Aeronautica, from ære, and nauticus, derived from navis, ship; the art of sailing in a vessel or machine through the atmosphere, sustained as a ship in the sea. See Aerostation.

Aerophalacea, a term used by naturalists for caverns or reservoirs of air, supposed to exist in the bowels of the earth. Kircher speaks much of aerophylacea, or huge caverns replete with air, disposed under ground; from whence, through numerous occult passages, that element is conveyed either to subterraneous receptacles of water, which, according to him, are hereby raised into springs or rivers, or into the funds of subterraneous fire, which are hereby fed and kept alive for the restoration of metals, minerals, and the like.

Aerostation. AEROSTATION

In its primitive sense, denotes the science of weights suspended in the air; but in its modern acceptation, it signifies aerial navigation, or the art of navigating through the atmosphere. Hence also the machines which are employed for this purpose are called aerostats, or aerostatic machines; and from their globular shape, air balloons.

The romances of almost every nation have recorded instances of persons being carried through the air, both by the agency of spirits and by mechanical inventions; but till the time of Friar Bacon, who died in 1292, no rational principle appears ever to have been thought of by which this might be accomplished. He had written upon the subject, and not only affirms us of the practicability of the art, but that he knew how to construct a machine in which a man might transport himself through the air like a bird; and he affirms that the experiment had been successfully made by another person. The machine consisted of two large thin shells, or hollow globes of copper which were exhausted of air; and thus being lighter than air, would support a chair on which a person might sit.

Many had been of opinion, that, by means of artificial wings, fixed to the arms or legs, a man might fly as well as a bird; but these opinions were thoroughly refuted by Borelli in his treatise De Motu Animalium, where, from a comparison between the power of the muscles which move the wings of a bird, and those which move the arms of a man, he demonstrates that the latter are utterly insufficient to strike the air with such force as to raise him from the ground. It cannot be denied, however, that wings of this kind, if properly constructed, and dexterously managed, might be sufficient to break the fall of a human body from a high place, so that some adventurers in this way might possibly come off with safety; though by far the greatest number of those who have rashly adopted such schemes, have either lost their lives or limbs in the attempt.

In the year 1672, Bishop Wilkins published a treatise entitled, The Discovery of the New World; in which he mentions, though in a very indistinct and confused manner, the true principle on which the air is navigable; quoting, from Albertus de Saxonia and Francis Mendoza, "that the air is in some part of it navigable: and upon this static principle, any brass or iron vessel (suppose a kettle), whose substance is much heavier than that of water, yet being filled with the lighter air, it will swim upon it and not sink. So suppose a cup or wooden vessel upon the outward borders of this elementary air, the capacity of it being filled with fire, or rather ethereal air, it must necessarily, upon the same ground, remain swimming there, and of itself can no more fall than an empty ship can sink." This idea, however, he did not by any means pursue, but relied his hopes entirely upon mechanical motions, to be accomplished by the mere strength of a man, or by springs, &c., and which have been demonstrated incapable of answering any useful purpose.

The only person who brought his scheme of flying Bishop to any kind of rational principle was the Jesuit Francis Lana's, contemporary with Bishop Wilkins. His method scheme was similar to Friar Bacon's. He was acquainted with the real weight of the atmosphere, and, justly concluded, that if a globular vessel were exhausted of air, it would weigh less than before; and considering that the solid contents of vessels increase in much greater proportion than their surfaces; he supposed that a metallic vessel might be made so large, that, when emptied of its air, it would be able not only to raise itself in the atmosphere, but to carry up passengers along with it; and he made a number of calculations necessary for putting the project into execution. But though the theory was here unexceptionable, the means proposed were certainly insufficient to accomplish the end: for a vessel of copper, made so thin as was necessary to make it float in the atmosphere, would be utterly unable to resist the external pressure; which being demonstrated by those skilled in mechanics, no attempt was made on that principle.

In the year 1769, however, as we are informed by Strange a letter published in France in 1784, a Portuguese projector, Friar Guifman, applied to the king for encouragement to his invention of a flying machine. The principle on which this was constructed, if indeed it had any principle, seems to have been that of the paper kite. The machine was constructed in form of a bird, and contained several tubes through which the wind was to pass, in order to fill a kind of sails, which were to elevate it; and when the wind was deficient, the same effect was to be performed by means of bellows concealed within the body of the machine. The ascent was also to be promoted by the electric attraction of pieces of amber placed in the top, and by two spheres enclosing magnets in the same situation.

These childish inventions show the low state of science at that time in Portugal, especially as the king, in order to encourage him to farther exertions in such a useful invention, granted him the first vacant place in his college of Barcelos or Santarem, with the first professorship in the university of Coimbra, and an annual pension of 600,000 reis during his life. Of this De Guifman, it is also related, that, in the year 1736, he made a wicker basket of about seven or eight feet diameter, and covered with paper, which raised itself about 200 feet in the air, and the effect was generally attributed to witchcraft.

In the year 1766, Mr Henry Cavendish ascertained Possibility the weight and other properties of inflammable air, determining it to be at least seven times lighter than common air. Soon after which it occurred to Dr Black, that perhaps a thin bag filled with inflammable air might be buoyed up by the common atmosphere, and Mr Cavendish thought of having the allantois of a calf prepared for this purpose; but his other avocations prevented him from prosecuting the experiment. The same thought occurred some years afterwards to Mr Cavallo; and he has the honour of being the first who made experiments periments on the subject. He first tried bladders; but the thinness of these, however well treated and prepared, were found too heavy. He then tried Chinese paper; but that proved so permeable, that the vapour passed through it like water through a sieve. His experiments, therefore, made in the year 1782, proceeded no farther than blowing up soap bubbles with inflammable air, which ascended rapidly to the ceiling, and broke against it.

But while the discovery of the art of aerostation seemed thus on the point of being made in Britain, it was all at once announced in France, and that from a quarter whence nothing of the kind was to have been expected. Two brothers, Stephen and John Montgolfier, natives of Annonay, and masters of a considerable paper manufacture there, had turned their thoughts towards this project as early as the middle of the year 1782. The idea was first suggested by the natural ascent of the smoke and clouds in the atmosphere; and their design was to form an artificial cloud, by enclosing the smoke in a bag, and making it carry up the covering along with it. Towards the middle of November of that year, the experiment was made at Avignon with a fine silk bag of a parallelopiped shape. By applying burning paper to the lower aperture, the air was rarefied, and the bag ascended in the atmosphere, and struck rapidly against the ceiling. On repeating the experiment in the open air, it rose to the height of about 70 feet.

An experiment on a more enlarged scale was now projected; and a new machine, containing about 650 cubic feet, was made, which broke the cords that confined it, and rose to the height of about 600 feet. Another of 35 feet in diameter rose to about 1000 feet high, and fell to the ground three quarters of a mile from the place where it ascended. A public exhibition was next made on the 5th of June 1783, at Annonay, where a vast number of spectators assembled. An immense bag of linen, lined with paper, and containing upwards of 23,000 cubic feet, was found to have a power of lifting about 500 pounds, including its own weight. The operation was begun by burning chopped straw and wool under the aperture of the machine, which immediately began to swell; and after being set at liberty ascended into the atmosphere. In ten minutes it had ascended 6000 feet; and when its force was exhausted it fell to the ground at the distance of 7668 feet from the place whence it set out.

Soon after this one of the brothers arrived at Paris, where he was invited by the Academy of Sciences to repeat his experiments at their expense. In consequence of this invitation, he constructed, in a garden in the faubourg of St Germain, a large balloon of an elliptical form. In a preliminary experiment, this machine lifted up from the ground eight persons who held it, and would have carried them all off if more had not quickly come to their assistance. Next day the experiment was repeated in presence of the members of the academy; the machine was filled by the combustion of 50 pounds of straw made up in small bundles, upon which about 12 pounds of chopped wool were thrown at intervals. The usual success attended this exhibition: the machine soon swelled; endeavoured to ascend; and immediately after sustained itself in the air, together with the charge of between 400 and 500 pounds weight. It was evident that it would have ascended to a great height; but as it was designed to repeat the experiment before the king and royal family at Versailles, the cords by which it was tied down were not cut. But in consequence of a violent rain and wind which happened at this time, the machine was so far damaged, that it became necessary to prepare a new one for the time that it had been determined to honour the experiment with the royal presence; and such expedition was used, that this vast machine, of near 60 feet in height and 43 in diameter, was made, painted with water colours both within and without, and finely decorated, in no more than four days and four nights. Along with this machine was sent up some ant-wicker cage, containing a sheep, a cock, and a duck, which were the first animals ever sent through the air.

The full success of the experiment was prevented by a violent gust of wind which tore the cloth in two places near the top before it ascended; however, it rose to the height of 1440 feet; and after remaining in the air about eight minutes, fell to the ground at the distance of 10,200 feet from the place of its setting out. The animals were not in the least hurt.

The great power of these aerostatic machines, and their very gradual descent in falling to the ground had originally showed that they were capable of transporting people through the air with all imaginable safety; and this was further confirmed by the experiment already mentioned. As M. Montgolfier, therefore, proposed to make a new aerostatic machine of a firmer and better construction than the former, M. Pilatre de Rozier offered himself to be the first aerial adventurer.

This new machine was constructed in a garden in the faubourg of St Antoine. It was of an oval shape, about 48 feet in diameter and 74 in height; elegantly painted on the outside with the signs of the zodiac, cyphers of the king's name, and other ornaments. A proper gallery, grate, &c. were appended in the manner afterwards described; so that it was easy for the person who ascended to supply the fire with fuel, and thus keep up the machine as long as he pleased. The weight of the whole apparatus was upwards of 1600 pounds. The experiment was performed on the 15th of October 1783. M. Pilatre having placed himself in the gallery, the machine was inflated, and permitted to ascend to the height of 84 feet, where he kept it afloat for about four minutes and a half: after which it descended very gently; and such was its tendency to ascend, that it rebounded to a considerable height after touching the ground. Two days after, he repeated the experiment with the same success as before; but the wind being strong, the machine did not sustain itself so well as formerly. On repeating the experiment in calmer weather, he ascended to the height of 210 feet. His next ascent was 262 feet; and in the descent, a gust of wind having blown the machine over some large trees of an adjoining garden, M. Pilatre suddenly extricated himself from dangerous situation, by throwing some straw and chopped wool on the fire, which raised him at once to a sufficient height. On descending again he once more raised himself to a proper height by throwing straw on the fire. Some time after, he ascended in company with M. Giroud. M. Girond de Villette to the height of 330 feet; hovering over Paris at least nine minutes in sight of all the inhabitants, and the machine keeping all the while perfectly steady.

These experiments had shown, that the aerostatic machines might be raised or lowered at the pleasure of the persons who ascended: they had likewise discovered, that the keeping them fast with ropes was no advantage; but, on the contrary, that this was attended with inconvenience and hazard. On the 21st of November 1783, therefore, M. Pilatre determined to undertake an aerial voyage in which the machine should be fully set at liberty. Everything being got in readiness, the balloon was filled in a few minutes; and M. Pilatre placed himself in the gallery, counterpoised by the marquis d'Arlandes, who occupied the other side. It was intended to make some preliminary experiments on the ascending power of the machine; but the violence of the wind prevented this from being done, and even damaged the balloon essentially; so that it would have been entirely destroyed had not timely assistance been given. The extraordinary exertions of the workmen, however, repaired it again in two hours, and the adventurers set out. They met with no inconvenience during their voyage, which lasted about 25 minutes; during which time they had passed over a space of above five miles.—From the account given by the marquis d'Arlandes, it appears that they met with several different currents of air; the effect of which was, to give a sensible shock to the machine, and the direction of the motion seemed to be from the upper part downwards. It appears also that they were in some danger of having the balloon burnt altogether; as the marquis observed several round holes made by the fire in the lower part of it, which alarmed him considerably, and indeed not without reason. However, the progress of the fire was easily stopped by the application of a wet sponge, and all appearance of danger ceased in a very short time.

