced by excessive exertion and fatigue, or by an exposure to cold while the body is overheated. It is said to have been sometimes brought on by a sudden fright. A very common cause in hot climates, is long exposure to the direct rays of the sun. Pure inflammatory fever is certainly not contagious.

In the cure of inflammatory fever it is necessary to draw blood as soon as possible; and the quantity of blood taken away should be in proportion to the violence of the inflammatory symptoms. We are disposed, however, to think, that a less quantity than is usually recommended, perhaps not more than two quarts at once, will be sufficient, as the weakness that comes on in the latter stages of all fevers, will be greatly increased by too much loss of blood. The blood should be preserved in a proper vessel, as directed in No. 162. That it may be ascertained how far it will be proper to repeat the operation. When blood has been drawn, the horse should be back-raked, or a hand passed up the rectum, and the dung drawn carefully away; after which a clyster should be thrown up, such as No. 17. of the receipts. It should be blood-warm, and should be passed up carefully and gently. If there is much determination to the head, a blister may be applied to the neck, or a feton inserted as near the head as may be. Cooling medicines may be administered, such as the drenches, No. 22. and No. 26. All heating or cordial medicines, and stimulating food should, in the early stage of the fever, be carefully avoided. The diet should consist of light food that is easily digested, such as sweet hay, or, if that can be procured, lucerne or sainfoin; bran mash, and, by way of drink, thin gruel.

The rational mode of treating fevers, lately intro- ced into human medicine, will probably not soon be transferred to the stable. Grooms and farriers will not easily believe that it is necessary to keep a feverish horse cool, and allow him to breathe a free, pure air. The practice usually followed in these cases is to shut up the stable as closely as possible, and even to stop every cranny in the door and windows. This practice is not only sufficient to increase the disorder of the feverish horse, but even to excite fever in such horses as happen to be in the same stable. It is, besides, customary to cover up the horse with a load of body-clothes, in order that he may sweat off the fever; and probably these clothes are girded tight round his body by means of rollers.

Instead of this absurd method of treatment, a feverish horse should, if possible, be put into a stable where there is not more than one horse. As these animals naturally love society, it is better that he should not be quite solitary, otherwise he might be put in a stable by himself. The stable should be roomy and airy, and should be regularly cleaned. The horse may have a light cloth thrown over him, but this should not be fastened more than is sufficient to keep it from falling off his body.

When the inflammatory symptoms have subsided, and signs of debility begin to make their appearance, as they never fail to do in the course of a few days, a different plan of treatment will be required, as far as respects the administration of internal remedies. A horse labouring under fever must be carefully watched, in order to mark the time at which the inflammatory symptoms begin to give way to those of lowness and debility; and as the change is often very sudden, the horse should be visited at least twice a day, or oftener if possible, as were the groom or other attendant to continue the debilitating treatment after the symptoms of debility come on, such a degree of weakness may be produced as will not easily be recovered. The change will be discovered chiefly by the alteration of the pulse, which, from being hard and full, becomes softer, and in general weaker. This is the time to exhibit strengthening medicines; but these at first should be of the gentler kind, such as Peruvian bark, or willow bark, which may be given at first in moderate doses; and if the debility continues, the dose must be increased, and the medicine administered more frequently. During the whole treatment, care must be taken that the horse be not suffered to remain coltive, and his bowels may be kept moderately open, by giving him a warm bath every night. If the weakness becomes very great, and there appears much rattling of the heart, while the pulse continues low, it will be proper to administer some of the more powerful stimulant medicines, as camphor and opium, ammonia, or snake-root, as directed in the receipts No. 35 and 38. As the horse becomes convalescent, the stronger tonics, as oak bark, with ginger, may be administered twice or thrice a day; and as his appetite returns, he may be indulged with his usual food, with gentle exercise. It will be proper, however, to avoid any considerable exertion for a long time after the animal has become convalescent, as a considerable period must elapse before the body can recover its usual strength and vigour.

Inflammatory fever precedes or accompanies most violent inflammations, especially those of the brain and other viscera, and it generally ushered in several of the diseases. In some of these complaints the fever demands particular attention; but in most of them it is merely a secondary symptom, and yields to the general treatment of the disease.

2. EPIDEMIC PUTRID FEVER. Typhus, Murrain, Pest, Garble, Epizootic, Fr.

Putrid fever does not commonly attack horses, though putrid fever has occasionally raged epidemically among these animals. Lancisi, an Italian physician, has described an epidemic fever that raged among horses in Italy about the year 1712, and Mr. Ofner mentions an epidemic of a similar kind, attended with critical abscesses. He calls it the distemper, and says that it had raged at different periods for more than 50 years.

The most serious epidemic fevers that have ever appeared among domestic animals, are those which, from their violence and fatality, have been called murrains, or pestis, and which have raged occasionally from the earliest historical accounts.

Columella mentions a contagious disease, which he calls cruditas, that scarcely differs in its symptoms from the murrains that we are presently to describe. The following is his description. "Crebri ructus, ac ventris fonsit, faecida cibi, nervorum intenso, habitas oculi, propter qua bos neque ruminat, neque lingua se detegit." He advises bleeding in the tail, and back-raking, and clysters; and if it appears that the disease is contagious, he recommends the infected cattle to be separated from the rest of the herd.

A similar disease is also described by Vegetius, who recommends a similar treatment, with the additional advice: "Mortua cadavera ultra fines ville projicienda sunt, et altissime obruenda sub terris;" To carry the carcasses to a distance from the farm, and bury them deep in the earth.

Marius, a Burgundian ecclesiastic, who wrote in the 6th century, mentions a disease, which he considers as the smallpox, that destroyed great numbers of cattle, "Hoc anno (570) morbus validus, cum profusivo ventris et variola, Italiam, Galliamque validè affluit, et animalia bubula per loca supercypria maxima interrunt."

The first accounts that we have of any disorder of head's, this kind, since the beginning of the present century, are related by Ramazini and Lancisi, two physicians then living in Italy, where this disorder first broke out, in the year 1711, in the territories of the republic of Venice in the country round Padua; and was said to have been brought from Dalmatia, a province of Turkey, by some merchants importing living cattle, according to their annual custom, from that and the neighbouring parts. The disease soon spread itself through most parts of Italy beyond the river Po, and appeared two years after in the duchy of Ferrara, where it ravaged the country, in the years 1713 and 1714, that Lannonius, a celebrated physician of that time, informs us, it was a prevalent opinion, that the whole species would quickly become extinct. From Italy it travelled through the Tyrol into France. Shortly after Germany suffered, as well as the low countries; and from these parts it was supposed to have been transported into Great Britain and Ireland. But there is no no record of a new infection in this country since the year 1714, till the middle of last century, when we probably received the infection from Holland, where this disorder then reigned, having received the infection from some of the neighbouring parts of Germany and Flanders.

About the year 1744, it was reported to have been brought by some traders into Essex, who had purchased calves in Holland, or some other of the provinces of the low countries, which had the infection, and spread through several counties, till it became a matter of importance to the state; and on the 13th of February 1745 gave occasion to the passing of an act of parliament, commanding that every probable, or even possible, means should be employed, by officers appointed for that purpose, to prevent the farther spreading of it. Premiums were given to those who killed their cattle as soon as the infection made its appearance; and fines were imposed upon every one who acted in opposition to the established laws, respecting driving, exposing, or selling cattle, supposed or found to have caught the disorder. Every precaution, however, which could be suggested at that time, proved ineffectual; and fresh orders were issued by his majesty in council, which for some time were also found to produce very little effect. It became so alarming to the country, that many eminent medical characters in different parts of England, closely applied themselves to the study of remedies for this calamitous distemper. They differed in opinion, whether it was a disease of an infectious nature, or proceeded from a malignancy in the state of the atmosphere, or some peculiarity in the nature of their food. The contradictory opinions which prevailed among them, nearly prevented some of the ablest professional men from appearing in behalf of the public; especially Dr Barker, who wrote an ingenious pamphlet on the subject, and whose mode of treatment proved more successful than that of many others, whose pretensions were given to the public in a more confident manner, and more strenuously supported.

From the several histories that have been given of the disorder, it appears to have differed in its symptoms and effects, according to the countries in which it appeared; the various seasons in which it commenced its ravages, and some other circumstances not fully ascertained. There seems to have been no doubt that the disease was infectious, or at least that it was easily propagated among the species of animals which it attacked; but it does not appear to have been capable of spreading to other species; as men, horses, sheep, and dogs, that lived in the neighbourhood of the infected cattle, showed no marks of having received the contagion.

In the historical sketch of the writers on veterinary medicine, we mentioned several works on the subject of the murrains that prevailed over Europe in the last century; and of these it will have appeared that the greater part were the production of foreigners. The most celebrated of these foreign publications were those of Sauvages, Goëlicke, and Camper. The work of the latter upon this subject is extremely valuable; and as it was written for the instruction of people in general, having been delivered in the form of lectures before a crowded audience, it is preferable to many others that have appeared on the subject. It is given in the third volume of Camper's works on natural history, physiology, and comparative anatomy, lately published at Paris. Camper delivered four lectures; in the first of which he explains to his hearers the structure and direction of the principal blood-vessels of the neck and extremities in cattle, and the natural position and appearance of the entrails of these animals. In the second he describes the natural structure of the four stomachs, the liver, and the spleen, and of the heart and lungs. In the third he explains the function of rumination, or chewing the cud, in all ruminating animals, but especially in cattle. In the fourth lecture he gives an account of the several writings that had appeared on the subject of epizootic diseases; among which he particularly recommends a German work by Dr Krunetz, that of Goëlicke, and those of our countrymen Brockleby and Layard. In the same lecture he gives a very accurate detail of the symptoms of the disease as it appeared in the province of Groningen in the year 1768, with the appearances on diffusion; his own opinion with respect to the nature of the malady, and an account of the most approved method of treating it. We regret that this work came into our hands too late for us to make any considerable use of it in this article.

The medical practitioners in England, to whom we are most indebted for an accurate account of the symptoms of this disorder, and a rational mode of treating it, are Dr Brockleby and Dr Layard. As the account given by these gentlemen differs in several particulars, though there can be no doubt that both describe the appearances which fell under their own observations, we shall extract a few particulars from both their publications. The following is Dr Brockleby's account of the disease.

For ten days or a fortnight the cattle were troubled with a dry cough, which is indeed not an uncommon symptom among cattle, at that time of the year, and therefore Dr Brockleby did not consider it belonging to the present disease; the hair was rougher on the skin than ordinary; their eyes looked heavy, and, when the principal disorder appeared, they refused fodder, but had an insatiable thirst for a time. The milk-cows decreased in their milk, which remained to a certain quantity, sometimes for two days, before it changed colour, but at length often dried up. Upon ceasing to chew the cud, a shivering seized them all over, and a high fever immediately came on; the milk, if any remained to that time, curdled over the fire, but did not in the first of the disorder. At first the belly was colicive, but for the most part a loofenefs succeeded within forty-eight hours after the shivering fit. The stools were first green and watery, and of a itching smell; their constipation, however, altered afterwards to a viscid, flinty matter, the purging accompanied till about the seventh day, and about that time the excrements became thicker, in such as recovered; and these soon chewed their cud again, and tasted of fodder, which they had before absolutely refused through the whole disease. All that had not the loofenefs before the third day died. The urine was very high coloured, and in smaller quantities. The degree of fever was observed very high; upon the third day the pulse beat near a hundred times in a minute, whereas the ingenious Dr Hales found a sound ox's artery not to exceed 39 pulses, in the same time. At different intervals, vals, after the attack, they all laboured under a prodigious difficulty and panting for breath; some suffered these after the first day, others not before the third. But this disorder suffered remissions, and seemed to be augmented towards evening, and at night. Several beasts discharged, towards the fourth or fifth day, when ill, a very great quantity of a frothy liquor from the mouth and eyes; others ran actually purulent matter from the nostrils. As the disorder advanced, the eyes sunk more in their orbits, and some were observed to be quite blind. Towards the conclusion, the fore parts of the body, and particularly the glands about the head, were prodigiously swelled, and several beasts had a universal emphysema, or crackling of air beneath their skin; those that were not blooded, equally with such as were. Frequently one might observe pustules break out on the fifth or sixth days, all over the neck and fore parts. Some cattle were raging mad on the first day; such were necessarily killed; some dropped down suddenly; others died on the third, most on the fifth or seventh, very few alive to the fourteenth day; before death the horns and legs grew remarkably cold.

The appearances in the dead bodies of eight different cows were as follow: The flesh was of a sound colour, and everywhere lined with fat, the cellular membrane between the skin and flesh was distended with air to above the thickness of three inches. The paunch was prodigiously distended with food, in all of them, but it contained not anything preternatural; nor indeed in the reticulum or second stomach, were there any morbid appearances; but, upon incision of the omasus, or third stomach, in which the food is naturally without much juice, a most offensive stench rushed out, with a large quantity of thin greenish water.

The blood-vessels on the inner surface of the ventricle were very full. The abomasus and part of the intestines discovered the like morbid phenomena. The liver, spleen, and kidneys were as usual; but the gall-bladder seemed to be in the greater number fuller than ordinary; the consistence of some was thicker than the rest, and the gall tasted disagreeably sweetish. Dr Brocklesby did not observe any purulent matter investing the inner surface of the intestines, though other gentlemen discovered such, in some cattle, if new as rightly informed; but there appeared in some a slimy mucus, all along the intestinal canal.

The lungs universally showed the strongest signs of a preceding high inflammation; most of them were turgid with red blood, while the smallest vessels of the bronchia, or air-vessels, were very much inflated. Some few arterious vessels were replete with a gelatinous, glairy mucus, and all the lungs appeared larger than they do in common. The whole inner surface of the trachea, or wind-pipe, was covered with a frothy mucus; but he never found any ulcers with purulent matter either at the root of the tongue, or in the lungs. Upon opening two or three heads, he found large quantities of extravasated serum; and the blood retained fluidity in the larger vessels long after death.

The method of treating the cattle recommended by Dr Brocklesby is as follows: Before the cattle are seized, he advises two fetons, or pegs, to be put deep into the dewlap, and into the under part of the neck; and immediately upon refusing fodder, the beasts should have three quarts of blood taken away; and after twelve hours, two quarts more; after the next twelve hours about three pints may be let out; and after the following twelve hours, diminish a pint of blood from the quantity taken away at the preceding blood-letting; lastly, about a single pint should be taken away in less than twelve hours after the former bleeding; so that when the beast has been bled five times, in the manner here proposed, the worst symptoms will, it is hoped, abate; but if the difficulty and panting for breath continue very great, he sees no reason against repeating bleeding, or at least against taking away the fifth time, instead of a single pound, twice that quantity.

In the mean time the fetons or pegs should be daily promoted to suppuration by moving the cord; and the cattle should have as much bran-water as they choose to drink juice-warm. This should be made a little tart or sourish, either with common vinegar or spirit of vitriol; and immediately after the first bleeding they should have a drench composed of a drachm and a half of camphor, well rubbed with two ounces of honey, adding an ounce and a half of nitre, and about a quart of water-gruel.

It is extraordinary that this treatment, with a little variation in the internal medicine is recommended by Mr Feron as the result of his own experience, in what he calls the general inflammation of cattle. It is a curious coincidence; as we suppose that Mr Feron, from his not noticing Dr Brocklesby's pamphlet, has never seen it.

The doctor recommends keeping the cattle very warm, and guarding against the admission of any cool air, a practice in which he will scarcely be followed at the present day.

The symptoms of this disorder as described by Dr Layard are, on the first appearance of the infection, a decrease of appetite; a poking out of the neck, implying some difficulty in deglutition, a shaking of the head, rain, as if the ears were tickled; a hanging down of the ears, and deafness; dimmness of the eyes; and a moving to and fro in a constant uneasiness. All these signs, except the last, increase till the fourth day. Then a stupidity and unwillingness to move, great debility, total loss of appetite, a running at the eyes and the nose, sometimes sickness, and throwing up of bile, a husky cough, and shivering. The head, horns, and breath are very hot, while the body and limbs are cold. The fever, which was continued the three first days, now rises and increases towards evening; the pulse is all along quick, contracted, and irregular. A constant diarrhoea, or scouring of fetid green faeces, a flanking breath, and nauseous streams from the skin, infect the air they are placed in. The blood is very florid, hot, and frothy. The urine, or stale, is highly coloured; the roofs of their mouths, and their barbs, are ulcerated. Tumours, or boils, are to be felt under the panniculus carnosus, or fleshy membrane of the skin; and eruptions appear all along their limbs, and about their legs. If a new milch-cow be thus ill, her milk dries up gradually, her purging is more violent, and on the fourth day she is commonly dry. There is such acrimony or sharpness in their dung, that a visible irritation is to be observed during some time in ano. They groan much, are worse in the evening, and mostly lying down. These symptoms continue increasing till the seventh day from the invasion, on which generally, though... Diseases though sometimes protracted till the ninth, the crisis or turn takes place.

If after the seventh day from the invasion (at which time a crisis may be expected), the eruptions, boils, or abscesses are decreased in bulk, or totally disappear, without having broken or discharged outwardly, or an aggravation of the symptoms already mentioned, with no intermission; it may be affixedly pronounced, that the beast will die.

As to the cure, immediately upon the first appearance of the distemper, the beast should be put into some place where it may be kept clean, warm, and as free as possible from infectious steams of other beasts in the same condition. The beast must be bled in proportion to its strength, washed with warm water and vinegar, to clear the hair from filth and insects, and rubbed every morning and evening, for a quarter of an hour, with a dry linen or woollen cloth, or straw, to promote perspiration. A rowel also is to be made in the dewlap, which is to be dressed twice every day, which rowel is also to be kept in a month at least after the recovery of the beast.

Should the beast be hot, hang down his head, breathe with difficulty after the bleeding, dung hard, and the skin feel tight and thick; then it will be very proper to give a gentle, cooling purge in this first stage. When the beast has voided the hardened dung, or if it should not have wanted purging, the following drench is to be given. Take of madder-root, three ounces; of turmeric and horse-radish-root, each one ounce; of fenugreek-seeds, bruised, two ounces; of chamomile-flowers, dried leaves of feverfew, rue, and sage, of each one handful. Boil them half an hour in a gallon of small ale, well hopped, to three quarts; then strain the liquor, and give the beast three pints in the morning, and the remainder in the evening. No dry or solid fodder is to be offered till the beast chews the cud again. Between these drenches a quart or two of distilled vinegar-whey must be given frequently in the day, to dilute the hard fodder, and strengthen the coats of the stomach; and hay-water may be also given. Great care must be taken, twice or thrice a-day, to cleanse the mouth, barbs, and nostrils of the distempered cattle, with some abating acidulated liquor. On the fourth day, if the beast be heavy, dull, shivering, no pimples or knots arise, and a purging be coming on, the following drench must be given at about eight in the evening, and repeated three or four nights, as occasion requires.

Take of Virginian snake-root, contrayerva root, chamomile-flowers powdered, of each half an ounce; Venice treacle, fix drachms: Mix all these in three pints of vinegar-whey, and give the drench lukewarm. Let a person fit up all night with the beast, and give it frequently a quart of vinegar-whey. Venice treacle may also be serviceable; and if there be any signs of mortification from the dark and relaxed appearance of the mouth, the coldness of the skin, the black fetid dung, insensibility, &c., the Peruvian bark must be instantly given every four or six hours, as occasion may require, taking the usual medicines in the intervals. In the last stage, let the swellings that puff up the skin be opened and digested; and after the crisis takes place, if a scouring should ensue, it is not to be hastily stopped, though diligently watched and restrained, lest it weaken the beast too much; and to cleanse the stomach and bowels, let a purge of rhubarb, fennel, &c. be given. Dr Layard advises to let the beast drink water-gruel lukewarm, and keep it on dry meat, though sparingly; and at night to give an ounce of electuary of cardiodium, in a quart or three pints of small ale, warm. But if after the crisis the beast is coltive, and the skin dry, harsh, and tight on the flesh; dunging may be procured by giving in the evening a mash of bran, with a handful of beans bruised, and an ounce of Epsom salt. He recommends, however, the greatest exactness in observing when the crisis is over; for the least laxative medicine, or opening food, at the height of the disease, and consequently in the former stages of expulsion and maturation, will certainly bring on a scouring, attended with fatal consequences, or at least very difficult to be removed. In winter time, the cattle, upon recovery, should not be turned out at once to the pasture-grounds, let these be ever so dry; but towards the middle of the day, in fair weather, turning them out two hours, and then bringing them in again, will gradually use them to the open air. In summer, morning and evening will be the most suitable times; for the heat of the sun, or cold, may bring on other disorders.

"A farmer, (says Dr Layard), lost ten head of cattle, and two more were dying, and seven others ill, when I took upon me the direction of the seven which were last fallen ill. By the preceding treatment five of these recovered. One cow, very near her time of calving, died; and the seventh was certainly lost for want of observing the due time of the crisis, and purging too soon."

Such are the accounts given by Brockleby and Layard, of the symptoms and treatment of this destructive malady; and it will be seen that their accounts differ no more than what may be expected from two different persons describing a similar disease that occurred at two different periods; for the murrain described by Dr Brockleby appeared in the years 1744 and 1745, while that of which Dr Layard has given an account occurred between 1750 and 1760.

The causes and nature of this disease have not been exactly ascertained. Some have supposed it connected with a peculiar state of the atmosphere, and that it did not originate in contagion. Many considered the principal causes of the disease to be previous hard winters, obstructed perspiration, worms in the liver, and corrupted food.

Hard winters have been considered as a cause of this disease, because it was in 1710, after the hard winter in 1709 that the great mortality among the cattle was observed; and because the hard winter in 1740 was followed by the contagion in 1741, which spread over the most part of Europe. Not to mention many others, the murrain in 1768, followed immediately after a pretty hard winter in 1767. On the other hand Camper remarks, that the hard winter in 1727 was not followed by the contagion; from which it would appear that the epidemic does not necessarily depend on the severity or mildness of the preceding winter.

It was attributed by many to obstructed perspiration; and to prevent its attack, it was proposed to cover the cattle during the nights of autumn, and to make them sleep within doors during the spring nights. Diseases. It may, however, be observed, that if this reasoning were true, the disease ought to have been less prevalent, or ought not to have appeared at all, in those provinces where, for the sake of saving the dung, they house the cattle at night, even in the summer, as well as in the spring and autumn. Besides it appears that the contagion was not known at Bern, though the cattle in that district lay all night in the field whenever the weather would permit.

Camper justly ridicules the idea of the disease originating from worms in the blood, or in the liver.

"If (says Camper), you demand of me, to what I attribute the first origin of the distemper, I shall answer, as it were to be wished that all naturalists would do in similar cases, that I do not know; that the subject is above my comprehension, and doubts above that of every man."

There seems no doubt, however, that the complaint was infectious, and that provided proper means were taken to prevent infection, the distemper would not spread. The means proposed by Dr Layard and some other medical practitioners, to destroy the contagion, was to bury the carcases of the infected animals, and to slaughter all that appeared to have received the infection. Inoculation was proposed by some, as a means of diminishing the ravages of the murrain; and is said to have been practised in Denmark with considerable success: but if this be true, it is probable that the epizootic disease that raged in Denmark was of a different nature from that which appeared in Britain, and on some parts of the continent; as inoculation seems to have been tried in these places without effect. What probably led to the proposal of inoculation was, that the disease was considered by some as exactly similar to the smallpox in the human body. This opinion was adopted by Dr Layard, and seems to have arisen from the boils or suppurating tumours which appeared on the bodies of most of the affected cattle; but these tumours do not appear to be similar to the eruption that takes place in smallpox, but rather resemble the boils or buboes that take place in the plague and some other highly infectious fevers. On the whole, it seems to us pretty evident, that the disease is of the nature of putrid fever, and we have therefore ranked it under this head.

It appears from Camper's works, that inoculation was attended with so much success in many cases on the continent, that a great number of cattle was saved by it, who probably could not have been recovered from the natural disease. The advantages attending inoculation according to Camper are,

1st. That we can expose to the danger of contagion such calves and heifers only as are of a moderate price. 2nd. That the heifers pass through the disease before they take the bull, and consequently before they are pregnant. This is attended with more advantage than may appear at first sight; for when the contagion attacks a whole herd, all at once, oxen, calves, heifers, and cows are seized without distinction. Such cows as are pregnant generally slip their calf, and even if they should perfectly recover, their womb is so disordered that it will never afterwards be capable of retaining the calf; besides, that afterwards it is a long time before they come in heat, so that the proprietor is obliged to keep them for a whole year without deriving from them any benefit, except he fatten them for the butcher.

If the success of inoculation, as well as the certainty of the cattle being incapable of a second infection, were fully ascertained, the plan of inoculation would be extremely proper. If these points were fully established, would they not, however, militate considerably against the opinion that is entertained by the best writers on the subject, even by Camper himself, that this disease is an idiopathic putrid fever, and not an eruptive complaint like the smallpox?

Considering the disease as one that is highly contagious, every method should be taken to check the propagation of the infection. For this purpose the houses where the cattle are stabled, should be kept perfectly clean, and well ventilated. It would also be proper to fumigate these places twice a day with the vapours of some mineral acid, such as the nitrous or muriatic acids, as has been recommended by Dr Johnstone, Guyton Morveau, and Dr Carmichael Smith. This fumigation may be easily effected by placing pipkins of warm sand in various parts of the cattle-houses, and particularly at the doors, and placing on the sand a cup containing common salt or pounded nitre, on which is to be poured a sufficient quantity of sulphuric acid or oil of vitriol, stirring the mass now and then with a glass rod, to promote the escape of the acid vapours.

We shall conclude this subject with a series of queries that were circulated among medical men on the continent by the Society of Medicine at Paris, for the purpose of gaining every necessary information respecting this alarming pestilence, as they may tend to direct the inquiries of those who shall in future have an opportunity of observing the distemper.

1. What is the situation of the country in which the epidemic appears, and what is the nature of the soil? 2. Of what quality are the waters which the cattle usually drink, and of what dimensions are the reservoirs that contain them? 3. What is the quality of the pasturage, and what are the plants which most constantly grow in the pastures? 4. Of what nature is the fodder and the grain that are given to the cattle within doors? 5. Have there been any abundant rains or inundations; has the water continued for a long time on the ground, and what are the effects it has produced on the fodder? 6. Or has there on the contrary been any great drought, and how long has it continued? 7. What has been the season for getting in the hay, and for harvest; and what effect does the season seem to have had on the hay and other fodder? 8. What circumstances seem to have rendered it necessary for the cattle to work? 9. Has the distemper been announced by any previous symptoms; and what were they? 10. Did the disease come on with shivering, with coldness of the horns and ears, and with the loss of appetite? 11. Did the heat come on soon after the cold fit, or was it not preceded by a cold fit? 12. Do the animals continue lying, without being able to raise themselves on their legs? 13. When they are lying, is their head low, or how do they hold it? 14. Are their eyes red, watery, and hot? 15. Are their nostrils dry, or does there ooze from them a mucous matter? 16. Is their tongue in the natural state, or is it very red, or is it covered with a yellow or brown mucus; is it moist or dry, or are there on it any tubercles? 17. Is their throat inflamed, or are there on it any aphthous crusts? 18. Is the animal fatigued with a cough, and is this cough very frequent? 19. Do the flanks heave or not? 20. Does the animal seem to feel any great pain when he is touched in the flanks, or the belly, on the spine, or on the rump? 21. Are there any pustules or tumours on the surface of the body? 22. Is the hair smooth or staring, or does it easily come off when the skin is curried, or even when the body is rubbed with a wisp of straw? 23. Does the animal seem much disordered, or does he refuse every sort of drink? 24. Does he chew the cud? 25. Has he a frequent discharge of urine, and what is the colour and consistence of it? 26. Has he a discharge by stool more frequently or less than usual, and are the excrements natural, or very dry or very liquid; what is their colour and odour, and is their discharge preceded or accompanied with a frequent explosion of wind? 27. Are there to be observed any little convulsions below the skin, especially about the neck? 28. Is the belly in its natural state, or is it swelled; is it soft, or hard and tense? 29. At what periods do these several circumstances take place? 30. How does the distemper terminate; what are the symptoms that announce a healthy termination, and what are those which precede death? 31. In what state after death are found the stomachs, the bowels, the liver, the spleen, the lungs, the heart, and the brain? 32. What remedies have been administered to the diseased beast? 33. What sensible effects have these remedies produced? 34. Lastly, what regimen has been observed in the convalescent state?

