or GENS D'ARMES, in the French armies, a denomination given to a select body of horse, on account of their succeeding the ancient gendarmes, who were thus called from their being completely clothed in armour; (see SCOTS GENDARMES, infra.) These troops were commanded by captain lieutenants, the king and the princes of the blood being their captains; the king's troop, besides a captain-lieutenant, had two sublieutenants, three ensigns, and three guidons.

Grand Gendarmes, latterly were a troop composed of 250 gentlemen; the king himself was their captain, and one of the first peers their captain-lieutenant, who had under him two lieutenants, three ensigns, three guidons, and other officers.

Small Gendarmes, were the Scots gendarmes, the queen's, the dauphin's, the gendarmes of Anjou, Burgundy, the English and Flemish gendarmes, having each a captain lieutenant, sub-lieutenant, ensign, guidon, and quarter-master.

Scots Gendarmes, were originally instituted by Charles VII. of France, about the middle of the 15th century, Gender, century, and formed a part of his guard; in which station also they acted under other princes. It was their prerogative to take precedence of all the companies of the gendarmeries of France; and, on particular occasions, they even preceded the two companies of the king's mousquetaires. The sons of the Scottish monarchs were the usual captains of this company; and, after Mary's accession to the throne, its command belonged to them as a right. It was thence that James VI. made a claim of it for his son Prince Henry. This honour, and its emoluments, were also enjoyed by Charles I. and the next in command to this prince was Louis Stuart duke of Lennox. George Gordon marquis of Huntly succeeded the duke of Lennox in the year 1674, and took the title of captain or commander in chief when Charles I. mounted the English throne. It is not certain whether Charles II. was ever captain of this company; but it was conferred on his brother the duke of York, who was captain of the Scots gendarmes till the year 1667, when he resigned his commission into the hands of the French King. Since that time no native of Great Britain has enjoyed this command. See Scots Guards.

All the different gendarmeries are now abolished, in consequence of the reforming systems that have lately taken place in France.

GENDER, among grammarians, a division of nouns, or names, to distinguish the two sexes.

This was the original intention of gender: but afterwards other words, which had no proper relation either to one sex or the other, had genders assigned them, rather out of caprice than reason; which is at length established by custom. Hence genders vary according to the languages, or even according to the words introduced from one language into another. Thus, arbor in Latin is feminine, but arbre in French is masculine; and dens in Latin is masculine, but dent in French is feminine.

The oriental languages frequently neglect the use of genders, and the Persian language has none at all.

The Latins, Greeks, &c. generally content themselves to express the different genders by different terminations; as bonus equus, "a good horse;" bona equa, "a good mare," &c. But in English we frequently go further, and express the difference of sex by different words: as boar, sow; boy, girl; buck, doe; bull, cow; cock, hen; dog, bitch, &c.—We have only about 24 feminines, distinguished from the males, by the variation of the termination of the male into -ess; of which number are abbot, abbess; count, countess; actor, actress; heir, heiress; prince, princess, &c., which is all that our language knows of anything like genders.

The Greek and Latin, besides the masculine and feminine, have the neuter, common, and the doubtful gender; and likewise the epicene, or promiscuous, which under one single gender and termination includes both the kinds.

GENEALOGY, an enumeration of a series of ancestors; or a summary account of the relations and alliances of a person or family, both in the direct and collateral line.

The word is Greek, γενεαλογία; which is formed of γένος, "race or lineage," and λόγος, "discourse."

In divers chapters and military orders, it is required, that the candidates produce their genealogy, to show that they are noble by so many decents.

GENEALOGICA ARBOR, or TREE OF CONSANGUINITY, signifies a genealogy or lineage drawn out under the figure of a tree, with its root, stock, branches, &c. The genealogical degrees are usually represented in circles, ranged over, under, and aside each other. This the Greeks called fleumata, a word signifying crown, garland, or the like. See the articles Consanguinity and Descent, and the plates there referred to.