This voyage of M. Pilatre and the marquis d'Arlandes may be said to conclude the history of those aerostatic machines which are elevated by means of fire; for though many other attempts have been made upon the same principle, most of them have either proved unsuccessful or were of little consequence. They have therefore given place to the other kind filled with inflammable air (hydrogen gas); which, by reason of its smaller specific gravity, is both more manageable, and capable of performing voyages of greater length, as it does not require to be supplied with fuel like the others. This was invented a very short time after the discovery had been made by M. Montgolfier. This gentleman had indeed designed to keep his method in some degree a secret from the world; but as it could not be concealed, that a bag filled with any kind of fluid lighter than the common atmosphere would rise in it, inflammable air was naturally thought of as a proper succedaneum for the rarefied air of M. Montgolfier. The first experiment was made by two brothers Meffrs Roberts, and M. Charles a professor of experimental philosophy. The bag which contained the gas was composed of lutestring, varnished over with a solution of the elastic gum called caoutchouc; and that with which they made their first essay was only about 13 English feet in diameter. Many difficulties occurred in filling it with the inflammable air, chiefly owing to their ignorance of the proper apparatus; inasmuch, that, after a whole day's labour from nine in the morning, they had got the balloon only one-third part full. Next morning they were surprized to find that it had fully inflated itself during the night; but, upon inquiry, it was found, that they had inadvertently left open a manner stop-cock connected with the balloon, by which the partly filled common air gaining access, had mixed itself with the partly inflammable air; forming a compound still lighter than itself, the common atmosphere, but not sufficiently light to answer the purposes of aerostation. Thus they were obliged to renew their operation; and, by six o'clock in the evening of next day, they found the machine considerably lighter than the common air; and, in an hour after, it made a considerable effort to ascend. The public exhibition, however, had been announced only for the third day after; so that the balloon was allowed to remain in an inflated state for a whole day; during which they found it had lost a power of ascent of equal to about three pounds, being one-seventh part power in the whole. When it was at last let at liberty, after having been well filled with inflammable air; it was 35 pounds lighter than an equal bulk of common air. It remained in the atmosphere only three quarters of an hour, during which it had traversed 15 miles. Its sudden descent was supposed to have been owing to a rupture which had taken place when it ascended into the higher regions of the atmosphere.

The success of this experiment, and the aerial voyages made by Meffrs Rozier and Arlandes, naturally suggested the idea of undertaking something of the same kind with a balloon filled with inflammable air. Roberts. The machine used on this occasion was formed of gores of silk, covered over with a varnish made of caoutchouc, of a spherical figure, and measuring 27½ feet in diameter. A net was spread over the upper hemisphere, and was fastened to a hoop which passed round the middle of the balloon. To this a sort of car, or rather boat, was suspended by ropes, in such a manner as to hang a few feet below the lower part of the balloon; and, in order to prevent the bursting of the machine, a valve was placed in it; by opening of which some of the inflammable air might be occasionally let out. A long filken pipe communicated with the balloon, by means of which it was filled. The boat was made of basket work, covered with painted linen, and beautifully ornamented; being 8 feet long, 4 broad, and 3½ deep; its weight 130 pounds. At this time, however, as at the former, they met with great difficulties in filling the machine with inflammable air, owing to their ignorance of the most proper apparatus. But at last, all obstructions being removed, the two adventurers took their seats at three quarters after one in the afternoon of the first of December 1783. Persons skilled in mathematics were conveniently stationed with proper instruments to calculate the height, velocity, &c. of the balloon. The weight of the whole apparatus, including that of the two adventurers, was found to be 604½ pounds, and the power of ascent when they set out was 20 pounds; so that the whole difference between the weight of this balloon and an equal bulk of common air was 624 pounds. But the weight of common atmosphere displaced by the inflammable gas was... was calculated to be 771 pounds, so that there remains 147 for the weight of the latter; and this calculation makes it only $\frac{5}{3}$ times lighter than common air.

At the time the balloon left the ground, the thermometer stood at $59^\circ$ Fahrenheit's scale; and the quicksilver in the barometer at $30.18$ inches; and, by means of the power of ascent with which they left the ground, the balloon rose till the mercury fell to $27$ inches, from which they calculated their height to be about 600 yards. By throwing out ballast occasionally as they found the machine descending by the escape of some of the inflammable air, they found it practicable to keep at pretty near the same distance from the earth during the rest of their voyage; the quicksilver fluctuating between $27$ and $27.65$ inches, and the thermometer between $53^\circ$ and $57^\circ$, the whole time. They continued in the air for the space of an hour and three quarters, when they alighted at the distance of 27 miles from Paris: having suffered no inconvenience during their voyage, nor experienced any contrary currents of air, as had been felt by M. de Montgolfier and Arlandes. As the balloon still retained a great quantity of inflammable gas, Mr Charles determined to take another voyage by himself. Mr Robert accordingly got out of the boat, which was thus lightened by 130 pounds, and of consequence the aerostatic machine now had nearly as much power of ascent. Thus he was carried up with such velocity, that in twenty minutes he was almost 9000 feet high, and entirely out of sight of terrestrial objects. At the moment of his parting with the ground, the globe had been rather heated; but it soon began to cool, and the inflammable air escaped from it in great quantity through the silken tube. He also frequently drew the valve that it might be the more freely emitted, and the balloon effectually prevented from bursting. The inflammable gas being considerably warmer than the external air, diffused itself all round, and was felt like a warm atmosphere; but in ten minutes the thermometer indicated a variation of temperature as great as that between the warmth of spring and the ordinary cold of winter. His fingers were benumbed by the cold, and he felt a violent pain in his right ear and jaw, which he ascribed to the dilatation of the air in these organs as well as to the external cold. The beauty of the prospect which he now enjoyed, however, made amends for these inconveniences. At his departure the sun was set on the valleys; but the height to which Mr Charles was got in the atmosphere, rendered him again visible, though only for a short time. He saw, for a few seconds, vapours rising from the valleys and rivers. The clouds seemed to ascend from the earth, and collect one upon the other, still preserving their usual form; only their colour was gray, and monotonous for want of sufficient light in the atmosphere. By the light of the moon, he perceived that the machine was turning round with him in the air; and he observed that there were contrary currents which brought him back again. He observed also, with surprize, the effects of the wind, and that the streamers of his banners pointed upwards; which, he says, could not be the effect either of his ascent or descent, as he was moving horizontally at the time. At last, recollecting his promise of returning to his friends in half an hour, he pulled the valve, and accelerated his descent. When within 200 feet of the earth, he threw out two or three pounds of ballast, which rendered the balloon again stationary; but, in a little time afterwards, he gently alighted in a field about three miles distant from the place whence he let out; though, by making allowance for all the turnings and windings of the voyage, he supposes that he had gone through nine miles at least. By the calculations of M. de Meunier, he rose at this time not less than 10,500 feet high; a height somewhat greater than that of Mount Aetna. A small balloon, which had been sent off before the two brothers set out on their voyage, took a direction opposite to that of the large one, having met with an opposite current of air, probably at a much greater height.

The subsequent aerial voyages differ so little from that just now related, that any particular description of them seems to be superfluous. It had occurred to Mr Attempts Charles, however, in his last flight, that there might be a possibility of directing the machine in the atmospheric sphere; and this was soon attempted by Mr Jean Pierre Blanchard, a gentleman who had, for several months, years before, amused himself with endeavours to fly by mechanical means, though he had never succeeded in the undertaking. As soon as the discovery of the aerostatic machines was announced, however, he resolved to add the wings of his former machine to a balloon, and made no doubt that it would then be in his power to direct himself through the air at pleasure. In his first attempt he was frustrated by the impetuosity of a voyage of young gentlemen, who insisted, right or wrong, on Mr Blanchard ascending along with him. In the struggle which ensued on this occasion, the wings and other apparatus were entirely destroyed; so that Mr Blanchard was obliged to commit himself to the direction of the wind; and in another attempt it was found, that all the strength he could apply to the wings was scarce sufficient to counteract the impulsion of the wind in any degree. In his voyage, he found his balloon, at a certain period, acted upon by two contrary winds; but, on throwing out four pounds of ballast, he ascended to a place where he met with the same current he had at setting out from the earth. His account of the sensations he felt during this voyage, was somewhat different from that of Mr Charles; having, in one part of it, found the atmosphere very warm, in another cold; and having once found himself very hungry, and at another time almost overcome by a propensity to sleep. The height to which he arose, as measured by several observations with mathematical instruments, was thought to be very little less than 10,000 feet; and he remained in the atmosphere an hour and a quarter.

The attempts of Mr Blanchard to direct his machine through the atmosphere, were repeated in the month of April 1784 by Messrs Morveau and Bertrand, at Dr Bertrand's, who raised themselves with an inflammable-air balloon to the height, as it was thought, of 13,000 feet; passing through a space of 18 miles in an hour and 25 minutes. Mr Morveau had prepared a kind of oars for directing the machine through the air; but they were damaged by a gust of wind, so that only two of them remained serviceable; by working these, however, they were able to produce a sensible effect on the motion of the machine. In a third aerial voyage performed by Mr Blanchard, he seemed to pro-duce Blanchard. duce some effect by the agitation of his wings, both in ascending, descending, moving sideways, and even in some measure against the wind; however, this is supposed, with some probability, to have been a mistake, as, in all his succeeding voyages, the effects of his machinery could not be perceived.

The success of Messrs Charles and Robert in their former experiments, encouraged them soon to repeat them, with the addition of some machinery to direct their course. Having enlarged their former balloon to the size of an oblong spheroid 46 feet long and 27 feet in diameter, they made it to float with its longest part parallel to the horizon. The wings were made in the shape of an umbrella without the handle, to the top of which a stick was fastened parallel to the aperture of the umbrella. Five of these were disposed round the boat, which was near 17 feet in length. The balloon was filled in three hours, and, with the addition of 450 pounds of ballast, remained in equilibrium with the atmosphere. About noon, on the 19th of September 1784, they began to ascend very gently in consequence of throwing out 24 pounds of ballast, but were soon obliged to throw out eight pounds more, in order to avoid running against some trees. Thus they rose to the height of 1400 feet, when they perceived some thunder clouds near the horizon. On this they ascended and descended, to avoid the danger, as the wind blew directly towards the threatening clouds; but, from the height of 600 feet to that of 4200 above the surface of the earth, the current was quite uniform and in one direction. During their voyage they lost one of their oars; but found, that by means of those which remained, they considerably accelerated their course. From the account of their voyage, it would seem that they had passed safely through the thunder clouds; as we are informed, that, about 40 minutes after three, they heard a loud clap of thunder; and three minutes after, another much louder; at which time the thermometer sunk from 77 to 59 degrees. This sudden cold, occasioned by the approach of the clouds, condensed the inflammable air so that the balloon descended very low, and they were obliged to throw out 40 pounds of ballast; yet on examining the heat of the air within the balloon, they found it to be 104°, when that of the external atmosphere was only 63°. When they had got so high that the mercury in the barometer stood only at 23.94 inches, they found themselves alarmed; so that the machine did not go even at the rate of two feet in a second, though it had before gone at the rate of 24 feet in a second. On this they determined to try the effect of their oars to the utmost; and, by working them for 35 minutes, and marking the shadow of the balloon on the ground, they found, in that time, that they had described the segment of an ellipse whose longest diameter was 6000 feet. After having travelled about 150 miles, they descended, only on account of the approach of night, having still 200 pounds of ballast left.

Their conclusion, with regard to the effect of their wings, is as follows: "Those experiments show, that far from going against the wind, as is said by some persons to be possible in a certain manner, and some aeronauts pretend to have actually done, we only obtained, by means of two oars, a deviation of 22 degrees; it is certain, however, that if we could have used our four oars, we might have deviated about 40 degrees from the direction of the wind; and as our machine would have been capable of carrying seven persons, it would have been easy for five persons to have gone, and to have put in action eight oars, by means of which a deviation of about 80 degrees would have been obtained.

"We have already observed (say they), that if we did not deviate more than 22 degrees, it was because the wind carried us at the rate of 24 miles an hour; and it is natural to judge, that, if the wind had been twice as strong as it was, we should not have deviated more than one-half of what we actually did; and, on the contrary, if the wind had been only half as strong, our deviation would have been proportionably greater."

Having thus related all that has been done with regard to the conducting of aerostatic machines through the atmosphere, we shall now relate the attempts that prevent the have been made to lessen their expense by falling upon inflammable contrivance to ascend without throwing out ballast, and to descend without losing any of the inflammable air. The first attempt of this kind was made Voyage of the duke de Chartres; who, on the 15th of July the duke 1784, ascended with the two brothers, Roberts, and a fourth person, from the Park of St Cloud. The balloon was of an oblong form, made to ascend with its longest diameter horizontally, and measured 55 feet in length and 24 in breadth. It contained within it a smaller balloon filled with common air; by blowing into which with a pair of bellows, and thus throwing in a considerable quantity of common air, it was supposed that the machine would become sufficiently heavy to descend, especially as, by the inflation of the internal bag, the inflammable air in the external one would be condensed into a smaller space, and thus become specifically heavier. The voyage, however, was attended with such circumstances as rendered it impossible to know what would have been the event of the scheme. The power of ascent with which they set out, seems to have been very great; as, in three minutes after parting with the ground, they were lost in the clouds, and involved in such a dense vapour that they could see neither the sky nor the earth. In this situation they seemed to be dark clouds, attacked by a whirlwind, which, besides turning the balloon three times round from right to left, shocked the whirl and beat it about, that they were rendered incapable wind of using any of the means proposed for directing their course, and the silk stuff of which the helm had been composed was even torn away. No scene can be conceived more terrible than that in which they were now involved. An immense ocean of shapeless clouds rolled one upon another below them, and seemed to prevent any return to the earth, which still continued invisible, while the agitation of the balloon became greater every moment. In this extremity they cut the cords which held the interior balloon, and of consequence it fell down upon the aperture of the tube that came from the large balloon into the boat, and stopped it up. They were then driven upwards by a gust of wind from below, which carried them to the top of that stormy vapour in which they had been involved. They now saw the sun without a cloud; but the heat of his rays, with the diminished density of the atmosphere had such an effect on the inflammable air, that the balloon seemed every every moment ready to burst. To prevent this they introduced a stick through the tube, in order to push away the inner balloon from its aperture; but the expansion of the inflammable air pushed it to close, that all attempts of this kind proved ineffectual. It was now, however, become absolutely necessary to give vent to a very considerable quantity of the inflammable air; for which purpose the duke de Chartres himself bored two holes in the balloon, which tore open for the length of seven or eight feet. On this they descended with great rapidity; and would have fallen into a lake, had they not hastily thrown out 60 pounds of ballast, which enabled them just to reach the water's edge.