The eruptive diseases incident to domestic animals are but few, when compared with the exanthemata that take place in the human body. Many such diseases are, however, described by veterinary writers, especially on the continent, where they seem to be much more prevalent than among us. In particular, it appears, that in the southern parts of Europe the sheep are frequently affected with an eruptive disease that nearly resembles the smallpox; and, like this disease in the human subject, there are two varieties of this affection, a distinct and a conuent. A very particular account of this disease, as it occurred at Cauterets in the department of the Lower Pyrenees in France, was drawn up by M. Tenon, and communicated by him to the agricultural society at Paris; and a translation of it has been published in the Farmer's Magazine for May 1804, from which we have taken it.

3. Sheep-pox. Claveau, Fr.

This distemper, which at Cauterets is called the Sheep-pox, smallpox, is contagious; and indiscriminately attacks wethers, ewes, lambs, and goats, more especially when shut up during winter in confined cots, the animals are kept very hot. It is a very singular circumstance, that this distemper should only appear at Cauterets, after intervals of twelve, fifteen, or twenty years; while in Guienne, and the higher Languedoc, it rages every year. Besides, that in the former mountainous tracts, the weather is colder than in the plains of the latter districts, the sheep of the Pyrenees are kept more apart from each other than in the low countries, and the different flocks are much less liable to meet together, or to pass through the same roads, by which they are not nearly so much exposed to the danger of infection.

When seized with this distemper, the sheep become dull and weak, and they loathe their food; the head, eyes, ears, and gums, are swelled; and hard white tumours appear in the groins and under the joint of the shoulder. Three or four days after the appearance of these tumours, pimples break out in different parts of the body. At first, these are situated on the naked skin between the thighs, and on the places where the wool is short and scanty; afterwards, they break out about the head, and successively over the whole body, even on the eye-lids, ears, and throat. In this stage of the disease the animal swallows with pain, being obliged to hold back the head, and to stretch out the neck for the purpose, and it breathes with great difficulty. As the disease goes on, the pimples enlarge, and become inflamed, particularly at their bases; they suppurate and burst; the matter which runs out mixes with the wool, and mats along with it into hard lumps, but afterwards dries and falls to powder; the wool falls off in locks; and even the scarf skin peels off in large pieces, which are full of holes. When the distemper begins to abate, the sheep rub themselves on the posts of the racks, or any other hard substance which comes in their way; and by this means the wool, along with the loose skin and dried pus, are rubbed off. If proper precautions were not employed, this would infallibly spread the contagion by infecting any other sheep that might be brought into the same cot; but, on purpose to destroy the infection, new cribs are either substituted for the old ones, which are pulled down and burnt, or else the infected cribs are washed with cream of lime, and the cribs are thoroughly fumigated with burning juniper and other aromatic plants.

There are several varieties of this disorder. In some of these the eruption of pustules is by no means complete as above described; sometimes the pimples grow black, and dry up without coming to suppuration; at other times the disease is of a complicated nature. But as the disorder only appears at distant periods among the sheep at Cauterets, we are not to expect very full information concerning its various degrees from the shepherds of that district; neither have they any decided experience of the effects of sulphur, or setons, or Diseases, or of blisters, in the cure of this distemper. Blisters are said to have scarcely any effect upon the skins of sheep.

It is certain, that the flesh of such sheep, as have died of this disorder, is very unwholesome, has a very bad taste, and is even dangerous to eat; and they add, that when dogs happen to feed on it, they catch the disease, and spread it by infection. Three cats, by eating this food, had their heads affected with an eruption of pustules, by which they were first blinded, and afterwards lost their lives. Hence the necessity of the precaution which is taken at Cauterets to bury deeply the carcases of sheep which die of this disease.

I had an opportunity, says M. Tenon, at a butcher's in Paris, to examine some sheep which had died of this disorder. The skins were covered with suppurred pustules, which penetrated as far as the cellular membrane, and the fat in their neighbourhood was affected for a considerable distance all round, being browner and firmer than the ordinary fat; and this alteration penetrated even to the flesh.

The inhabitants of Cauterets affirm, that these pustules are found on the liver and other internal parts of the body.

M. Tenon made every possible inquiry to learn whether this disease was ever communicated from the sheep to mankind, but he could learn no instances of such infection: it is believed, however, in Languedoc, that it is communicated from sheep to rabbits. He could not learn whether the sheep were ever affected a second time with the same disorder; but we cannot expect information at Cauterets on this part of the subject, since the disease only appears there for a single season, after intervals of twelve, fifteen, or twenty years, while the sheep live but eight, or at most, ten years; so that any of them, which have once been diseased, cannot be alive when the next period of contagion comes round.

Whenever the disorder appears in the flock, the infected animals are separated from the rest, and shut up in warm cots, having plenty of wheat or barley straw given them for litter; they are fed with hay and aftermath which have been made on a dry field, with a little salt, and are allowed lukewarm water for drink.

In the flat country at Tarbes, which is ten leagues distant from Cauterets, and considerably warmer than in the Pyrenees, and where this distemper is much more frequent, a different method of treatment is followed. At the beginning of the disease blood is drawn by cutting the ear; the cots are fumigated for five or six successive days, by burning aromatic and strong-smelling herbs, preferring the dried stems of garlic for this purpose; these are burnt on a large stone in the middle of the cot, while all the vent holes are carefully stopped, to prevent, as much as possible, the smoke from escaping. The shepherds of Tarbes have great confidence in the beneficial effects of fumigating with garlic steams, which occasions a great discharge from the nostrils, especially in such cases of the disease as are complicated with catarrhal disorders, and with the staggers or vertigo.

At Bellegarde, near Auch, they give to each beast a double handful of white mulberry leaves, which they allege is a most effectual cure, and serves excellently for preventing the attacks of the disease.

When, at Cauterets, the disorder begins to abate, whatever be the season of the year, the animals are clipped, on purpose to assist the drying of the pustules, and to favour the growth of a new fleece. After this the sheep fatten very quickly; and it is worth while to remark, that the fleece which immediately succeeds this disease is finer and more silky than any former or future fleece on the same beasts.

Formerly this disease made great ravages among the sheep at Carcassonne, till a method was fallen on to inoculate the disease. M. Tenon learned this fact in 1762 from Dr French, an Irish physician, who lived in Languedoc for several years; but it was not till 1763 that he received particular information on this curious subject from M. Berra, mayor of Carcassonne, to whom he had written for information, and who procured him a memoir on the diseases of sheep in that part of the country. From this memoir the following account of inoculating the sheep-pox is extracted.

"The seigneur of Mauz, in the diocese of Narbonne is the first, and almost the only person who has practised inoculating the small-pox on his flocks; and having been successful during ten years experience of the practice, his widow has ever since continued to follow his example.

"In the month of September, when the heat of summer is past, and before there is any danger of very cold weather; while the pastures are still in good order, and the lambs, which are now six or seven months old, are strong enough for withstanding the force of the disease, this season is chosen as the fittest for communicating the small-pox to the sheep. For this purpose the fresh skin of a sheep, either ewe, wether, or lamb, which has died of the disease, or, instead of that, one taken from a sheep which has been killed while affected by it, is placed on the floor of the cot. Into this cot all the young sheep of the year are driven, and they voluntarily rub and roll themselves on the diseased skin. Very soon afterwards the symptoms of the disease begin to appear; they have a dull and heavy appearance, hold down their heads, are somewhat fevered, and loathe their food. On purpose to aid the eruption of the pustules, bread dipped in wine is given to the sheep; they are anxiously prevented from being exposed to great heat or great cold, and particularly from rain. By these precautions they speedily recover, and it very rarely happens that even one dies out of a flock of three hundred.

Although the disorder has often spread over the districts in the neighbourhood of the estate where this practice prevails, there has been no instance of a single sheep, after undergoing the above described operation, having been infected a second time. It ought to have been noticed, that the inoculated flock is carefully prevented from mixing with any other sheep, by keeping it in a separate cot, and on a particular pasture, the other shepherds being forbidden to use either for the flocks under their charge. By these precautions, the disease is prevented from spreading, and such proprietors as do not wish to have their sheep artificially infected, have themselves to blame if they do not avoid the place where the diseased sheep are kept. Since this practice has been followed, it has been observed that the disorder has not returned so frequently, but that it has not proved Diseases proved in the least degree destructive to the flocks which have not been inoculated.

M. Berra adds, that the lambs never lose their wool under the influence of the inoculated disorder, and that their fleeces are equally good in every respect with those of the uninfected, so that no difference can be perceived.

This disease was once pretty common in Britain, but is now scarcely known among us. It is, however, justly apprehended, that importation of sheep from the continent may again introduce it; and Sir Joseph Banks has taken much pains to caution the public against the danger of such an introduction.

4. Cow-pox, or Kine-pox. Vaccina.

A greater blessing was never procured to mankind than what has been already derived, and will we trust, be ultimately derived, from the invaluable discovery of the inoculated cow-pox, in preventing the person who has received it from being afterwards liable to various contagion. For this blessing we are certainly indebted to the labours and experiments of Dr Edward Jenner. There is no doubt that the disease was known many years ago in some of our principal dairy districts; but Dr Jenner has all the merit of having extensively circulated the discovery, and of having first applied it to those valuable purposes to which an almost universal experience has shown it to be well adapted.

The symptoms and origin of this disease amongst cows, have been briefly described by Dr Jenner in his publications on the subject. The first of these appeared in 1798, while Dr Jenner was practising in Berkely in Gloucestershire, where he had an opportunity of frequently seeing the disease.

"In this dairy country," says Dr Jenner, "a great number of cows are kept, and the office of milking is performed indiscriminately by men and maid servants. One of the former having been appointed to apply dressings to the heels of a horse affected with the grease; and not paying due attention to cleanliness, inadvertently bears his part in milking the cows with some particles of the infectious matter adhering to his fingers. When this is the case, it commonly happens that a disease is communicated to the cows, and from the cows to the dairy maids, which spreads through the farm, until most of the cattle and domestics feel its unpleasant consequences. This disease has obtained the name of the cow-pox. It appears on the nipples of the cows in the form of irregular pustules. At their first appearance they are commonly of a palish blue, or rather of a colour somewhat approaching to livid, and are surrounded by an erysipelas inflammation. These pustules, unless a timely remedy be applied, frequently degenerate into phagedenic ulcers, which prove extremely troublesome. The animals become indisposed, and the secretion of milk is much lessened."

There sometimes appears another kind of eruption on the udder of the cow, which on a superficial view may be mistaken for cow-pox. It consists of a number of white blisters on the nipples, and these blisters are filled with a whitish serous fluid. They are to be distinguished from the pustules that take place in the cow-pox, by their not having the blueish colour of the latter, and by their never eating into the fleshy parts, being confined to the skin, and ending in scabs. This eruption also appears to be infectious, but not nearly in so great a degree as the true cow-pox.

Dr Jenner considers this spurious eruption as being chiefly produced by the transition which is made by the cow, in the spring, from a poor diet to one that is more nourishing, by which the udder at this season becomes more than usually vascular for the supply of milk. There is, however, another form of inflammation and pustules, which appears to be not uncommon in all the dairy counties in the west of England. A cow intended to be exposed for sale, and having naturally a small udder, is for a day or two previously neither milked by the milker, nor is her calf suffered to have access to her; thus the milk is paternally accumulated, and the udder and nipple become greatly distended. The consequences frequently are inflammation and pustular eruption.

As the eruption of the cow-pox disappears in a few days, little more is required than to keep the teats clean, in grease, and handle them as carefully as possible during milking.

The fact of cow-pox originating from the matter of grease, or of the latter being capable of producing the former, was, we believe, first discovered by Dr Jenner; but the opinion was for some time considered as fallacious. Many unsuccessful attempts were made by Dr Woodville and by Mr Coleman to produce cow-pox by inoculating the udders of cows with matter from greasy heels. Some experiments made by Mr Simmons tended still further to disprove Dr Jenner's opinion. But about five years ago, Dr John Loy published a pamphlet, in which he has related some experiments made by himself, with a view to determine this controversial point. He was led to make these experiments from some cases that fell under his observation, of a disease very similar to the cow-pox appearing on persons who must certainly have derived it from the matter of grease. Dr Loy's experiments fully confirmed the opinion of Dr Jenner, and proved that the matter of grease would, by inoculation, produce in the human body a disease exactly resembling cow-pox, and like it capable of protecting the inoculated person from an invasion of the smallpox. Dr Loy also proved, that in some cases, the cow-pox might be produced in cows by the immediate application of the matter of grease, but that this experiment did not succeed unless the horse had also a general affection of the system. This led Dr Loy to suppose that there exist two species of grease, the one merely a local affection, the other a general affection of the system.

The reasons that induced Dr Jenner to suppose that cow-pox originates in grease are thus stated by himself in his second publication on the subject of cow-pox.

Firstly, He conceived grease to be the source of cow-pox, from observing that where the cow-pox had appeared among the dairies in Gloucestershire (unless it could be traced to the introduction of an infected cow or servant), it had been preceded at the farm by a horse labouring under grease, which horse had been attended by some of the milkers.

Secondly, From its being a popular opinion throughout that dairy country, and from its being insisted on by those who there attend sick cattle.

Thirdly, From the total absence of the disease in Scotland and Ireland (as the doctor was informed from the best authority) where the men servants are not employed in the dairies.

Fourthly, Fourthly, From having observed that morbid matter generated by the horse, frequently communicates in a casual way, a disease to the human subject so like the cow-pox, that in many cases it would be difficult to mark the distinction between the one and the other. The truth of this observation is well illustrated by the above experiments of Dr Loy.

Fifthly, From his being induced to believe from experiments, that some of those who had been thus infected by the horse, refitted the smallpox.

Sixthly, From the progress and general appearance of a pustule on the arm of a boy whom he inoculated with matter taken from the hand of a man that had been infected by a horse, and from the similarity to the cow-pox, of the general constitutional symptoms which followed.*

5. LE LOUVET.

Continental writers describe a variety of eruptions under the general name of charbon, or carbuncle, which affect various parts of the body, and have received different names according to the part which they attack. We shall here only notice one of these which raged epidemically about the middle of the last century in Switzerland, where it is called le Louvet.

It affected both cattle and horses, but seems to have been attended with different symptoms in each. According to M. Reynier, a physician at Lausanne, who published an account of the distemper, when an ox is seized with it, he suddenly loses his strength, trembles, seems delirious of lying constantly on the ground, whence he seldom moves except to refresh himself; he carries his head low, and his ears flouncing; he is sad, and moans; his eyes red, his skin very hot and dry, and his breathing frequent and difficult. When the disease has made some progress, expiration is always followed with a considerable depression of the flanks; there is a frequent cough; the breath is very fetid; the heart and arteries beat violently; the tongue and palate are dry and become blackish; the animal loses his appetite and ceases to chew the cud; there is considerable thirst; the urine is scanty, reddish, and the excrement hard and blackish towards the beginning of the disease, and sometimes limpid and bloody. Cows lose their milk. On most of the animals inflammatory tumours are produced, which appear sometimes on the chest, sometimes on the vertebrae of the neck, and on the belly; at others on the udder, and the parts of generation. At other times they entirely cover the skin in pimples, like those of the mange or scab.

All these symptoms do not often appear on the same subject; but in proportion as more of them occur, the disease is the more fatal. In general, death takes place on the fourth day, when the symptoms are violent; if they pass the fourth day, and are not worse on the seventh, their recovery is pretty certain, though they are often not convalescent before the fifteenth day.

When the urine is turbid, and deposits a whitish sediment; when the excrements are more abundant than in the natural state, moist and not very offensive; when the skin is black and relaxed, the pimples filled with whitish matter, the thirst alleviated; when the appetite and rumination returns, and when the pustules begin to dry up, a perfect recovery may be expected; but on the contrary, when there is much swelling of the belly, when the animals moan much, when there appear great debility, tremblings, convulsions, retention of urine, diarrhoea or dysentery, a fatal termination may be looked for.

On opening the bodies of such animals as died of this disease, there appear on the skin numerous black tumours, full of a yellow furred fluid that effervesces with acids; the muscles are livid, soft and flaccid; the lungs swollen, full of tubercles and little ulcers, especially on those animals which died on the fourth day. The stomach and bowels are beset with red tumours, full of a tenacious clammy fluid.

M. Reynier considers the predisposing causes of this disease to be the bad quality of the water which the beasts drank, the corrupted state of their food, excessive fatigue, low and ill-aired stables, deficiency of herbage, and tempestuous weather. Like many other medical men of his time, he held the immediate cause of the disease to consist in an alkaline state of the blood. The method of cure consisted in giving drenches of emollient decoctions, clysters of the same substances, with nitre and vinegar mixed with honey; and towards the latter stage of the disease, the Peruvian bark and camphor were administered. This was a very innocent and gentle treatment, and it is no wonder that so many of the cattle died.

6. STRANGLES.

The disease called strangles in horses, is considered by Mr Blaine as a specific fever, accompanied with a disposition to inflammation in the glands of the head and throat. It most commonly attacks horses betwixt four and six years of age, though it may occur at any period before five; but rarely appears after that age. Young horses are most subject to it when first brought to labour, and put on the nourishing diet of the stable, though Mr Lawrence has seen it in unbroken colts in the field. It seems that few horses escape having it once in their life.

It commences with a considerable degree of fever; the breath is hot, the eyes are heavy and languid, the horse shrivels out his nose, has a hoarse cough, and labours under some difficulty in swallowing. There soon appears a swelling between the jaws, or on the inside of the lower jaw, which usually extends to the parotid glands. These swellings, if left to themselves, go on to suppuration; and about the fifth or sixth day they break and discharge a considerable quantity of matter; but sometimes the heat, hardness, and swelling of the glands continue for a long time. These symptoms are usually attended with a running at the nose, which is considered as a favourable sign.

This complaint is seldom dangerous, though now and then there is some risk of suffocation, and sometimes it degenerates into glanders. Of this Mr Lawrence has seen several instances. It appears to be contagious, and may be propagated by inoculation, which has induced us to consider it among the febrile eruptions.

The writers on farriery have strangely differed with respect to the nature of this affection. The elder Laflotte considered it as analogous to the smallpox. Bracken as a species of cynanche, or quinsy, and it certainly nearly resembles the cynanche parotidea, or mumps. Others have supposed it to be like the chickenpox, or measles.

It is not agreed on whether it is better to check the inflammation inflammation of the glands, or to encourage their suppuration. Mr Blaine recommends the former plan, which is best effected by bleeding, purging, and the use of diuretics; while a solution of sugar of lead is applied to the swelling externally; but if the swellings continue hard and hot, it will be proper to encourage suppuration by the frequent application of warm poultices. If there is much soreness and swelling of the throat, a large blister should be applied to it. If there is much fever, nitre or emetic tartar may be added to the horse's water; for it would be wrong to give him medicine in the form of a ball or drench. He may have frequent warm baths; and to encourage the running at the nose, there should be hung to it a bag containing a warm bath, which should be frequently renewed. The horse's head should be kept warm, and currents of cold air should be avoided. When the tumours break, the discharge should be assisted by enlarging the opening and applying warm poultices, and the ulcers may be dressed with the common digestive ointment. If the discharge proceeds by the mouth, the parts should be frequently washed with vinegar and water sweetened with honey.

5. Grease. Eaux aux Jambes, Fr. Greasy heels.

In the fourth chapter of the last section, No. 423, we made a few observations on swelling of the legs, and we remarked that this complaint often terminated in grease.

Grease is a complaint that is extremely common among horses, to whom it is peculiar, not being known to affect any other species of animals, or at least there is no other animal in whom that peculiar secretion which constitutes the matter of grease in horses is found to take place. There appears to be two varieties of grease, the one a mere local affection, the other a more general affection of the system attended with fever.

The complaint first appears by a slight swelling about the coronet and pattern, sometimes accompanied with pain or itching, so that the horse rubs his feet against each other, or stamps and shifts himself from side to side. On feeling the swollen part, it is commonly found much hotter than usual, and is evidently red and inflamed. Very soon there may be perceived an oozing through the skin, of a yellowish fluid that is very offensive, and of an unctuous greasy feel. This swelling gradually extends up the cannon towards the knee, and when the horse is taken out to work, he appears stiff and lame till he becomes heated; and when he returns from work, the leg appears hot and inflamed. The swelling and oozing of fetid greasy fluid gradually increase till cracks begin to make their appearance in the skin about the heels, the hairs about these parts fall off, and the skin below appears puffy, of a whitish or livid colour; and on it are generally seen little bladders, from which a matter of the same kind as what we have described oozes out. These vesicles soon become ulcers, and the matter they contain assumes the appearance of pus, which irritates and inflames the neighbouring parts, fretting and excoriating the skin. Generally a number of red granulations or excrescences appear within the ulcers, and from their form are commonly called grapes; and if the complaint continues long, the hoof becomes fungous, or there is a luxuriant growth of soft spongy horn.

If the complaint be neglected, the ulceration of the part increases, and extends even to the bones, which become soft, spongy, and at last carious.

In what is called the confirmed state of grease, the affected parts are exquisitely sensitive, and they bleed on the slightest touch, and there are commonly produced a number of horny excrescences about the fetlock. The hair stands erect, and the horse becomes lean, weak, and excessively irritable.

Such are the general appearances and progress of grease; but there are often some little varieties in both. Sometimes the cracks appear very early in the disease, and sometimes there is considerable fever; but whether this precedes the appearance of the vesicles, or is occasioned only by the pain and irritation that accompany the complaint, we are uncertain. It should seem, from the observations of Dr Loy and others, that a fever, such as accompanies eruptive diseases, frequently attends grease; and in this case, as we have said, it is to be considered as a general affection. It is described as such by Huzard, and other continental writers; and they even speak of the appearances that have been found on dissection of horses that have died when affected with this complaint, of the repercussion of the eruption from cold, &c. On the other hand, there is no doubt that fever may be excited by the irritation of the parts, especially if the horse is obliged to work. It may take place in any of the legs, but is more common in the hind legs.

Such horses as have round fleshy legs, such as have white hair upon their legs, and in general, such horses as are weak and phlegmatic, are more subject than others to grease.

It may be brought on by various causes. It is very commonly produced by allowing horses to stand long idle in the stable. In this way the circulation, which is naturally more languid in the legs, especially in the hinder legs, than in other parts of the body, becomes so languid in the heels, that the veins cannot readily propel forward their contents, and consequently an accumulation takes place in the minute capillary branches; whence swelling and inflammation. This accumulation is assisted by the perpendicular situation of the legs, by which a column of blood, that for want of the action of the muscles is moved with difficulty, continually presses on the lower parts. Hence we find, that when horses are not allowed to stretch themselves at their ease, they are extremely subject to swollen legs and grease. The languid circulation is still greater in horses that are naturally of a weak constitution, or who have been debilitated by disease. So great is the effect of diminished exercise in producing swollen legs and grease, that some horses are always affected with this complaint when brought into the stable, and can be preserved from it, only by being regularly turned out into the field after work. It is very commonly observed, that when horses first come up from pasture, or from a straw yard, they are all more or less affected with swollen legs; and if these are not diligently attended to, they soon have greasy heels. It is certain that horses in their natural state, or while kept constantly at pasture, are never affected with grease.

Sudden changes from heat to cold, or vice versa, frequently produce this complaint; but, according to Mr Feron, it is more commonly produced by sudden changes changes from cold to heat. "If (says he) a colt is taken from grass, and immediately kept in a warm stable, after having been used to the severity of the atmosphere, he then gets the disorder. When old horses are troubled with the grease, we shall find that their feet have been exposed first to cold, and afterwards to heat, as when they have been in cold water or snow for a long time; and on coming into the stable have a large bed of straw, or perhaps hot dung, to stand upon. This sudden transition from cold to heat, produces a weakness in the legs, particularly in the skin; when inflammation and cracks, similar to chilblains in the human subject, take place, and are called the grease in horses."

Nothing contributes more to the production of grease than negligence, with respect to keeping the legs clean, and rubbing them often. It is a disputed point, whether the hair that grows about the fetlock is prejudicial or not to horses that are subject to grease. It is contended by Mr Richard Lawrence, that grease is a very common consequence of removing the hair; and considering that the hair is a good preservative against sudden transitions from heat to cold, we are disposed to think its removal improper, where the heels are not already ulcerated. On the other hand, Mr Blaine remarks, that whenever accidental wet occurs, this hair must retain a large quantity of it, and hence be long in drying, occasioning a copious evaporation, and thus producing much cold, and that the hair renders it difficult to keep the legs to clean, as they might be preserved without it. Even supposing these arguments to be just, they only show the necessity of greater care and attention in rubbing the heels dry and keeping the hair free from dirt.

Grease may also be produced by too much hard work, after which the legs swell, and if the swelling be neglected the heels may become greasy. This, however, is probably not a very common cause.

Grease is said to be most common in spring and autumn, when horses are moulting or casting their coats.

On the whole, it appears that this complaint may take place in two different states of the body; a state of general weakness, the effect of constitution or disease; and a state of plethora, attended with a proportional languid circulation in the vessels of the legs or feet.

In the treatment of grease, we must consider whether it be merely a local affection, or be connected with some general morbid affection of the body; and we must also attend to the state of the affection, as the nature of the local applications will depend much on the progress that the disease has made.

In the early stage of the complaint, when the inflammation is slight, and the skin is not yet broken, if it has been owing to want of exercise and plethora, it may be proper to draw blood from the veins of the thighs, and a diuretic bath, such as No. 12. or 13., should be given, and repeated every two or three days. The hair must be cut close, and the heels well washed with warm soap and water, after which they must be gently rubbed till they are perfectly dry, and bathed with some stimulating liniment. This plan, with gentle exercise and a cooling diet, especially bran mash, with an ounce of nitre in each, every night, will probably prevent the complaint from going any farther. If the inflammation be very considerable, and the horse is plethoric, he must be bled pretty largely from the jugular vein, and have a mild purge. Cloths, dipped in vinegar and water, or in a solution of sugar of lead, should be applied to the heels after washing, and kept constantly moist with the same liquor. More than walking exercise here will be improper; but if it is dry weather, a run for a few hours a day in a field will greatly contribute to removing the swelling. Mr Feron, who is a great advocate for warm fomentations in inflammatory affections of the feet and legs, recommends the legs to be kept the whole day in warm water; and when they are taken from the bath, to be well wrapped up in a warm poultice of bran and water. If by these means the inflammation subsides, the legs may be washed with a solution of alum.