GENEP, a strong town of Germany, in the circle of Westphalia, subject to the king of Prussia. E. Long. 4° 29'. N. Lat. 51° 42'.

GENERAL, an appellation given to whatever belongs to a whole genus.

General Assembly. See Assembly.

General Charge, in Law. See Charge to enter Heir.

General Terms, among logicians, those which are made the signs of general ideas. See Logic and Metaphysics.

General Warrant. See Warrant.

General of an Army, in the art of War, he who commands in chief. See the article War, where his office and duties are particularly explained.

General of the Artillery. See Ordnance.

General of Horse, and General of Foot, are posts next under the general of the army, and these have upon all occasions an absolute authority over all the horse and foot in the army.

Adjutant General, one who attends the general, assists in council, and carries the general's orders to the army. He distributes the daily orders to the majors of brigade. He is likewise charged with the general detail of the duty of the army. The majors of brigade fend every morning to the adjutant general an exact return, by battalion and company, of the men of his brigade. In a day of battle the adjutant general sees the infantry drawn up; after which, he places himself by the general, to receive any orders which may regard the corps of which he has the detail. In a siege, he orders the number of workmen demanded, and signs the warrant for their payment. He receives the guards of the trenches at their rendezvous, and examines their condition; he gives and signs all orders for parties. He has an orderly sergeant from each brigade of infantry in the line, to carry such orders as he may have occasion to lend from the general.

Lieutenant General, is the next in command after the general; and provided he should die or be killed, the order is, that the oldest lieutenant general shall take the command. This office is the first military dignity after that of general. One part of their function is, to assist the general with their council: they ought therefore, if possible, to possess the same qualities with the general himself; and the more, as they often command armies in chief.

The number of lieutenant generals has been multiplied of late in Europe, in proportion as the armies have become numerous. They serve either in the field, or in sieges, according to the dates of their commissions. In battle, the oldest commands the right wing of the army, the second the left wing, the third the centre, the fourth the right wing of the second line, the fifth the left wing, the sixth the centre; and so on. In sieges, the lieutenant generals always command the right of the principal attack, and order what they judge proper for the advancement of the siege during the 24 hours they are in the trenches: except the attacks, which they are not to make without an order from the general in chief.

**Lieutenant General of the Ordnance.** See **Ordnance.**

**Lieutenant General of Artillery,** is, or ought to be, a very great mathematician, and an able engineer; to know all the powers of artillery; to undertake the attack and defence of fortified places, in all its different branches; how to dispose of the artillery in the day of battle to the best advantage; to conduct its march and retreat; as also to be well acquainted with all the numerous apparatus belonging to the train, and to the laboratory, &c.

**Major General,** the next officer to the lieutenant general. His chief business is to receive orders from the general, or in his absence from the lieutenant general of the day; which he is to distribute to the brigade majors, with whom he is to regulate the guards, convoys, detachments, &c. On him rests the whole fatigue and detail of duty of the army roll. It is the major general of the day who is charged with the encampment of the army, who places himself at the head of it when they march, who marks out the ground of the camp to the quartermaster general, and who places the new guards for the safety of the camp.

The day the army is to march, he dictates to the field officers the order of the march, which he has received from the general, and on other days gives them the parole.

In a fixed camp he is charged with the foraging, with reconnoitring the ground for it, and posting the escorts, &c.

In sieges, if there are two separate attacks, the second belongs to him; but if there is but one, he takes, either from the right or left of the attack, that which the lieutenant general has not chosen.

When the army is under arms, he afflicts the lieutenant general, whose orders he executes.

If the army marches to an engagement, his post is at the head of the guards of the army, until they are near enough to the enemy to rejoin their different corps; after which he retires to his own proper post: for the major generals are disposed on the order of battle as the lieutenant generals are; to whom, however, they are subordinate, for the command of their divisions. The major general has one aid-de-camp, paid for executing his orders.