The success of the scheme for raising or lowering aerostatic machines by means of bags filled with common air being thus rendered dubious, another method was thought of. This was to put a small aerostatic machine with rarefied air under an inflammable air balloon, but at such a distance that the inflammable air of the latter might be perfectly out of the reach of the fire used for inflating the former; and thus, by increasing or diminishing the fire in the small machine, the absolute weight of the whole would be considerably diminished or augmented. This scheme was unhappily put into execution by the celebrated M. Pitratte de Rozier, and another gentleman named Mr Romaine. Their inflammable air balloon was about 37 feet in diameter, and the power of the rarefied air one was equivalent to about 60 pounds. They descended without any appearance of danger or sinister accident: but had not been long in the atmosphere when the inflammable air balloon was seen to swell very considerably, at the same time that the aeronauts were observed, by means of telescopes, very anxious to get down, and bustled in pulling the valve and opening the appendages to the balloon, in order to facilitate the escape of as much inflammable air as possible. A short time after this the whole machine was on fire, when they had then attained the height of about three quarters of a mile from the ground. No explosion was heard; and the silk which composed the air balloon continued expanded, and seemed to resist the atmosphere for about a minute; after which it collapsed, and the remains of the apparatus descended along with the two unfortunate travellers so rapidly, that both of them were killed. Mr Pitratte seemed to have been dead before he came to the ground; but Mr Romaine was alive when some persons came up to the place where he lay, though he expired immediately after.

These are the most remarkable attempts that have been made to improve the science of aerostation; though a great number of other expeditions through the atmosphere have taken place. But of all the voyages which had been hitherto projected or put in execution, the most daring was that of Mr Blanchard and Dr Jeffries across the straits of Dover, which separate Britain from France. This took place on the 7th of January 1785, being a clear frosty morning, with a wind, barely perceptible, at N. N. W. The operation of filling the balloon began at 10 o'clock, and at three quarters after 12, everything was ready for their departure. At one o'clock Mr Blanchard desired the boat to be pushed off, which now stood only two feet distant from that precipice so finely described by Shakespeare in his tragedy of King Lear. As the balloon was scarcely sufficient to carry two, they were obliged to throw out all their ballast except three bags of 10 pounds each; when they at last rode gently; though making very little way on account of there being no little wind. At a quarter after one o'clock, the barometer, which on the cliff stood at 29.7 inches, was now fallen to 27.3; and the weather proved fine and warm. They had now a most beautiful prospect of the south coast of England, and were able to count 37 villages upon it. After passing over several vessels, they found that the balloon, at 50 minutes after one, was descending, on which they threw out a sack and a half of ballast; but as they saw that it still descended, and with much greater velocity than before, they now threw out all the ballast. This still proving ineffectual, they next threw out a parcel of books they carried along with them, which made the balloon ascend, when they were about midway between France and England. At a quarter past two, finding themselves again descending, they threw away the remainder of their books, and, ten minutes after, they had a most enchanting prospect of the French coast. Still, however, the machine descended; and as they had now no more ballast, they were obliged to throw away their provisions, the wings of their boat, and every thing they could possibly spare. "We threw away (says Dr Jeffries) our only bottle, which, in its descent cut out a flame like smoke, with a rushing noise; and when it struck the water, we heard and felt the shock very perceptibly on our car and balloon."

All this proving insufficient to stop the descent of the balloon, they next threw out their anchors and cords, and at last stripped off their clothes, fastening themselves to certain flings, and intending to cut away the boat as their last resource. They had now the satisfaction, however, to find that they were rising; and as they sailed over the high lands between Cape Blanc and Calais the machine rose very fast, and carried them to a greater height than they had been at any former part of their voyage. They descended safely among some trees in the forest of Guineens, where there was just opening enough to admit them.

It would be tedious as well as unnecessary to recount all the other aerial voyages that have been performed in our own or other countries: it appeared sufficient for the purpose of this article to notice those which were most remarkable and interesting; and therefore an account of the ingenious Mr Baldwin's excursion from Chester, alluded to above, must not be omitted in our enumeration.

On the 8th of September 1785, at forty minutes past Baldwin's one P. M. Mr Baldwin ascended from Chester in Mr Lomardi's balloon. After traversing in a variety of different directions, he first alighted, at 28 minutes after three, about twelve miles from Chester, in the neighbourhood of Frodsham; then ascending and pursuing his excursion, he finally landed at Rixton moors, five miles N. N. E. of Wavington, and 25 miles from Chester. Mr Baldwin has published his Observations and Remarks made during his voyage, and taken from minutes. Our limits will not admit of relating many of his observations; but the few following are some of the most important and curious. "The sensation of ascending is compared to that of a strong pressure from the bottom of the car upwards against..." the foles of his feet. At the distance of what appeared to him seven miles from the earth, though by the barometer scarcely a mile and a half, he had a grand and most enchanting view of the city of Chester and its adjacent places below. The river Dee appeared of a red colour; the city very diminutive; and the town entirely blue. The whole appeared a perfect plain, the highest building having no apparent height, but reduced all to the same level; and the whole terrestrial prospect appeared like a coloured map. Just after his first ascent, being in a well watered and maritime part of the country, he observed a remarkable and regular tendency of the balloon towards the sea; but shortly after rising into another current of air, he escaped the danger: this upper current he says, was visible to him at the time of his ascent, by a lofty found stratum of clouds flying in a safe direction. The perspective appearance of things to him was very remarkable. The lowest bed of vapour that first appeared as cloud was pure white, in detached fleeces, increasing as they rose: they presently coalesced, and formed, as he expresses it, a sea of cotton, tufting here and there by the action of the air in the undisturbed part of the clouds. The whole became an extended white floor of cloud, the upper surface being smooth and even. Above this white floor he observed, at great and unequal distances, a vast assemblage of thunder clouds, each parcel consisting of whole acres in the densest form: he compares their form and appearance to the smoke of pieces of ordnance, which had consolidated as it were into masses of snow, and penetrated through the upper surface or white floor of common clouds, there remaining visible and at rest. Some clouds had motions in flow and various directions, forming an appearance truly stupendous and majestic." He endeavours to convey some idea of the scene by a figure; (and from this fig. 1. Plate II. is copied). A represents a circular view he had from the car of the balloon, himself being over the centre of the view, looking down on the white floor of clouds and seeing the city of Chester through an opening, which discovered the landscape below, limited by surrounding vapour to less than two miles in diameter. The breadth of the outer margin defines his apparent height in the balloon (viz. 4 miles) above the white floor of clouds. Mr Baldwin also gives a curious description of his tracing the shadow of the balloon over tops of volumes of clouds. At first it was small, in size and shape like an egg; but soon increased to the magnitude of the sun's disc, still growing larger, and attended with a most captivating appearance of an iris encircling the whole shadow at some distance round it, the colours of which were remarkably brilliant. The regions did not feel colder, but rather warmer than below. The sun was hottest to him when the balloon was stationary. The discharge of a cannon when the balloon was at a considerable height, was distinctly heard by the aeronaut; and a discharge from the same piece, when at the height of 30 yards, so disturbed him as to oblige him for safety to lay hold firmly of the cords of the balloon. At a considerable height he poured down a pint bottle full of water; and as the air did not oppose a resistance sufficient to break the stream into small particles, it mostly fell down in large drops. In the course of the balloon's track it was found much affected by the water (a circumstance observed in former aerial voyages). At one time the direction of the balloon kept continually over the water, going directly towards the sea, to much as to endanger the aeronaut; the mouth of the balloon was opened, and in two minutes he descended into an under current blowing from the sea: he kept descending, and landed at Bellair farm in Ringley, 12 miles from Chester. Here he lightened his car by 31 pounds, and instantly ascending, was carried into the interior part of the country, performing a number of different manoeuvres. At his greatest altitude he found his respiration free and easy. Several bladders which he had along with him crackled and expanded very considerably. Clouds and land, as before, appeared on the same level. By way of experiment, he tried the upper valve two or three times, the neck of the balloon being close; and remarked, that the escape of the gas was attended with a growling noise like millstones, but not near so loud. Again, round the shadow of the balloon, on the clouds he observed the iris. A variety of other circumstances and appearances he met with, is fancifully described; and at 53 minutes past three he finally landed.

The following is an account of an establishment formed in France during the late war for the improvement of aerial navigation:

"The aerostatic institute, founded by the committee of public safety, and enveloped in the most profound secrecy at Meudon, to which also was added a camp for the exercise of the artillery, is even yet looked upon as a secret arrangement of the republic, reflecting which the greatest precautions are taken; the doors being shut against the public and all foreigners.

It was impossible to have selected a more convenient spot for the establishment of the aeronautic institute than the royal lodge of Meudon. From its elevated site on a mountain, it commands a beautiful and extensive prospect over a plain covered with villages and cultivated fields, intersected by the Seine, and terminated by the city of Paris.

The perfection and the rational application of aeronautics are the objects of the labours of this establishment, to which the celebrated natural philosopher Guyton Morveau has in particular rendered the most important services. But the institution stood in need of such a director as Comte, for whom Guyton Morveau has procured the appointment. With a love of the science Comte unites a penetrating genius for research and invention, accompanied by indefatigable affability.

The corps of aeronauts, intended to serve in the armories of the republic, and consisting of fifty courageous youths, is trained at the school of Meudon: it is there pupils, the balloons are prepared which are sent off to the armies; and every day in summer the pupils are employed, at one time in performing their exercises, at another in making researches, in natural philosophy, with a balloon which is kept constantly filled for the purpose.

The improvement in the preparation of the balloon, the discovery of a new mode of filling it with inflammable air from the substance of water (hydrogen gas), discovered by Lavoisier, the invention of a new telegraph, connected with the balloon, are the principal advances which have been made in aeronautics at Meudon under the direction of Comte. The old lodge of Meudon serves as a manufactory for the preparation of the balloons, and of all the apparatus necessary to accompany them to the armies. The new lodge is appropriated to the institute, and to the accommodation of the pupils, and of the director and his family. There were prepared the Entrepreneurs for the army of the north, by means of which the hostile army was reconnoitred at the battle of Fleurus; the Celeste for the army of the Sambre and Meuse; the Hercule and the Intrepid for the army of the Rhine and Moselle.

The silk for the balloons is manufactured at Lyons, and is very thick and strong: and Conté has rendered them much more durable by the precaution of only varnishing the outer surface. The varnish is of an excellent quality; it sufficiently hardens the outside, and does not make the silk stick together when the balloon is folded. Moreover experience has proved that the inner coat of varnish cannot resist the operation of filling the balloon, that it is corroded by the gas, and that this friction renders the silk flabby.

The filling of the balloon with hydrogen gas is the result of the discoveries made by the great Lavoisier, and has for its basis his important experiment of the decomposition of water. The gas is prepared by the following simple and inexpensive process.

Six or more hollow iron cylinders are set in brick work, beside and over each other, in a furnace which may be constructed in twelve hours; and both ends of each cylinder are made to project from the furnace. The openings of these cylinders are stopped with strong iron covers, through which metal tubes are let in. The tube at one end serves for pouring water, previously heated, into the cylinders when red hot; that on the opposite side is destined to conduct the air which first penetrates itself, through a reservoir filled with a caustic lixivium, and to convey it into the balloon. The cylinders are partly filled with coarse iron filings, which the excessive heat of the furnace, kept up with pit coal during the whole time of the operation, reduces to a state of exudation. At this stage of the process, the valve of one of the tubes of each cylinder is opened, and a small quantity of boiling water is gently poured into the heated cylinder. As soon as the vapour of the water touches the heated iron, the two substances which compose the water are separated; the one (the oxygen) attaches itself to the iron, which it calcines, and which, after the operation, is found partly crystallized, after the manner of volcanic productions; the other of the component substances of the water (the hydrogen) combines with a quantity of the igneous substance termed calorifique, and becomes inflammable air (hydrogen gas), which continues in a permanent state of elastic fluidity, and weighs seven or eight times less than the atmospheric air.