If cracks appear, great attention must be paid to keep them clean from dirt, and they should be frequently washed with a solution of blue vitriol. If grapes appear, they may be touched with blue vitriol, or burnt alum; or if they become large, they must be cut away with a sharp knife, and afterwards seared with a hot iron. If the ulcers are foul, one of the best applications will be a solution of verdigris, or the ointment commonly called Egyptianum, of which verdigris forms one of the principal ingredients.

The strictest attention to diet, regimen, and cleanliness, must be observed during the whole treatment, and gentle exercise must be persisted in. The best diet on these occasions will be cut grass, lucerne, fresh clover, carrots, or good sweet hay, and an occasional feed of corn. The horse should not be tied up in the stall, but should stand loose while he is in the stable, and should be allowed no litter, except at night. The stable should be kept perfectly clean and well aired, and not too warm.

Sometimes, even though the complaint should not at first have originated in debility, there will, if the disease is of long standing, be produced a considerable degree of weakness. In these cases the cure will be greatly assisted by giving strengthening remedies, such as bark, horse-chestnut bark, &c. And as in this weak state of the body the discharge from the ulcerated surface is commonly thin and ichorous, the fore must be dressed with stimulating ointment; and if there appears a tendency to mortification, as sometimes happens, a powder of equal parts of Peruvian bark and opium should be sprinkled on the sores, before applying the plaster. If the discharge is very offensive, a fermenting poultice, such as No. 64., may be applied over the dressings.

It will readily appear, that the best means of preventing grease, will be to give the horse regular exercise, to dress him well, and especially to keep his legs dry and clean, and to avoid the extremes of heat and cold.

Grease might perhaps have been considered under the head of specific inflammation; but as it is sometimes attended with a general affection of the body, and is ultimately connected with one of the most interesting eruptive diseases, we thought it best to treat of it in this place. Chap. II. Of Inflammatory Diseases.

1. Inflammation of the Brain. Phrenitis. Mad Staggers, Phrenzy, Megrim, or Sough. Mal de feu ou d'Espagne, Fr.

This is one of the most serious and fatal inflammations which affect the animal system. It attacks occasionally all the domestic animals, but horses and cattle are the most subject to it. In the former it is generally called the mad staggers, to distinguish it from apoplexy, or sleepy staggers; when it occurs in cattle, it usually takes one of the other names which we have given as synonyms.

Inflammation of the brain is sometimes preceded by giddiness and partial blindness; the animal holds his head low, or rests it against the manger; he appears dull, heavy, and sleepy; gradually, however, these symptoms go off, and are succeeded by others of a very different nature. His eyes appear red, fiery, and sparkling; he now holds his head higher, and appears for some time to look constantly at any object before him; soon he becomes very restless, till by degrees he is quite unmanageable. He sometimes lies down, and tumbles about, and then remains quiet for a while; but he soon gets up again, and is as ungovernable as before, rendering it dangerous for any person to approach him. The pulse in this disease is full and hard, and there is considerable throbbing of the temporal arteries. The pulse is not always the same in every case, being in general less frequent than in health, but sometimes more so. There is always a considerable degree of fever, and the head seems peculiarly affected. The secretions and excretions are generally diminished, but it is said that they are sometimes increased.

Such are the symptoms as they generally appear in the horse; those which take place in cattle, as they are described in the best books on the subject of cattle medicine, differ in a few particulars.

The animal is described as looking frightfully, being unusually watchful, starting often, groaning vehemently, as if affected with sudden and violent pain; his respiration flows, but he sometimes makes very long inspirations, and appears for a time as if his breathing was entirely suspended. Suddenly the beast will rise, turn about, and instantly lie down again, showing marks of great restlessness and delirium. When the frenzy is high, the eyes look red and furious; at other times they border on languor and stupefaction; but the beast always appears to labour under considerable fear, and dreads the approach of everything; he is often quite ungovernable, and scarcely ever inclines to rest, except in the latter stage of the disease, when, if it has been neglected, or has not yielded to the usual remedies, a lethargy takes place, and the animal sinks. Sometimes the urine is hot and high-coloured; but it is said that before a fit of phrenzy takes place, the urine is often of a pale colour, and thinner than natural.

When the symptoms of fury or irritation suddenly cease, and a lethargy takes place, while the pulse becomes feeble, and the strength diminishes, the case is pretty certainly hopeless; but if the fever, redness, and flushing of the eyes gradually subside, without the pulse sinking, or great debility coming on, the beast may generally be pronounced recovering.

On opening the head of such animals as have died of this complaint, very evident marks of inflammation appear about the membranes of the brain, and very frequently in the substance of the brain itself. All the vessels are turgid with blood; and on cutting into the brain, innumerable little red points are to be seen, which do not appear in the natural state. Very commonly an effusion of blood, or of purulent matter, is found to have taken place into the cavities of the brain, or in some part near its surface.

The causes of inflammation of the brain are generally the same that produce inflammatory fever, applied in a greater degree; as great heat, excessive exercise, a sudden change from a poor to a rich diet.

The cure of this complaint requires the most prompt and decisive measures. Blood must be taken in large quantities from the jugular vein or temporal artery. Not less than three quarts should be taken from an ordinary horse, ox, or cow; and if the animal is very large, four may be taken; and the bleeding must be repeated a few hours after, if the symptoms do not abate. When the beast is very furious, it is often dangerous to bleed in a very deliberate way; but as his recovery will almost certainly depend on a sufficient loss of blood in the early part of the disease, it will not be amiss to bleed him in the manner described by Mr Blaine, as having been practised by an eminent veterinary surgeon, who being called to a horse affected with staggers, and in such a state of delirium that none of the ordinary precautions for securing him could be adopted, plunged a lancet into each jugular, and permitted the animal to bleed till he fainted, by which means, though the disease was far advanced, he saved the horse. After bleeding, a stimulant blister should be applied to the top of the head, and the sides of the neck should be well rubbed with a mixture of powdered cantharides and oil of turpentine, and other means used to promote external inflammation, for the purpose of determining the blood from the head. Mr Coleman is said to recommend in these cases the pouring of boiling water on the pasterns, by which means blistering will speedily be produced in those parts. In desperate cases the determination of blood to the head may be most effectually stopped, by tying a ligature about one of the external carotid arteries; but in doing this great care must be taken not to include within the ligature the nerves that run near the artery, as these nerves are the principal branches that supply the stomach; and if they be included in the ligature, the functions of that organ will be in a great measure destroyed. In addition to these means collyreous must be carefully guarded against. After back-raking, a stimulating purging clyster should be injected as soon as possible, and if an interval of quiet will permit, a purging ball, such as No. 15, may be given by the mouth. If the above means are adopted in proper time, the animal will generally be saved; but if some days have elapsed before vigorous steps are taken, there can be little hope of a cure.

Mr Downing, in his work on cattle-doctoring, mentioned in No. 87, advises a method of treating inflammation of the brain in cattle, that is extremely contradictory and inconsistent. He at first very properly advises bleeding; but he directs this to be followed by giving diapente, a very powerful cordial medicine, the administration of which completely counteracts the effects of the bleeding. Dr Downing describes a fever of the brain as distinct from inflammation; and he then treats of a sleepy fever. These are evidently symptomatic affections, and should have been given as such, as well as guidelines, or swimming in the head, which is described by Dr Downing "as a distemper belonging to the cavities of the eyes and optic nerves. It gives a wavering motion to the body. For if the optic nerve, or its expansion on the bottom of the eye called retina, be agitated by any supernatural heat or other emotion, objects will change their situation; therefore, this disease is a fever affecting the cavities of the eyes, or the optic nerves."

2. Inflammation of the Eye. Ophthalmia Membranarum.

Though in the human subject there are several species of ophthalmia, in the horse there is but one, which is in a great measure synonymous to what has been called ophthalmia membranarum by medical writers. This disease in the horse is of considerable importance, as it is not merely a local disease, but appears to be connected with some constitutional affection. Before we describe the symptoms and treatment of this complaint, it will be proper to remark, that in the eye of the horse there is a firm cartilaginous substance, situated at the inner corner of the eye, the greater part of which is hidden by the eyelids, but a small portion projects beyond them, and may be distinguished by its black colour. This is commonly called the haw, and by anatomists the membrana nictitans, and is supposed to be a production of the retractor muscle. Our reason for mentioning this part will appear immediately.

Inflammation of the eye sometimes makes its appearance very suddenly; at others it is gradual in its attack. In general, one of the earliest symptoms of it is a swelling of the eyelids, especially of the upper, which is with difficulty held open; the eyes water considerably, and drops of tears may be seen at the extremity of the lacrimal duct, which do not appear in the healthy state of the eye. The external transparent parts of the eye become discoloured and obscured, appearing of a blackish glairy hue; sometimes of a dull white, at others brown or bluish. Red vessels may be seen running over the white of the eye, especially at the corners, and sometimes reaching to the centre of the eye. The cornea is said to be most obscured on its upper part; but this is probably owing to the situation of the person who looks at the eye, who being below it, sees directly through the lower part of the cornea, and but obliquely through the upper. When the eyes are in this state, the horse is very impatient of light, and holds his head down to guard against it. The eyelids and ball of the eye are evidently much hotter than usual, and sometimes there may be seen through the cornea, a small quantity of thickish matter like pus, in the lower part of the anterior chamber of the eye. The cartilaginous membrane or haw is now much more visible, and projects forward considerably outward from the corner of the eye.

It not unfrequently happens, when the disease has not proceeded farther than we have described, that it gradually, sometimes pretty suddenly, disappears, and is seen again in the course of a few weeks, although sometimes it comes back in the course of a few days. The disappearance of inflammation in the eye of the horse is sometimes so sudden, that the eye, which one day is considerably inflamed, will appear the next perfectly clear and healthy. Sometimes it seems to appear and disappear periodically; and it has been supposed by ignorant people, that in these periods it follows the changes of the moon, whence it has received the name of lunatic blindness. If the disease does not thus disappear, or if it appears again, and reaches the height before described, the inflammation goes on, and the cornea becomes more obscure; or, what very frequently happens, the cornea recovers its transparency, and the crystalline humour becomes opaque, forming the disease already spoken of in No. 325.

In the horse, one eye frequently only is affected, whereas in man, both eyes are generally inflamed at the same time. This disease more frequently occurs in young horses of five or six years old, than in those of a more advanced period. It is said that horses are never affected with inflammation of the eyes till they are broken, or taken up from the pasture where they have remained from their birth.

A plethoric state of the body seems very much to predispose to inflammation of the eye, and this seems to account for its occurring so frequently in horses of five or six years old, as at that age they generally cease to grow, and are, of course, more dilated than at other times to fulness of blood. Sudden changes of temperature form a very common exciting cause of this disease, and the heat and foul air of a close stable frequently produce it. Such horses as are kept in dark stables are also more subject to it, from the effect of sudden exposure to broad day-light. Want of exercise, or extremes of idleness and hard work, may also assist in producing it. Mr Coleman considers this disease in the horse as an inflammation of a specific nature, very different from any that occurs in other animals. The principal reasons for supposing that the constitution is affected are, that a horse affected with an inflammation of the eye either does not perspire, or sweats profusely, indicating a slow fever. If the animal is bled or purged, the eye speedily becomes clear; and if the same causes are applied, the same eye, or more commonly the other, becomes inflamed, and sometimes the disease appears alternately in each eye.

Provided the proper means be taken in the early stage of the disease, the inflammation is commonly soon removed; but when the crystalline humour becomes opaque, no means hitherto employed have, as we shall presently see, produced any benefit.

In the treatment of this affection, it must be remembered, that the constitution is deranged, and that our remedies must therefore not be confined to local applications to the eye. General blood-letting will almost always be required; but, unless the horse is very fat or plethoric, this need not be repeated. It will be proper also to apply a blister or two to the head, as near the eye as possible, and the veins at the corners of the eye should be opened, to draw blood from that part. The horse must be put on lower diet, and should use only very moderate exercise; the stable should be kept well aired and cool; and if the horse's eyes are very sensitive, and the stable happen to have windows, these should be darkened. It will generally be advisable to give a purgative medicine; and the horse may drink frequently of some cooling liquor, especially of water, with nitre dissolved in it. Rowels have been sometimes recommended; and it is said that considerable benefit has Part VI.

FAR R I E R Y.

Diseases has followed the insertion of fetons as near the eye as possible. They have sometimes been palled through the white of the eye, just below the transparent cornea; but to this we should object, as being liable to produce specks that may extend to the cornea. As there is generally considerable dryness of the skin in this complaint, it may be useful in some cases to administer a gentle sudorific, such as a solution of two drachms of emetic tartar, or No. 22. of the receipts may be given.

With respect to the applications to the eye itself, those which appear the most likely to be of advantage, are stimulating substances, such as tincture of opium, solution of blue vitriol, red precipitate in the form of a soft ointment, such as No. 40. Sometimes, however, these stimulating applications do harm; and it is found that a weak solution of sugar of lead, or acetate of zinc, as prescribed in No. 31., are most useful. We must here take notice of an absurd practice that is in use among common farriers, of cutting away the hair, which they consider as a very principal part of the complaint. There is no doubt, however, that relief may have been procured by this operation, as it will generally be attended with a pretty copious effusion of blood, that will relieve the distended vessels; but as this effusion can be more easily produced by clarifying the red vessels of the white of the eye; and, by opening the angular veins, there is no occasion to take away a part, which is certainly of considerable use to the animal.

Sheep are sometimes affected with inflammation of the eye; but in them, as in most other animals, it is merely a local disease, and is generally relieved by topical bleeding. In the corrected agricultural report of Perth, it is stated, that the common practice in that district for relieving inflammation in the eyes of sheep is, to open the veins in the corner of the eye, and hold down the animal's head, so as to allow the blood to get within the eye. There is no doubt that this bleeding does good; and the introduction of the blood within the eye may, we believe, also be of service; not, however, in the way supposed by the reporter, but because it acts as a gentle stimulus.

We have already, in No. 324., made some observations on catarrh, and noticed the inefficacy of all the usual methods of treatment. It may not be improper here to add the result of Mr. Coleman's experimental attempts to relieve this complaint, as stated by Mr. Feron.

"The professor has begun with bleeding from the jugular or angular veins, and, at the same time, employing purgatives frequently repeated, as well as diuretics administered one after another. After which he has tried all the medicines of Mr. Phipps and Wathen, but without any degree of permanent success. The local and surgical treatment has been as follows, viz.

"1st, He has ordered scarifications, and to pass a feton through the membrana conjunctiva; but without effect.

"2ndly, We have removed some of the larger vessels going to the cornea, and divided them with the actual cautery, but with no success.

"3rdly, We have applied leeches to the conjunctiva, but without effect.

"Lastly, We have taken up both carotid arteries, which was of no avail, from the anastomoses, which the vertebral arteries form with them.

"Therefore, the treatment is confined entirely to Diseases, bleeding, purging, and diuretics; fomentations of warm water, in order to diminish the irritation from the tears that run over the cheeks; and plenty of moderate and continual exercise, so as to increase the perspiration."

3. CATARRH. Catarrhus. Mor Foundering, or Common Cold.

Catarrh has been placed by Dr. Cullen among the Catarrh, or profusivus, or fluxes attended with fever; we have ventured, with some modern authors, to rank it as an inflammation, because the increased secretion of mucus, which might entitle it to be called a profusivum, though sometimes pretty considerable, is not a constant, or often a very remarkable symptom of the disease; and in all cases appears to be the effect of an inflammatory state of the pituitary membrane. There are generally reckoned two species of catarrh, simple cold, and epidemic catarrh, or influenza. Though in the latter of these the catarrh is probably only symptomatic, we shall, in compliance with the usual custom, consider it immediately after common catarrh.

This disease attacks all the domestic animals; but horses and dogs are most liable to it, and in them the symptoms are most severe. It usually commences by a general dullness and heaviness, a dryness and increased redness of the inside of the nostrils, from which there soon proceeds an unusual secretion of mucus; a dryness of the eyes, or sometimes an increased effusion of tears. In a short time there is generally added some degree of cough and difficulty of breathing; and sometimes there is with these symptoms a considerable degree of heat and dryness of the skin; increased thirst, and not unfrequently a loss of appetite. At first the cough is dry, and sometimes continues so; but more frequently, when the complaint has remained for some time, a frothy whitish mucus is coughed up. The pulse is not always much affected in this disease; but in general it is fuller and harder than natural. The first symptom of the disease is not unfrequently a chilliness and trembling.

The principal causes of catarrh in domestic animals, as well as in man, are sudden changes of temperature, especially cold applied when the body is in a state of perspiration, or entering a warm apartment after having been long exposed to a cold air. Drinking cold water, when sweating, is also a common cause; and these causes are the more likely to produce their effect when the animal is in a plethoric state.

If neglected, catarrh may go on to inflammation of the lungs; in the horse it may produce thick wind, or even broken wind; in cattle it may end in chronic cough; and in sheep it may lay the foundation of consumption or pulmonic rot. It is also not unfrequently followed by the complaint called glanders, which we are presently to describe. An improper mode of treatment, especially giving cordials and other hot medicines, will hasten on these terminations of the disease. If attended to in time, and if the proper mode of treatment be adopted, the symptoms are, in general, soon removed.

If the complaint is slight, and there is little fever, it will often be sufficient to take the animal within doors into a warm stable, give him a warm bath, and put a cloth over him, when he will perspire through the night, Diseases, night, and be nearly well next morning. This plan will also answer, if it be adopted immediately, on perceiving the chilliness or shivering. If, however, considerable fever has taken place, and the animal's pulse is hard, it will be proper to draw blood, according to the urgency of the symptoms, before giving any internal remedy, or using warm clothing. After bleeding, a drench, composed of warm ale, with a drachm or two of salt of hartshorn, or half an ounce of spirit of hartshorn sweetened with molasses, will prove an excellent remedy; after taking which, the animal should be well rubbed down, and clothed as before. If the animal is coughing, back-raking, followed by clysters, will be advisable; and throughout the treatment coughs must be avoided. If there is considerable fever, the drench, No. 22, or 26, where coughs is to be obviated, should be given every four hours. Some practitioners advise balls in these cases, as in most others; but as there is often some swelling of the throat, and always considerable irritation about the faucets, it is better to give the remedies in the form of drenches. The cough seldom needs particular attention during the inflammatory state of the disease, as it will generally go off when the inflammation is removed; if it should continue obstinate, it becomes a chronic cough, and must be treated as directed under No. 436.

4. Influenza, or Epidemic Catarrh.

The epidemic catarrh also affects all these animals, and has sometimes been known to attack a whole yard of oxen, horses, and cows, in one night. It differs from common catarrh in the degree of fever, which, in this complaint, is always very considerable, and is one of the first symptoms. There is a smart shivering, followed by considerable heat and dryness of the skin, and the fever is commonly attended with great heaviness and pain of the head, and affection of the eyes. In this complaint there is also a great degree of weakness, which comes on pretty early in the disease, and this weakness not unfrequently brings on a fatal termination of the disease. Sometimes there is a considerable discharge from the nostrils; at others this discharge is either trifling, or the nostrils are dry, in which cases the fever is most considerable.

The epidemic catarrh appears to depend on some peculiar state of the atmosphere; but there is no doubt that it is capable of being propagated by contagion. It is more prevalent in the spring, especially when this has been preceded by a mild winter. It is said, that when cattle are at these times exposed to currents of air from the north-east, they are most likely to be affected with it.

In the commencement of this disease, it will be proper to house the animals; but too much warmth must be avoided, as it would tend to increase the weakness that forms a principal part of the disease. It may sometimes be necessary, when the fever runs very high, to draw blood once; and, at any rate, it will be proper to apply a blister to the head, or on each side of the neck. Though warmth must be avoided, great care should be taken not to expose the animals to a draught of air. Warm baths may be given as in common catarrh, but when the fever has subsided, cordials and strengthening remedies will be required; and if the appetite is tolerably good, the diet may be more nourishing than usual. The animals should on no account be hard worked, but be allowed to rest from the time the disease is first noticed, except taking gentle exercise when their strength will admit of it.

What is commonly called the distemper in dogs is now pretty generally considered as a sort of epidemic or contagious catarrh. We shall therefore treat of it in this place.

5. Of the Distemper in Dogs.

No disorder is more general among dogs, than that distemper which is generally known by the name of the distemper in dogs, and none is so destructive. It is asserted that, except the plague, no disease is so fatal to the animal which it attacks.

It appears that this disorder has not been known in Britain, till within the last 50 years, but, during that time, it is astonishing what numbers of dogs have fallen victims to it. For these last fifteen or twenty years, however, the distemper has been less frequent, and has assumed a milder form.

The symptoms of the distemper are not alike in every case. The following are, according to Mr. Blaine, its usual appearances. It generally begins with a dry husky cough, attended with dulness and want of appetite, a running from the eyes and nose, and loss of flesh. As the disease advances, the dog appears much emaciated, and grows excessively weak, particularly in the loins and hind legs. Convulsive twitchings of different parts, especially of the head, come on, attended with dimness of sight; and, as the disease proceeds, and puts on a more virulent form, these twitchings degenerate into strong convulsive fits, which continue for a long time, and repeatedly return. In these fits, the dog foams at the mouth, runs round, and appears to be in great pain, and to have a constant desire to dung. This is sometimes attended with obstinate coughing, at others with violent purging. The stomach is extremely irritable; every thing that the animal takes being immediately thrown up. When the disease has reached this state, the animal seldom recovers, and is usually carried off in one of the convulsive fits.

In every part of this disease there prevails a want of energy, and a particular paralytic affection of the nerves. This latter symptom, in some instances, remains long after the disease has been otherwise removed; but, in general, the strength returns almost immediately on the removal of the other symptoms.

The distemper in its worst form is often mistaken for canine madness; but they may in general be distinguished, by attending to the following points.

1st. The distemper seldom occurs except in puppies, its most common period being from six to twelve months. Madness may occur at any age, but seldom attacks puppies.

2nd. In the distemper dogs drink freely; in madness, though they often attempt to drink, it does not appear that they are capable of swallowing the water.

3rd. In the distemper the animal does not attempt to bite; but, in madness, the propensity to biting seems to be incessant.

4th. In madness there appears to be a loss of reason at all times, though, as is said, they are so sensible, as to know their master; but, in the distemper, though there is sometimes a loss of reason, it lasts no longer If, therefore, a young dog will drink, as soon as the effect of the convulsion is removed, but more particularly when his weakness is excessive, and strongly apparent in the intervals between the fits, it may be pretty safely concluded, that he is affected with the distemper, and not with madness. These circumstances, says Mr Blaine, should be carefully remarked, as they are unerring, and may save many a valuable animal from destruction, and many a timid mind from the most dreadful apprehensions.

The cause of the distemper is difficult to explain; nor do the most careful observations, in every stage of the complaint, ascertain more than that there is a general inflammation of the mucous membrane; but whether the true seat of the disease is confined to that membrane, and all the other symptoms are the consequences of it, or are real affections of other parts, is an undecided point, although, it is certain that its first appearance is by an inflammation of the pituitary membrane, and which is one of most lasting, as well as constant symptoms. That this inflammation is given from the membrane of the nose, to the upper part of the gullet and wind-pipe, is evident by the swelling of the glands of the throat, the tenderness and dry cough; and that this inflammation extends from thence to the same membrane of the stomach and intestines, is equally so, producing vomiting, coliciveness, or purging. It has generally, as we have said, been considered as a species of catarrh; but it has been suggested to us, by an ingenious friend, that, from several symptoms, as well as from its attacking dogs only once in their lives, it is more analogous to pertussis, or crouphia, in the human subject.

With respect to the cure of the distemper, Mr Blaine's directions and remedies appear to have been tolerably successful. With the nature of his remedy we are unacquainted, but believe it to be a preparation of mercury. This medicine has been made known by extensively advertising it, and although certificates of its utility are numerous, they make no part of the advertisement, but are to be seen at Mr Boofey's, in Old Bond Street, London, the wholesale agent; the form is a powder. Explicit instructions accompany it; and the price, considered with its asserted efficacy, bears no proportion, as no sportman would think five times the sum too much for the preservation of a valuable animal. Although so efficacious, it is nevertheless innocent enough for a child to take; nor must those who are advocates for strong remedies imagine, that, because the effects of this shake not the whole constitution, that the disease will not be eradicated by it. When the disorder is strong, after it is given, there is for the most part a gradual decrease of the symptoms, and nothing but a small moisture at the nose remains, which speedily disappears the next day. If the attack is flight, no more is seen of it, and the animal is at once well.

From the varieties in the size, and consequent strength of dogs, a difference in the quantity of the medicine is necessary; the packets are therefore marked 1, 2, and 3. For a mastiff, pointer, fetter, or dog of a large size, No. 1, should be procured. Hounds, spaniels, and those of a middling size, require No. 2; and all the lesser dogs, No. 3.

It has been already observed, that, in the severity of the disorder, there is frequently so great an irritability of the stomach, that every thing taken into it is instantly thrown up; in such cases, the powder should be carefully mixed with a small piece of butter, at the same time adding to it thirty, forty, or fifty drops of laudanum, according to the age, size, and strength of the dog; who is to be watched, whether the medicine is retained, and kept as still as possible; but should it be thrown up, notwithstanding this addition, in two hours after the same quantity of laudanum should be given without the powder, in a little broth or milk, and half an hour afterwards the powder mixed into a paste with treacle, honey, or flour, and thus the vomiting will be prevented. Should there be at the same time obstinate coliciveness, it is probable that sicknesses may be the consequence of it, and must be removed before it will cease; twenty grains of jalap, or, in preference, fifteen grains of calomel, with four or five drops of laudanum, may be given in a small ball; or two table-spoonfuls of castor oil may, if more convenient, be used. Should these not stay on the stomach, a clyster with milk, salt, and oil, seldom fails to remove the coliciveness, after which the powder should be given, if there has been great sicknesses, with the laudanum; if not, without it.

When, likewise, extensive purging accompanies the complaint, the laudanum should not be omitted; as by running off rapidly by stool, the effect of the medicine is equally lost, as if it were vomited up. In such case it will be proper to give before the powder thirty or forty drops of laudanum, with two ounces of olive oil. We should always attempt to remove the sickness and purging, or coliciveness, before administering the powder, as the effect of this will be then more certain. In the milder form of the disease, however, nothing is requisite but to give the powder in such a way, as that the dog may take the whole of it; for which purpose the powder should be well mixed with a small quantity of any thing that the dog will eat, or, if he is averse to eating, it should be made up into a small ball with honey, treacle, or butter, and forced down his throat. It must not be mixed with any liquid, as it is so heavy that it would fall to the bottom, and thus will probably be lost. Care should be taken to give the medicine on an empty stomach, as the effect will otherwise be lessened or destroyed; and the dog should be carefully watched to see if the medicine be thrown up, as, if this is the case, or if there is reason to suppose that the whole dose is not given, a second should be administered. Mr Blaine concludes with observing, that the symptoms remove without any particular appearance; yet so quickly, as that there is seldom any remains of the disease two hours after the medicines have been administered.

Mr Daniel has witnessed the extraordinary effects in the distemper, from Dr James's powder, given in the following manner. When the symptoms of the distemper are apparent, a third part of one of the parcels inclosed in the half-crown packets is to be given, mixed with a little butter, and the dog is to have plenty of warm broth, or milk and water, and, if possible, he is to be near a fire, or at least kept very warm. Two hours afterwards another third part is to be administered; and, should neither of these operate by vomiting or purging, at the end of four hours, give the remaining third. Should the two first portions have the effect, the remaining third should not be given until four or six hours (according to the evacuations) after the expiration of the four hours; in the interim the dog is to be encouraged to lap, and if he refuses, be forced to take plentifully of warm broth, or milk and water. Very seldom, even when the case is invertebrate, but the evacuations are brought on by the taking of one packet, generally by the second dose; but should it happen that there is no such proof of the powder's effect, the second parcel should be divided into similar proportions, and applied in the same manner, until the stomach is emptied. Warmth and warm liquids will quickly perfect the recovery. As soon as the dog's appetite returns, let him be fed (at first rather sparingly) with animal food.

