Maternus Julius, an ecclesiastical writer, who lived about the middle of the fourth century. Nothing is known with certainty respecting his country, profession, or character, as we find no mention made of him in the writings of ancient authors. Some say that he was by birth a Sicilian, and practised in the forum as a barrister for some time, becoming a convert to Christianity when far advanced in years; which appears to derive considerable support from different passages in his writings. He was author of a treatise De errore profanarum religionum, which was dedicated to the emperors Constantius and Constans. This work... Firmness must have been written between 340 and 350, in which Confutans was slain by Magnentius. It is allowed to be a learned, able, and well written performance, in which the reasonableness of the Christian religion is strongly contrasted with the absurdity and immorality of the gentile creed. It must not be dissembled, however, that he sometimes betrays such a spirit of intolerance as is wholly incompatible with the genius of the Christian religion, which breathes nothing but benevolence towards the whole human race. The arguments employed by him in its defence are disgraced by an exhortation to the civil power to propagate it by force of arms, and to crush the advocates of error by severe edicts. This work was first published at Straßburg in 1562, at Heidelberg in 1559, and at Paris in 1610.

The greater part of critics ascribe to him a work entitled *Afronimorum, seu de Mathesi*, lib. viii. In it he treats of the power and influence of the stars, agreeably to the doctrine of the Egyptians and Babylonians, blending a considerable degree of mathematical knowledge with the unmeaning jargon of judicial astrology. Those who imagine that so good a man as Firmicus could not have been the author of such an absurd performance, should remember that it was probably composed prior to his conversion, when such absurdities would constitute a part of his creed.

**Firmness**, denotes the consistence of a body, or that state wherein its sensible parts cohere in such a manner, that the motion of one part induces a motion in the rest.

**First-born.** See Primogeniture, for the literal meaning of the term.

In Scripture it is also used often in a figurative sense for that which is first, most excellent, most distinguished in any thing. Thus it is said of Christ (Col. i. 5.), that he is "the first-born of every creature;" and in Revelation (i. 5.) he is called "the first-begotten of the dead;" that is, according to the commentators, begotten of the Father before any creature was produced; and the first who rose from the dead by his own power. "The first-born of the poor," (Isa. xiv. 30.) signifies, The most miserable of all the poor; and in Job (xviii. 13.) "The first-born of death;" that is, The most terrible of all deaths.

**First Fruits (primitive),** among the Hebrews, were oblations of part of the fruits of the harvest, offered to God as an acknowledgment of his sovereign dominion. The first of these fruits was offered in the name of the whole nation, being either two loaves of bread, or a sheaf of barley which was threshed in the court of the temple. Every private person was obliged to bring his first fruits to the temple; and these consisted of wheat, barley, grapes, figs, apricots, olives, and dates.

There was another sort of first fruits which were paid to God. When bread was kneaded in a family, a portion of it was set apart and given to the priest or Levite who dwelt in the place; if there was no priest or Levite there, it was cast into the oven, and consumed by the fire. These offerings made a considerable part of the revenues of the Hebrew priesthood.

First Fruits are frequently mentioned in ancient Christian writers as one part of the church revenue. One of the councils of Carthage enjoins, that they should consist only of grapes and corn; which shows, that this was the practice of the African church.

**First Fruits,** in the church of England, are the profits of every spiritual benefice for the first year, according to the valuation thereof in the king's books.

**Fisc,** (Fiscus), in the Civil Law, the treasury of a prince or state; or that to which all things due to the public do fall. The word is derived from the Greek φίσκος, "a great basket," used when they went to market.—By the civil law, none but a sovereign prince has a right to have a fisc or public treasury.

At Rome, under the emperors, the term ararium was used for the revenues destined for support of the charges of the empire; the fiscus for those of the emperor's own family. The treasury, in effect, belonged to the people, and the fiscus to the prince. Hence the goods of condemned persons, if appropriated to the use of the public, were said publicari; if to the support of the emperor or prince, conficari.

**Fiscal,** in the Civil Law, something relating to the pecuniary interest of the prince or people. The officers appointed for the management of the fisc, were called procuratores fisci, and advocati fisci; and among the cases enumerated in the constitutions of the empire where it was their business to plead, one is against those who have been condemned to pay a fine to the fisc on account of their litigionsnels or frivolous appeals.

**Fiscus.** See Fisc.

**Fish,** in Natural History, an animal that lives in the waters as the natural place of its abode.

Fishes form the fourth class of animals in the Linnaean system. Their most general or popular division is into fresh and salt water ones. Some, however, are of opinion, that all fishes naturally inhabit the salt waters, and that they have mounted up into rivers only by accident. A few species only swim up into the rivers to deposit their spawn; but by far the greatest number keep in the sea, and would soon expire in fresh water. There are about 400 species of fishes (according to Linnæus) of which we know something; but the unknown ones are supposed to be many more; and as they are thought to lie in great depths of the sea remote from land, it is probable that many species will remain for ever unknown.

For the subdivisions, characters, and natural history of this class of animals, see Ichthyology Index.

**Blowing of Fish,** is a practice similar to that of blowing flesh, poultry, and pigs, and adopted for the same deceitful purposes. The method of blowing fish, especially cod and whitings, is by placing the end of a quill or tobacco-pipe at the vent, and pricking a hole with a pin under the fin which is next the gill; thereby making the fish appear to the eye large and full, which when dressed will be flabby, and little else than skin and bones. But this imposition may be discovered by placing the finger and thumb on each side of the vent, and squeezing it hard; the wind may be perceived to go out, the skin will fall in, and the fish appear lank, and of little value.