As the water contains a small portion of the substance of carbure (carbonique) which would render the air in the balloon heavy, the air, as it first rushes out of the cylinders is made to pass through a reservoir of water impregnated with a caustic alkali. This fluid attracts to itself all the carbonique, and nothing rises into the balloon but very pure and inflammable air.

During the operation, it has sometimes happened that the cylinders, heated to exudation, melted. To guard against this accident, the projecting end of the cylinder is furnished with a pyrometer, and a scale, which, by means of an iron rod, indicates the degrees of rarefaction of the air. A particular point on the scale announces the moment when the cylinders are heated in the degree nearest to fusion: when such is the case, the fire is immediately diminished. The operation of filling a balloon of thirty feet diameter employs one third of a day.

The exercising balloon at Meudon is of a spherical form, and thirty-two feet in diameter. Its upper half is covered with a linen cage to keep off the rain from the balloon and its netting. This netting, woven with strong cords, embraces the upper part of the balloon, and is destined to support the car for the reception of the aeronauts. The balloon, kept constantly full and ready for ascent, and exposed in the open air in all weathers, preserves its buoyant station in the atmosphere, being fastened on the great terrace of the lodge. When the weather is favourable, the aeronautic exercises are begun. The balloon is let free from its fastenings, and elevated to a certain height; when the car is made fast to the cords which hang down from the net; the whole of this is done in five minutes. A colonel then mounts the car with one of the pupils, and the balloon rises to the height, generally, of from a hundred and sixty to two hundred and forty yards. The pupils separate into divisions, for the purpose of holding the balloon in the air, fulfilling it to mount, and drawing it down, by means of three principal ropes fastened to the net, and ramified with several others: in these manoeuvres they employ the aid of a capstern. When the balloon has been newly filled, has yet suffered no evaporation, and still retains all its force, it requires the strength of twenty persons to hold it; and in that state it will bear eight hundred weight. After a space of two months, though much evaporated, it is still capable of bearing two persons with their instruments, and even a considerable ballast, at the same height in the air: but then ten persons are sufficient to hold it.

The car is constructed of a light lattice work of wood, lined with prepared leather, and hangs about the car fifteen feet beneath the balloon: it affords convenient room for two persons seated opposite each other, with the necessary instruments for making observations.

The balloon ascends as often in the day as is requisite for the succession of observations which are to be made; but these ascents take place only in calm and serene weather. Whenever any unforeseen accident occurs, the aerial machine is hauled down in five minutes. In strong gusts of wind which suddenly arise, the aeronauts are always exposed to some danger: the balloon, held by the ropes, cannot rise freely; and its vibrations and fluctuation resemble those of a paper kite which has not yet reached a certain degree of altitude. This spectacle, nevertheless, is more terrific to the spectator than to the aeronaut, who, seated in his car which its own weight preserves in a perpendicular position under the balloon, is but slightly affected by its oscillatory motion. No instance of any unfortunate accident has yet occurred at Meudon.

All fear, all idea of danger, vanishes on examining the solidity of the whole apparatus, the precautionary measures adopted with the most prudent foresight; and the utmost security, and especially when we are more particularly... particularly acquainted with the cool unassuming flen- dines of Conté, the director of the whole.

When the return of peace shall allow more leisure, and shall favour the employment of this apparatus in other experiments than those immediately connected with the military service, we may expect to derive from it the most important and diversified advantages to natural science. The experiments will then be con- ducted under the direction of a committee of natu- ralists from the national institute, with a view of making discoveries in natural philosophy, meteorology, and other branches. When the labours of the aerostatic institute shall have accomplished ends so important to the arts, and of so great general utility, there will be printed a particular account of the establishment, and of the course of experiments pursued: at present, these matters are kept from the knowledge of the public.

The most recent invention of Conté, admirable for its simplicity and precision, is the aerostatic telegraph. It consists of eight cylinders of varnished black silk, stretched on hoops, and resembling those little pocket lanterns of crimped paper, which draw out and fold down again on themselves. These eight moveable cy- linders, each three feet in diameter, and of a propor- tionate length, are suspended from the bottom of the car, connected together with cords, and hanging one above another, at the distance of four feet. By means of cords passing through the bottom of the car, the aeronautic observers direct those cylinders, give them dif- ferent positions at will, and thus carry on their telegra- phic correspondence from the regions of the air.

Conté has further applied his thoughts to the inven- tion of a similar aerostatic telegraph, which, without the alliance of a great balloon, or an aerial corre- spondent, should be managed by a person standing on the ground, by means of cords; the apparatus being suspended to a small balloon, of only twelve feet di- ameter.

Coutet, captain of the aeronautic corps, was the man who ascended with the Entrepreneant balloon on the 26th of June, 1794, and who conducted the wonder- ful and important service of reconnoitring the hostile armies at the battle of Fleurus, accompanied by an ad- jutant and a general. He ascended twice on that day, to observe, from an elevation of four hundred and forty yards, the position and manoeuvres of the enemy. On each occasion he remained four hours in the air, and, by means of preconcerted signals with flags, carried on a correspondence with General Jourdan, the com- mander of the French army.

His intended ascent had been made known to the enemy, who, at the moment when the balloon began to take its flight, opened the fire of a battery against the aeronauts. The first volley was directed too low: one ball, nevertheless, passed between the balloon and the car, and so near to the former, that Coutet ima- gined it had struck it. When the subsequent discharges were made, the balloon had already reached such a de- gree of altitude, as to be beyond the reach of cannon shot, and the aeronauts saw the balls flying beneath the car. Arrived at their intended height, the ob- servers, remote from danger, and undisturbed, viewed all the evolutions of the enemies, and, from the peace- ful regions of the air, commanded a distinct and com-

prehensive prospect of two formidable armies engaged in the work of death." (Month Mag. vol. vi. p. 337.)

On the 28th of June, 1802, M. Garnerin's aeronaut, in company with an English gentleman, af- voyage in cended in a balloon of 20 feet diameter from Ranelagh remarkable gardens. They passed over London, rose to the height for its rapid- ity of 10,000 feet, and landed in three quarters of an hour, from the time of their ascent on a common near Col- chester, a distance of near 60 miles from London. The temperature of the air when they ascended to the clouds was 15 degrees lower than on the surface of the earth; but when they rose above the clouds, it became sensi- bly milder. The rapidity of M. Garnerin's voyage is unparalleled in the history of aerostation.

The frequency of aerial voyages, accompanied with Utes of ac- particular details of trifling and uninteresting circum- stances, and apparently made with a view to promote the interest of particular persons, regardless of any ad- vancement in knowledge, had sunk the science of aero- station so low in the opinion of most people, that before we give an account of the most proper methods of con- structing these machines, it is necessary to premise something concerning the uses to which they may pos- sibly be applied. These, according to Mr Cavallo, are the following:

"The small balloons, especially those made of paper, and raised by means of spirit of wine, may serve to ex- plore the direction of the winds in the upper regions of the atmosphere, particularly when there is a calm below; they may serve for signals in various circum- stances, in which no other means can be used; and letters or other small things may be easily sent by them, as for instance from ships that cannot safely land on account of storms, from besieged places, islands, or the like. The larger aerostatic machines may answer all the above mentioned purposes in a better manner; and they may, besides, be used as a help to a person who wants to ascend a mountain, a precipice, or to cross a river; and perhaps one of these machines tied to a boat by a long rope, may be, in some cases, a better sort of boat than any that is used at present. The largest sort of machines, which can take up one or more men, may evidently be subservient to various economical and phi- losophical purposes. Their conveying people from place to place with great swiftness, and without trouble, may be of essential use, even if the art of guiding them in a direction different from that of the wind should never be discovered. By means of these machines the shape of certain seas and lands may be better ascertain- ed; men may ascend to the tops of mountains they never visited before; they may be carried over marshy and dangerous grounds; they may by that means come out of a besieged place, or an island; and they may, in hot climates, ascend to a cold region of the atmosphere, either to refresh themselves, or to observe the ice, which is never seen below; and, in short, they may be thus taken to several places, to which human art hitherto knew of no conveyance.

"The philosophical uses, to which these machines may be subservient, are numerous indeed: and it may be sufficient to say, that hardly anything which passes in the atmosphere is known with precision, and that principally for want of a method of ascending into it. The formation of rain, of thunder storms, of vapours, hail, Principles of aerostation.

The general principles of aerostation are so little different from those of hydrostatics, that it may seem superfluous to insist much upon them. It is a fact universally known, that when a body is immersed in any fluid, if its weight be less than an equal bulk of that fluid, it will rise to the surface; but if heavier, it will sink; and if equal, it will remain in the place where it is left. For this reason smoke ascends into the atmosphere, and heated air in that which is colder. The ascent of the latter is shown in a very easy and satisfactory manner by bringing a red hot iron under one of the scales of a balance, by which the latter is instantly made to ascend; for as soon as the red hot iron is brought under the scale, the hot air being lighter than that which is colder, ascends, and strikes the bottom, which is thus impelled upwards, and the opposite scale descends, as if a weight had been put into it.

Upon this simple principle depends the whole theory of aerostation; for it is the same thing whether we render the air lighter by introducing a quantity of heat into it, or enclosing a quantity of gas specifically lighter than the common atmosphere in a certain space; both will ascend, and for the same reason. A cubic foot of air, by the most accurate experiments, has been found to weigh about 554 grains, and to be expanded by every degree of heat, marked on Fahrenheit's thermometer, about $\frac{1}{23}$th part of the whole. By heating a quantity of air, therefore, to 500 degrees of Fahrenheit, we shall just double its bulk when the thermometer stands at 54 in the open air, and in the same proportion we shall diminish its weight; and if such a quantity of this hot air be enclosed in a bag, that the excess of the weight of an equal bulk of common air weighs more than the bag with the air contained in it, both the bag and air will rise into the atmosphere, and continue to do so until they arrive at a place where the external air is naturally so much rarefied that the weight becomes equal; and here the whole will float.

The power of hot air in raising weights, or rather that by which it is itself impelled upwards, may be shown in the following manner: Roll up a sheet of paper into a conical form, and, by thrusting a pin into it near the apex, prevent it from unrolling. Fasten it then, by its apex, under one of the scales of a balance by means of a thread, and, having properly counterpoised it by weights, put it into the opposite scale; apply the flame of a candle underneath, you will instantly perceive the cone to arise, and it will not be brought into equilibrium with the other but by a much greater weight than those who have never seen the experiment would believe. If we try this experiment with more accuracy, by getting proper receptacles made which contain determinate quantities of air, we shall find that the power of the heat depends much more on the capacity of the bag which contains it than could well be supposed. Thus, let a cubical receptacle be made of a small wooden frame covered with paper capable of containing one foot of air, and let the power of a candle be tried with this as above directed for the paper cone. It will then be found that a certain weight may be raised; but a much greater one will be raised by having a receptacle of the same kind which contains two cubic feet; a still greater by one of three feet; a yet greater by one of four feet, &c., and this even though the very same candle be made use of; nor is it known to what extent even the power of this small flame might be carried.

From these experiments it appears, that in the aerostatic machines constructed on Montgolfier's plan, it air balloons must be an advantage to have them as large as possible, ought to be because a smaller quantity of fire will then have a greater effect in raising them, and the danger from that deleterious effect, which in this kind of machines is chiefly to be dreaded, will be in a great measure avoided. On this How balloon subject it may be remarked, that as the cubical contents of a globe, or any other figure of which balloons are made, increase much more rapidly than their surfaces, there must ultimately be a degree of magnitude at which the smallest imaginable heat would raise any weight whatever. Thus, supposing any aerostatic machine capable of containing 500 cubic feet, and the air within it to be only one degree hotter than the external atmosphere; the tendency of this machine to rise, even without the application of artificial heat, would be near an ounce. Let its capacity be increased 16 times; and the tendency to arise will be equivalent to a pound, though this may be done without making the machine 16 times heavier than before. It is certain, however, that all aerostatic machines have a tendency to produce or preserve heat within them, which would by no means be imagined by those who have not made the experiment. When Messrs Charles and Roberts made their longest aerial voyage of 150 miles, they had the curiosity to try the temperature of the air within their balloon, in comparison with that of the external atmosphere; and at this time they found, that, when the external atmosphere was 63°, the thermometer within the balloon stood at 104°. Such a difference of temperature must have given a machine of the magnitude which carried them a considerable ascending power independent of any other cause, as it amounted to 41 grains on every cubic foot; and therefore in a machine containing 50,000 such feet would have been almost 200 pounds. Hence we may easily account for what happened at Dijon, and is recorded by Mr Morveau. "A balloon, intended to be filled with inflammable air, being completed, was, by way of trial, filled with common air, and in that state exposed to the atmosphere. Now it was observed, and indeed a similar observation had been made before, that the air within the balloon was much hotter than the circumambient air: the thermometer in the former stood at 120°; whereas in the latter, even when the sun shone upon it, the thermometer stood at 84°. This showed a considerable degree of rarefaction within the balloon; and consequently it was suspected, that, by means of this rarefaction alone, especially if it were to increase a little, the balloon might ascend. On the 30th of May, about noon, the wind being rather strong, agitated the balloon so that two men were employed to take care of it; but, notwithstanding all their endeavours, it escaped from its confinement; and, lifting up about 65 pounds weight of cords, equatorial circle, &c., rose many feet high, and, passing over some houses, went to the distance of 250 yards, where at length it was properly secured."