Dr Darwin advises, that the dog be permitted to go about freely in the open air, and have constant access to fresh water. The use of being as much as may be in the air is evident, because all the air which we breathe passes twice over the putrid floggs of the mortified parts of the membrane which lines the nostrils, and the maxillary and frontal cavities; that is, both during inspiration and expiration, and must therefore be loaded with contagious particles. Fresh new milk and fresh broth should be given them very frequently, and they should be suffered to go amongst the grass, which they sometimes eat for the purpose of an emetic, and, if possible, should have access to a running stream of water, as the contagious mucus of the nostrils, both of these animals and horses, generally drops into the water when they attempt to drink. Bits of raw flesh, if the dog will eat them, are preferred to cooked meat; and from five to ten drops of opium may be given with advantage, when symptoms of debility are evident, according to the size of the dog, every six hours. If flogs can be seen in the nostrils, they should be moistened twice a day, with a solution of sugar of lead, or of alum, by means of a sponge fixed on a bit of whalebone, or by a syringe. The lotion may be made by dissolving half an ounce of sugar of lead in a pint of water.

6. RHEUMATISM.

There seems no doubt that horses, and perhaps cattle, are affected with rheumatism, but it is sometimes difficult to ascertain the presence of the complaint, or to distinguish it from other causes that produce lameness. It may take place in any of the limbs, but it is more frequently observed to affect the hip-joint and the adjacent membranes; and when seated here, it is called the feia-tica, and sometimes the hip-gout. It will require considerable judgment to distinguish this complaint; but it may generally be known by attentively examining the limb in which the lameness is seated, from the hip down to the foot, and by attending to the canes that seem likely to have produced the lameness. In rheumatism the skin will be found dry, and the affected part swollen, and the lameness attendant on it will be more readily removed by exercise than that which has its cause seated in the foot, or which arises from bony excrescences. Rheumatism in the horse, as in the human subject, may be either acute or chronic, and the latter is the most obstinate.

Rheumatism, like catarrh, is produced by sudden changes of temperature, and by exposure to a cold moist atmosphere. It is no otherwise dangerous than as it renders the animal lame.

The cure of rheumatism differs according to its state. In the acute one bleeding may be proper; after which a warm bath, with two drachms of emetic tartar dissolved in the water, should be given, and the horse treated as directed under catarrh. If a sweat is produced, and kept up for some hours, the complaint will probably disappear, and its return may be prevented by frequent friction of the affected part, regular exercise, a nourishing diet, and attention to avoid changes of temperature. In the chronic rheumatism, bleeding will be improper; and the most likely means of relief will be, to rub the affected parts several times a day with some stimulating liniment, or, if convenient, to use the warm bath for a considerable time together, or to foment the affected limb for an hour or two every night, after which the limb must be rubbed perfectly dry. Pretty constant exercise will also contribute greatly to the cure, and coltiveness must be avoided. A blister applied over the affected part will sometimes do good. According to Mr Lawrence, the only cure to be depended on is a month's run of salt marshes in the spring, and being continued abroad in some shady place till autumn, afterwards mercurial physic, and the best stable care.

7. INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. Pleuritis. Peripneumonia. Pleurify. Peripneumony. Rising of the Lights. Rot.

The lungs are frequently inflamed in the domestic animals; and, as in man, the inflammation may be seated in either in the membrane covering the lungs and lining the chest, or the pleura, or in the substance of the lungs, constituting the two varieties, pleurify and peripneumony.

The disease has been called by common farriers, rising of the lights, from an idea that the lungs protruded against the throat, and caused that difficulty of breathing which is one of the principal symptoms of this complaint. The other vulgar appellation of rot seems to owe its origin to the appearance which the lungs sometimes present on dissection, being found in a state of mortification, and partial decomposition, as if they were rotten. It is of little consequence to distinguish the two varieties of the disease, as the treatment is the same in both.

According to Mr Feron, the symptoms of inflammation of the lungs in the horse are invariably as follow. The respiration is quick, the breath hot, the extremities cold, the tongue dry and hot, the flanks heaving, the patient never lying down, which forms a very characteristic symptom; and sometimes he hangs down his head. If nothing has been done, it is hardly possible to save his life, after three days have elapsed; and, after death, the right side of the heart is found to have been inflamed, and, on some occasions, so much distended with blood as actually to burst, and the lungs are found to resemble putrid liver, the cells filled with blood, from the great distention of the pulmonary arteries, and perhaps sometimes effusions take place; the pulse is oppressed, from the great distention occasioned by the blood in the right side of the heart, while the left side of that organ is weak, from want of sufficient blood.

To Mr Feron's account it may be added, that the pulse, pulse, at the commencement of the disease, is generally more full, harder, and more frequent than natural; but, as soon as the disease reaches the stage at which it is usually first observed, the pulse has become small and oppressed, and but little increased in frequency; the veins of the neck are swollen and prominent, and the eyes are generally red and starting. There is sometimes cough, at others none; but the difficulty of breathing is always great, and the horse stands extended, panting for breath, with heaving flanks and open nostrils, till, no longer able to support himself, he drops down and dies. This fatal termination sometimes takes place in a very short period; in 48, 36, or even 24 hours.

The only disease with which this can easily be confused, is colic; and the discriminating marks will be mentioned when we treat of this disease. At present it will be sufficient to remark, that when a horse appears dull, holds his head very low, breathes with difficulty, especially during inspiration, stands constantly, has a quick heaving of the flanks, a fullness of the eyes, and redness of the inside of the nostrils, and when the pulse is small and oppressed, he may almost certainly be declared affected with inflammation of the lungs.

It may not be improper to give a brief explanation of the symptoms which we have enumerated; and they are chiefly to be explained from the difficulty with which the blood passes through the lungs, on account of the unusual accumulation in the pulmonary vessels. Hence the difficulty of breathing, and the aversion that the horse expresses to lie down; for it is evident, that he will breathe more easily in a standing posture than if he were lying; because, as was remarked in the table of the extremities of the muscles, some of these act on the chest, when the fore legs are fixed, and thus assist in carrying forward the ribs, and thus increasing the cavity of the chest. The impeded passage of the blood through the lungs also explains why the pulse is weak and oppressed; and hence, when this obstruction is relieved by lessening the quantity of blood, the pulse never fails to become stronger and fuller.

The causes of inflammation of the lungs are doubtless sudden changes of temperature, especially when the animal is plethoric; it is probable that the most common cause is a sudden change from heat to cold and moisture. It is at present, however, more fashionable to consider the reverse of this as the general cause of pulmonary complaints; and we understand that Mr Coleman goes so far as to say, that horses are never attacked with inflammation of the lungs from exposure to simple cold, for, that the turning of horses to graze without preparation, though it may render them emaciated, seldom produces the complaint in question. Mr Feron also, who may be considered as a pupil of the veterinary college, is of opinion, that inflammation of the internal viscera proceeds from a sudden transition from a cold to a hot temperature, but seldom or never from a hot to a cold one. We are aware that these gentlemen have borrowed their theory from Dr Beddoes, and it is of little consequence to our present purpose, whether it be correct or not.

The judgment to be formed with respect to the termination of this disease, which is always highly dangerous, will depend on the urgency of the symptoms, and on the changes that take place after the exhibition of the usual remedies. If the pulse becomes fuller and stronger after bleeding; if the breathing becomes less difficult; if the parts where blisters have been laid inflame soon, and the blisters rise well; and, in particular, if the horse lies down, and seems less distressed, we may hope that the danger is lessened; and if these favourable signs continue for 24 hours, we may consider a cure as pretty certain: but, if the pulse still continues small and oppressed, more especially, if it becomes quick and irregular; if the difficulty of breathing continues or increases; if there is a rattling in the throat, with partial cold sweats and extreme dejection; a fatal termination must be looked for, which will speedily take place, if the breath becomes cold or fetid. It is considered as a very unfavourable symptom when the horse appears insensible to external stimuli; as when blisters do not rise well, nor rows easily suppurate.

In the cure of inflammation of the lungs, everything will depend on the speedy adoption of the most vigorous measures, and the first and principal remedy is bleeding. This should be performed as soon as possible, and to a greater extent than in most inflammatory diseases. It will scarcely be proper to take less than five or perhaps six quarts at first, and the bleeding must be repeated, though less copiously, some hours after, if a considerable remission of the symptoms does not take place. It must not be expected that the pulse will rise much after a second or third bleeding; but, if it is not considerably weakened, and if the oppressed feel of it is removed, we may be sure that the bleeding has not been carried too far. Another principal means of checking the internal inflammation is, to excite an inflammation externally near the seat of the complaint, by every means in our power. A large blister should be applied on each side of the chest, and to the inside of the fore legs; a rowel should be inserted below the chest, and if the symptoms are very urgent, another near the belly. Mr Coleman recommends inflating the cellular membrane below the skin with air, so as to bring on an inflammation between the skin and muscles; and if this does not succeed, he advises that some stimulating fluid, such as oil of turpentine, be injected. We should suppose this carrying inflammation rather too near the lungs; but from some trials that Mr Coleman has made, and some others of Mr Feron, this method seems to have been attended with considerable advantage. In addition to these means, the fore legs should be well rubbed two or three times a day with oil of turpentine, or the liniment in No. 42. of the receipts. These are the external means that are chiefly to be relied on; and if these be followed up speedily, and with proper attention, there will seldom be any occasion for internal remedies. If these be given, they must be such as are calculated to cool the body, and check inflammation, such as the drenches No. 22. and 26. especially the latter, as it is necessary to keep the bowels open. Perhaps foxglove might here be given with advantage, as directed under that article, at 290. Mr Feron recommends diuretics, and a ball composed of an ounce and half of emetic tartar, a drachm of opium, and 15 or 20 grains of calomel. We do not know whether this is the practice of the veterinary college, but it appears to us to be inconsistent with the bleeding and other evacuants which are generally found most successful. As cottivenes would tend to increase the inflammatory symptoms, back-raking and the occasional use of mild clysters, clysters, will be requisite. In general, warm water, or this with a little Glauber salt dissolved in it, will be sufficient, as all heating purgatives would do harm. The horse should be kept rather warm, should be clothed, and should drink frequently of warm gruel. Food will not be requisite, and, if set before him, he would probably not touch it. Exercise of every kind must be avoided, at least so long as the inflammatory symptoms continue.

The most favourable termination of this complaint is by resolution, when the inflammatory symptoms go off without producing suppuration or ulceration of the lungs; but sometimes this state is unavoidable, an ulcer is produced, and, if the matter is not thrown off, it may either produce suffocation, or bring on hectic fever and consumption. When it is found that a cough remains after the inflammation has subsided, and a quantity of mucus is thrown off, the evacuation of this should be promoted by gentle expectorants, and the horse must still be kept warm. Though the matter may be completely expectorated, there will generally remain a difficulty of breathing, or thick wind, when inflammation of the lungs terminates by suppuration. Sometimes there is left an anaerobic or droptical state of the lungs, and in these cases it is said that blue vitriol and turpentine, to the amount of two drachms of each, mixed into a ball, with a proper quantity of linseed powder, and given every morning, have been beneficial. It may also be proper to apply a blister over the wind-pipe.

Inflammation of the lungs in cattle differs little in symptoms, and nothing in the treatment, from that which we have been describing in the horse.

The lungs of sheep are very frequently affected with inflammation, which forms one of the diseases that has been confounded under the name of rot. It most frequently attacks young sheep, especially those of the more delicate breeds; and it is most prevalent in damp pastures, and during unfavourable seasons. The symptoms of this disease in sheep have not been well described, but they probably differ from those in horses and cattle, only in degree. It does not appear to be so speedily fatal, although the animals seldom or never recover from it. Towards the latter stage of the disease there is considerable weakness; and at this time there appears below the jaw an oedematous swelling, containing a quantity of fluid, which is easily evacuated by piercing the tumour. This tumour is called the pock in Scotland. On opening the bodies of sheep that have died of this species of rot, the lungs are found full of knots or tubercles, similar to those which appear in human subjects that have died of pulmonary consumption, and sometimes the lungs appear mortified or rotten. The liver, however, in these cases is found, which distinguishes this variety from the other diseases called rot.

We do not know that this disease admits of a cure in sheep, though it might probably be prevented by housing them, or affording them shelter, at those seasons when it is most likely to occur.

Inflammation of the lungs occurs sometimes in dogs, but it does not seem to be very frequent in these animals. It requires pretty much the same treatment as in the horse, except that here emetic tartar may be given in such a quantity as to excite considerable sickness, without vomiting. This would be improper in the horse, as it would be difficult to regulate the dose of the medicine, so as not to produce such an irritation of the stomach as might considerably increase the animal's distress, and augment the difficulty of breathing.

8. Inflammation of the Liver. Hepatitis.

We have no doubt that inflammation of the liver takes place occasionally in most of our domestic animals; and it is probably a more frequent disease than is generally supposed. Both species of it, viz. the acute and chronic, may appear in these animals, and it will appear presently, that the latter is a very common disease among sheep. Though dissection has clearly shewn, that the liver in cows, horses, and sheep, has been affected with inflammation during the life of the animal, yet any account of the symptoms of this disease that is given us by the veterinary writers, is so obscure, that we cannot pretend to give anything like a perspicuous history.

According to Mr Blaine, this disease, considered as a distinct affection, is seldom met with in the horse, though, when great abdominal inflammation exists, the liver often partakes of the general disease. In the description of the symptoms, this author states that it is usually accompanied with coliciveness, for the gland ceases to secrete the bile from its being in an inflamed state; and that bile which was secreted, is not poured into the intestine, but becomes depolished in the skin, producing jaundice, which is known by the yellowness of the eyes and the tongue. The pulse is generally full, hard, and frequent, but the pain not very intense. It would be difficult to detect it, unless by the symptoms of fever, accompanied with yellowness of the mouth and eyes. There would possibly be pain in the shoulder as in the human, in which case the horse might on trial be found lame.

It is easy to see, that this description is a fanciful picture of the disease, drawn from the analogy that the author supposes to exist between inflammation of the liver in man and the same disease in horses; and it is probably not to be depended upon.

The writers on cattle medicine describe the symptoms of the disease in cattle to be a difficulty of breathing, evident marks of fever, yellowness of urine, a swelling about the short ribs, and an unusual diffusion about the barren or womb. Here the symptoms of an acute and chronic distemper seem to be confounded.

As for the symptoms of the disease in sheep, in whom it forms one of the varieties of rot, we have seen no ac-in sheep. Count of them any further than as they are confounded with those of the other varieties of rot, and, as such, they will be noticed when we come to treat of the rot in general. If this disease could be detected in its acute state, the cure would probably not be difficult; but when it appears in the chronic form, it is, we believe, seldom removed.

When the bodies of such animals as have died of inflammation of the liver are opened, the liver has been found in various states of disease; sometimes it is harder and firmer than usual, and very frequently there are parts of it that are scirrhouss and discoloured, resisting the knife when we attempt to cut through them. Sometimes the biliary ducts are almost bony, and there is commonly found in them, and sometimes in other parts of the liver, a species of worm called fluke; the *felicola hepatica* Diseases. hepatica of naturalists. Sometimes there are ulcers or abcesses formed in the liver, and frequently, especially in sheep, this organ is mortified or decayed.

The causes of this disease are very obscure; in horses and cattle it is said to be most common in hot seasons and warm climates, and that such of these animals as are fat are more exposed to its attacks. It may also be brought on by blows or bruises on the short ribs, by which the liver may have received some injury. In sheep it is said to be more common in dry weather, especially when the animals have but a scanty supply of food, and when they are of a cottive habit. It is supposed by many, that this species of rot owes its origin to the flukes that we have described, as found in the liver after death; but, as these flukes have been found in the livers of sheep that had never been apparently affected with the rot, and, as they are frequently found in the livers of old sheep, this cause is probably rather fanciful; though when these animals are very numerous, or when they are situated in a very sensitive part of the liver, they may excite a degree of irritation, and consequent inflammation, just as a great quantity of bots in the stomach of horses have been found to bring on inflammation of that organ.

In attempting the cure of this disease, when it is ascertained to be present, we must consider whether it is acute or chronic. When it occurs from injuries, it will probably be of the former kind, but in most other cases it will be chronic. Acute inflammation will require bleeding, purging, blisters, and low diet, as in all other cases of internal inflammation; but, in chronic hepatitis, the most likely remedy is mercury, which may be administered either internally, in the form of calomel or corrosive sublimate, or externally rubbed into the skin on some parts of the animal's body. This mercurial friction may be performed with tolerable ease on the sheep, by pulling off the wool from the inside of the thighs, and rubbing a drachm or two of the strongest mercurial ointment upon these parts every night, till the general system becomes affected, which may be known by the swelling of the gums, offensive smell of the breath, and increased flow of saliva from the mouth. This, however, would be an expensive and tedious cure; and if many of the flock appear affected, it would be better to kill them as fast as possible, before the disease has made such a progress as to render the animals lean. If a mercurial course should be attempted, the animals should be housed during the course, and should be kept on good nourishing food. Coffiveness must be avoided in all these cases, by the administration of gentle clysters, or occasional doses of opening physic. A very good medicine, in all cases of liver complaints, is a ball composed of calomel and soap, as directed under jaundice.

9. Inflammation of the Stomach. Gastritis.

The stomach may be inflamed, both in horses and cattle, from various causes; but this is a disease, the existence of which is not easily detected. Here also Mr Blaine has supplied the want of observed symptoms by analogy, and has supposed that there would probably be unsuccessful efforts to vomit; and, as the stomach is so effectual an organ, the pulse would probably be affected even more than in inflammation of the bowels; that the animal would perhaps point to the left side about the tenth or eleventh rib; that there would be great distress evident in the countenance and manner, and that the loss of strength would be very great.

In cattle there are generally reckoned two species of inflammation of the stomach, one affecting the first stomach or paunch, and the other the third stomach or manyplies. This latter is commonly denominated lake-burn. The symptoms of the disease in these animals are also very obscure, but they are probably similar to what have been described above.

If the reader looks back to No. 409, he will see detailed, a case that occurred to Mr Clark, in which inflammation of the stomach was observed, and detected after death; and though the symptoms there described are few, they are probably more characteristic of the disease in question, than any imaginary description which we can copy from writers who have never seen the complaint.

This disease is extremely dangerous, and will not admit of a cure, unless effectual means are taken at its commencement.

Inflammation of the stomach is commonly produced by some acid, irritating substance which the animal has swallowed, and this is the effect produced by most poisons. A large quantity of cold water drunk while the animal is in a violent perspiration, will also produce it. It not unfrequently accompanies inflammation of the bowels, which we are immediately to describe. It is said to be sometimes produced in cattle by the giving of too strong a dose of astringent medicines to cure the red water or bloody urine; and as we have seen in No. 409, it may sometimes be occasioned by bots.

The disease can only be cured by very copious bleeding, frequently repeated; by giving mucilaginous drinks, such as water gruel or linseed tea, applying a large blister just behind the short ribs, and the frequent administration of relaxing clysters. If poison has been swallowed, we must proceed as recommended under No. 407, though in most cases of inflammation of the stomach, it will be the most humane plan to effect a radical cure by shooting the animal through the head, or cutting his throat.

10. Inflammation of the Bowels. Enteritis. Red Colic. Inflammatory Colic. Dry Braxy in Sheep. Tranchée Inflammatoire ou Rouge, Fr.

This is a disease, to which all the domestic animals are subject, but it is attended with somewhat different symptoms, in the several species.

It is generally preceded by more or less fever. In horses, the first remarkable symptoms that appear, are a great degree of restlessness, with loss of appetite, thirst, with considerable heat, and dryness of the mouth. The animal evidently labours under violent pain, and is perpetually lying down and getting up again, scraping and stamping with his feet, with which he sometimes strikes his belly. When the belly is touched with the hand, the horse betrays extreme sensibility, and shrinks from the touch. The pulse is always increased in frequency, and is hard, giving the sensation of a cord below the finger. The skin feels unusually hot, all over the body, except at the ears, which are said to be cold. The tongue is commonly covered with a white fur. Coffiveness is almost a constant symptom of this disease, and till the inflammation is subdued, this continues very obstinate, or, if the animal dungs, it is in very small quantity, and the excrement is very hard. The urine is voided in very small quantities, and with great pain, especially towards the latter period of the disease. The symptoms go on with more or less rapidity, till the inflammation is subdued by the proper remedies, or till it terminate in the death of the horse.

Returning health may be expected when the heat of the body gradually lessens, while the pulse becomes full, regular, and of the natural frequency, when the horse dungs freely, and returns to his usual appetite, and cheerfulness. But when there appears a sudden relief from pain, with a soft, feeble, or irregular pulse, and a purging of offensive black matter comes on, mortification of the bowels has taken place, and the horse will expire in a few hours.

On opening the body, evident marks of high inflammation appear in many parts of the bowels, the outer or membranous, and muscular coats of which will be found red, and in some parts black. The inflammation is frequently found to have extended to other parts, as the stomach, liver, or bladder; to some of which the guts will be frequently found adhering. On opening into the cavity of the bowels, these will be found greatly distended with air, and the great guts loaded with hardened excrement; and sometimes the inner membrane will appear highly inflamed, or even corroded, shewing evident marks of its having suffered considerable irritation, from some acrid substance.

Inflammation of the bowels is distinguished from colic, by the frequency and cord-like feeling of the pulse, by the presence of fever, by the tenderness of the belly, and by there being little or no remission of the pain. It is said that in colic the horse rolls much on his back, but is not so apt to do this in inflammation of the bowels. It will be seen by and by, that a long protracted colic frequently terminates in inflammation.

Inflammation of the bowels may be produced by acrid or poisonous substances taken into the stomach. It has been sometimes produced by giving heliobore to horses, as a purge; and it is said to arise sometimes from giving purgatives at improper times, or in too large a dose. It is very commonly brought on by giving the horse cold water, when he is much fatigued, and so much overheated, as to be in a profuse sweat, or by dashing cold water upon him, by wading in cold water, or by standing in a draught of cold air, under similar circumstances of fatigue and sweating. Constipation too long neglected, or entangled rupture, is also not an uncommon cause.

In the treatment of the inflammation of the bowels, as in all other internal inflammations, we must begin with copious and repeated bloodletting, after which a free evacuation of the bowels must be attempted by back-raking and the injection of softening clysters, such as warm water-gruel, mixed with half an English pint of castor oil. All acrid clysters must be avoided, as they will only tend to increase the inflammatory affection of the bowels, and even Glauber salts and other saline purgatives are scarcely proper, from the irritation they may produce. After bleeding and evacuating the bowels, warm fomentations applied to the belly may be of service, and the cloths should be applied as hot as possible. After the fomentation, the belly may be rubbed with some stimulating liniment, such as oil of turpentine, or essence of mustard. Firing has been recommended below the belly, as also frequent friction with the curry-comb, so as to irritate the skin, and almost make it bleed. Probably no medicine should be given by the mouth, farther than softening, diluting drinks, such as warm water-gruel or linseed tea. Food at the beginning of the disease is out of the question; but when the inflammation is a little relieved, the horse may have a bran mash. The body should be kept warm by clothing, and all exercise should be avoided.

Inflammation of the bowels in sheep is called dry braxy in Scotland, and of this disease we have an excellent account in Mr Findlater's survey of Peebles.

This disease is most fatal to young and robust sheep about six or seven months old, called in many parts of the island, hogs. It is more destructive upon some farms than others; and even upon these, in one season more than another. In a hog fence, or pasture capable of keeping 30 score of hogs, there is in some years, a loss from three to four score. This is a very serious matter, as each of these would sell in the spring, or beginning of summer, for half a guinea or 11s. This disease begins at those times when inflammatory disorders are most apt to prevail, in the months of October and November, and is produced by the common causes of inflammation, cold, exertion, external injury, &c. During these months, flight frosts set in, and the ground in the morning is often covered with hoar frost, or what is called in some parts of Scotland rhine. It is probable, that eating grass covered with hoar frost, may be one cause of the disorder. If so, moving the animals about, and preventing them from eating, until the frost is melted by the sun, may tend to prevent the disease.

This disease runs its course very rapidly. When the shepherd leaves his flock at night upon their laires, he sometimes observes a hog look dull, loitering behind, and restless; sometimes lying down and suddenly getting up again: and in the morning, he will often find it dead, or nearly so. At other times he will discover no apparent ailment among his flock; and in the morning, he may find one or two dead or dying. From this it appears that the disease is very acute.

This is further evinced by the appearances after death, when the carcases are opened. Their bellies are excessively swelled, and distended with a putrid air: the whole intestines being red and inflamed, gangrenous, and in some degree mortified. This putrid taint seems to be communicated to the whole carcase, as all the muscular parts, and fat, smell strongly of corruption. The hogs that die of this disease, are frequently fat and in good order, which shows that the disease is of short duration.

We have already mentioned the eating of grass, which is covered with hoar frost, as a very probable immediate cause of this disorder. But is there any predisposing cause?

In answer to this question, we shall adduce a fact which is well authenticated. Many parts of the western highlands of Scotland, had been for ages occupied by horses and horned cattle. At the introduction of sheep into those districts, the best grass was that which had sprung from the tush and excrements of these animals. During many years after these districts were converted into sheep farms, braxy remained unknown. It crept in at last, and the severity of the disease was long in proportion to the length of time the pastures had been occupied by sheep.

From these we would infer that pasturing upon their own land, is a predisposing cause of bravety among sheep; and that a frequent alteration of the species of stock, upon every fresh pasture, might serve to prevent the evil. This idea corresponds with the general laws of the Supreme Being, who certainly never intended that this earth should be monopolized by any particular species of animals; but has so ordered matters, that the happiness of individuals shall result from the happiness of the whole family of animated beings.

Hence it would appear a beneficial practice in those farmers, in place of one fence, to keep two or more enclosures of this description, and change the flock upon them every season. This we know to be contrary to general practice, and that what is called the hogs fence, is carefully guarded against the intrusion of every other animal.

Lambs, immediately after they are weaned are frequently sent to poor pasture, which is called burning them. Now this appears to be a very bad practice; for the consequence is, that they fall off considerably, before they get at the rich grass in the hogs' fence, of which they eat too freely; and thus become disposed to the disease treated of. Children, and all domesticated animals, are carefully fed with nourishing food for a considerable time after they are weaned; and yet they fall off for some time. It would certainly be better to give the lambs the hogs fence at once, and use every precaution to prevent them from falling off.

As the disease is generally advanced to a dangerous height before it is observed, we fear that medicine affords but a very faint hope of cure. The disease being inflammatory, the shepherd should attempt to bleed the distressed creature as soon as possible; which he can easily do, by cutting off part of the tail, or by nicking it underneath, or by cutting off part of the ears. The animal should then be removed to a house or shed, and attempts made to produce evacuations. In brute animals, it is difficult to produce these by medicines administered by the mouth. The quickest and most effectual method, is by injections into the rectum or anus. Such injection may consist of a small handful of chamomile flowers, two spoonfuls of aniseed, and as much caraway seeds; to be boiled slowly in a Scotch mutton or English pint of milk and water, until the half is evaporated. The liquor should then be strained off, and two tea spoonfuls of castor oil added, or if this is not at hand, the same quantity of sweet oil may be used. This should be administered warm by an injection bag and pipe, or by an elastic gum bottle with a pipe properly fitted. Nothing can be easier, than to give a sheep a clyster in this way; and, in all probability it will have a happy effect in evacuating the bowels and procuring relief.