**General** is also used for a particular march, or beat of drum; being the first which gives notice, commonly in the morning early, for the infantry to be in readiness to march.

**General** is likewise an appellation by which officers in law, in the revues, &c. are distinguished; as, attorney general, solicitor general, &c. receiver general, comptroller general, &c. See **Attorney**, &c.

**General** is also used for the chief of an order of monks, or of all the houses and congregations established under the same rule. Thus we say, the general of the Franciscans, Cistercians, &c.

**GENERALISSIMO,** called also captain general, Generalissimo, and simply general, is an officer who commands all the military powers of a nation; who gives orders to all the other general officers; and receives no orders himself but from the king.

M. Balzac observes, that the cardinal de Richelieu first coined this word, of his own absolute authority, upon his going to command the French army in Italy.

**GENERATE,** in Music, is used to signify the operation of that mechanical power in nature, which every sound has in producing one or more different sounds. Thus any given sound, however simple, produces along with itself, its octave, and two other sounds extremely sharp, viz. its twelfth above, that is to say, the octave of its fifth; and the other the seventeenth above, or, in other words, the double octave of its third major.

Whether we suppose this procreation of sounds to result from an aptitude in the texture and magnitude of certain particles in the air, for conveying to our ears vibrations that bear those proportions, one to another, as being determined at once by the partial and total oscillations of any musical string; or from whatever economy of nature we choose to trace it; the power of one sound thus to produce another, when in action, is said to generate. The same word is applied, by Signior Tartini and his followers, to any two sounds which, simultaneously heard, produce a third.

**GENERATED,** or **GENITED,** is used, by some mathematical writers, for whatever is produced, either in arithmetic, by the multiplication, division, or extraction of roots; or in geometry, by the invention of the contents, areas, and sides; or of extreme and mean proportionals, without arithmetical addition and subtraction.

**GENERATING LINE,** or **FIGURE,** in Geometry, is that which, by its motion of revolution, produces any other figure, plane or solid. See **Genesis.**

**GENERATION,** in Physiology, the act of procreating and producing a being similar to the parent. See **Anatomy,** No. 157.

**Generation of Fishes.** See **Comparative Anatomy,** No. 304, and **Ichthyology.**

**Generation of Plants.** See **Botany.**

**Generation of Insects.** See **Comparative Anatomy,** p. 312, and **Entomology,** p. 234.

**Parts of Generation.** See **Anatomy,** No. 157.

**Generation,** in Mathematics, is used for formation or production. Thus we meet with the generation of equations, curves, solids, &c.

**Generation,** in Theology. The Father is said by some divines to have produced his Word or Son from all eternity, by way of generation; on which occasion the word generation raises a peculiar idea: that procession, which is really effected in the way of understanding, is called generation, because in virtue thereof, the Word becomes like to him from whom he takes this original; or, as St Paul expresses it, is the figure or image of his substance, i.e. of his being and nature. And hence it is, they say, that the second Person in the Trinity is called the Son.

**Generation** is also used, though somewhat improperly, for genealogy, or the series of children issued from the same stock. Thus the gospel of St Matthew commences with the book of the generation of Jesus Christ, Generation Christ, &c. The latter and more accurate translators, instead of generation use the word genealogy.

Generation is also used to signify a people, race, or nation, especially in the literal translations of the Scripture, where the word generally occurs wherever the Latin has generatio, and the Greek γενεα. Thus,

"A wicked and perverse generation seeketh a sign," etc. "One generation passeth away, and another cometh," &c.

Generation is also used in the sense of an age, or the ordinary period of man's life. Thus we say, "to the third and fourth generation." In this sense historians usually reckon a generation the space of 33 years or thereabouts. See Age.

Herodotus makes three generations in a hundred years; which computation appears from the latter authors of political arithmetic to be pretty just.