This difference between the external and internal heat being so very considerable, must have a great influence upon aerostatic machines, and will undoubtedly influence those filled with inflammable air as well as the other kind. Nor is it unlikely, that the short time which many aerial voyagers have been able to continue in the atmosphere may have been owing to the want of a method of preserving this internal heat. It may naturally be supposed, and indeed it has always been found, that balloons, in passing through the higher regions of the atmosphere, acquire a very considerable quantity of moisture, not only from the rain or snow they sometimes meet with, but even from the dew and vapour which condense upon them. On this an evaporation will instantly take place; and, as it is the property of this operation to produce a very violent cold, the internal heat of the balloon must be soon exhausted in such a manner as to make it become specifically heavier than the common atmosphere, and consequently descend in a much shorter time than it would have done by the mere loss of air. To this, in all probability, we are to ascribe the descent of the balloon which carried Messrs Blanchard and Jeffries; and which seemed so extraordinary to many people, that Great they were obliged to have recourse to an imaginary agency of attraction in the waters of the ocean, in order to solve Blanchard's balloon phenomenon. This supposition is rejected by Mrjard de Cavallo; who explains the matter, by remarking, that, descending in two former voyages made with the same machine, counted it could not long support two men in the atmosphere; for so that we had no occasion to wonder at its weakness on this occasion. "As for its rising higher (says he), just when it got over the land, that may be easily accounted for. In the first place, the two travellers threw out their clothes just about that time; secondly, in consequence of the wind's then increasing, the balloon travelled at a much greater rate than it had done whilst over the sea; which increase of velocity lessened its tendency to descend: besides which, the vicissitudes of heat and cold may produce a very considerable effect; for if we suppose, that the air over the land was colder than that over the sea, the balloon coming into the latter from the former, continued to be hotter than the circumambient air for some time after; and consequently, it was comparatively much lighter when in the cold air over the land, than when in the hotter air over the sea; hence it floated easier in the former than in the latter case."

It seems indeed very probable, that there was something uncommon in the case of Mr Blanchard's balloon while passing over the sea; for, as it rose higher after reaching the land than in any former period of the voyage, and likewise carried them to a distance over land more than half of that which they had passed over water, we can scarce avoid supposing, that it had a tendency to descend when over the water more than when over land, independent of any loss of air. Now, it does not appear that the air over the sea is at all warmer than that above land; on the contrary, there is every reason to believe, that the superior reflective power of the land renders the atmosphere above it warmer than the sea can do: but it is very natural to suppose, that the air above the sea is more moist than that above land; and consequently, by letting fall its moisture upon the balloon, must have occasioned an evaporation that would deprive the machine of its internal heat, which it would partly recover after it entered the warmer and drier atmosphere over land.

We shall now proceed to the construction of aerostatic machines; of which the smaller are only for portion of amusement, or some flight experiments, and are very easily made. As in all of them, however, it is of the utmost consequence to have the weight as little as possible, the shape becomes an object of great consideration. For this purpose a spherical figure has been mathematically demonstrated to be the best; as capable of containing a greater quantity under a smaller surface than any other. Thus a perfect sphere contains less surface in proportion to its solidity than a spheroid; a spheroid less than a cylinder; the latter less than a cube; and a cube still less than a parallelepiped. In all cases, therefore, where we can fill the whole capacity of the balloon with air equally light, the spherical figure is undoubtedly to be preferred; and this holds good with regard to all inflammable air balloons, whether their size be great or small; but in the rarefied air ones, where the under part must necessarily be much colder than the upper, the globular shape seems not to be proper. proper. An inverted cone, or truncated pyramid, with the smaller part undermost, seems then to be most proper, as it allows the heated air (which has a great tendency to expand as well as to ascend) to collect in the wide part at the top, while the useless surface, in the lower part, and which, in any other figure, would contain only the colder and heavier air, is thus thrown aside. In fact it has been found, that aerostatic machines, raised by means of rarefied air, when made of the shape of a parallelopiped, or even one deviating still more from the shape of a globe, have answered the purpose as well as they could have been supposed to do, had ever so much care been taken in forming them exactly to that shape. The very first machine made by Mr Montgolfier was in form of a parallelopiped; and though it contained only 40 cubic feet, showed a very considerable power of ascent. A very large one, 74 feet high, which Mr Montgolfier had designed to exhibit before the royal family, had the middle part of it prismatic for about the height of 25 feet; its top was a pyramid of 29 feet; and its lower part was a truncated cone of near 20 feet. It weighed 1000 pounds; and, notwithstanding its shape, in a very short time manifested a power of ascent equal to 500 pounds.

Another aerostatic machine of a small size, but of the figure of a parallelopiped, being suffered to ascend with 36 sheets of oiled paper fixed in a wire frame, and set on fire, rose to a great height, and in 22 minutes could not be seen. It seems therefore, that, with regard to the shape of these machines, it is by no means necessary to adhere rigidly to that of a sphere; but that any oblong form answers very well.

For experimental purposes, both the inflammable and rarefied air balloons may be made of paper; the former being made of that kind called thin paff, varnished over with linseed oil; the latter either of that or any other kind, without varnish. In order to avoid the danger of burning, however, it has been proposed to impregnate the paper of which these small rarefied air balloons are made with a solution of sal ammoniac, alum, or some other salt; but this does not seem to be necessary. Those filled with inflammable air have been made of gold-beaters skin or peeled bladder; but the cheaper material of paper is undoubtedly preferable.

For aerostatic machines of a larger size; the material universally employed is varnished silk; and for those of the rarefied air kind, linen painted over with some size colour, or lined with paper. The best varnish for an inflammable air balloon is that made with birdlime, and recommended by Mr Fauché de Saint Fond, in a treatise published on the subject. The following is his method of preparing it: "Take one pound of birdlime, put it into a new proper earthen pot that can resist the fire, and let it boil gently for about one hour, viz. till it ceases to crackle; or, which is the same thing, till it is so far boiled, as that a drop of it being let fall upon the fire will burn: then pour upon it a pound of spirit of turpentine, stirring it at the same time with a wooden spatula, and keeping the pot at a good distance from the flame, lest the vapour of this essential oil should take fire. After this, let it boil for about five minutes longer; then pour upon the whole three pounds of boiling oil of nuts, linseed, or poppy, rendered drying by means of litharge; stir it well, let it boil for a quarter of an hour longer, and the varnish is made. After it has rested for 24 hours, and the sediment has gone to the bottom, decant it into another pot; and when you want to use it, warm, and apply it with a flat brush upon the silk stuff, whilst that is kept well stretched. One coat of it may be sufficient; but if two are necessary, it will be proper to give one on each side of the silk, and to let them dry in the open air while the silk remains extended."

Mr Cavallo gives the following method of preparing this varnish, which he prefers to that of M. de Stol's method: "In order to render linseed oil drying, boil it with two ounces of saccharum ferrum and three ounces of litharge, for every pint of oil, till the oil has dissolved them, which will be accomplished in half an hour; then put a pound of birdlime and half a pint of the drying oil into a pot (iron or copper pots are the safest for this purpose), the capacity of which may be equal to about one gallon, and let it boil very gently over a slow charcoal fire till the birdlime ceases to crackle, which will be in about half or three quarters of an hour; then pour upon it two pints and a half more of drying oil, and let it boil for one hour longer, stirring it very frequently with an iron or wooden spatula. As the varnish, whilst boiling, and especially when it is nearly done, swells very much, care should be had to remove, in those cases, the pot from the fire, and to replace it when the varnish subsides, otherwise it will boil over. Whilst the stuff is boiling, the operator should, from time to time, examine whether the varnish has boiled enough; which is thus known:—Take some of it upon the blade of a knife, and then, after rubbing the blade of another knife upon it, separate the knives; and when, on this separation, the varnish begins to form threads between the two, you may conclude that it is done; and, without losing time, it must be removed from the fire. When it is almost, though not quite, cold, add about an equal quantity of spirit of turpentine: mix it well together, and let it rest till the next day; when, having warmed it a little, strain and bottle it. If it is too thick, add some more spirit of turpentine. When this varnish is laid upon the silk, the stuff should be made perfectly dry, and stretched; so that the varnish, which ought to be used lukewarm, may fill up the pores of the stuff. The varnish should be laid once very thin upon one side of the stuff; and, about 12 hours after, two other coats of it should be laid on, one on each side; and, 24 hours after, the silk may be used, though, in cold weather, it may be left to dry some time longer."

Much has been said in France of their elastic gum varnish, and its composition kept a secret; but Mr Baldwin, after many expensive trials, declares to the world what he considers as the secret; and it is merely this: "Take any quantity of caoutchouc, as two ounces avoirdupois; cut it into small bits with a pair of scissors; put a strong iron ladle (like that used by plumbers) over a common pitcoal or other fire. The fire must be gentle, glowing, and without smoke. When the ladle is hot, much below a red heat, put a single bit into the ladle. If black smoke issues, it will presently flame and disappear, or it will evaporate without flame: the ladle is then too hot. When the ladle is left hot, put in a second bit, which will produce... duce a white smoke. This white smoke will continue during the operation, and evaporate the caoutchouc; therefore no time is to be lost; but little bits are to be put in, a few at a time, till the whole are melted. It should be continually and gently stirred with an iron or brass spoon. Two pounds or one quart of the best drying oil (or of raw linseed oil, which, together with a few drops of neat's-foot oil, has stood a month, or not so long, on a lump of quicklime, to make it more or less drying), is to be put into the melted caoutchouc, and stirred till hot, and the whole poured into a glazed vessel through a coarse gauze or fine sieve. When settled and clear, which will be in a few minutes, it will be fit for use either hot or cold."

Mr Baldwin is not at liberty, he observes, to publish the art of laying on the varnish; but says, that it consists in making no intestine motion in the varnish, which would create minute bubbles; that therefore brushes are improper. Mr Blanchard's method of making elastic gum varnish for the silk of a balloon, is the following:

"Dissolve elastic gum (caoutchouc) cut small in five times its weight of spirit of turpentine, by keeping them some days together; then boil one ounce of this solution in eight ounces of drying linseed oil for a few minutes; lastly, strain it. It must be used warm." The pieces of silk for the balloon must be cut out of a proper size, according to the dimensions, after the varnish is sufficiently dry. They may be joined by laying about half an inch of the edge of one piece over the edge of the other, and sewing them by a double stitching. Mr Blanchard uses expeditiously the following method: He lays about half an inch of the edge of one piece flat over the edge of the other, and passes a hot iron over it; in doing which a piece of paper ought to be laid both under and over the silk. The joining may be rendered more secure by running it with a silk thread, and sticking a ribbon over it. The ribbands laid over seams may be stuck with common glue, provided the varnish of the silk is properly dried. When the glue is quite dry, the ribbands should be varnished over, to prevent their being unglued by the rain.