If this does not appear very soon, it may be repeated an hour after, and a large spoonful of common salt added to the former ingredients. If, after all, the animal does not seem relieved, another clyster may be given, consisting of a small tea cupful of warm milk and water, to which are added from 20 to 25 drops of laudanum.

As there is a great dilution of the stomach and bowels, arising from airs or elastic vapours, generated in the intestines, Mr Walker of Cumberland, in a treatise he wrote upon the diseases of brute animals, has suggested a remedy for this disorder, which has often proved successful in his district. It consists in pushing down their throats a flexible tube, such as Dr Monro has recommended, and which has proved successful in relieving cows that had over gorged themselves with red clover early in the season (see No. 405.). This seems a probable means of affording temporary relief, and every shepherd that has the care of the hog flock, should be furnished with one of these tubes, adapted to the size of the sheep, for trying the experiment upon those that labour under the disease.

"In regard to the quality of pasture (adds Mr Findlater) as a cause of sickness, Tweeddale farmers seem of opinion that it arises from the foulness of the grass at the root in the hogs fences, which are never eaten bare. Some, therefore, take care to have the land to be saved for the hog fence, once eaten as bare as possible early in summer, by the black cattle upon the farm, or by old sheep.

"It seems ascertained in Tweeddale, that land which has been in use to be pastured by older sheep, when converted into a hog fence, is not liable for some time to produce sickness. Two accidental experiments occurring in which this practice took place, in consequence of new arrangements in the farms of Harehope in Edendale parish, and of Lyne in Lyne parish, confirm this conclusion. It is farther confirmed by an experiment of Mr Murray, tenant in Flemington mill. About 20 years ago, he bought in different parcels of lambs for hogs, and laid them upon the hog fence of his hog farm of Broughton-haup, in Broughton parish. In one of the parcels of much higher condition than the rest, the sickness broke out to such extent, that they were dying at the rate of two or three daily; so that the whole parcel seemed in imminent risk. He transferred this whole parcel to the farm of Fingland in Newlands parish, where only old sheep were kept, putting them on some of the lower pasture of that farm, which had been harnessed for feeding the crock ewes, and transferring a proportional quantity of these ewes to Broughton-haup hog fence. Not one of the lambs died upon Fingland. To the same effect, it deserves attention, that in small farms, not admitting of distinct hirling, where, of course, old and young sheep pasture mixed together, hogs are very little liable to sickness, though perhaps worse in other respects.

"From November at sowing time till Christmas (1797) two facts with regard to the mode of cure have been stated to me, and which I am disposed to think authentic. In the farm of Drummelzier, parish of Drummelzier, three hogs (out of four upon which the experiment was tried) recovered, upon bleeding, and having poured down their throats, a decoction of tobacco; about a finger's length of twist tobacco boiled in water till the water has diminished to a gill, being the dose for each. In the farm of Broughton-haup, parish of Broughton, within the same space of time, nine or ten (out of 16 or 17 upon whom the experiment was made) recovered upon bleeding, and having an injection of tobacco smoke administered from a common tobacco pipe, by kindling the tobacco, inserting the pipe shank into the anus and blowing; the experiment, however, was not so successful." I have long ago seen a ewe cured by bleeding, and injection of Glauber salts from a common clyfter-bag and pipe. When braxy breaks out, it might be useful, where attainable, to lay the hogs, nightly, upon dry ground, if the hog fence is wet, the chilliness of wet ground contributing no doubt to the production of inflammation. Clover faggage or turnips might be good preventives from inducing a lax

**II. DYSENTERY. Molten-grease or Body-founder, Break-blow, (in sheep). Gras fondu, Fr.**

Dysentery is the other disease that, with catarrh, forms Dr Cullen's order of profusia; but as there are evident marks of inflammation of the bowels observed on inspecting the bodies of such animals as have died of this complaint, we have placed it immediately after inflammation of the bowels, in which we have followed M. Pinel and some other late writers.

This disease is not uncommon in the horse, and probably it is still more frequent in cattle and sheep. It very commonly begins with some degree of fever, as a trembling, dryness of the mouth, loss of appetite, a great degree of weakness, drooping of the head and ears, sometimes a copious sweating, but more commonly dryness and heat of the skin. There is usually a heaving of the flanks, and the animal turns his head towards them, as if gripped. There are frequent defecations from the anus, but these seldom consist of the natural excrement, but of a mucous, slimy discharge, accompanied with a peculiar fatty substance like soft fat. There is evidently much distress during these evacuations, and sometimes the fundament appears excoriated. It is not uncommon to see blood pass with the stools, generally in streaks, but sometimes in such a quantity as to tinge the whole discharge of a red colour; and in the latter stages of the disease there generally appear membranous, fatty substances, which have been compared to soaked leather. These substances have been supposed to be the inner membrane of the bowels that has been eroded and thrown off by the violence of the purging; but they are merely coagulable lymph, such as is very commonly thrown off from inflamed surfaces. The pulse, towards the beginning of the disease, is commonly hard and full, but as the complaint goes on it becomes quick, small, and sometimes irregular. The animal is very stiff, and much averse to motion, and if the disease continues long, there usually comes on a swelling of the legs.

When animals that have died of this disease are dissected, the inner coat of the bowels is found inflamed, in some places covered with coagulable lymph, such as we have described as being thrown out in the discharge, and not unfrequently ulcerated in various parts, sometimes mortified and corroded.

This disease does not appear so dangerous among the inferior animals in this climate, as in warmer countries; but it sometimes proves fatal, or terminates in a weakness of the bowels and scouring, that are not easily removed. If the fever is but little or soon abates, if the animal appears not to labour under much pain, and if the discharge of natural excrement soon returns, the disease will probably terminate favourably in a short time; but if there is great pain and fever, with excessive weakness, and if the mucous discharges continue very frequent, and mixed with much blood, the danger is considerable.

It is necessary to distinguish this complaint from the common purging or scouring, with which it is very generally confounded. It must therefore be observed, that in scouring, there is no fever, whereas this is common in dysentery; that the discharge in scouring, though thin, has almost always the appearance of excrement, is not bloody, and is scarcely ever mixed with fatty matter.

Dysentery is more common in hot weather, and in hot seasons, than at other times; but is very commonly produced by the sudden application of cold, especially to the legs or belly, while the body is overheated and fatigued; hence swimming in autumn, drinking large quantities of cold water while in a profuse sweat, or other sudden changes from heat to cold, have commonly produced it. It is said to be frequently brought on by riding a horse very hard in hot weather. Mr Lawrence says that when a boy, he rode a horse that had a great deal of loose green flesh about him, 21 miles in a warm summer morning, and thus brought on an attack of molten grease. It is also not an uncommon disease among polo horses.

From the appearance of the fatty matter in the discharge that takes place in this complaint, the older writers on farriery were induced to give it the name of molten grease, conceiving that a principal part of the disease consisted in a melting down of the fat of the animal, which being conveyed by the absorbents into the circulation, is thrown out by the exhalants on the bowels, and carried off with the dung. Mr Blaine laughs very heartily at this idea, and seems to pride himself on the discovery, that what has been mistaken for fat, is nothing more than an increased secretion of the mucus of the intestines, and is as liable to a horse with little fat, as to one with much. Mr Lawrence, on the other hand, argues strenuously that this matter is really greasy, and says, "with respect to the evidence of sense," had Mr Blaine ever seen a horse under the discharge of molten grease, he might have found on experiment, that part of the discharges in question is inflammable and liquefiable, which are not the characters of albumen, but of real grease; and, (continues Mr Lawrence) viewing the matter through the medium of experience, I can see no sort of improbability in a colligation of loose, substantial, internal fat, by sudden inflammation, and its consequent effusion and discharge by an unusual emunctory. Gibbon gives an instance which convinced him (apparently incredulous before) of the possibility of a horse's grease being melted. He found the fat melted and turned into an oil, and drawn off from its proper cells into the blood vessels. He says farther, this disease is not unlike the greasy diarrhoea which happens to men." Not having ourselves seen a case of dysentery in horses, we are not prepared to decide the difference between these two champions of the old and new school, but as Mr Lawrence is very worthy of credit in whatever has passed under his own observation, we have no doubt that this debated substance is of a fatty nature.

As it seems certain that dysentery is of an inflammatory nature, it is proper to begin the cure by bleeding, especially if the horse is plethoric, or if the pulse is full and hard. It will then be proper to clear the bowels by Diseases by a laxative clyster, and to give internally a drench composed of five or six ounces of Glauber's salt dissolved in a quart of water-gruel, or the drench No. 26 of the receipts; and this may be repeated every three or four hours. This will probably, in the course of the day, produce a plentiful discharge of excrement, and when the bowels appear well cleared, the horse may have a warm bath, be covered up warm, and perhaps a perspiration will be brought on, which, if the disease is slight, will probably complete the cure. If the disease should continue, an English pint, or pint and a half, of castor oil may be given, and clysters, composed of water-gruel, or starch boiled in water, should be given warm very frequently. When by these means a pretty copious discharge of excrement has been produced, the horse may have a ball composed of two drachms of opium, and half an ounce of ipecacuanha, or a drachm of emetic tartar, washed down with a quart of good porter. If there is considerable pain, it may be advisable to foment the belly for half an hour at a time, with flannels wrung out of a warm decoction of poppy heads. During this treatment the horse should be kept clothed, and currents of air in the stable should be avoided. When the disease is subdued, as the horse will probably remain very weak, it will be proper to revive him by nourishing diet, and cordial and strengthening remedies.

The appearances of dysentery in cattle are not unlike those that occur in the horse, only that perhaps in them there is not so much of the gras fondu. The disease among these animals is commonly called far-del-bound. The treatment is the same as above described.

This disease is not uncommon in sheep, by the name of break/bow; but shepherds very commonly confound it with diarrhoea or purging. Mr. Loch of Rachan, very properly distinguishes between them, and observes that the break/bow is analogous to dysentery in the human species, and occurs most commonly in the end of wet summers. The discharge is thin and greenish (Mr. Loch supposes from the wet grass becoming acid in the stomach, and turning the gall green); it is more or less mixed with blood, sometimes florid, sometimes black and grumous; the animal pines for a week or two and dies, though sometimes he recovers. The cure commonly employed by Mr. Loch's herd, is warm milk poured down the animal's throat; but Mr. Loch proposes to try, in addition to this, nitre in half drachm doses, with chalk or some other absorbent powder, and 20 or 30 drops of laudanum twice or thrice a day, with frequent injections of warm milk and water. This plan seems best adapted to the latter stages of the disease. According to Mr. Gillespie of Glenquich (quoted by Mr. Findlater), this disease is often produced by overheating, when the sheep are hunted by dogs, in folding them, &c., or when otherwise scared and terrified. It is stated by Mr. Gillespie to be considerably infectious; and he considers tarring part of the flock to be the best means of checking the infection, under the idea that the smell of the tar will overcome that of the contagion.

12. INFLAMMATION of the Kidneys. Nephritis. Strain of the Kidneys.

This disease is not uncommon among horses and cattle; but it is more frequent in the former, as they are more exposed to those causes that appear generally to produce it.

The symptoms of this disease in horses, are tolerably well marked. The horse stands wide with his hind-legs, appears dull, and expresses considerable pain, often looking at his flanks. When pressure is made on the loins the horse flinches, and is evidently much distended; the pulse is hard and full, and commonly more frequent than natural. When both kidneys are inflamed, little or no urine is secreted, and what little is evacuated is generally bloody; but when only one kidney is inflamed, the other continues to secrete urine, but the natural quantity is on the whole much diminished, and there is commonly considerable pain during the evacuation.

Inflammation of the kidneys is liable to be confounded with inflammation of the neck of the bladder, and the best means of distinguishing them, is to pass the hand up the fundament, by which the state of the bladder beneath may be easily ascertained. If the bladder be considerably distended with urine, the inflammation is almost certainly seated in the neck of the bladder; but if the bladder be shrunk and empty, the disease is probably situated in the kidneys. It must be allowed, however, that this mark of discrimination will not hold good till the disease of the kidneys is pretty far advanced, as it very commonly happens that when a gland is inflamed, its secretion is at first increased. At the commencement of the disease, therefore, the symptoms which we have enumerated, especially the tendency which the horse evinces on touching his loins, are chiefly to be depended on. It must be remarked, that one of the kidneys has been found diseased, and even putrefied, after death, when it showed no marks of inflammation during life. This disease is attended with considerable danger, and unless the inflammation be speedily removed, matter will be formed, which, if it does not pass off by the urinary pipes into the bladder, will find a passage into the belly, or behind the peritoneum, and produce hectic fever and consumption, or the kidney may mortify, and death will soon follow.

The kidneys may become inflamed, either from external injury, or from irritating substances that pass through them in the course of the circulation. Inflammation of these organs is frequently produced by placing the saddle too far back upon the loins, and riding hard for a long time while it is in this position. It is sometimes the effect of throwing cold water upon the body while it is in a sweat; but according to Mr. Blaine and Mr. Feron, it is most frequently produced by the indiscriminate use of strong diuretic medicines.

In the treatment of this disease, we must vigorously employ the means that we have so often recommended for the cure of internal inflammations; bleeding in its full extent, emollient clysters, and the production of external inflammation: but it is necessary in this disease to caution the practitioner against the use of blisters, as the matter of cantharides, when taken into the circulation, and carried to the kidneys, will considerably increase the inflammation and distress. A good substitute for blisters of cantharides would be, to pour hot water on the loins, so as to raise a blister on each side, which, however cruel it may appear, could not produce so much pain, as the animal already feels from the disease. It has... has been recommended, to excite a degree of inflammation in the external part of the loins, by means of firing; but probably the hot water will do as well, and is less painful. No medicine should be given by the mouth, that is in the least heating or irritating; and nitre, turpentine, balsam of copaiva, &c., so warmly recommended by most of the writers on farriery, would only serve to aggravate the disease. The horse may drink frequently of water gruel, linseed tea, or such other mild, mucilaginous liquors; and if he seems to require food, bran mash will be the most proper article of diet. If there is much coliciveness, purgative clysters may be given, or in cases of necessity, fix or seven drachms of colocynthine alone in a ball. All exercise must be avoided, and the horse should have a good bed of litter, on which he may lie down when fatigued.

13. Inflammation of the Bladder. Cystitis.

The bladder may be inflamed either in its body, or in its neck, and the symptoms differ somewhat in these two varieties. When the body of the bladder is inflamed, there is produced such a degree of irritation, that the bladder becomes incapable of retaining its contents for any length of time; and the animal is perpetually making small quantities of urine. He also makes frequent attempts to dung. On palpating the hand up the fundament, the bladder will be found very hot and sensible; and in this variety of the complaint, as in inflammation of the kidneys, it is empty and collapsed.

When the neck of the bladder is inflamed, there is at first a suppression of the urine, but afterwards it is continually passing off in drops; and on examining the bladder by the fundament, it will be found more or less distended, according to the continuance of the complaint. There is usually considerable fever in both cases. The pulse is hard and full at the beginning of the disease, but after this has continued for some time, the pulse becomes small and oppressed.

Inflammation of the bladder takes place more frequently in males than in females; animals; but it is said to be sometimes produced in the latter, at least in mares, by palping some irritating substance up the urethra, in order to make them horly. Both cases of this disease are attended with considerable danger; but the latter is generally the most dangerous; but in a mare a cure is generally easier than in a horse.

The treatment of this complaint differs little from that of the inflammation of the kidneys, and chiefly consists in bleeding, the frequent use of softening clysters, low diet, and the production of external inflammation by any other means than the use of cantharides blisters. If the bladder be found considerably distended, it will be necessary to evacuate the urine, either by the means of a catheter, which may be easily palped up in a mare, or by making an opening into the bladder; for performing which in the male, Mr Feron gives the following directions. "It happens that the urethra is so constructed, that it is not in our power to introduce an instrument immediately into the bladder, without performing an operation; for the urethra of the horse forms two curvatures or angles, before it reaches the bladder, and therefore it is not possible to introduce an instrument into the bladder, which will preserve its curvity all the way. We therefore introduce a staff of a pliable wood, or whalebone, to the angle at the os pubis, as near the rectum as possible with safety; we make a cut upon it, and then introduce the female catheter, or some similar tube, without however removing the staff to prevent our losing the incision, taking care to avoid the instrument's pushing into the cellular membrane, instead of entering the bladder. If such an accident was likely to happen, it is advisable not to attempt the operation, but to continue and insist upon all the emollient remedies.

"We may also puncture the bladder with a trocar, by the rectum, or through the inferior part of the abdomen.

"In either case we are likewise directed by Mr Coleman, to make the puncture as near the os pubis as possible, that we may not wound the peritoneum anteriorly. By this method the operation recommended through the rectum may be performed without exposing, or opening the cavity of the abdomen."*

In the female an opening may be easily made into the bladder, with a trocar, introduced by the vagina.†

It has been recommended in the mare, to throw up an injection of some oily or mucilaginous fluid, to supply the place of mucus, in sheathing the bladder from the irritation of urine. As in the inflammation of the kidneys, every thing that can heat or irritate the urinary organs must be carefully avoided.

14. Cords.

It is well known in most breeding countries, that a great many calves die every year, of an unknown disease, with which they are affected very shortly after birth. The common name which this disease receives in Scotland, is the cords; and while its fatal and widely extended effects are the subject of just regret, the disease itself is looked on as incurable, and no pains are taken to investigate its nature, symptoms and causes, and no remedies suggested, as a cure or preventive. Whatever be its nature, this disease is exceedingly dangerous, and so extremely rapid, (terminating frequently in a night's time), that all means of relief are commonly useless even before it is observed.

Almost all calves, that are said to have died of the cords, appear, when they are opened up, exceedingly red, and the small leaders, or ligaments, are considerably swollen, and have some resemblance to strings palping through the internal parts, from which probably the disease has its name. Every symptom indicates a considerable degree of plethora, if not a very high degree of inflammation.

It is commonly observed, that calves are most liable to be affected during the first days, or weeks, after they are calved. If they outlive five or six weeks, they are seldom in any danger.

Calves that suck their mothers, we believe, it will be found, are not so liable to the disease, as those who are fed by the hand.

The greatest number of calves who fall a sacrifice to this disease, if not the whole of them, are those who are closely confined to the house from their birth, without ever being exposed to the free open air without doors. It is a well known fact, that calves who are dropt without, and remain in the fields, are in little or no danger. Cows that are laid on to graze for beef frequently turn out to be in calf; and it is no uncommon thing to see them drop their calves in the midst of frost and snow, and yet these young creatures, if they can once get to their feet, without being frozen to the ground, are hearty and well. Calves, lambs, and foals, require exercise and fresh air; and nature directs them to take a great deal. It is astonishing to see with what force and vigour, (particularly the calf), and how long, they will run. But this free, unconstrained, and severe exercise without doors, seems to be the very thing that makes them thrive, and to be necessary to their very existence.*

The great object is to prevent this disease; and the following method of treating the new-born calves, practised by a correspondent of the Farmers Magazine, seems to be attended with complete success.

The time when this gentleman's cows are bulled is regularly noted down in a book; and when they are near calving, they are watched frequently night and day. As soon as the calf is dropped, it is received into a large basket or skull, made of willows, with a handle at each end, and plenty of clean straw in it. It is then carried by two persons to the stall in the calf-house, where it is gently rubbed with straw. The calf-basket is next to the cow-brye; and is fitted up with flails like a stable, about three feet wide, and about five feet long. Every stall thus in itself, with a door and hinges, for fear of the calf lying back too far, to choke itself in its binding. As soon as the mother has had a little rest after calving, she is milked, and a little of the milk given to the calf as early as possible. If the weather is cold, and the mother long in giving milk, it is taken to the fire, and warmed in a pan until it is blood-warm, and then given to the calf; about six or eight gills, according to the size of the calf, and repeated four times in 24 hours. As the calf gathers strength, the quantity may be increased; but too much milk at one time is as bad as too little, until it is a month or six weeks old. When the calf is able to stand, it is tied to a stake; as it is more in the power of the servant to give it milk in that situation, than when going about loose. If a calf gets cold milk, it is sure to bring on a trembling; and the cords or some other malady follows; which he has often seen exemplified amongst the neighbouring young stock†.

15. Farcy. Le Farcin, Fr.

We shall conclude this chapter with a brief account of two diseases; or rather, as it should seem, of two modifications of the same disease, that frequently take place in the horse, to whom they are almost peculiar; though something like them is occasionally found in other animals. We shall hereafter take notice of what farriers call the water farcy, which we consider as similar to angina in the human body; but the disease we are about to describe, appears to be rather a peculiar inflammatory affection of the absorbent vessels below the skin. There seems to be two varieties of farcy, acute and chronic; or rather a mild and a malignant variety.

The commencement of farcy appears to be rather obscure, and probably it is seldom observed in the beginning of the inflammation. The first appearances that are described by writers, are a number of swellings, that rise in almost every part of the body, particularly the head, neck, and extremities. The lymphatic vessels below the skin appear like knotted cords; and this appearance is found to be owing to a dilatation and inflammation that take place in these vessels, especially at their valves, where the knots are produced. As the disease proceeds, these knotted swellings burst, and ulcers are formed, which are very difficult to heal. The formation of these ulcers may be considered as terminating the mild stage, and commencing the malignant form of the disease; in which the horse loses his appetite, grows lean and weak, and commonly has a degree of hectic fever. If the progress of the disease has not been arrested, a swelling takes place in the head and nose, and there comes on from the latter a copious discharge of a peculiar glairy mucus, which shows that the disease has degenerated into glanders, under which name we shall proceed to describe it; and shall afterwards consider the nature, causes, and treatment of both.

16. Glanders. Le Morve, Fr.

According to Mr Blaine, the usual symptoms of glanders are an increased secretion of the mucus of the nose, which is at first thick, and like the white of an egg. He has seen it continue so, while at other times it becomes purulent; but there is usually a degree of viscidity and glueiness about the matter, that as it were fixes the sides of the nostrils together, and is strongly characteristic of this disease. On examining the nostrils, there may generally be perceived a number of ulcerated surfaces, very similar to blisters that occur in the venereal disease. These ulcers do not always appear soon; but they are produced in all virulent cases, and never fail to appear when the disease terminates fatally. They are at first small, and disposed in lines along the lymphatic vessels; but as the ulceration proceeds, it becomes more extensive, till the whole inner surface of the nostrils is affected, and at length the bones of the nose are affected, and become carious. When the ulcers have continued for some time, the matter changes its glairy appearance, and becomes bloody and offensive; and this is more particularly the case when the bones become diseased. In the latter stages of the complaint, the emaciation and weakness of the animal are greatly increased; he becomes affected with a short tickling cough; the hair grows dry and harsh, and falls off on the slightest touch, and thus the horse gradually pines away.

Sometimes only one side of the head is affected, but more commonly both at the same time.

The best account of the appearances of glanders on dissection, has been given by M. Chabert, in a work which he published in 1785, on the means of ascertaining the existence of glanders, and of preventing their effects. From the numerous bodies which he opened, M. Chabert has drawn up the following general account of the morbid appearances.

The lungs are generally more affected than any other of the viscera; we find them often swelled and filled with hydatids, tubercles, and obstructions. The bronchial glands are very often swelled and ulcerated, and this is sometimes the only injury that we can perceive on dissections. The membrane that lines the bronchia and the wind-pipe, is most commonly inflamed and ulcerated; the bronchia are filled with a thick matter, that commonly resembles what the animal discharges by the nostrils. The internal surface of the bones that form the different cavities of the nose, and the grilly partition of the nostrils, are often carious, and covered with purulent matter; and the membrane which lines the nostrils... nostrils is ulcerated. The spleen, the liver, and the kidneys, are also sometimes considerably diseased; and the ulcerated state of the kidneys, not unfrequently appears during life, by the purulent matter that is discharged with the urine. On opening the head, we sometimes find the brain softer and more flaccid than in a healthy animal. There is often a great quantity of serum in its cavities, and the glands are much swollen.

The glanders is liable to be confounded with several of those diseases, in which an unusual discharge proceeds from the nostrils; as catarrh, strangles, and consumption; but chiefly with the two former. It may be distinguished from catarrh, by the absence of fever in the early stage; by the matter discharged from the nostrils being thick and glairy from the first; whereas, in catarrh, there is almost always considerable fever in the beginning, and the discharge is at first watery. In a common cold the general health is also more or less affected, and from the first there is usually a cough and loss of appetite; whereas, these symptoms scarcely ever come on in glanders, till the disease has subsided for a considerable time. Glanders may be distinguished from strangles by the high fever which commences the latter, and by the swelling and speedy suppuration of the glands of the mouth and throat.

Of these two affections, glanders is the most dangerous; as farcy, when taken at its commencement, may frequently be removed; but we believe the instances of a perfect cure in glanders are very rare.

The causes of these complaints are very obscure. It is said that farcy may be brought on by the same causes that predispose to mange, as want of cleanliness, hard work, and low diet; and there is no doubt, that this disease, as well as glanders, is contagious. Glanders, besides being produced by contagion, may also be the termination of several disorders, as of catarrh, strangles, and consumption, however different from these diseases in their commencement.

The nature of glanders is not well understood, although, of late, many ingenious men have investigated the subject, and made considerable discoveries. It is not certain when the disease was first known. Mr Lawrence dates it from the same period with the Lues Venerei; but there seems no doubt that the disease was known to the ancients, though we do not know by what name it was called. Vegetius speaks of a disease which he calls humiditas, which Mr Blaine supposes to be the same with our glanders; but which the learned Camper considers as analogous to the murrain, See No 466. Blundevil, and after him Markham, give the following description of its rise, progress, and completion. "Of cold first cometh the pölé, (that is stoppage of the head), and the cough, and then the glanders, and last of all the mourning of the chine." The two Messieurs Lafoffe, made, as we have seen, several discoveries with respect to glanders, especially the father, who, in 1749, demonstrated before the academy of sciences at Paris, that the seat of the disease is wholly in the pituitary membrane; and he proposed curing it by injecting the whole of this membrane through openings made with the trepan, into the frontal, nasal, and maxillary sinuses. Lafoffe divided the disease into several species; but it appears that all these may be reduced to two, the mild and malignant, or the chronic and acute; the chronic being that in which the running of the nose is trifling, and of a transparent colour, with no appearances of ulceration in the nostrils; while in the acute or malignant variety, there is considerable ulceration; the discharge is very offensive; there is a swelling below the under jaw, and the bones of the nose are carious.

The best of the English writers on farriery appear to have known little or nothing of the disease more than the symptoms. Dr Bracken considered it as not contagious, and Gibbon gives but a poor account of it, for which he seems indebted to Snape.

"The late professor of the veterinary college (says Mr Blaine), published his remarks on this disease, but it is evident that he knew little or nothing relating to it, but what he gained from Lafoffe, and consequently his opinions offered nothing new. The present professor has prosecuted the inquiries relative to it much farther, and by an extensive course of experiments has thrown very considerable light on the nature of the disease; and though we are not yet much more successful in attempts at the cure, yet we have less reason to despair. By Mr Coleman's experiments it is proved beyond a doubt that farcy and glanders are specifically the same disease, but affecting different parts: to establish this, horses have been inoculated with the matter of farcy, and glanders has been produced; which puts the matter beyond a doubt. Further, Mr Coleman produced glanders in a found animal by the inoculation with the matter of glanders. This M. St Bell affected could not be done. Farcy has likewise been produced by the same means, but it appears that it was some time before it could be effected; but it has been produced by Mr White. It cannot therefore be inferred, that because the farcy and glanders are so different in their apparent situations they are distinct diseases: every poison has its preference of parts; and likewise the same poison, under different modifications affects different parts.