GENERATOR, in Music, signifies the principal sound or sound by which others are produced. Thus the lowest C for the treble of the harpsichord, besides its octave, will strike an attentive ear with its twelfth above, or G in alt, and with its seventeenth above, or E in alt. The C, therefore, is called their generator, the G and E its products or harmonics. But in the approximation of chords, for G, its octave below is substituted, which constitutes a fifth from the generator, or lowest C; and for E, is likewise substituted its fifteenth below, which, with the above-mentioned C, forms a third major. To the lowest notes, therefore, exchanged for those in alt by substitution, the denominations of products or harmonics are likewise given, whilst the C retains the name of their generator. But still according to the system of Tartini, two notes in concord, which when founded produce a third, may be termed the concurring generators of that third. (See Generation Harmonique, per M. Rameau; see also that delineation of Tartini's system called The Power and Principles of Harmony.)

GENERIC NAME, in Natural History, the word used to signify all the species of natural bodies, which agree in certain essential and peculiar characters, and therefore all of the same family or kind; so that the word used as the generic name equally expresses every one of them, and some other words expressive of the peculiar qualities or figures of each are added, in order to denote them singly, and make up what is called the specific name. See Botany and Natural History.

GENESIS, the first book of the Old Testament, containing the history of the creation, and the lives of the first patriarchs.

The book of Genesis stands at the head of the Pentateuch. Its author is held to be Moses: it contains the relation of 2369 years, viz. from the beginning of the world to the death of Joseph. The Jews are forbidden to read the beginning of Genesis, and the beginning of Ezekiel, before 30 years of age.

The Hebrews called this book Berechith, because it begins with that word, which in their language signifies in principio, or "in the beginning." The Greeks gave it the name Genesis, Γενεσις, q.d. production, generation, because it begins with the history of the production or generation of all beings.

This book, besides the history of the creation, contains an account of the original innocence and fall of man; the propagation of mankind; the rise of religion; the general defection and corruption of the world; the deluge; the restoration of the world; the division and peopling of the earth; and the history of the first patriarchs to the death of Joseph. It was easy for Moses to be satisfied of the truth of what he delivers in this book, because it came down to him through a few hands; for from Adam to Noah there was one man, viz. Methuselah, who lived so long as to see them both: in like manner Shem conversed with Noah and Abraham; Isaac with Abraham and Joseph, from whom the records of this book might easily be conveyed to Moses by Amram, who was contemporary with Joseph.

GENESIS, in Geometry, denotes the formation of a line, plane, or solid, by the motion or flux of a point, line, or surface. See Fluxions.

The genesis or formation, e.g., of a globe or sphere, is conceived by supposing a semicircle to revolve upon a right line, drawn from one extreme thereof to the other, called its axis, or axis of circumvolution: the motion or revolution of that semicircle is the genesis of the sphere, &c.

In the genesis of figures, &c., the line or surface that moves is called the descriptent; and the line round which, or, according to which, the revolution or motion is made, the dirigent.

GENET, GENNET, or Jennet, in the manege, denotes a small-sized well-proportioned Spanish horse.

To ride à la genette, is to ride after the Spanish fashion, so short, that the spurs bear upon the horse's flank.

GENETHLIA, in antiquity, a solemnity kept in memory of some person deceased.

GENETHLIACI, in Astrology, persons who erect horoscopes, or pretend to foretell what shall befall a man by means of the stars which presided at his nativity. The word is formed of the Greek γενεσις, origin, generation, nativity.

The ancients called them Chaldei, and by the general name mathematici: accordingly, the several civil and canon laws, which we find made against the mathematicians, only respect the genethliaci or astrologers.

They were expelled Rome by a formal decree of the senate; and yet found so much protection from the credulity of the people, that they remained therein unmolested. Hence an ancient author speaks of them as hominum genus quod in civitate nostra semper et vetabitur et retinetur.

GENETTE, in Zoology. See Viverra, Mammalia Index.