The best method of cutting the pieces of silk that are to form a balloon, is to describe a pattern of wood or stiff card-paper, and then to cut the silk upon it. As the edges of such a pattern are not perfect circles, they cannot be described by a pair of compasses; but the best method of drawing them is as follows. First, Draw on a flat surface two right lines AE and BC, fig. 2, perpendicular to each other. Secondly, Find the circumference answering to the given diameter of the balloon in feet and decimals of a foot; and make AD and DE each equal to a quarter of the circumference, so that the whole length AE of the pattern may be equal to half the circumference. Thirdly, Divide AD into 18 equal parts; and to the points of division apply the lines f, h, k, &c., parallel to each other, and perpendicular to AD. Fourthly, Divide the whole circumference twice the given number of pieces, and make DC and BB each equal to the quotient of this division: so that the whole, BC, is equal to the greatest breadth of one of these pieces. Fifthly, Multiply the above-mentioned quotient by the decimals annexed to f, viz. 0.99619, and then the product expresses the length of f; again, multiply the same length of DE by the decimals annexed to h, and the product expresses the length of hi; and, in short, the product arising from the multiplication of the length of DC by the decimals annexed to each of the parallel lines, gives the length of that line. Lastly, Having found the lengths of all these lines, draw by hand a curve line passing through all the extremities of the said lines, and that is the edge of one quarter of the pattern. The other quarters may be easily described, by applying to them a piece of paper cut according to that already found. Suppose, for example, that the diameter of the balloon to be constructed is 20 feet, and that it is required to make it of 12 pieces: then, in order to draw the pattern for those pieces, find the circumference of the balloon, which is 62.85 feet, and dividing it by four, the quotient is 15.7 feet; make therefore AD equal to 15.7 feet, and DE likewise of the same length. Divide the circumference 62.85 by 2, which is double the number of pieces that are to form the balloon, and the quotient, 2.618 feet, is the length of DC and likewise of BD; so that BC is equal to 5.236 feet. Then, having divided the line AD into 18 equal parts, and having drawn the parallel lines from those points of division, find the length of each of those lines by multiplying 2.618 by the decimals annexed to that line. Thus, 2.618 multiplied by 0.99619, gives 2.608 feet for the length of f; and again, multiplying 2.618 by 0.98481, gives 2.578 feet for the length of hi; and so of the rest. In cutting the pieces after such a pattern, care should be taken to leave them about three quarters of an inch all round larger than the pattern, which will be taken up by the seams.

To the upper part of the balloon there should be adapted, and well fitted in, a valve, opening inwards; to which should be fastened a string passing through a hole made in a small piece of round wood fixed in the lowest part of the balloon opposite to the valve, and the end of this string fastened in the car below, so that the aeronaut may open the valve when occasion requires. The action of this valve may be understood from fig. 3. A round brass plate AB has a round hole CD, about two or three inches diameter, covered on both sides with strong smooth leather. On the inside there is a shutter E, also of brass, covered with leather, which is to close the hole CD; being about two inches larger in diameter than the hole. It is fastened to the leather of the plate AB; and by a spring, which need not be very strong, it is kept against the hole. The elasticity of the gas itself will help to keep it shut. To this shutter the string is fastened; by which it is occasionally opened for the escape of gas. A small string or other security should be fixed to the shutter and the plate, so as not to admit the shutter to be opened beyond a certain safe distance. To the lower part of the balloon two pipes should be fixed, made of the same stuff as the envelope; 6 inches diameter for a balloon of 30 feet, and proportionally larger for balloons of a greater capacity. They must be long enough for the car. For balloons of 18 feet and less diameter, one neck or pipe will be sufficient. These pipes are the apertures through which the inflammable gas is introduced into the balloon.

The car or boat is best made of wicker-work, covered with leather, and well painted or varnished over; and the proper method of suspending it, is by ropes preceding ceeding from the net which goes over the balloon. This net should be formed to the shape of the balloon, and fall down to the middle of it, with various cords proceeding from it to the circumference of a circle about two feet below the balloon; and from that circle other ropes should go to the edge of the boat. This circle may be made of wood, or of several pieces of slender cane bound together. The meshes of the net may be small at top, against which part of the balloon the inflammable air exerts the greatest force; and increase in size as they recede from the top. A hoop sometimes been applied round the middle of the balloon to fasten the net. This, though not absolutely necessary, is best made of pieces of cane bound together, and covered with leather.

With regard to the rarefied-air machines, Mr Cavalli recommends first to soak the cloth in a solution of sal ammoniac and common size, using one pound of each to every gallon of water; and when the cloth is quite dry, to paint it over in the inside with some earthy colour, and strong size or glue. When this paint has dried perfectly, it will then be proper to varnish it with oily varnish, which might dry before it could penetrate quite through the cloth. Simply drying linseed oil will answer the purpose as well as any, provided it be not very fluid.

It now only remains to give some account of the method by which aerostatic machines may be filled with their proper gas, in order to give them their power of ascending into the atmosphere; and here we are enabled to determine with much greater precision concerning the inflammable air balloons than the others. With regard to them, a primary consideration is, the most proper method of procuring the inflammable air. It may be obtained in various ways, as will be shown under the article Chemistry. But the most advantageous methods are, by applying acids to certain metals; by exposing animal, vegetable, and some mineral substances, in a close vessel to a strong fire; or by transmitting the vapour of certain fluids through red-hot tubes.

1. In the first of these methods, iron, zinc, and sulphuric acid are the materials most generally used. The sulphuric acid must be diluted with five or six parts of water. Iron may be expected to yield in the common way 1700 times its own bulk of gas; or one cubic foot of inflammable air to be produced by 4½ ounces of iron, the like weight of sulphuric acid, and 2½ ounces of water. Six ounces of zinc, an equal weight of sulphuric acid, and 30 ounces of water, are necessary for producing the same quantity of gas. It is more proper to use the turnings or chippings of great pieces of iron, as of cannon, &c., than the filings of that metal, because the heat attending the effervescence will be diminished; and the diluted acid will pass more readily through the interstices of the turnings when they are heaped together, than through the filings, which stick closer to one another. The weight of the inflammable air thus obtained by means of sulphuric acid, is, in the common way of procuring it, generally one-seventh part of the weight of common air; but with the necessary precautions for philosophical experiments, less than one-tenth of the weight of common air. Two other sorts of elastic fluids are sometimes generated with the inflammable air. These may be separated from it by passing the inflammable air through water in which quicklime has been dissolved. The water will absorb these fluids, cool the inflammable air, and prevent its over-heating the balloon when introduced into it.

Fig. 4, of Plate II. represents an apparatus described by Mr Cavalli as proper for filling balloons of the size of two or three feet in diameter with inflammable air, after passing it through water.—A is the bottle with the ingredients; BCD a tube fastened in the neck at B, and passing through C, the cork of the other bottle, in which there is another hole made to receive the tube on which the balloon is tied. Thus it is plain, that the inflammable air coming out of the tube D will pass first through the water of the bottle E and then into the balloon. Two small corks may be used instead of the bottles A and E.

2. Inflammable air may be obtained at a much cheaper rate by the action of fire on various substances; but the gas which these yield is not so light as that produced by the effervescence of acids and metals. The substances proper to be used in this way are, pitch, asphaltum, amber, rock-oil, and other minerals; wood and especially oak, camphor-oil, spirits of wine, ether, and animal substances, which yield air in different degrees, and of various specific gravities; but pitch is the preferable substance. A pound of this exposed to a red heat, yields about three cubic feet of inflammable air, which, whether it be passed through water or not, weighs about one-fourth of the weight of common air. Dr Priestley found, as we have elsewhere noticed, that animal or vegetable substances will yield five or seven times more inflammable air when the fire is suddenly increased than when it is gently raised, though it be afterwards made very strong. Mr Cavalli observes, that the various substances above enumerated generally yield all their inflammable air in about one hour's time. The general method is, to enclose the substances in iron or earthen vessels, and thus expose them to a strong fire sufficient to make the vessels red hot: the inflammable air proceeding from the aperture of the vessel is received into a tube or refrigerator, and, passing through the tube or worm, is at last collected in a balloon or other vessel. A gun-barrel has often been used for effects of this kind. The substance is put into it so as to fill six or eight inches of its lowest part, the remainder filled with dry sand: a tube, adapted to the mouth of the barrel, is brought into a basin of water under an inverted receiver; and the part of the barrel containing the substance being put into the fire and made red-hot, the inflammable air is collected in the inverted receiver. As the gun-barrel cannot serve for producing a large quantity of inflammable air, Mr Cavalli recommends, as the most advantageous shape, the following contrivance: Let the vessel be made of clay, or rather of iron, in the shape of a Florence flask, somewhat larger, and whose neck is longer and larger (See A.B.C., fig. 5.) Put the substance to be used into this vessel, so as to fill about four-fifths or less of its cavity A.B. If the substance is of such a nature as to swell much by the action of the fire, put a tube of brass, or first a brass and then a leaden tube, to the neck C of the vessel; and let the end D of the tube be shaped as in the figure, so that going into the water of a tube H, it may terminate under a sort of inverted vel- fel EF, to the upper aperture of which the balloon G is adapted. Things thus prepared, if the part A.B of the vessel is put into the fire, and made red hot, the inflammable air produced will come out of the tube CD, and palling through the water will at last enter into the balloon G. Previous to the operation, as a considerable quantity of common air remains in the inverted vessel EF, which it is more proper to expel, the vessel EF should have a stop-cock K, through which the common air may be sucked out, and the water ascend as high as the stop-cock. The dimensions of such an apparatus Mr Cavallo gives thus: Diameter of largest part of the vessel ABC seven inches, length of whole vessel 16 inches; diameter of its aperture one inch, diameter of the cavity of the tube CD three-fourths of an inch; lower aperture of the vessel EF six inches, least height of the vessel EF 24 inches; its aperture F about two inches. The aperture of the vessel EF should be at least one foot below the surface of the water in HI. Care must be taken that the fire used in this process be at a sufficient distance, otherwise it may happen to fire the inflammable air which may escape out of the vessel EF.

3. The last method of obtaining inflammable air was discovered by Mr Lavoisier, and also by Dr Priestley. Mr Lavoisier made the steam of boiling water pass through the barrel of a gun, kept red hot by burning coals. Dr Priestley uses, instead of the gun-barrel, a tube of red hot brass, upon which the steam of water has no effect, and which he fills with the pieces of iron which are separated in the boring of cannon. By this method he obtains an inflammable air, the specific gravity of which is to that of common air as 1 to 1.3. In this method, not yet indeed reduced to general practice, a tube about three quarters of an inch in diameter, and about three feet long, is filled with iron turnings; then the neck of a retort, or clofe boiler, is fitted to one of its ends, and the worm of a refrigeratory is adapted to its other extremity. The middle part of the tube is then surrounded with burning coals, so as to keep about one foot in length of it red hot, and a fire is always made under the retort or boiler sufficient to make the water boil with vehemence. In this process a considerable quantity of inflammable air comes out of the worm of the refrigeratory. It is said that iron yields one-half more air by this means than by the action of sulphuric acid.

For filling large balloons, a greater apparatus is necessary; and the only materials that can, with any certainty of success, be employed for producing the proper gas, are, sulphuric acid, and iron filings or turnings. It has indeed been recommended to use zinc instead of iron filings, because white vitriol, the salt produced by the union of the sulphuric acid and zinc, is much more valuable than the green salt produced by the union of the same acid with iron. But though this is undoubtedly the case, it will as certainly be found, upon trial, that the superior price of the zinc will be more than an equivalent for all the advantage that can be derived from the additional price of the white vitriol.

Mr Cavallo's receipt.

For a balloon of 30 feet diameter, Mr Cavallo recommends 3900 pounds of iron turnings, as much sulphuric acid, and 19,500 pounds of water. These proportions, however, appear too great with respect to the acid and metal, and too little with respect to the water. Sulphuric acid will not exert its power upon iron unless it be diluted with five or six times its quantity of water; in which case, a much smaller quantity of both acid and metal will serve. Mr Luwardi, who Mr Lunar from the number of his voyages had certainly much dispractical knowledge in aerostation, filled his balloon with, at Edinburgh and Glasgow with about 2000 pounds of iron (the borings of cannon procured from Carron), as much sulphuric acid, and 12,000 pounds of water. The iron was placed in his vessels in layers, with straw between them, in order to increase the surface. His apparatus was not materially different from that of Mr Cavallo, fig. 6, where AA are two tubes, about three feet in diameter and nearly two feet deep, inverted in large tubs BB filled with water. In the bottom of each of the inverted tubs a hole is made, and a tube E of tin adapted, which is about seven inches in diameter, and seven or eight long. To these tubes the filken ones of the balloon are to be tied. Round each of the tubes B, five, six, or more strong casks are placed; in the top of each two holes are made, and to one of these holes a tin tube is adapted, and so shaped, that, palling over the edge of the tub B, and through the water, it may terminate with its aperture under the inverted tube A. The other hole of these casks serves for the introduction of materials, and is stopped with a wooden plug. When the balloon is to be filled, put the net over it, and let it be suspended as shown by CDF; and having expelled all the common air from it, let the filken tube be fastened round the tin ones EE; and the materials being put into the casks, the inflammable air, palling into the balloon, will soon distend, and render it capable of supporting itself; after which the rope GH may be flipped off. As the balloon continues to be filled, the net is adjusted properly round it; the cords that surround it are fastened to the hoop MN; then the boat IK being placed between the two sets of casks, is fastened to the hoop MN, and every thing that is required to be sent up, as ballast, instruments, &c., is placed in it. At last, when the balloon is little more than three quarters full, the filken tubes are separated from the tin ones of the inverted tubs, and their extremities being tied up, are placed in the boat. Lastly, the aeronauts being seated in the boat, the lateral ropes are clipped off, and the machine is abandoned to the air. (See Blanchard's Balloon, Plate III.) This apparatus was at last reduced by Mr Luwardi to its utmost simplicity, by using only two large casks, and suffering the vapour to go into the balloon without palling through water. Thus his balloon was filled in less than half an hour, when before, it had required two hours at least. The sinking of his casks in the ground was also an additional convenience, as it created no confusion, and rendered the materials much more easily conveyed into them.