Mr Coleman is of opinion, that in glanders, the whole circulating fluids are affected. To prove this, he bled an ass from the jugular vein till he was to all appearance dead, when he introduced the blood from the carotid artery of a horse labouring under glanders, till the ass was reanimated. In a few days the most malignant glanders appeared. I believe another ass was inoculated from this, which became glandered. This experiment, I think, (adds Mr Blaine), throws great light on this complaint, and indeed on pathology in general; and we may hence be led to hope, that internal remedies may be more useful than external, which have been thought to be the only means by which we could hope for a cure; for provided we could destroy the poison existing in the blood, and keeping up the action in the part; the action, or at least the specific part of it, might cease in the affected part, and we might induce a healing process by the usual means. As such, our only hope must consist in exciting a new action in the system, whereby the glanderous one will be suspended, till by the continuance of the new action the virus of glanders is completely expelled by the change the fluids naturally undergo."

The treatment of these diseases will differ according to their state and degree of malignity. For the cure vol. ii. p. of 525. Diseases of farcy, blisters are much extolled by Mr Feron, and the actual cautery, is very generally employed to destroy the swellings of the lymphatics, and to excite these vessels into greater action. To assist this purpose, diuretics are to be administered, and the horse should take as much exercise, especially draught labour, as he will bear without considerable fatigue. Two remedies have of late been employed internally, when the system becomes considerably affected; these are verdigris, and corrosive sublimate. Mr Feron directs the former to be given in the following manner. A ball composed of one drachm of verdigris, and a quarter of an ounce of common turpentine, is to be given every night and morning, gradually increasing the quantity of verdigris till the horse can take from three drachms to half an ounce in the course of the day. If the animal becomes colicive, he is to have a clyster night and morning, and a purgative ball of seven drachms of aloes, and half a drachm of calomel once a week. After having gone through a regular course of physic, he is to have the following balls. An ounce of green copperas (x) in powder is to be mixed up with Venice turpentine, and a sufficient quantity of linseed powder, to make eight balls, one of which is to be given every morning, while coltiveness is to be avoided as before directed.

In giving the corrosive sublimate, we should begin with a small dose (see Stimulants), and gradually increase it so long as the stomach will easily bear it. As mercury in some form seems to be the best remedy that can be employed in these affections, calomel, or the common blue pill, may be given instead of the corrosive sublimate, if the latter should occasion much disorder, or if the horse is very much weakened. During this course the animal must be supported by nourishing diet, but should frequently have a change of succulent vegetable food. Mr Blaine speaks of a horse that was so far reduced (by glanders, we suppose) as not to be able to stand, and who was drawn into a field of tares, and suffered to take his chance; the consequence was that when he had eaten all within his reach, he was able to rise and search for more, and eventually recovered.

The treatment recommended above has, it seems, often been successful in farcy, and the same internal remedies have been recommended in glanders, but we believe they have been employed with little success. Mr Feron advises to draw blood in the beginning of glanders, while the disease is still local, and to keep the animal upon warm mashes of bran, putting the same into a nose-bag, for the purpose of fomenting the nostrils. He is then to go through a course of gentle physic, while strict attention is paid to the necessary direction of the food, exercise, dressing, cleanliness, and water. The water must be always warm, and made white with bran or gravel. After this course, he recommends balls made of opium, arsenic, and sulphur, or of extract of hemlock, calomel, &c., avoiding coltiveness during their exhibition. He thinks it necessary to insert two rows, one below the under jaw near the swelling, and another under the chest; and he recommends frequently syringing the nostrils with a lotion made of two ounces of spirit of wine, and the same quantity of vinegar, mixed with a gallon of water; or with a solution of corrosive sublimate. According to this gentleman, if the disorder is attacked in its infancy, it will generally submit to the above course of treatment; but if the disorder is so far advanced as to exhibit the symptoms of virulence, which we have described as constituting the acute or malignant stage of it, it will increase in opposition to all art, and it will be necessary to take away a life that every degree of affluence would not render worth preserving.

As the farcy is probably contagious, and the glanders in most cases is certainly so, it is proper, as soon as a horse is affected with either of these diseases, to keep him in a separate stable, and to take care that he does not come near any other horses; and no part of his harness, or furniture should be used for any other horse, till it has been well washed with soap and water, and exposed for a long time to the pure air.

Glanders is considered by Dr Darwin, and some other writers, as a contagious catarrh, and in some cases it certainly is so; but when it is the consequence of farcy, or of dangerous chronic diseases, it appears to be an affection of a peculiar kind. Mr Lawrence considers the glanders as so perfectly incurable, that he recommends the collarmakers knife as the easiest, cheapest, and most infallible remedy.

**Chap. III. Of Lethargic or Comatose Diseases.**

1. **Apoplexy.** Vertigo, Fr. Staggers, Sleepy Staggers, Lethargy, or Vertigo.

Staggers is one of the most comprehensive terms in apoplexy, farriery; and under it are confounded almost every affection of the brain, or all those diseases in which there take place giddiness, unusual heaviness, drowsiness, or convulsions. We have already seen the term applied to inflammation of the brain, and we have no doubt that many cases are described as staggers, which are really instances of epilepsy. Of this kind we consider the case so humorously related by Mr Lawrence in his treatise on horses, vol. ii. p. 426. "Walking up Fleet-street, I observed a crowd of people wonderfully diverted with the agonies of a cart-horse beating himself almost to pieces, in, I think, the most violent convulsions I ever witnessed. He threw himself repeatedly upon the foot-path, and was very near going headlong into a shop, &c."

Mr Feron, who in general keeps very clear of the errors of ordinary farriers, which he often ridicules with much success, has confounded inflammation of the brain and apoplexy, under the general name of staggers, considering them as both inflammatory, and merely modifications of the same disease. Even Mr Blaine, who, as Mr Lawrence expresses himself, seems upon every occasion eager to catch the dernier goût of science, has

---

(x) Mr Feron directs green copper; but we suppose this is merely a typographical error, for copperas, or sulphate of iron; and we have therefore ordered it by this name, as sulphate of iron is a good tonic, and may be very properly employed in this disease. described flaggers under the name of lethargy, and does not even mention its identity with apoplexy in the human body.

We consider flaggers properly so called, as the same with apoplexy; the appearances, the causes, and the treatment of both are the same, making allowance for some slight variations in the structure and economy of the different animals whom they affect.

This complaint sometimes comes on suddenly; but in general it is preceded by symptoms that mark a considerable determination of blood to the head, such as heaviness, drowsiness, insensibility, (see No. 317) occasional fits of giddiness, (see No. 318.) and partial blindness, (see No. 321.) There seems no doubt that the horse is sometimes affected with headache, which appears by the animal's hanging down his head and drooping his ears, by the eyes being dull and watery, by dropping of urine, and coliciveness. These symptoms often precede an attack of apoplexy, though they are sometimes only signs of a disordered stomach.

When a fit of flaggers comes on, the animal falls suddenly, and is perhaps convulsed for a few minutes, but more commonly appears quite insensible. The pulse during the fit is usually slower than natural, and much oppressed; the breathing is slow, heavy, and laborious, and there is evidently an increased accumulation of blood in the vessels of the head. The animal remains for a longer or shorter time in the fit, and sometimes he never recovers; but, in general, in eight or ten minutes, the fit goes off, and the animal rises. Sometimes after a fit of the flaggers, the animal appears for a time more active and lively than before; but very often he remains heavy and sleepy, especially after repeated attacks, and sometimes a paralytic affection of some of the limbs is the consequence of the fit.

Apoplexy may be distinguished from inflammation of the brain, by the fever, restlessness, and fiery appearance of the eyes, that never fail to usher in the latter complaint. We would distinguish it from epilepsy, by the foaming at the mouth, and strong convulsions, by which this latter is always accompanied.

An apoplectic fit may be the consequence of an overloaded or otherwise disordered stomach; and is no uncommon termination of several diseases, as epilepsy, locked jaw, &c. But it is generally the consequence of too much fullness of blood, brought on by a full diet, attended by idleness or want of exercise. It is more common to old than to young animals, especially such as have large heads and short necks. For the immediate and many of the exciting causes of this complaint, see Apoplexy, Medicine Index.

A fit of apoplexy is often produced in an animal that is predisposed to it, by some sudden or violent exertion, such as drawing a heavy load, &c.

The means of preventing apoplexy when an attack of it is threatened, have been already explained (in No. 317, 318, and 427.) When a fit of apoplexy takes place, if the animal is full of blood, which generally happens, it will be proper to bleed, from the temporal artery, or jugular vein, to an extent proportioned to the state of the animal. If the animal appears weak, bleeding should not be attempted; but the determination of blood to the head may be effectually checked by making pressure upon the carotid artery, taking care at the same time, not to include the jugular veins. Mr Coleman recommends tying up the carotid arteries in dangerous cases of flaggers, and Mr Feron says, that he has often repeated this experiment with success. The bowels should be emptied in the usual manner, as soon as possible; and a strong stimulating clyster should be injected. When the animal comes to himself, if fat and plethoric, he should have a good strong purgative ball, and afterwards some gentle diuretic medicines. He should be kept quiet for some hours after the fit; but when the physic has properly wrought, he should have gentle exercise, which must be gradually increased, according as he is able to bear it; and great care should be taken to keep the bowels open, and to prevent too great an accumulation of blood.

2. Palsy. Paralysis. Thortor-ill, (in sheep.)

The inferior animals sometimes become paralytic, and we have seen that a palsy in the hind legs is one of the principal symptoms of the distemper in dogs. A paralytic disorder is not uncommon among sheep, and is called by shepherds the thortor-ill. It sometimes arises from their having eaten some poisonous or narcotic plants, but is very generally the effect of great weaknesses produced by want of proper nourishment. The best remedy seems to be white vitriol, given three times a day; and the food should be of the most wholesome and nourishing kind.

We had intended in this chapter to consider pretty much at large, the various cases of suspended animation, or apathy, such as drowsiness, hanging, suffocation from fixed air or other noxious gases, and torpor from cold; but this article has already swelled to an unexpected length, and we have yet much important matter on our hands. We must therefore refer our veterinary readers to the article Medicine; as the means to be there directed for restoring suspended animation in man will, with some little modification, apply to similar cases in the domestic animals.

Chap. IV. Of Spasmodic Diseases.

1. Locked-Jaw. Tetanus. Stag-evil. Mal de Cerf.

It has been remarked in No. 10. that horses are extremely subject to the locked-jaw, which proves one of the most obstinate and fatal diseases by which they are affected. It seems also occasionally to appear among cattle, but it occurs to them much less frequently than to horses. We do not know that any writer has described this disease in the horse better than Mr Gibbon, whose description we shall therefore copy, though it is expressed in rather an uncouth style.

"As soon as a horse is seized in this manner, his head is raised with his nose towards his neck, his ears pricked up, and his tail cocked, looking with an eagerness, as an hungry horse when hay is put down to him, or like an high-spirited one, when upon his mettle; in so much that those who are strangers to such things, when they see a horse stand in this manner, will scarce believe anything of consequence ails him; and I have seen such persons greatly surprised when they have been told of the danger. But they are soon convinced, when they see other symptoms come on apace; that his neck grows..." grows stiff, cramped, and almost immovable; and if a horse in this condition lives a few days, several knots and ganglions will rise on the tendinous parts thereof; and all the muscles both before and behind, will be so pulled and cramped and stretched, that he looks as if he was nailed to the pavement, with his legs stiff, wide, and straddling; his skin so tight on all parts of his body, that it is almost impossible to move it; and if trial be made to make him walk, he is ready to fall at every step, unless he be carefully supported; his eyes are so fixed with the inaction of the muscles, as gives him a deadness in his looks. He snorts and sneezes often, pants continually with shortness of breath; and this symptom increases till he drops down dead, which generally happens in a few days, unless some very sudden and effectual turn can be given to the distemper."

This disease is generally primary or idiopathic; but it is sometimes symptomatic. The pulse is not always much affected; there is seldom any fever, and the internal functions are seldom impaired till towards the latter stages of the disease.

We have not many accounts of the appearances that have been discovered on dissecting horses which have died of this disease. In two dissections by M. Huzard, the bowels within the belly, especially the stomach and large intestines, were considerably inflamed; the liver was full of black and fluid blood, and in one case a considerable quantity of blood had escaped into the cavity of the belly; the substance of the liver was very tender, as if it were decomposed or rotten. The other viscera of the belly, and the heart and lungs, were in their natural state. On opening the head, considerable marks of inflammation appeared in the brain, the choroid plexus was distended with blood, and in one case the maxillary and frontal sinuses of the right side were full of black blood; the dura mater was inflamed, and its vessels, as well as those of the brain, were turgid with blood; the ventricles of the brain contained a quantity of serous fluid. In one of the cases the inflammation had extended even to the periosteum on the right side, which was much redder than that on the left.

It is difficult to say whether the disease depended on an inflammatory affection of the brain, or whether this was the consequence of the violent spasmodic contraction of the muscles during the height of the disease; but we are inclined to think the latter was the case.

Influences of recovery from this disease in horses are very rare; we shall presently give one from Mr Gibbon, which is rather remarkable. A cautious opinion ought therefore to be given in every case of locked-jaw.

This affection may be produced by various causes, particularly from wounds, where the nerve is partially divided; from cold, when the body is in a profuse sweat. It may arise also from internal irritation, as from worms, which, in Mr Gibbon's opinion, are a very common cause of it. Probably it more frequently proceeds from wounds, as a puncture in the foot or any other part; and it has certainly often been brought on by the barbarous operations of docking and nicking. There seems no doubt that the brain is the principal seat of the affection.

In the treatment of locked-jaw, it is necessary to use some vigorous measures as early as possible; but unhappily no method hitherto adopted has proved successful, even in a few cases. Opium, aconite, heliobore, &c., have been tried in the veterinary college in very large doses, but without any beneficial effects. From considering it as a disease of the brain, trepanning has been used, with the view of making pressure on the brain, and this has sometimes appeared to take off the spasm of the muscles; but as soon as the pressure was removed, the spasms returned with nearly equal violence. An infusion of tobacco, to the amount of two pounds, has been given by Mr Coleman, but the symptoms appeared to be aggravated. Mr Feron recommends bleeding, and immerging the animal in a warm bath at 95° of Fahrenheit, so as to keep the whole body covered with the water for two or three hours, which he has known to be successful; but the horse must afterwards be clothed and kept very warm. The most probable means to relieve the animal seem to be giving opium in large doses by way of clyster, frequently repeated, and rubbing the whole body frequently with some stimulating liniment, such as oil of turpentine and tincture of cantharides. Mr Blaine recommends a clyster composed of a strong decoction of poppy heads, with two ounces of camphor dissolved in brandy; or if this be thought too expensive, one with two ounces of spirit of hartshorn and four ounces of oil of turpentine, mixed with two or three yolks of eggs, and a pint of ale. The cold bath is found one of the most effectual remedies in the human body, and we should conceive that it is more likely than any other means to do good in the horse; but it will be necessary to rub him as dry as possible after throwing the water over him.

If it is ascertained that the disease proceeds from a punctured or lacerated wound, it will be proper immediately to secure the wounded part, so as, if possible, completely to divide the affected nerve, as in some cases where this has been done, the spasms have been removed. It must be confessed, however, that even this has frequently failed. If it has proceeded from a punctured wound in the foot, Mr Blaine thinks it advisable to take up the nerves of that foot on each side; for though this might occasion temporary lameness, yet, if the horse were favored, this might be removed in a few weeks.

The following case related by Mr Gibbon, in his last work on the diseases of horses, is very instructive; even though it should be contended that the cure was effected by nature, and not by Mr Gibbon's remedies.

A young troop horse was suddenly seized with this kind of convulsion, which was first discovered as he was leading out to water, at the afternoon's watering time. "I happened," says Mr Gibbon, "to be then present, and perceived him come reeling along with his nose turned out, his eyes fixed and immovable, with all the other signs that usually attend this fatal distemper; and when he came to the trough he could not reach the water because of the cramp and stiffness of his neck; and when it was held to him in a pail, could not drink, though he shewed an eagerness for it; his mouth being shut up so close, that it was scarce possible to put a knife between his teeth. When we found it impossible to administer any kind of medicine, till by rubbing his cheeks, jaws, and temples, and his whole neck, for a considerable time, we made a shift, with great difficulty, to thrust down part of a calomel ball, on the end of a small stick, and then to put into his nostrils, a very small portion of a strong cephalic drink, thinking by that means..." to convey the ball downwards into his stomach, which however had but little effect, any farther than this, that he had not such sudden fits and agitations as I have seen in others in like circumstances, but continued more quiet; neither did his fever increase, as usually happens when the distemper is gaining ground; but all this while his mouth continued to much fluid, that he could neither eat nor drink for three weeks; only by continually rubbing his jaws and neck, he would sometimes make a shift to suck a handful of scalded bran, or sometimes a little oat-meal, moistened with warm water; but in so small a quantity, that it is possible he might have starved, if other methods had not been taken to keep him alive.

"I have often observed, that the forcing the jaws open by violent means, puts a horse into such agonies, that it rather increases than abates the symptoms; and therefore I contrived to give him both food and physic by the fundament, through a pipe fourteen inches long, by which he seemed to receive great benefit; for we could perceive the symptoms to abate daily. His flanks grew more quiet, he stood more still, and free from sudden fits and startings; all which symptoms are usual in the continuance and increase of the distemper. The clysters were contrived in the following manner.

"Rue, pennyroyal, and chamomile flowers, of each a handful; savin and box, of each a handful; garlic, an ounce; caftor and affaefctida, of each half an ounce.

"In making this clyster, the herbs are to be boiled first, in two quarts of water, in a covered vessel, the space of ten or fifteen minutes, with the caftor and affaefctida cut in small pieces, and tied in a rag; not only to save the caftor from waste, but that it may be squeezed into several clysters. Then the garlic to be added, and continued, close covered, over the fire the space of ten minutes longer; after this the liquor to be poured off into a pan, or any other convenient vessel; then add of linseed oil and treacle, of each four ounces, with half an ounce of unrectified oil of amber; the treacle and the oils are to be mixed with the decoction, when it is put into the bag.

"This clyster was repeated once a-day for a fortnight; and by way of diet, was given every day three or four quarts of milk, boiled with oat meal and water, a bag with a long pipe being left in the stable for that purpose. He retained every thing that was administered that way, which he generally fucked up of himself without force. This perhaps was in some measure owing to the nature of this universal convulsion which causes such irregular motions in the midriff and muscles of respiration, as in some measure inverts the natural motion of the guts; and for the same reason horses in this condition seldom dung, but stale often; and when they dung, it drops from them in a manner insensibly, and often no more than one or two balls at a time; and therefore as this horse could receive little or no sustenance by the mouth, I was determined to make trial how far he might receive nourishment by way of injection backwards; whether a thin diluted food thrown into the straight gut, and from thence over into the small guts, by the help of a long pipe, might not find a passage into the blood through the lacteals, especially the experiments of this kind made on the human body, both in administering food and physic, particularly in giving the bark, by way of clyster, in agues and intermitting fevers, which has been found successful where the stomach was not able to bear its austerity. It was upon this footing that I treated him in the manner I have described, which I imagined was not altogether without effect; for he scarce ate in three weeks what was sufficient to sustain him one day; so that it was impossible for him to have lived, had he not been supported by what was thrown into his bowels; and though by this means he lost his flesh very sensibly, yet he still retained a good deal of vigour and vivacity. He had two men constantly to look after him, and these relieved by others, who had orders to rub his whole body often, which greatly helped to relax his skin, and remove the crampings of his muscles; and though he had not for the first fortnight recovered the use of his jaws, yet we observed him daily to move with less stiffness, and often to lick in his manger, as if he craved after food. He also breathed with less difficulty, and had several other good signs. This encouraged me to try another experiment with opium, from the known quality of that drug in relaxing the animal fibres; which I therefore thought might be of service to remove the contractions of the muscles about his mouth and jaws, which all this while continued in some measure obstinate, and without some powerful relief, might prove fatal, even though the original cause was in a great measure taken away; therefore I caused an ounce of crude opium to be dissolved in one of his clysters, which was followed with these circumstances, that the horse soon lay down, began to point his ears backwards and forwards, and could move his neck pretty freely, and his mouth was so far at liberty, that he took his drink with little or no difficulty, and could eat hay and bran sufficient to sustain him. He likewise moved his whole body so readily, that we could walk him an hour every day; and that I might follow what I imagined had been so successfully begun by the opiate clyster, I ordered him some days after an ounce of the common Matthew's pill, which contains about two drachms of opium, and the same quantity of affaefctida, made into a ball, which was given at his mouth, and washed down with a hornful of gruel, which was done with great ease, his mouth being grown pretty pliable. This ball being once more repeated, he recovered daily, being continued for some time in the use of the drinks, which were now administered only twice a-week, with a good rubbing; and as soon as he began to recover his flesh, he was gently purged. By these means he was perfectly cured, without any other ill effect than a blemish upon one eye, caused by the violent and strong contraction of the muscles during the convulsions, which indeed were as bad as any I ever saw, even where they proved the most fatal."

We have related the above case thus particularly, in the author's own words, because we have scarcely ever seen a case of locked-jaw in horses so well described, both as to its progress and treatment. Whatever might have been the cause that produced the complaint in this horse, it was evident that it did not depend upon any congestion of blood in the head, and Gibbon judged very properly in not employing bleeding, purging, and rowels, which appear to have been the indiscriminate practice of farriers in his time; and which might be very proper where the convulsions proceed originally Diseases from the head. Gibson says, that he has seen the farriers in such cases put a rowel on each side of the neck, one on the belly, one on the forehead, and one on each side. It appears, however, that this practice meets with but little success, as in this complaint the skin is drawn too tight in all parts that the rowels seldom suppurate kindly, but very commonly produce a mortification, and thus increase the animal's distress.

2. Epilepsy, or Falling-sickness. Convulsions.

We have already stated our opinion, that several cases that are commonly called flaggers are really instances of epilepsy, and we have no doubt that several strange convulsive disorders that are described as affecting domestic animals may be referred to the same head. Of this kind we consider the skipping complaint among lambs described by Mr Lawrence: "I remember in former days, (says he), on the borders of Suffolk, several flocks of lambs were seized with an uncommon malady, leaping and jumping about the fold-yard in a strange manner; and a dung-heap being raised to the level of the eaves of a low tiled barn, a number of the lambs ran skipping up to the top of the roof, as though they had been possessed by more devils than Mary Magdalen, or even the nuns of Loudun. The whole parish wisely concluded they were bewitched, and a wretched and aged pauper became the object of their suspicions and their deadly hatred. I do not precisely recollect, but I fear the brutal, senseless, and infernal supposed preventive of witchcraft was recourse to, burning one of the poor animals alive." We should be disposed to account for so many animals being seized with it at once, on the principle of imitation, just as we have seen a number of children at school fall into fits from seeing one of their number affected with epilepsy. The treatment of this complaint must be regulated by the state of the body at the time. If this is plethoric, bleeding, purging, and low diet, will be necessary; if it is weak, a strengthening plan must be adopted.

3. Canine Madness. Hydrophobia. Rabies Canina. La Rage, Fr.

Of this most dreadful malady, the nature of which is so little understood, and of which the cure still remains a desideratum in medicine, the accounts hitherto given are very imperfect.

Our principal object should certainly be to ascertain the origin and progress of the symptoms, as they appear in the dog, in whom the disease appears to originate. The account of these symptoms, as given by different authors, is exceedingly contradictory. The best account that we have seen is that of Meynell of Quorndon in the county of Leicestershire, and which is published by Dr Arnold in his account of a case of hydrophobia. Before we give Mr Meynell's view of the symptoms, we shall quote a passage from that part of Mr Lawrence's treatise on horses, in which he speaks of canine madness. The passage is as follows: "The diagnostics of canine madness are, hunger and thirst, without power to eat or drink; trembling, eyes fierce and flaming, hanging of the ears and tail, which is bent inwards; lolling of the tongue, foaming, barking of the dog at his own shadow; panting, running a straight and headless course against anything in his way, biting with violence; other dogs fly him by instinct."

By comparing the above diagnostics with the following account of Mr Meynell's, it will be seen how little dependence is to be placed on the description of those who have not written from their own actual observation. We doubt not that Mr Lawrence derives his account from what he conceived to be the best information, and he is therefore not accountable for his errors.

According to Mr Meynell, the first symptom of canine madness in dogs appears to be a failure of appetite in a small degree, that is, the dog does not eat count of his usual food with his usual eagerness, though, if better food be offered him, he may eat it greedily. A disposition to quarrel with other dogs comes on early in the disease. A total loss of appetite generally succeeds, though dogs sometimes eat and lap water the day before their death, which generally happens between seven and ten days after the first symptoms have appeared. A mad dog will not cry out on being struck, or show any sign of fear on being threatened; though he will, very late in the disease, appear sensible of kind treatment. A mad dog, in the height of the disorder, has a disposition to bite all other dogs, animals, or men. When not provoked, he usually attacks only such as come in his way; but having no fear, it is peculiarly dangerous to strike at or provoke him.

Mad dogs appear to be capable of communicating the infection early in the disorder, and as soon as they begin to quarrel with and bite other dogs.

The eyes of mad dogs do not look red or fierce, but dull, and have a peculiar appearance, which is easily distinguished by such as have been used to observe it, but which is not easy to be described.

Mad dogs never bark, but occasionally utter a most dismal and plaintive howl, expressive of extreme distress, and which they who have once heard can never forget. So that dogs may be known to be going mad without being seen, when only this dismal howl is heard from the kennel.

Mad dogs do not foam or froth at the mouth, but their lips and tongue appear dry and foul or slimy.

Mad dogs are generally sufficiently sensible to know those to whom they have been accustomed.

Mr Meynell is confident that dread of water is not a symptom of this disease in dogs.

Though mad dogs generally refuse both food and drink, in the latter stage of the disorder, yet they never show any abhorrence or dread of water, will pass through it without difficulty, and lap it eagerly to the last. But it is remarkable, that though they will lap water for a long time, and eagerly, and do not seem to experience any uneasiness from it, yet they do not appear to swallow a single drop of it; for however long they may continue lapping it, no diminution of quantity can be perceived.

He has never known a dog shew symptoms of the disease in less time after the bite than ten days; and he has known many instances of dogs having died mad as late as eight months after the bite. The symptoms generally appear between three and eight weeks after the bite.

A dog had been bitten, and confined by accident, and not from any suspicion of danger, for a whole year, so as to have no communication with any other dog all the time; and went mad at the end of that period.

Mr Meynell makes the following additional observations. "I am persuaded that the disorder never originates from hot weather, putrid provisions, or from any other cause but the bite. For however dogs may have been confined, however fed, or whatever may have been the heat of the season, I never knew the disorder commence, without being able to trace it to that cause; and it was never introduced into the kennel but by the bite of a mad dog. I do not say that I am certain that the disorder never originated from any cause except the bite; but I say that I never knew a dog go mad that I had no reason to believe had been bitten.

"Some dogs, in the last stage of the disorder, have a locked jaw.

"I do not recollect ever to have heard a dog bark after I have perceived symptoms of madness upon him.