**Breeding of Fishes** may be turned to great advantage; for, besides furnishing the table, obliging one's friends, and raising money, the land will be thereby greatly greatly improved, so as to yield more this way than by any other employment whatever. See Fish Pond.

Castration of Fish, is a method first practised by Mr Tull, in order to prevent the excessive increase of fish in some of his ponds, where the numbers did not permit any of them to grow to an advantageous size. But he afterwards found, that the castrated fish grew much larger than their usual size, were more fat, and always in season. This operation may be performed both on male and female fish; and the most eligible time for it is when the ovaries of the female have their ova in them, and when the vessels of the male, analogous to these, have their seminal matter in them; because, at this time, these vessels are more easily distinguished from the ureters, which convey the urine from the kidneys into the bladder, and are situated near the seminal vessels on each side of the spine; which, without sufficient attention, may be mistaken for the ovaries, especially when these last are empty. The time least proper for this operation, is just after they have spawned, because the fish are then too weak and languid to bear, with success, so severe an operation; however, with skill and care, it may be performed almost at any time. When a fish is to be castrated, it must be held in a wet cloth, with its belly upwards; then with a sharp penknife, having its point bent backwards, the operator cuts through the integuments of the rim of the belly, taking care not to wound any of the intestines. As soon as a small aperture is made, he carefully inserts a hooked pen-knife, and with this dilates the aperture from between the two fore-fins almost to the anus. He then, with two small blunt silver hooks, five or six inches long, and of this form P, by the help of an assistant, holds open the belly of the fish; and with a spoon or spatula, removes carefully the intestines from one side. When these are removed, you see the ureter, a small vessel, nearly in the direction of the spine, and also the ovary, a larger vessel, lying before it, nearer the integuments of the belly. This last vessel is taken up with a hook of the same kind with those before mentioned, and, after detaching it from the side far enough for the purpose, divided transversely with a pair of sharp scissors, care being taken that the intestines are not wounded or injured. After one of the ovaries has been divided, the operator proceeds to divide the other in the same manner; and then the divided integuments of the belly are sewed with silk, the stitches being inserted at a small distance from one another. Mr Tull observes farther, that the spawning time is very various; that trouts are full about Christmas; perch in February; pikes in March, and carp and tench in May; and that allowance must be made for climate and situation, with regard to the spawning of fish. When the fish are castrated, they are put into the water where they are intended to continue; and they take their chance in common with other fish, as though they were not castrated. With tolerable care, few die of the operation. Phil. Trans. vol. xlviii. Part 2. Art. 106.

Although we could not properly avoid inserting the above detail, it is presumed that few will be pleased with the invention. The operation is peculiarly cruel, and the purpose of it only a detestable piece of Apician refinement.

Feeding of Fishes. When they are fed in large pools or ponds, either malt boiled, or fresh grains, is the best food; thus carps may be raised and fed like capons, and tenches will feed as well. The care of feeding them is best committed to a gardener or the butler, who should be always at hand. When fed in a stew, any sort of grain boiled, especially peas, and malt coarsely ground, are proper food; also the grains after brewing, while fresh and sweet; but one bullock of malt not brewed will go as far as two of grains.

Stealing of Fish, by persons armed and disguised, is felony without benefit of clergy, by 9 Geo. I. cap. 22. See Black Act. And by 5 Geo. III. cap. 14, the penalty of transportation for seven years is inflicted on persons stealing or taking fish in any water, within a park, paddock, orchard, or yard; and on the receivers, aiders, and abettors; and a forfeiture of five pounds to the owner of the fishery is made payable by persons taking or destroying (or attempting so to do) any fish in any river or other water within any enclosed ground, being private property.

Preserving of Fish for Cabinets. Linnaeus's method is, to expose them to the air; and when they acquire such a degree of putrefaction that the skin loses its cohesion to the body of the fish, it may be slid off almost like a glove; the two sides of this skin may then be dried upon paper like a plant, or one of the sides may be filled with plaster of Paris to give the subject a due plumpness.

A fish may be prepared, after it has acquired this degree of putrefaction, by making a longitudinal incision on the belly, and carefully dissecting the fleshy part from the skin, which is but slightly attached to it in consequence of the putrefaction. The skin is then to be filled with cotton and the antiseptic powder as directed for birds; and, lastly, to be sewed up where the incision was made.

Gold Fish. See Cyprinus, Ichthyology Index.

Gilding on Fish. In the posthumous papers of Mr Hooke, a method is described of gilding live craw fish, carps, &c., without injuring the fish. The cement for this purpose is prepared, by putting some burgundy pitch into a new earthen pot, and warming the vessel till it receives so much of the pitch as will stick round it; then strewing some finely powdered amber before the pitch when growing cold, adding a mixture of three pounds of linseed oil and one of oil of turpentine, covering the vessel, and boiling them for an hour over a gentle fire, and grinding the mixture, as it is wanted, with so much pumice-stone in fine powder as will reduce it to the consistence of paint. The fish being wiped dry, the mixture is spread upon it; and the gold-leaf being then laid on, and gently pressed down, the fish may be immediately put into water again, without any danger of the gold coming off, for the matter quickly grows firm in water.