With regard to the rarefied air balloons, the method of filling of filling them is as follows. A scaffold ABCD, fig. 7, rarefied air, the breadth of which is at least two-thirds of the diameter of the machine, is elevated about five or eight feet above the ground. From the middle of it descends a well E, rising about two or three feet above it, and reaching to the ground, furnished with a door or two, through which the fire in the well is supplied with fuel. The well should be constructed of brick or of plastered wood, wood, and its diameter should be somewhat less than that of the machine. On each side of the scaffold are erected two masts HI, KL, each of which has a pulley at the top, and rendered firm by means of ropes KG, KP, HP, HG. The machine to be filled is to be placed on the scaffold, with its neck round the aperture of the well. The rope passing over the pulleys of the two masts, serves, by pulling its two ends, to lift the balloon about 15 feet or more above the scaffold; and the rest of the machine is represented by the dotted lines in the figure MNO. The machine is kept steady, and held down, whilst filling, by ropes passing through loops or holes about its equator; and these ropes may easily be disengaged from the machine, by slipping them through the loops when it is able to sustain itself. The proper combustibles to be lighted in the well, are those which burn quick and clear, rather than such as produce much smoke; because it is hot air, and not smoke, that is required to be introduced into the machine. Small wood and straw have been found to be very fit for this purpose. Mr Cavallo observes, as the result of many experiments with small machines, that spirit of wine is upon the whole the best combustible; but its price may prevent its being used for large machines. As the current of hot air ascends, the machine will soon dilate, and lift itself above the scaffold and gallery which was covered by it. The passengers, fuel, instruments, &c., are then placed in the gallery. When the machine makes efforts to ascend, its aperture must be brought, by means of the ropes annexed to it, towards the side of the well a little above the scaffold; the fire-place is then fanned up in it, the fire lighted in the grate, and the lateral ropes being slipped off, the machine is abandoned to the air. (See Montgolfier's balloon, Plate III.) It has been determined by accurate experiments, that only one-third of the common air can be expelled from these large machines; and therefore the ascending power of the rarefied air in them can be estimated as only equal to half an ounce avoirdupois for every cubic foot.

The conduct of balloons, when constructed, filled, and actually ascending in the atmosphere, is an object of great importance in the practice of aerostation. The method generally used for elevating or lowering the balloons with rarefied air, has been the increase or diminution of the fire; and this is entirely at the command of the aeronaut, as long as he has any fuel in the gallery. The inflammable air balloons have been generally raised or lowered by diminishing the weight in the boat, or by letting out some of the gas through the valve; but the alternate escape of the air in descending, and discharge of the ballast for ascending, will by degrees render the machine incapable of floating; for in the air it is impossible to supply the loss of ballast, and very difficult to supply that of inflammable air. These balloons will also rise or fall by means of the rarefaction or condensation of the enclosed air, occasioned by heat and cold. It has been proposed to aid a balloon in its alternate motion of ascent and descent, by annexing to it a vessel of common air, which might be condensed for lowering the machine, and rarified again, by expelling part of it, for raising the machine: But a vessel adapted to this purpose must be very strong; and, after all, the advantage afforded by it would not be very considerable. M. Meunier, in order to attain this end, proposes to enclose one balloon filled with common air in another filled with inflammable air: as the balloon ascends, the inflammable air is diluted, and of course compresses the internal balloon containing the common air: and by diminishing its quantity, lessens its weight. If it should be necessary to supply this loss, he says it may be easily done by a pair of bellows fixed in the gallery. Others have proposed to annex a small machine with rarefied air to an inflammable-air balloon by ropes, at such a distance that the fire of the former might not affect the inflammable air of the latter: the whole apparatus, thus combined, of balloons formed on the two principles of heated and inflammable air, might be raised or lowered by merely increasing or diminishing the fire in the lower balloon.

Wings or oars are the only means of this sort that have been used with some success; and, as Mr Cavallo observes, they seem to be capable of considerable improvement. Although great effects are not to be expected from them, when the machine goes at a great rate, the best methods of moving these wings are by the human strength applied similarly to the oars of a waterman. They may be made in general of silk stretched between wires, tubes, or sticks; and when used, must be turned edgewise when they are moved in the direction in which the machine is intended to be impelled, but flat in the opposite direction. Fig. 8. is the representation of one of Mr Blanchard's wings. Fig. 9. is one of those used by Mr Lunardi, which consists of many silk shutters or valves, ABCD, DECF, &c., every one of which opens on one side only, viz., ADBC opens upon the line AB, DECF opens upon the line DC, &c. In consequence of this construction, this sort of oars does not need being turned edgewise. Fig. 10. represents one of the wings used by the brothers Roberts in the aerial voyage of the 19th September 1784; and fig. 11. represents one of the wings constructed by Count Zambecari, which consists of a piece of silk stretched between two tin tubes let at an angle; but these wings are so contrived as to turn edgewise by themselves when they go on one direction. Other contrivances have been made to direct aerostatic machines, but they have mostly been invented to effect a power upon them as upon a ship. It appears, however, that they can have no effect when a machine is only moved by the wind alone, because the circumambient air is at rest in respect to the machine. The case is quite different with a vessel at sea, because the water on which it floats stands still whilst the vessel goes on; but it must be time and experience that can realize the expectations suggested by these contrivances. ÆRSCHOT, a town of the Austrian Netherlands, in the duchy of Brabant, and capital of the duchy of Aerichot. It is seated on the river Demur, ten miles east of Malines or Mechlin, and eight north of Louvain. E. Long. 5° 44'. N. Lat. 51.

ÆRUGINOUS, an epithet given to such things as resemble or partake of the nature of the rust of copper.

ÆRUGO, in Natural History, properly signifies the rust of copper, whether natural or artificial. The former is found about copper mines, and the latter, called verdigris, made by corroding copper plates with acids.

ÆRUSCATORES, in Antiquity, a kind of strolling beggars, not unlike gypsies, who drew money from the credulous by fortune-telling, &c. It was also a denomination given to gripping exactors, or collectors of the revenue. The Galli, or priests of Cybele, were called ærificatores magne maioris; and παραγωγεῖς, on account of their begging or collecting alms in the streets; to which end they had little bells to draw people's attention, similar to some orders of mendicants abroad.

ÆRY, or AIRY, among sportsmen. See AIRY.

ÆS UXORIUM, in Antiquity, a sum paid by bachelors, as a penalty for living single to old age. This tax for not marrying seems to have been first imposed in the year of Rome 350, under the censorship of M. Furius Camillus and M. Poilthimus. At the census, or review of the people, each person was asked, Est tu ex anima sententia uxorem habes liberum quærendorum causâ? He who had no wife was hereupon fined after a certain rate, called æs uxoriun.

Æs per et libram was a formula in the Roman law, whereby purchases and sales were ratified. Originally the phrase seems to have been only used in speaking of things sold by weight, or by the scales; but afterwards was used on other occasions. Hence even in adoptions, as there was a kind of imaginary purchase, the formula thereof expressed, that the person adopted was bought per æs et libram.

Æs Flavum, yellow copper, among the Romans, an appellation given to the coarser kind of bras.

The ancients had different kinds of bras, as æs canndium, æs Corinthium, denoting probably different metallic alloys or mixtures.

Æs Culardium, a term used by the German miners, for a substance which sometimes occurs to those who work upon cobalt, and is used for making the fine blue colour called smalt.

Æs Ufum, a chemical preparation, made of thin leaves of copper, sulphur, and nitre, placed in a crucible fire till all the sulphur is consumed; after which, the copper is taken out of the crucible, and reduced to powder. Some quench the leaves of copper in vinegar, and repeat the calcination.—Its principal use is in colouring glas, to which it gives a beautiful tincture. The surgeons use it as a detergent, and some have given it internally; but it is certainly a very dangerous medicine, and should be avoided.

ÆSCHINES, an Athenian, a Socratic philosopher, friend of Charinus a sauce-maker. He was continually with Socrates; which occasioned this philosopher to say, that the sauce-maker's son was the only person who knew how to pay a due regard to him. It is said that poverty obliged him to go to Sicily to Dionysius the Tyrant; and that he met with great contempt from Plato, but was extremely well received by Arlitippus; to whom he showed some of his dialogues, and received from him a handsome reward. He would not venture to profess philosophy at Athens, Plato and Arlitippus being in such high esteem; but he opened a school in which he taught philosophy to maintain himself. He afterwards wrote orations for the Forum. Phrynicus, in Photius, ranks him amongst the best orators, and mentions his orations as the standard of the pure Attic style. Hermogenes has also spoken very highly of him. He wrote besides several Dialogues, of which there are only three extant: 1. Concerning virtue, whether it can be taught. 2. Eryxias, or Erafithras; concerning riches, whether they are good. 3. Axiochus; concerning death, whether it is to be feared. Mr Le Clerc has given a Latin translation of them, with notes and several dissertations, entitled Sylvae Philologicae.

ÆSCHINES, a celebrated Grecian orator, was born at Athens 327 years before the Christian era. According to his own account, he was of distinguished birth; according to that of Demosthenes, he was the son of a courtezan, and a humble performer in a company of comedians. But whatever was the true history of his birth and early life, his talents, which were considerable, procured him great applause, and enabled him to be a formidable rival to Demosthenes himself. The two orators, inspired probably with mutual jealousy and animosity, became at last the strenuous leaders of opposing parties. Æschines was accused by Demosthenes of having received money as a bribe when he was employed on an embassy to Philip of Macedon. He indirectly retaliated this charge by bringing an accusation against Ctesiphon the friend of Demosthenes for having moved a decree, contrary to the laws, to confer on Demosthenes a golden crown, as a mark of public approbation. A numerous assembly of judges and citizens met to hear and decide the question: each orator employed all his powers of eloquence; but Demosthenes, with superior talents, and with justice on his side, was victorious; and Æschines was sent into exile. The resentment of Demosthenes was now softened into generous kindness; for when Æschines was going into banishment, he requested him to accept of a sum of money; which made him exclaim, "How do I regret leaving a country where I have found an enemy so generous, that I must despair of ever meeting with a friend who shall be like him!"

Æschines opened a school of eloquence at Rhodes, which was the place of his exile, and he commenced his lectures by reading to his audience the two orations which had been the cause of his banishment. His own oration received great praise; but that of Demosthenes was heard with boundless applause. In so trying a moment, when vanity must be supposed to have been deeply wounded, with a noble generosity of sentiment, he said, "What would you have thought, if you had heard him thunder out the words himself?"

Æschines afterwards removed to Samos, where he died, in the 75th year of his age. Three of his orations only are extant. His eloquence is not without energy, Æschylus, energy, but it is diffuse and ornamented, and more calculated to please than to move the passions. (Gen. Biog.)

Æschylus, the tragic poet, was born at Athens. The time of his birth is not exactly ascertained; some suppose that it was in the 65th, others in the 70th Olympiad; but according to Stanley, who follows the Arundelian marbles, he was born in the 63rd Olympiad. He was the son of Euphorian, and brother to Cynegirus and Aminias, who distinguished themselves in the battle of Marathon, and the sea-fight of Salamis, at which engagements Æschylus was likewise present. In this last action, according to Diodorus Siculus, Aminias, the younger of the three brothers, commanded a squadron of ships, and fought with so much conduct and bravery, that he sunk the admiral of the Persian fleet, and signalized himself above all the Athenians. To this brother our poet was, upon a particular occasion, obliged for saving his life: Ælian relates, that Æschylus being charged by the Athenians with certain blasphemous expressions in some of his pieces, was accused of impiety, and condemned to be stoned to death: They were just going to put the sentence in execution, when Aminias, with a happy presence of mind, throwing aside his cloak, showed his arm without a hand, which he had lost at the battle of Salamis in defence of his country. This sight made such an impression on the judges, that, touched with the remembrance of his valour, and with the friendship he showed for his brother, they pardoned Æschylus. Our poet, however, resented the indignity of this prosecution, and resolved to leave a place where his life had been in danger. He became more determined in this resolution when he found his pieces less pleasing to the Athenians than those of Sophocles, though a much younger writer. Some affirm, that Æschylus never sat down to compose but when he had drunk liberally. He wrote a great number of tragedies, of which there are but seven remaining: and notwithstanding the harsh censures of some critics, he must be allowed to have been the father of the tragic art. In the time of Thespis, there was no public theatre to act upon; the strollers driving about from place to place in a cart. Æschylus furnished his actors with masks, and dressed them suitably to their characters. He likewise introduced the buckler, to make them appear more like heroes.—The ancients gave Æschylus also the praise of having been the first who removed murders and shocking sights from the eyes of the spectators. He is said likewise to have lessened the number of the chorus. M. Le Fevre has observed, that Æschylus never represented women in love in his tragedies; which, he says, was not suited to his genius; but, in representing a woman transported with fury, he was incomparable. Longinus says, that Æschylus has a noble boldness of expression; and that his imagination is lofty and heroic. It must be owned, however, that he affected pompous words, and that his style is too often obscured by figures: this gave Salmasius occasion to say, that he was more difficult to be understood than the Scripture itself. But notwithstanding these imperfections, this poet was held in great veneration by the Athenians, who made a public decree that his tragedies should be played after his death. He was killed in the 69th year of his age, by an eagle letting fall a tortoise upon his head as he was walking in the fields. He held the honour of a pompous funeral from the Sicilians, who buried him near the river Gela; and the tragedians of the country performed plays and theatrical exercises at his tomb.—The best edition of his plays is that of London, 1663, folio, with a Latin translation and a learned commentary by Thomas Stanley.