"I consider an unusual disposition to quarrel with other dogs as a certain sign of beginning madness; and it is the only one I know.

"I believe the disorder always comes on so gradually that mischief may be prevented by proper care.

"I believe after symptoms have ever appeared, they never go entirely off; and that the disease, though sometimes very slow in its progress, always terminates in death.

"Dogs known to have been bitten frequently escape, but I believe not near so frequently as men.

"Almost all the mad dogs that I have seen have been confined.

"The hair of a mad dog do not stand erect more than those of other dogs.

"I do not know that there is anything remarkable in the manner of a mad dog's carrying his head or his tail.

"I do not know that there is anything fierce in the appearance of the eyes of a mad dog. I believe I should know a mad dog to be mad from the appearance of his eyes, but I cannot describe this appearance.

"I do not know that a dog in the beginning of this disorder, is disposed to sneak away growling, or to flun the society of other dogs; but if I observed any thing particular in the manner of a dog, I should certainly confine him.

"I do not believe that dogs are more afraid of a mad dog than they are of any other dog that seems disposed to attack them."

(Mr Daniel was witness to an instance of this innate dread of a mad dog in other dogs, at Bradwell in Essex, where he was hunting with the reverend H. Bate Dudley. Mr Dudley walked his hounds to the water to swim them; he had himself swam over to an island about a hundred yards from the shore, and most of the hounds had followed him, but some of them could not be compelled to do so. At this juncture an alarm of a mad dog was given, who had been pursued many miles, and done variety of mischief in his progress; he seized one of the hounds that would not go into the water, and the remainder to the number of seven or eight immediately upon his approach to them, took to the water and swam across to those in the island.*)

"There are two kinds of madness, both of which I have known to originate from the bite of the same dog. Among houndsmen, one is known by the name of raging the other by that of dumb madness. In dumb madness, the nether jaw drops, and fixes; the tongue hangs out of the mouth, and slaver drops from it. In raging madness, I believe the mouth is shut, except when the dog snaps or howls, and that no moisture drops from it."*

The following facts and observations upon the consequences of the madness among Earl Fitzwilliam's hounds, perhaps mark the attack and symptoms of this disorder more accurately than any other description of a similar accident.

In the night of the 8th of June 1791, the man who slept in the kennel was unusually disturbed by the hounds fighting; he got up to quiet them several times, and always found the same hound quarrelling. Noticing the riotous behaviour of this particular hound, and at the same time an appearance of stupidity in him, he was induced to suppose that he was going mad, and accordingly confined him in a place by himself, after which the pack was quiet the remainder of the night. When the huntsman came to the kennel in the morning, he was told what passed, and the supposed mad hound thrown to him; his appearance was suspicious; some meat was given to him, part of which he ate, although there was an apparent difficulty in swallowing. Two days passed in suspense; but at the end of the third, his disorder was confirmed; and at the end of the fifth day he died mad. Immediate preparations were made for confining 42 couple of hounds separately, until the month of September, which was rigidly adhered to. By this means, Mr Hopkinson, a medical gentleman of Peterborough had an opportunity wherein he very skilfully and exactly minutely the symptoms and progress of this disease.

Six hounds went mad in the following order.

| No | Attacked | Date | |----|---------------|---------------| | 1 | July 1st | | | 2 | August 3rd | | | 3 | September 3rd | | | 4 | Ditto 4th | | | 5 | November 10th | | | 6 | December 8th | |

The hounds were first taken from their chains in September, and exercised for about half an hour together, not more than four or five couple at a time, and not trusted out of the sight of the attendant. When this exercise was over, they were again confined separately, and fed at separate troughs. In the beginning of October, they were taken out ten couple at a time; at the latter end of that month, twenty couple; still observing the same caution with respect to separate confinement after they returned from exercise. In the beginning of November they were hunted, but were chained up, as at first, after hunting, until the third week of that month, when they were let loose in different apartments of one, two, three, four, and five couple together. This regulation was continued till the month of June 1792, as the huntsman, who has had much experience in this disease did not deem them safe under a year.

The only remedy employed was mercurial ointment; and all the hounds, except the bitches that were in whelp, whelp, underwent two frictions, so as to produce in some of them a violent salivation.

Mr Hopkinfon remarks, that from the above statement it seems that the disorder is as virulent, as to the power of inoculation (by which process it is always communicated) at its commencement, as at the advanced stage of it; for all the six dogs that went mad were probably infected on the 8th of June, within a few hours of each other.

It is a common opinion, that when a dog is bitten by one that is mad, a few weeks confinement, tea-bathing, or the popular nostrums, are either of them sufficient to prevent his taking the disease, and from spreading its mischievous effects; but in this case, there was a fair opportunity of proving that there is no security after six months, perhaps not after twelve; that mercury has no certain power to prevent it; and it appears that the huntman had repeatedly employed all the popular remedies, without any effect whatever. He had also observed nearly the same progress of the disease in several packs of hounds, where no expense had been spared, for every medicine in use, tea-bathing &c. In the present instance, there was this remarkable difference, that no internal medicine had been given, and the huntman never knew fewer hounds attacked with the disease.

The result of the huntman's experience in the preventive plan is therefore in favour of a separate confinement; for whenever he had depended on medicine, and not on the above plan of treatment, the disease had made dreadful havoc.

There is reason to suppose that the hound which first went mad, was not bitten by any other dog, but that it was in him a spontaneous disease. The whole pack were examined very attentively, and bites found upon four couple, one of which was seen fighting with the mad hound twice; he underwent a longer confinement than the rest: however, none of them were attacked by the disease, and it is singular that no bites were discovered upon the six hounds that went mad. The infection taking place or not, is therefore perhaps the result of chance; yet, although no bites were perceived upon the hounds which went mad, there is every ground to conclude they were bitten, but that the wounds being small, were concealed by the hair. Mr Daniel suggests, that most probably there were bites within side of the lips, or jaws, where the venomous saliva might be more fatally and quickly absorbed into the habit, than where the teeth had to penetrate through the thick outer skin of the dog.

Mr Hopkinfon continues his remarks with respect to the symptoms of madness in dogs, and states that those which distinguish the attack of the hydrophobia, are in general a loathing of food, although this is not universal, as they will sometimes eat solid food, but refuse liquid. The first and only symptom that No. 3, had of the disease, was eating his own excrement when food stood by him; the feeder knowing this to be contrary to what the dog would do if he were well, he immediately confined him. For a day or two he was in some doubt whether his suspicions were well founded; but he proved right, for the dog died raving mad upon the fifth day.

At the commencement of the disorder, the mad dog has a particular tendency (if loose) to lick and smell the penis and fundament of another dog; this should be looked upon as a very suspicious symptom. The huntman speaks of this as an almost never failing one.

There seems for the first two or three days, to be intervals of rest; and during that time they usually recognize their master, their eyes look clear and well, their tongues moist, and of the proper colour; but if a dog is loose at this time, he will in general bite everything he meets with. He will sometimes, during this stage of the disease, leave his home for several hours, spread his disorder by biting men and beasts, and return home again. The mad dog, when confined, seldom survives the fifth day from the first attack; if suffered to run about, there is reason to believe his death is hastened by a day or two. At the end of the third or fourth day, his appearance is much altered, his eyes are sunk, his tongue black and dry, he makes horrid howlings, and seems much disturbed; indeed the concluding scene is dreadful to witness. In the first stage of the canine madness, it is difficult for a person not conversant with the disposition of dogs in general, and of the mad dog in particular, to ascertain whether the dog is really mad or not; even Lord Fitzwilliam's huntman was doubtful for a day or two respecting the hound mentioned in this account, as being the first attacked with the disease; however, in the advanced stage of it, no one can be mistaken.

It is the generally received opinion, that mad dogs will not take the water; but in the summer of 1791, there occurred in the neighbourhood of Peterborough, two instances of mad dogs, when closely pursued, swimming a large navigable river. A doubt might have arisen, as to their being mad, but that two hogs went mad from the bite of one, and the other was pursued for many miles by Lord Fitzwilliam's huntman, who, from his experience in the disease, was not likely to be mistaken. Both Rural dogs completely swam the river.*

Of all the remedies that have been employed for the cure of this dreadful disorder, none seems to likely to be successful as the cold bath. This remedy was recommended about 200 years ago by the Seigneur d'Elparron, in his "Fauconnerie," and he gives a curious instance of its success in the cure of a mad dog. "I will relate, (says he) what happened to a gentleman of my acquaintance. He discovered that some of his dogs had been bitten by a mad dog; and after some time, several of them betrayed symptoms of the disease. These he ordered to be killed; but it happened that one which was a great favourite was seized, and he desired his servant to throw him into the river. By chance, the dog in coming up from the bottom, got entangled in the roots of a tree by the cord with which he had been tied, but in such a manner that his nose just remained above the water. In this situation he remained for three days, at the end of which period he got loose and returned to the house, to the great astonishment of his master; and here I afterwards saw him, as cheerful and healthy as before. I have no doubt (continues d'Elparron) that if mad dogs could be plunged into water without danger of their biting, they would all recover; and I believe that if the same practice were pursued with men, which might easily be done, many an unfortunate wretch might be saved. The danger of being bitten might be prevented by first putting a muzzle on the animal, and he might then be retained." tained in the water, as long as may be judged prudent or necessary."

Another writer, Defouilloux, who published a work on hunting in 1583, recommends plunging into salt-water such dogs as have been bitten, for the purpose of preserving them from the effects of the disease.

As the effect of remedies when the complaint once appears is so uncertain, it should be our principal object to use all the preventive means in our power. When, therefore, it is discovered that an animal has been bitten by one that is mad, the wounded part should immediately be cut out, where this can be done with safety, or at least should be deeply scarified to the very bottom of the bite. The wound should then be repeatedly washed with soap and water, or with a solution of soda poured upon it in a stream from a considerable height; and afterwards the wound should be seared to the bottom with a hot iron; or where this cannot conveniently be done, a quantity of aquafortis, or oil of vitriol, should be poured into it, so as to destroy all the remains of the virus or poison. If the part bitten be the ear, it should be cut off and seared. After these means, it will be proper to plunge the animal once a day into cold water, or where convenient into the sea; and he should be strictly watched, that if these means should have proved unsuccessful, the earliest appearance of the disease may be perceived.

Dr Arnold, to whom we are indebted for Mr Meynell's account of the symptoms of madness in dogs, gives the following advice with respect to the method of treating a dog that is suspected of being mad.

"Though every dog that is bitten does not receive the disorder, yet, as the time of its appearance after the bite is so very uncertain, and as a great proportion of those that are bitten do actually receive it, and as there is no criterion by which we can ascertain whether a dog has or has not received the infection, but the breaking out of the disorder, it is earnestly to be wished, that all owners of dogs would immediately destroy, or secure for a great length of time, every dog known, or but suspected, to have been bitten by a mad dog.

"It is also earnestly to be wished, that all persons possessing dogs would immediately tie up or destroy such of their dogs, whether known to be bitten or not, as shall begin to be disordered in any way, of which the nature and cause is not perfectly obvious; and especially if there be the smallest reason to suspect that the dog was bitten, and that the disorder is really an incipient madness.

"It is still more to be wished that they would immediately destroy all dogs known to be in any stage of madness, if it be at the same time known that they have not yet bitten any other animal, and particularly no person whatsoever; and that no dog that has bitten any animal or person be destroyed as a mad dog if it can be avoided, but that every dog be secured and tied up, that it may be certainly known whether he be mad or not. If he has the symptoms of confirmed madness, they will plainly discover themselves, and he will die in ten days and less; if he is not, he may be safely enlarged in the space of a fortnight, and the person bitten will be freed from the most distressing apprehensions."

Before we dismiss the subject of canine madness, it will be expected that we should take some notice of the operation of worming dogs, so celebrated among huntmen and breeders of dogs, as a supposed preventive of this dreadful malady. This operation is as old as the days of Pliny, and has ever since been more or less esteemed among the vulgar. But neither the operation itself, nor its effect, seem to have been well understood. The idea of a worm being lodged in the tongue of the puppy, the extraction of which is to prevent the animal from going mad, is truly ridiculous; and such has been deservedly laughed at by sensible people in all ages. But though it is neither a worm that is extracted, nor is the extraction a preventive of madness, it seems, however, pretty well ascertained, that the performing of this operation is productive of considerable advantage, in preventing the dog from doing mischief, even though he should run mad. It seems, that in dogs who have been wormed, and are afterwards seized with hydrophobia, the tongue swells to such a degree as to prevent the animal from closing his jaws upon the object which he attempts to bite. The following observations of a late ingenious and entertaining writer on the subject are entitled to much attention.

Very strong proofs have been adduced of its utility; nor is it natural to imagine, that so easy and effective an operation would have been omitted, had no more virtue been attributed to it than it really possesses; and, wherein it failed, the absolute prevention of madness was said to be the consequence; whereas the fact was and is, that taking out the worm hath nothing to do with annihilating the disorder, although it will most certainly hinder the dog, seized with it, from doing any hurt to man or beast. A late author affirms, he had three dogs that were wormed, bit by mad dogs at three several periods, yet, notwithstanding they all died mad, they did not bite to do any mischief, that being determined to make a full experiment, he shut one of the dogs up in a kennel, and put to him a dog he did not value; the mad dog often run at the other to bite him, but his tongue so swelled, that he could not make his teeth meet. The dog was kept in the kennel until the mad one died, and was purposely preserved for two years afterwards, to note the effect, but he never ailed anything; although no remedies were applied to check any infection that might have been received from the contact of the mad dog.

Mr Daniel has had various opportunities of proving the usefulness of worming, and infers three of the most striking instances, under the hope of inducing its general practice.

A terrier bitch went mad that was kept in the kennel with 40 couple of hounds: not a single one was bitten, nor was the feen to offer to bite. The bitch being of peculiar fort, every attention was paid to her, and the gradations of the disease (which were extremely rapid) minutely noted. The hydrophobia was fast approaching before she was separated from the hounds, and she died the second day after. At first warm milk was placed before her, which she attempted to lap, but the throat refused its functions; from this period she never tried to eat or drink, seldom rose up, or even moved; the tongue swelled very much, and long before her death the jaws were distended by it.

A spaniel was observed to be seized by a strange dog, and was bit in the lip; the servant who ran up to Diseases, part them, narrowly escaped, as the dog twice flew at him; a few minutes after the dog had quitted the yard, the people who had pursued gave notice of the dog's madness, who had made terrible havoc in a course of ten miles from whence he had set off. The spaniel was a great favourite, had medicine applied, and every precaution taken; upon the fourteenth day he appeared to loathe his food, and his eyes looked unusually heavy; the day following he endeavoured to lap milk, but could fowllow none; from that time the tongue began to fwell, he moved himself but seldom, and on the third day he died. For many hours previous to his death, the tongue was so enlarged, that the fangs or canine teeth could not meet each other by upwards of an inch.

The hounds were some years after parted with, and were sold in lots. A madness broke out in the kennel of the gentleman who purchased many of them; and although several of these hounds were bitten and went mad, only one of them ever attempted to bite, and that was a hound from the duke of Portland's, who, in the operation of worming, had the worm broke by his struggling, and was so troublesome that one half of it was suffered to remain; the others all died with symptoms similar to the terrier and spaniel, viz. a violent swelling of the tongue, and a stupor rendering them nearly motionless, and both which symptoms seemed to increase with the disease.

The idea that worming prevents a dog from receiving the infection when bitten should be exploded; but the foregoing facts show how far it may be recommended for the prevention of a malady horrid in its effects where a human being is concerned, and which to the sportsman and the farmer is attended with such dangerous and expensive consequences.

We cannot pretend to say, what it is that the worms of dogs take away from the tongue; but we cannot suppose, that Mr Daniel, though he calls it a worm, really believes that it is so. The following are his directions for performing the operation.

"The worming of whelps should be previous to their being sent out to quarters; this operation is to be performed with a lancet, to slit the thin skin which immediately covers the worm; a small awl is then to be introduced under the centre of the worm, to raise it up; the further end of the worm will with very little force make its appearance, and with a cloth taking hold of that end, the other will be drawn out easily. Care must be taken that the whole of the worm comes away without breaking; and it rarely breaks, unless cut into by the lancet, or wounded by the awl."*

4. Colic. Colica. Spasmodic* or Flatulent Colic, Gripes, Bats, Trot, or Gullion. Tranchée, Fr.

This is one of the most painful disorders with which horses are affected; and it seems to occasion them as much distress as inflammation in the bowels, with which it is very commonly confounded by ordinary farriers.

In this disease the horse expresses his pain, by frequently lying down and rolling on his back, and after having remained a short time in this position, starting up again. The hair is staring, and there are sometimes cold sweats. He frequently makes attempts to flake, looks anxiously at his flanks, and sometimes strikes his belly with his hind feet. There is seldom any fever in this disease; and when it does occur, it is only after the disease has existed for some time. The pulse is seldom affected; but when the pain is very great, it is a little quicker than natural. The belly commonly feels hard and tense. Colic is almost always accompanied with coliciveness, though gripping pains not unfrequently attend severe scouring.

If the above symptoms are attentively examined, they will commonly serve to distinguish this disease from inflammation of the bowels. It is generally observed, that the pain in colic returns only at intervals, and the extremities are seldom cold. It must not be overlooked however, that when colic continues for a considerable time, it may terminate in inflammation, so that the distinguishing symptoms mentioned here and in No. 497, are to be depended on, only in the early stage of the disease.

Cattle are extremely subject to colic; but it is said to be more common in young than in old cattle. The symptoms do not differ from what we have described, only that it is laid, that these animals, when affected with gripes, strike their heads and horns against everything in their way.

Colic is easily removed, when the proper remedies are employed, before any symptoms of inflammation make their appearance; but if the remedies be delayed till inflammation takes place, the cure is very precarious.

Colic is very commonly the consequence of neglected coliciveness, and by this it is always increased. It may be ascribed to improper food, especially such as is apt to produce flatulence or sourness in the stomach or bowels; by drinking cold water immediately after eating; and by exposure to cold, during violent sweating.

As it is not always easy to distinguish flatulent colic from inflammation, it is the safest plan to begin the treatment by bleeding, to the extent of three or four English quarts; and the appearance of the blood will generally inform us whether it will be necessary to repeat the operation. See No. 162. The next circumstance to be attended to, is the evacuation of the bowels by back-raking and softening clysters. In general, after this operation, a large quantity of air will be evacuated, and considerable relief will be afforded. After these means have been employed, some stimulating aromatics, such as oil of turpentine, oil of aniseed, essence of peppermint, or some of the other stimulants enumerated in No. 285, and 286, should be given by the mouth; and if these do not procure relief, it will be proper to give a ball containing half an ounce of calomel, and immediately after it, a drench of peppermint water, with five or six drachms of laudanum. The cure will be considerably assisted by rubbing the belly gently with a warm cloth; and the animal should be gently trotted, for a considerable time, while led by the halter. Warm fomentations to the belly have been recommended; but if there is a considerable accumulation of air in the stomach and bowels, these would do harm by increasing the expansion of the air, and thus adding to the animal's distress; for it must be remembered, that a horse cannot easily belch up wind by the mouth; and where there is any obstruction backwards, everything that can increase the expansion... expansion of the confined air, must do harm. On the contrary, every thing that is capable of diminishing the volume of air, may probably relieve the pain. It might be worth while to try how far the application of cold to the belly would be attended with advantage; and this might easily and safely be effected, by bathing the belly with strong spirit of wine, which speedily evaporating, will considerably diminish the temperature of the belly. It will be proper, where the disease continues obstinate, to administer warm softening clysters, every hour or two; as well for the purpose of obviating colic, as for removing the spasmodic contraction of the bowels. We are assured, that where most other means have failed, of procuring relief in flatulent colic, this has been obtained by means of the smoke of tobacco drawn up the fundament. The simplest way of administering this remedy, is to introduce the small end of a tobacco pipe, after having filled the bowl and lighted it; when the smoke will infallibly be drawn up by the action of the horse's bowels.

**Chap. V. Of Dropical Disease.**

Our domestic animals are sometimes affected with dropy; and this may be either diffused through the cellular membrane below the skin; or the water may be contained within one or more of the cavities, as the head, the chest, and the belly.

External dropy, or what medical writers call ana-farca, and farriers water farcy, is not common, unless it accompanies a dropical collection within the body. It sometimes affects particular parts, as the legs, the throat, or the lips; and at other times it is diffused over the whole cellular membrane. It is known by the swelling of the part, which is cold, and retains the impression of the finger for some time. The urine is generally more sparing and of a deeper colour than is natural; and the animal appears considerably weak. This disease, when it has proceeded to any considerable height, and when the animal is much debilitated, is not easily removed; but when it is slight, and of no long standing, it will in general yield to remedies.

All the species of dropy more commonly affect old than young animals; and such as are debilitated by any previous cause, are more subject to it. It is said that horses are more likely to become dropical in spring and autumn when they are moulting.

The cure of general dropy is to be attempted by the use of diuretic medicines, accompanied with a nourishing diet, gentle exercise, and frequent friction all over the body, especially over those parts where the accumulation of fluid is situated. The action of the diuretics must be assisted by a sufficient quantity of drink; and it will be proper to give the animal some of the more powerful strengthening remedies, such as white vitriol, oak bark, logwood, &c.

1. **Dropy of the Head. Hydrocephalus. Sturdy. Turnfick.**

Dropy of the head seldom affects horses or cattle; but a peculiar collection of water in the head is very common among sheep, in whom it is called the Sturdy, or Turnfick. One of the best accounts of this disease that we have seen is that which is given in the second appendix to Mr Findlater's survey of Peebles, which we shall give nearly in the words of the author.

This disease is peculiarly incident to young sheep, or hogs, of a year or eighteen months old. It consists of a collection of water generally formed upon the external surface of the brain, immediately below the skull; and sometimes, though not often, in the center or ventricles of the brain. When the water forms in the last mentioned parts, we apprehend it is almost universally mortal.

The disorder is first discovered, by the animal not keeping up with the rest of the flock, and by its appearing dull and stupid. It is afterwards observed to go round in a giddy manner; and at length it appears blind, and the pupil of the eye seems wide and relaxed. It may continue a long time in this situation before it dies; and it is believed that sheep sometimes recover of this disease without any thing being done for them. They are often in good order when they die, as they continue to feed tolerably well, until near the last period. Though some recover, with or without means, perhaps it may be most advisable to kill them early in the disease, provided they be in good order, as this local temper does not affect the goodness of the mutton.

When the collection of water is on the outside of the brain, it is often cured by thrusting a sharp wire up the animal's nostrils, until it reaches the water, and opens a passage for it to run off. In other cases, it is cured by an operation which some shepherds perform very dexterously. The water is contained in a bladder, or vehicle, (a hydatid) generally about the size of a walnut. The part of the skull immediately above where it is situated, feels softer than other parts. This the shepherd discovers, by pressing with his thumb and fingers, upon different parts of the fore and upper parts of the skull. The bone here has become thinner, and feels soft; from which he is certain that the watery collection is formed.

After the disease has gone on a considerable time, and he judges it ripe for the operation, he raises the scalp, and lays the bone bare to a sufficient breadth, with a sharp knife; he then discovers more accurately the extent of the thin soft part of the bone, and with a strong and sharp-pointed knife, he makes a circular incision in the skull, raises up, and takes out the part. He then sees the clear thin bladder underneath, which he lays hold of with a small hook, or the point of a needle, and gently draws it out; taking all possible care that it be not broken, or the water spilled, which would prove unfavourable to recovery. He finds a considerable hollow in the brain where the bag was situated, over which he brings the flap of skin that was raised, so as to cover it as neatly as possible. Over the whole he applies a plaster of tar, and leaves the rest to nature. This operation frequently proves successful.

Mr Findlater remarks, that in Tweeddale, one case in three, where a perforation is made by the pointed wire, or the trepan, usually ends favourably. Of late it has been the custom among the shepherds of that district, to bore into the skull of sheep affected with the sturdy, with a common gimlet; and however rough or apparently dangerous the operation, it seems frequently to prove successful. The perforation is made by boring from the root of the nostril, in an oblique direction. 2. Water in the Chest. Hydrothorax.

This complaint appears but seldom in the inferior animals; but it may take place from excessive debility; and according to Mr Blaine, it is sometimes the consequence of inflammation in the lungs. Here however this writer is probably mistaken, and confounds water in the chest with empyema, or a collection of matter within the chest, which is not an uncommon termination of pneumonia.

When dropy in the chest does occur, the animal labours under a difficulty of breathing, especially when lying down; and the pulse is feeble, and commonly irregular. The urine is scanty and high coloured. If the collection of water is pretty considerable, it may be perceived by the sound that is produced, when the chest is struck with the hand; but this is often a deceitful sign, and should not be tried till a long time after the animal has drunk; as, for some time after drinking, the water that remains in the stomach will, when the ribs are struck, produce a sound that might lead us to suppose there was water in the chest.

This complaint commonly proves fatal, both in man and animals, and probably there is no means of cure except by evacuating the water, by an opening into the chest; an operation which is always precarious, and commonly as dangerous as the disease which it is intended to relieve. If it is determined however to try the experiment, the opening should be made between the seventh and eighth rib, near the breast bone, on that side of the chest where the water is supposed to be accumulated. In making the opening, the skin should be drawn tight towards the edge of the seventh rib; when a cut is to be made in the place above directed, with a sharp knife, not cutting too boldly, but rather scratching with the point of the knife, till the skin and the muscles are completely divided. After this, a pipe must be introduced through the opening, and fastened by a bandage round the animal; some soft linen or a piece of sponge being placed over the opening, after as much water as possible has run off, to suck up the remaining moisture, and exclude the air.

3. Water in the Belly. Ascites.

This is the most common species of dropy, and is known by the general symptoms of dropy that have been described in No. 319. and 320., attended with an unusual swelling of the belly; while the skin is cold, and very tight. When the belly is struck with one hand, while the other is held upon the opposite side, a fluctuation may be perceived, much more distinctly than in the last species.

It is brought on by the usual causes of dropy that we have already mentioned, and is not an uncommon consequence of jaundice and other chronic disorders. It is not quite so dangerous as dropy in the chest, but it is very apt to return after having been removed.

The treatment should be begun with diuretics, and now and then a mercurial purge, while the body is strengthened by tonic medicines, nourishing diet, and gentle exercise. If the accumulation of water becomes very great, it may be easily evacuated, by making a puncture into the belly, and introducing a pipe as in the last case. Mr Lawrence has gone into the mistake generally committed, of supposing that little drink should be given in cases of dropy. It is now well ascertained that moderate drinking considerably increases the efficacy of diuretic medicines.

Chap. VI. Of Anomalous Diseases.

1. Diabetes. Profuse Staling, or Pissing-evil.

It sometimes happens, that horses or cattle make a much greater quantity of urine than is natural; so that the quantity evacuated exceeds the quantity of fluid drunk by the animal. Probably this disease occurs more frequently among cattle than among horses, though it is scarcely mentioned by the writers on cattle medicine, and the account that is given of it by veterinary writers is extremely imperfect. Mr Blaine describes the urine, as being five or six times the natural quantity, as milky or watery, and depositing a sediment which has the taste and appearance of sugar. As we have never observed a case of this disease in horses or cattle, we cannot say how far this description of the urine is correct; but if the urine evacuated by these animals in diabetes resembles the human urine in the same disease, it is clear and almost colourless, has the smell and taste of honey, deposits little sediment, but on being evaporated, leaves a thick substance like treacle.