Æschynomene, Bastard sensitive plant, in Botany. See Botany Index.

Æsculapius, in the Heathen Mythology, the god of physic, was the son of Apollo and the nymph Coronis. He was educated by the centaur Chiron, who taught him physic; by which means Æsculapius cured the most desperate diseases. But Jupiter, enraged at his restoring to life Hippolitus, who had been torn in pieces by his own horses, killed him with a thunderbolt. According to Cicero, there were three deities of this name: the first, the son of Apollo, worshipped in Arcadia, who invented the probe, and bandages for wounds; the second, the brother of Mercury, killed by lightning; and the third, the son of Antipates and Arimnoe, who first taught the art of tooth-drawing and purging. At Epidaurus, Æsculapius's statue was of gold and ivory, with a long beard, his head surrounded with rays, holding in one hand a knotty stick, and the other entwined with a serpent; he was seated on a throne of the same materials as his statue, and had a dog lying at his feet. The Romans crowned him with laurel, to represent his descent from Apollo; and the Phallans represented him as beardless. The cock, the raven, and the goat, were sacred to this deity. His chief temples were at Pergamus, Smyrna, Trica a city in Ionia, and the isle of Coos; in all which votive tablets were hung up, showing the diseases cured by his assistance. But his most famous shrine was at Epidaurus; where, every five years, games were instituted to him, nine days after the Isthmian games at Corinth.

Æsculus, the Horse-chesnut, in Botany. See Botany Index.

Æsop, the Phrygian, lived in the time of Solon, about the 50th Olympiad, under the reign of Croesus the last king of Lydia. As to genius and abilities, he was greatly indebted to nature; but in other respects not so fortunate, being born a slave and extremely deformed. St Jerome, speaking of him, says he was unfortunate in his birth, condition in life, and death; hinting thereby at his deformity, fertile state, and tragical end. His great genius, however, enabled him to support his misfortunes; and in order to alleviate the hardships of servitude, he composed those entertaining and instructive fables which have acquired him so much reputation. He is generally supposed to have been the inventor of that kind of writing; but this is contested by several, particularly Quintilian, who seems to think that Hesiod was the first author of fables. Æsop, however, certainly improved this art to a very great degree; and hence it is that he has been accounted the author of this sort of productions:

Æsopus autem quam materiam repertus, Hanc ego polivi versibus senariis. The first master whom Æsop served, was one Caranus Demarchus, an inhabitant of Athens, and there, in all probability, he acquired his purity in the Greek tongue. After him he had several masters; and at length came under a philosopher named Idmon or Iadmon, who enfranchised him. After he had recovered his liberty, he soon acquired a great reputation amongst the Greeks; so that, according to Meziriac, the report of his wisdom having reached Croesus, he sent to inquire after him, and engaged him in his service. He travelled through Greece, according to the same author; whether for his own pleasure, or upon the affairs of Croesus, is uncertain; and passing by Athens soon after Pisistratus had usurped the sovereign power, and finding that the Athenians bore the yoke very impatiently, he told them the fable of the frogs who petitioned Jupiter for a king. The images made use of by Æsop are certainly very happy inventions to instruct mankind; they poise all that is necessary to perfect a precept, having a mixture of the useful with the agreeable. "Æsop the fabulist" (says Aulus Gellius) was deservedly esteemed wise, since he did not, after the manner of the philosophers, rigidly and imperiously dictate such things as were proper to be advised and persuaded; but framing entertaining and agreeable apologies, he thereby charms and captivates the human mind."—Æsop was put to death at Delphi. Plutarch tells us, that he came there with a great quantity of gold and silver, being ordered by Croesus to offer a sacrifice to Apollo, and to give a considerable sum to each inhabitant; but a quarrel arising betwixt him and the Delphians, he lent back the money to Croesus; for he thought those for whom the prince designed it, had rendered themselves unworthy of it. The inhabitants of Delphi brought an accusation of sacrilege against him; and pretending they had convicted him, threw him headlong from a rock. For this cruelty and injustice, we are told they were visited with famine and pestilence; and consulting the oracle, they received for answer, that the god designed this as a punishment for their treatment of Æsop: they endeavoured to make an atonement, by raising a pyramid to his honour.

ÆSOP, Clodius, a celebrated actor, who flourished about the 67th year of Rome. He and Rofius were contemporaries, and the best performers who ever appeared upon the Roman stage; the former excelling in tragedy, the latter in comedy. Cicero put himself under their direction to perfect his action. Æsop lived in a most expensive manner, and at one entertainment is said to have had a dish which cost above eight hundred pounds; this dish, we are told, was filled with singing and speaking birds, some of which cost near 50l. The delight which Æsop took in this sort of birds proceeded, as Mr Bayle observes, from the expense. He did not make a dish of them because they could speak, according to the refinement of Pliny upon this circumstance, this motive being only by accident; but because of their extraordinary price. If there had been any birds that could not speak, and yet more scarce and dear than these, he would have procured such for his table. Æsop's son was no less luxurious than his father, for he dissolved pearls for his guests to swallow. Some speak of this as a common practice of his; but others mention his falling into this excess only on a particular day, when he was treating his friends. Ho-

race* speaks only of one pearl of great value, which Æsop dissolved in vinegar, and drank. Æsop, notwithstanding his expenses, is said to have died worth above 160,000l. When he was upon the stage, he entered into his part to such a degree, as sometimes to be seized with a perfect ecstasy: Plutarch mentions it as reported of him, that whilst he was representing Atreus deliberating how he should revenge himself on Thyestes, he was so transported beyond himself in the heat of action, that with his truncheon he smote one of the servants crossing the stage; and laid him dead on the spot.

ÆSTIMATIO CAPITIS, a term met with in old law books for a fine anciently ordained to be paid for offences committed against persons of quality, according to their several degrees.

ÆSTIVAL, in a general sense, denotes something connected with, or belonging to, summer. Hence, æstival sign, æstival foliage, &c.

ÆSTUARIA, in Geography, denotes an arm of the sea, which runs a good way within land. Such is the Bristol channel, and many of the friths of Scotland.

ÆSTUARIES, in ancient baths, were secret passages from the hypocaustum into the chambers.

ÆSTUARY, among Physicians, a vapour bath, or any other instrument for conveying heat to the body.

ÆSYMNNIUM, in Antiquity, a monument erected to the memory of the heroes by Æsymnus the Megarean. He consulting the oracle in what manner the Megareans might be most happily governed, was answered, "If they held consultation with the more numerous: whom he taking for the dead, built the said monument, and a senate-house that took within its compass the monument; imagining, that thus the dead would assist at their consultations. (Pausanias.)

ÆTH, or ΑΤΗ, a strong little town in the Austrian Netherlands and province of Hainault, situated on the river Dender, about twenty miles south-west of Brussel.

ÆTHALIA, or Ilva, in Ancient Geography, now Elba; an island on the coast of Etruria, in compass an hundred miles, abounding in iron. It was so called from αἴθω, smoke, which issued from the shops of Vulcan.

ÆTHELSTAN, see Athelstan.

ÆTHER, is usually understood of a thin, subtle matter, or medium, much finer and rarer than air; which commencing from the limits of our atmosphere, poises the whole heavenly space.—The word is Greek, αἰθήρ, supposed to be formed from the verb αἴθειν, "to burn, to flame;" some of the ancients, particularly Anaxagoras, supposing it to be of the nature of fire.

The philosophers cannot conceive that the largest part of the creation should be perfectly void; and therefore they fill it with a species of matter under the denomination of æther. But they vary extremely as to the nature and character of this æther. Some conceive it as a body sui generis, appointed only to fill up the vacuities between the heavenly bodies; and therefore confined to the regions above our atmosphere. Others suppose it to be subtle and penetrating a nature, as to pervade the air and other bodies, and poises the pores and intervals thereof. Others deny the existence of any such specific matter; and think the air itself, by that immense tenacity and expansion it is found capable of, of, may diffuse itself through the interstellar spaces, and be the only matter found therein.

In effect, aether, being no object of our senses, but the mere work of imagination, brought only upon the stage for the sake of hypotheses, or to solve some phenomenon, real or imaginary; authors take the liberty to modify it how they please. Some suppose it of an elementary nature, like other bodies; and only distinguished by its tenuity, and the other affections consequent thereon: which is the philosophical aether. Others will have it of another species, and not elementary; but rather a sort of fifth element, of a purer, more refined, and spiritual nature, than the substances about our earth; and void of the common affections thereof, as gravity, &c. The heavenly spaces being the supposed region or residence of a more exalted class of beings, the medium must be more exalted in proportion. Such is the ancient and popular idea of aether, or æthereal matter.

The term aether being thus embarrassed with a variety of ideas, and arbitrarily applied to so many different things, the later and fewer philosophers choose to set it aside, and in lieu thereof substitute other more determinate ones. Thus, the Cartesians use the term materia subtilis; which is their aether: and Sir Isaac Newton, sometimes a subtile spirit, as in the close of his Principia; and sometimes a subtile or æthereal medium, as in his Optics.

Heat, Sir Isaac Newton observes, is communicated through a vacuum almost as readily as through air; but such communication cannot be without some intermediate body, to act as a medium. And such body may be subtle enough to penetrate the pores of glass, and may permeate those of all other bodies, and consequently be diffused through all the parts of space.

The existence of such an æthereal medium being settled, that author proceeds to its properties; inferring it to be not only rarer and more fluid than air, but exceedingly more elastic and active: in virtue of which properties he shows, that a great part of the phenomena of nature may be produced by it. To the weight, e.g., of this medium, he attributes gravitation, or the weight of all other bodies; and to its elasticity the elastic force of the air and of nervous fibres, and the emulsion, refraction, reflection, and other phenomena of light; as also, sensation, muscular motion, &c. In fine, this same matter seems the primum mobile, the first source or spring of physical action in the modern system.

The Cartesian aether is supposed not only to pervade, but adequately to fill, all the vacuities of bodies; and thus to make an absolute plenum in the universe.

But Sir Isaac Newton overturns this opinion, from divers considerations; by showing, that the celestial spaces are void of all sensible resistance: and, hence it follows, that the matter contained therein must be immensely rare, in regard the resistance of bodies is chiefly as their density; so that if the heavens were thus adequately filled with a medium or matter, how subtle forever, they would resist the motion of the planets and comets much more than quicksilver or gold. But it has been supposed that what Newton has said of aether is to be considered only as a conjecture, and especially as no new proofs of its existence have been adduced since his time.

The late discoveries in electricity have thrown great light upon this subject, and rendered it extremely probable that the aether so often talked of is no other than the electric fluid, or solar light, which diffuses itself throughout the whole system of nature.

Aether, in Chemistry, a light, volatile, and very inflammable liquid, produced by distillation of acids with rectified spirit of wine. See Chemistry Index.

Æthereal, Æthereus, something that belongs to, or partakes of, the nature of Aether. Thus we say, the æthereal space, æthereal regions, &c.

Some of the ancients divided the universe, with respect to the matter contained therein, into elementary and æthereal.

Under the æthereal world was included all that space above the uppermost element, viz. fire. This they supposed to be perfectly homogeneous, incorruptible, unchangeable, &c. The Chaldees placed an æthereal world between the empyreum and the region of the fixed stars. Beside which, they sometimes also speak of a second æthereal world, meaning by it the starry orb; and a third æthereal world, by which is meant the planetary region.

Æthiopia. See Ethiopia and Abyssinia.

Æthiops, Mineral, Martial, and Antimonial. See Chemistry Index.

Æthusa, Fools Parsley, in Botany. See Botany Index.