Considerable thirst accompanies this disease; and when it has continued long, the animal becomes extremely weak and emaciated. The skin is usually dry and harsh, the pulse is small and quick, and the appetite in the early part of the disease is much increased.

This complaint commonly proves fatal; few instances of a recovery having been observed in man; and we do not know that any successful case in any of the domestic animals is on record.

The causes of diabetes are very obscure, especially in the inferior animals; it seems to be the consequence of great weakness, and some unusual action of the digestive organs. The various theories that have been given in explanation of this disease, as far as relates to the human body, will be noticed in the article Medicine and if we shall meet with an opportunity of examining the disease in horses or cattle, we will endeavour to give a more accurate account of it, under Veterinary Art.

In the treatment of diabetes in horses, &c., the method proposed by Dr Rollo for the cure of this disease in man, has been recommended, and we believe adopted, by Mr Coleman; with what success we cannot say. This method consists in making the animal obtain as much as possible from vegetable food; and giving him broth and balls made of flesh, mixed up with paste of wheat flour. He should have as little drink as possible. Astringent remedies are commonly employed in these cases, such as Japan earth, alum, white vitriol, muriate of iron, oak bark. See receipts, No. 29.

2. Black-Quarter, Quarter-Ill, or Black Spald.

There is a disease that proves very fatal in some districts to calves or cattle of a year to two old, the nature of which is little understood, but it seems nearly allied. Mr Lawrence considers the disease as appearing under various forms, to which he gives the following names; blood in the legs, or crateuch; blain in the tongue, or overflow of blood; shrinking-in, or rising of the blood; higham, or iron-fricking; joint murrain, or garget; black quarter; quarter-evil; black leg.

We have given as a synonym the name of black spald, because we consider the disease so called in Scotland, as nearly, if not entirely, the same with the black quarter of the writers on cattle medicine. As we have not seen the disease, we call copy what Mr Lawrence says of it, in his treatise on cattle.

"All our animals, oxen, sheep, and pigs, I have observed, are subject to sanguineous effusion or overflow of the blood, on being put in a low and weak state, to rich or succulent keep. They very commonly drop on a sudden, and die in the blood, as it is termed; when the carcases putrefy almost immediately, and are totally lost. Pigs which die in this way, have their skins so universally suffused with the blood, that they appear enveloped, or rather shrouded in Morocco leather. In oxen, chiefly young cattle, nature commonly finds a vent for the disease, in an eruption on the leg, quarter, or shoulder, attended with pneumatisis or a collection of air in the cellular membrane, or, as it is commonly termed, between the flesh and the skin; whence the crepitating or crackling noise, which is heard on pressure. Another termination of the disease, is, by a deposition of matter upon the joints, whence the term of joint garget or murrain. I know not whether I am correct in referring the crateuch to this class, which is said, in Scotland, to be a swelling and lameness in the legs; but the old writers particularly mention blood in the legs. Blane or garget in the tongue, attended with inflammation and vehicles or bladders in that part, is said to be a symptom of the disease, and also to arise from heat and fatigue.

"This disease has swept off great numbers of yearling and two-year-old cattle, and become indeed endemic in certain districts, where any such scourge was unknown, it is said, previously to the introduction of artificial grasses, with the full feeding on which the animals become surfeited: thus the improvident use of good produces evil. The breeders being alarmed at the ravages occasioned by this murrain, which generally carried off the forwardest and best of the cattle, no wonder that the fertile brains of cow-doctors, were put into intestine motion, and that the ideas of the favourite engines, the knife or fire, were whirled uppermost. In effect, some skilful leech introduced the following most extraordinary operation, as a preventive of the disease in question; which I apprehend in the contemplation, either of physiology or common-senseology, could have no better prophylactic or preventive view, than shaving the animal would have; which I beg leave to recommend in the stead, as at least free from cruelty. The ill-starred beast is cast, bound to a stake, all his four legs are cut open from the claws upwards to the height of several inches, in order to find among the tendons and ligaments a strong blood vessel of a bluish colour, which said offending vessel, guilty of the original sin of producing joint murrain, being caught with a crooked needle, is cut away. It is great pity, for the sake of hypothetical uniformity, that the above-aid blue blood-vessel had not been called a worm, since the brains of so many of our cattle folk have been infested with worms from very high antiquity**.

After much jocose, but rather coarse ridicule of methods that have been proposed for the cure of this disease, Mr Lawrence thus proceeds. "Prevention of this malady is the only cure worth notice: because, after the attack, the very nature of the case renders all remedy either uncertain, or of very little profit, even if successful, on account of the expense of time and money. With this view the young cattle must not be pushed too far in condition; and indeed the same precaution may be useful in some degree, with respect to the full aged. A piece of short or inferior keep should be reserved, as a digesting place, in which the cattle may be occasionally turned to empty and exercise themselves. Those observed to advance very fast may be bled monthly for several months: of the efficacy of which practice, however, I have by no means so good an opinion as that of giving medicines which prevent internal obstruction. I am well aware of the difficulty, or rather total impracticability, of such measures with a number of cattle in the field, or I am convinced, that occasional purges, or alternative medicines, would prevent those diseases which seem to take their rise in over repletion and accumulation. Six drachms daily, of equal parts, sulphur and antimony, in fine powder, would be sufficient for a young beast; but to be of any permanent use, it must be continued at least a month; or salt might be of use. Rowelling also might be an efficacious preventative. Keep two rowels or fetons open in each beast during several months."

In the 5th vol. of the Farmers Magazine, is the following communication from a practical farmer re... specfing the cure of this complaint.

"The first cure for this complaint that I ever saw performed, was on an ox of four and a half years of age. As he was going in the plough, I observed him a little lame in one of the hinder feet. At first I thought he had trampled upon a stone; but as it still grew worse, I soon suspected it was the quarter-ill; the more so, as there was a good year-old died of that disorder three weeks before. By the time he was got to the byre, the crackling between the skin and the flesh was very perceptible on the top joint of the off-side hinder leg. As our blacksmith had some skill among live stock, he was instantly sent for. The first thing he did was to take a little blood from a vein in the neck. He then pulled the skin from the flesh on the side that seemed most pained, still keeping the beast walking as much as possible. He then cauled cold water to be poured in large quantities on the part affected, still rubbing and keeping the skin loose on the affected part. Finding the skin to adhere much to the flesh, he then made three cuts with a penknife, two inches long, into which he rubbed salt and water. In this manner he continued four hours; the one time driving him, then pouring on water, rubbing in salt, and loosening the skin from the flesh. By this time he was not near to cripple, and began to take his food. We were ordered, however, to keep him in motion all night, and in the morning he was well for his food, and never had any more signs of the disease. Since that time I have followed the blacksmith's practice, and have often been successful. Only instead of pouring water on the place, I fasten a rope... rope about the beast's head, and take it to a deep pool, causing it to swim up and down, and drive it frequently, giving it an ounce or half an ounce of laudanum, according to the size or age of the beast, but I never did cut the skin. I have good reason to believe that the above method has been the means of curing several of my young cattle, as I never saw any that took that disease, and no means used for their recovery, but died; those I opened, had all the blood collected in the affected quarter. I find it more difficult to cure in the fore quarters than in the hinder, and if it seize the bowels, I hardly think that it will cure by any means."

3. On the Rot in Sheep. General or True Rot. Hydropic Rot.

The name of the rot in sheep, and the ravages that are annually made by it among the flocks of most sheep districts, are familiar to every one; but little pains have been taken to fix the precise meaning of the word, and the particular disease, to denote which it should be exclusively employed. Some of those who appear to have paid particular attention to the subject, have yet followed the example of shepherds and farmers, in confounding under the name of rot, several diseases which differ considerably in their nature, causes, and method of treatment. Two medical men who have lately published; the one, Dr Dickson, on the General Management of Sheep, as connected with practical agriculture; the other, Dr Harrison, on this particular subject of the rot, have still considered it as one disease. In the second appendix to Mr Findlater's Survey of Peebles, and in the fourth number of the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, the distinction of the rot into three different morbid affections, is, however, clearly marked; and there seems no doubt that these three diseases are very similar to consumption, hepatitis or inflammation of the liver, and fever, in the human body. The first of those which we have briefly noticed in No. 490, under the name of pulmonic rot, is distinguished by cough, hectic fever, wasting of flesh, and in many cases by the formation of a watery swelling below the chin. The second, mentioned by the name of hepatic rot in No. 493, is characterized by a degree of fever accompanied by inflammation, and thickening of the outer coat of the liver, or some diseased state of the biliary ducts or pipes, connected with the presence of flukes in the liver, if not sometimes produced by them. The third species has been called general rot, as in this the whole system is more or less affected; true rot, because it appears to be the most common of the three, and to be that to which the name seems more peculiarly applicable; and hydropic rot; because, if the animal is suffered to live, the disease commonly terminates in partial or general dropy. This species is what we are now to consider; and after having given as clear an account of it as we can collect from the descriptions that have been lately published, we shall make a few observations on the causes, treatment, and prevention of the rot in general, endeavouring as much as possible to discriminate between the three varieties.

It is probable that the first symptoms of the rot have seldom been observed. The earliest marks of the disease of which writers give an account, are, falling off in flesh, and an unusual dullness and heaviness. The flesh feels loose and flabby, especially about the loins; and if pressure is made about the hips, a crackling is sometimes perceptible. It is said that those who are accustomed to handle the ears and legs of sheep, may in the earliest stage of rot discover symptoms of low fever, but probably this is the case only in pulmonic and hepatic rot. Now, or soon afterwards, the countenance looks pale, as do the gums and tongue. On parting the fleece, the skin is found to have lost its fine rosy colour, and is become of a pale red. As the disease advances, the skin appears dappled with yellow and black spots. The eyes have a peculiar appearance; they lose their lustre, and look like the eyes of dead fish. Mr Findlater says, that in Tweeddale, the principal mark of rottenness is taken from the appearance of the eye in the corner next the nose, when the eyeball is turned so as to look away from the nose; as the flesh that adheres to the eyeball below the eyelids, in the corner next the nose, is in a foul sheep of a florid red colour; whereas in a rotten sheep, the flesh is of a dull appearance, and of a yellowish red colour, resembling that of a rotten egg, when the white and the yolk are confounded together. When the disease has continued long, the breath becomes fetid, the gums spongy, the teeth and sometimes the horns loose, the animal is commonly affected with a scouring, the fleece looks torn and ragged, and the wool separates from the skin with a slight pull. Great weakness and emaciation attend the latter stage of the disease; and these continually increase till the animal dies, or till dropy comes on, which always terminates fatally.

The principal appearance on dissection is presented by the liver, which is found in various states, according to the progress or severity of the disease. When a sheep is killed a few days after contracting the rot, the thin edge of the small lobe of the liver appears of a transparent white or bluish colour, and this colour spreads to a greater extent according to the severity of the complaint. Sometimes it does not extend more than an inch from the edge; at others it occupies a considerable part of the lobe. In severe cases, the whole external coat of the liver is found diseased, commonly assuming an opaque colour intermixed with lines or patches of a darker red. The upper part of the liver is sometimes found speckled like the back of a toad, to which it is said to bear a striking resemblance. Very commonly the liver is found full of hard knots, and sometimes there are ulcers in various parts of it. Are not some of these appearances peculiar to the hepatic rot? When the liver of a sheep affected with the rot is boiled, it loses its consistence, and breaks down into small pieces; whereas it is well known that a sound liver becomes by the same process firm and solid.

When sheep have died suddenly in the first stage of this disorder, there may commonly be discovered a quantity of whey-like coloured fluid in the cavity of the belly; and in these cases the outside of the liver is generally covered with a coat of coagulable lymph. This is one of the appearances described by Dr Harrison; and is similar to what is often observed in the belly of animals that have died of dropy in the belly.

In stating the causes and treatment of general rot, we cannot perhaps do better than copy what is given on this subject in Mr Findlater's survey of Peebles, to which which we have already been so much obliged. "It arises from deficient or bad aliment, whether the food itself be bad and scanty, or the animal be incapable of digesting it properly. It is most common from the former cause, want of food; and the disease is much the same with scurvy among the human race. In addition to these causes, whatever tends to depress the spirits, frequently excites, or at least exacerbates, the malady. It is said that soldiers in a garrison have been known to be seized with the scurvy on hearing bad news; and I doubt not but terrifying sheep with dogs, or other means, may produce or aggravate this disease. We may hence see what mischief a fox chase, or any exhibition of that sort, is calculated to bring upon a flock of sheep. The disease is also said to be produced by feeding upon watered grass; and hence shepherds, in many parts of Scotland, are careful to keep off their sheep from the tender grass produced by the occasional overflowing of rivulets. Feeding also in marshy and damp pastures, is known to be a powerful cause of the rot.

"The only means of cure are, a supply of good and wholesome food, and invigorating the stomach by permitting the animal to feed on those stimulating and aromatic herbs which are agreeable to its taste. It is believed that on dry sweet pastures, where there is a sufficient quantity of furze and broom, juniper, and other shrubs that are palatable to sheep, the rot is seldom heard of. When ground is down for sheep pasture, parsley, thyme, peppermint, and other aromatic herbs, should be sown with the grass seeds, as these plants serve both to prevent and to cure the rot. In addition to these means of cure, every thing that tends to annoy or depress the animal in its weakly state ought to be avoided."

The following facts with respect to the production of rot, considered as a general disease, are chiefly taken from Dr Harrifon's Inquiry.

Poor, clayey, and loamy lands are most subject to rot.

Grounds that are always dry, or always under water, and such as are always sufficiently wet to preserve a constant running of water, were never known to suffer from the rot.

Ponds of living water are equally safe; but when attempts to drain lands have been made, and have not fully succeeded, sheep which feed on such lands are very much exposed to the rot.

Grounds newly laid down for pasture, or ploughed fields that have been exhausted by repeated crops, where the sward is thin, and where the water remains in patches for want of proper outlets, are peculiarly subject to the rot.

Marshes that are overflowed by the sea, and boggy situations, especially in Ireland, are seldom known to rot.

Lands that have been limed, and many soils that are chiefly composed of calcareous matter, are considered as very likely to produce the rot.

Ewes that are with lamb, or are giving suck, are less liable than other sheep to be affected with the rot.

Eight causes have been assigned for the production of rot, viz.

1. A vitiated dew. It is stated in the survey of Lincolnshire, that a shepherd, who when young, was shepherd's boy to an old man that lived at Nettlam near Lincoln, a place famous for the rot, declared his persuasion that sheep took the rot, only in a morning before the dew was well off. His master's shepherd always kept his flock in fold till the dew was gone, and with only this attention his sheep were kept sound when all his neighbours lost their flocks. Dr Harrifon remarks, that if this cause were just, the rot should appear equally on all lands.

2. The disease has been attributed to a gruit or earthy sediment that adheres to the grass after wet weather, or after the overflowing of running water.

3. It has been supposed to be owing to the luxuriant and quick growing herbage that is produced in hot moist leasons. But all luxuriant pastures do not produce the rot.

4. It has been attributed to the sheep grazing on some particular herbs, such as the butterwort (pinguicula vulgaris), the white rot (hydrocotyle vulgaris), round-leaved sundew (drosera rotundifolia), and long-leaved sundew (drosera longifolia); but these plants do not grow on every rotting soil.

5. The disorder has been imputed to flukes in the liver. We have already stated our opinion, that flukes may produce the hepatic rot.

6. The rot has been supposed to depend on the infection of sheep-pox. This opinion seems to have arisen from a confusion of terms.

7. M. Daubenton considered the disease to be produced by poverty of food, and too much water. There is no doubt that these causes commonly produce the last species of rot which we have mentioned.

8. Dr Harrifon is of opinion that the rot is always generated by the exhalation or effluvia produced by the action of the sun's rays on soils that are partially covered by stagnant water. After adducing a number of ingenious arguments in support of his opinion, Dr Harrifon sums up the amount of his doctrine in the following manner.

"From the various circumstances enumerated, I think I am justified in attributing the rot in sheep and other animals to paludal effluvia; but with respect to their nature and constitution, it is very difficult to form any rational judgment, as they have hitherto eluded the most subtle and delicate inquiries. It must, however, be admitted, si causa latet, vis est notissima; and consequently the subject, from its great importance to the public in general, is entitled to a serious investigation.

"Without heat and moisture, no deleterious vapours can be generated; and yet it is equally certain, that both these causes are insufficient to produce either a recurrent fever, or the rot, since they are confined to particular situations. Other auxiliaries are therefore necessary; and I am inclined to believe that vegetable or earthy particles, and probably both, are required, as well as heat and moisture, to constitute the noxious emanations or gases called miasmata paludum.

"Probably it will be found, on further inquiry, that a great variety of animal and vegetable effluvia are extracted in different places; and that many disorders should be attributed to them, which are at this time imputed to other causes.

"Poisonous vapours are extremely active and sudden in their effects, of which proofs may be found in the history..." Index.

Diseases, history of every contagious and endemic disorder. We have, therefore, no reason to be surprised, that sheep and animals are so immediately affected by pasturing in moist places, where these effluvia are copiously produced in hot weather. Other causes operate slowly, and require such a long-continued application, that I do not think the rot can be induced by them, though I am of opinion, that by occasioning general weakness, they make the constitution more susceptible, and lay it more open to morbid impressions. In the human body, we know that fatigue, cold, fasting, and other debilitating causes, are efficacious auxiliaries, although of themselves they are totally inadequate to produce any contagious disorder. They, therefore, seem to contribute equally, and in the same manner, to facilitate the operations of many maladies, upon the human body and other animals.*

It is said, that for a short time after contracting the rot, sheep feed more heartily than usual; and for this reason, butchers and graziers, when they wish to fatten sheep speedily for the market, not unfrequently turn them into a rotting pasture.

The prevention of the rot will be easily suggested by attending to the facts and observations that have just been given, as it consists in avoiding the causes that seem to produce it, and avoiding or correcting the soil where it is found most readily to take place. "It is confidently supposed, that decoctions of bitter herbs, with salt, have frequently preserved sheep from the rot. Salt is supposed to constitute a part of Fleet's celebrated nostrum; and we know that bitters are deservedly recommended to prevent intermittents, the dysentery and other disorders, which originate from exhalations.

"In Oxfordshire, Dr. Lower has frequently known six or seven spoonfuls of strong brine, and stale urine, with foot steeped in it, to be given with great success. This is done at spring and fall of the year, when the dew is counted the most dangerous. This course of physic is continued eight or ten days, or till the sheep eat their meat heartily; and if they were taken in time, there seldom died any in a whole flock. For the same purpose, Ellis recommends the following medicine in his practical husbandry.

"Take a peck or better of malt, and mash it as though you would brew it into ale or beer, and make eleven or twelve gallons of liquor; then boil in it a quantity of shepherds purse, comfrey, sage, plantain, penny-royal, wormwood, and bloodwort; add yeast, and afterwards salt, to the mixture; then turn the liquor into a vessel. After April comes in, give seven or eight spoonfuls to every sheep, once in the week, if the weather be wet; and if dry, not so often.*"

ERRATA.—N° 84. We have inadvertently hinted that Mr. Fenton's work on farriery has neither index nor table of contents. It has no table of contents, but it has an index.

N° 93. For 1803, read 1805. N° 518. For Trot, read Fret.

INDEX.

A.

Abortions, 462 Absorbents, 193, b, e, f Abortion, morbid symptoms of, 304 Aburytus, a writer on farriery, 27 Age of a horse, mode of ascertaining, 101 Alexander's, Mr., probang, 403 Aloe, 273, a. Altersatives, 285 Alum, 281, a. 293, a. Ammonia, 267, a. 285, a. 293, b. Ammoniac, gum, 265, a. Anatomy necessary to a farrier, 13 Aneurism, 431 Anger-berries, 326 Aniseed, 285, c. Anodynes, 289 receipts for, 290 Antacklines, 293, h, i, k. Antimonial powder, 263, b. 267 d. Antimony, 263, a. 267, c. butter of, 293, c. calx or oxide of, 267, e. Antiseptics, 285, 293, a, d, k, l. Antipododics, receipts for, 287 Anxiety, 314

B.

Appetite, loss of, 416 Aromatics, 285 Arteries, wounds of, 430 Asafoetida, 265, b. Afarabacca, 275, a. Acarides, 413 Acites, 523 Astringents, 281 receipts for, 282 Back-raking, 257 finew, clap, or strain of, 356 rupture of, 360 Balls, directions for preparing, 252 administering, 253 cordial, 286 Balm of copaiva, 265, d. 269, a. 285 a. peru, 265 e. fulphur, 265, e. Bars of the horse's hoof, 124 Barbados tar, 265, f. 285, e. Barrett's work on farriery, 59 Barley, 277, a. Barm, 293, l. Bartlett's work on farriery, 64 Bats, 518 Bays, oil of, 295, f.

Blisters, 285, f. Blown in cattle, 404 Blundevill's work on horses, 56 Boo-panning, 366 Boardman's dictionary, 83 Body-founder, 499 Bones of the horse's foot, 114 Boots, 409, 41

Bourgelat's | **FAR R I E R Y.** | **Index.** | |------------------|------------| | **Cold, common,** | **Dressing of horses,** | | **Coleman, Mr., appointed professor of** | **Dropfy of the head,** | | **the veterinary college,** | **of the chest,** | | **works of** | **belly,** | | **artificial frog,** | **Drowsiness,** | | **method of treating wounds** | **Dysentery,** | | **in the joints,** | **Ear of horses should not be trimmed,** | | **Colon of the horse,** | **Eggs,** | | **Colic,** | **Elecampane,** | | **Inflammatory,** | **Emetics,** | | **Columella's writings on farriery,** | **powder for dogs,** | | **Contracted feet,** | **Emetic tartar,** | | **Cooling remedies,** | **Emollients,** | | **receipts for,** | **Epilepsy,** | | **Cordials,** | **Epiphanies. See Stimulants.** | | **Cords,** | **Epiphany,** | | **Coronary ligament,** | **Errhines,** | | **Cornea, opacity of,** | **Effex mode of rearing calves,** | | **Cough, chronic,** | **Ether,** | | **Cow, delivery of,** | **Eumelus, a writer on farriery,** | | **London mode of feeding,** | **Excretion,** | | **Cow-houles,** | **morbid symptoms of,** | | **pox,** | **Exercise,** | | **originates in grease,** | **Especlorants,** | | **Cropping,** | **receipts for,** | | **Crust of the horse's hoof,** | **Eyes, inflammation of,** | | **Culley's work on cattle,** | **gluts,** | | **Cummin,** | **found, marks of,** | | **Curb,** | **F.** | | **Cutting,** | **Falling of the fundament,** | | **Daniel's Rural Sports,** | **of the penis,** | | **remarks on the worming** | **womb,** | | **of dogs,** | **False quarter,** | | **Dark ages, state of farriery in the,** | **Farce,** | | **Delivery,** | **water,** | | **of cows in cross positions,** | **Farriery, origin of the term,** | | **in calves of preternatural** | **extended application of,** | | **obstruction,** | **defined,** | | **Denny's work on horses,** | **importance of,** | | **Depression of spirit,** | **to farriers,** | | **Diabetes,** | **to farmers and country gentlemen,** | | **Diarrhea,** | **to medical men,** | | **Dickson's practical agriculture,** | **much indebted to medical men,** | | **Diet of domestic animals,** | **knowledge requisite for the practice of,** | | **Digestion, morbid symptoms of,** | **instructions for studying,** | | **Diseases of man and animals similar,** | **means of improving,** | | **classification of** | **early history of, obscure,** | | **Distemper in dogs,** | **progress of, in France,** | | **Diuretics,** | **on the rest of the continent,** | | **Docking, first used in England,** | **in Britain,** | | **absurdity of,** | **Fatigue,** | | **how performed,** | **Feeders of dogs, duties of,** | | **Dogs, food of,** | **Feeding, foul,** | | **vegetable food,** | **Fennel,** | | **oatmeal,** | **Feron's works on farriery,** | | **barley-meal,** | **Fever, inflammatory,** | | **Dog kennels. See Kennel.** | **putrid,** |

---

**Bourgelat's works on farriery,** **Bowels of the horse described,** **Bracken's works on farriery,** **Brain, inflammation of,** **Braxy, watery,** **-dry,** **Brockleby's works on murrain,** **description of do.** **account of the appearances on dissection,** **method of treating it,** **Bruises,** **Buffon's natural history,** **Burdon's works on farriery,** **Burgundy pitch,** **Burklennefs,** **Byre, feeding, Mr Hunter's,** **construction of,**

**C.**

**Caccum of the horse,** **Calculus,** **Calomel,** **Calves, mode of rearing in Effex,** **Camper's works,** **Camphor,** **Canker,** **of the ear in dogs,** **Cantharides,** **Canine madness. See Hydrophobia,** **Capsicum,** **Capulet, or capped hock,** **Caraway,** **Cassia,** **Casting,** **Castor oil,** **Castration,** **when best performed,** **Cataraft,** **unsuccessfully treated,** **Catarrh,** **epidemic,** **Cattle, food of,** **medicine, rude state of,** **Caustics,** **Cellar, writes on farriery,** **Chabert's writings on farriery,** **Chamomile,** **Chaps,** **Charcoal,** **Chemical remedies,** **receipts for,** **Chemistry necessary to a farrier,** **Choking in cattle,** **Circulation, morbid symptoms of,** **Clark's, James, works on horses,** **method of fleeing,** **Bracey, paper on bots,** **Cleaning, necessity of,** **Clothing of horses,** **Cloves,** **Claylers, directions for preparing,** **administering,** **Coffin bone,** **Index**

**FAR R I E R Y**

Teeth of the horse described, N° 100

Temporal artery, mode of opening, 164

Tenon's account of sheep-pox, 477

Theometes, a writer on farriery, 27

Thorough-pin, 367

Thorter-ill, 508

Thryb, running, 384

Ticks, 337

Tim, 291, f.

Tobacco, 269, g. 275, b.

Tonic, 283

Topical bleeding, 167

Tormentil, 281, k.

Trimming horse's ears absurd, 180

Turbit mineral, 263, c.

Turpentine, 318

Oil of, 269, b. 285, gg.

U.

Varix, 433

Vegetius's work on farriery, 26

Veins, wounds of, 351, 432

Veterinary art, college of Lyons, 35

of London, established, 72

examining committee of, 77

regulations of, 76

method of shoeing in, 139

Vinegar, 279, f. 293, i.

Vitell's work on veterinary medicine, 43

Vitriol, blue, 283, i.

white, 281, m.

Vitriolic acid, 279, g. 281, b. 293, h.

Ulcers, 394

Vomiting, why impracticable in the horse, 105

Urine, incontinence of, 443

suppression of, 444

from distention of the bladder, 445

**Urine, suppression of, from inflammation,**

from stone, 448

from obstruction at the neck of the bladder, 449

bloody, 450

W.

Warbles, 338

Warts, 326

Water, red, black, 450

Weight of horse shoes, 149

for a coach horse, 150

for a saddle horse, 151

Wheat given to horses on the continent, 220

White's work on the veterinary art, 81

Wind, broken, thick, 437

Wind-galls, 365

Withers, fitful, 396

Womb, falling of the, 461

Worms, 408

Worm medicines, receipts for, 292

Wormils, 338

Worming of dogs, 517

Wounds, 348

of the feet, 349

of the joints, 350

how best treated, punctured, 352

in the mouth, 400

of arteries, 430

of veins, 351, 432

X.

Xenophon's work on horsemanship, 30

Y.

Yeats, 393, f.

Yellow, 441

Z.

Zinc, 295, h.

---

**F A R**