GENEVA, a city of Switzerland, on the confines of France and Savoy, situated in 46° E. Long. and 46° 1' 2" N. Lat. It stands on the banks of the river Rhone, just at the place where the latter issues from the lake which takes its name from the city; and part of it is built on an island in the river. It is handsome, well fortified, and pretty large; the streets in general are clean and well paved, but the principal one is encumbered with a row of shops on each side between the carriage and foot-path. The latter is very wide, and protected from the weather by great wooden penthouses projecting from the roofs; which, though very convenient, give the street a dark and dull appearance. The houses are generally constructed of freestone, with balments of limestone; the gutters, spouts, ridges, ridges, and outward ornaments, being made of tinned iron. Some of them have arched walks or piazzas in front. The place called Tireille is very agreeable, being planted with linden trees, and commanding a fine prospect of the lake, with several ranges of rocks rising behind one another, some covered with vineyards and herbage, and others with snow, having openings between them. Immediately below Geneva the Rhone is joined by the Arve, a cold and muddy stream rising among the Alps, and deriving a considerable part of its waters from the Glaciers. The Rhone is quite clear and transparent, so that the muddy water of the Arve is distinguishable from it even after they have flowed for several miles together. There are four bridges over the Rhone before it joins the Arve; and from it the city is supplied with water by means of an hydraulic machine, which raises it 100 Paris feet above its level. The principal buildings are, 1. The maison de ville, or townhouse, a plain ancient edifice, with large rooms, in which the councils assemble, and public entertainments are held; and in one of them a weekly concert is held by subscription during the winter. The ascent to the upper story is not by steps but a paved acclivity: which, however, is so gentle, that horses and mules can go up to the top. 2. The church of St Peter's, formerly the cathedral, is an ancient Gothic building, with a modern portico of seven large Corinthian columns of red and white marble from Roche. The only thing remarkable in the inside is the tomb of Henry duke of Rohan. 3. The arsenal is in good order, and supplied with arms sufficient for 12,000 men. There are many ancient suits of armour; and the scaling ladders, lanthorns, hatchets, &c., used by the Savoyards in their treacherous attempt on the city in the year 1662, to be afterwards noticed, are here preserved. The magazines contain 110 cannon, besides mortars. 4. The hospital is a large handsome building, by which and other charities near 4000 poor people are maintained. 5. The fortifications on the side of Savoy are of the modern construction, but are commanded by some neighbouring grounds. On the side of France they are old fashioned, and at any rate are rather calculated to prevent a surprize than to sustain a regular siege. There are three gates, towards France, Savoy, and Switzerland; and the access to the lake is guarded by a double jetty and chain.

The territory belonging to this city contains about seven square leagues, and is divided into nine parishes; the town is by far the most populous in Switzerland, having about 30,000 inhabitants, of whom, however, 5000 are generally supposed to be absent. It has a small district dependent on it, but this does not contain above 16,000. The adjacent country is extremely beautiful, and has many magnificent views arising from the different positions of the numerous hills and mountains with regard to the town and lake. The inhabitants were formerly distinguished into four classes, viz., citizens, burgesses, inhabitants, and natives; and since the revolution in 1782, a fifth class named domicilis, has been added, who annually receive permission from the magistrates to reside in the city. The citizens and burgesses alone, however, are admitted to a share in the government; those called inhabitants are strangers allowed to settle in the town with certain privileges; and the natives are the sons of those inhabitants, who possess additional advantages. The people are very active and industrious, carrying on an extensive commerce.

This city is remarkable for the number of learned State of men it has produced. The reformed doctrines of religion were very early received in it, being preached there in 1533 by William Farel and Peter Viret of Orbe, and afterwards finally established by the celebrated John Calvin. Of this reformer Voltaire observes, that he gave his name to the religious doctrines first broached by others, in the same manner that Americus Vespucius gave name to the continent of America, which had formerly been discovered by Columbus. It was by the affluence of this celebrated reformer, and the influence that he acquired among the citizens, that a public academy was first established in the city, where he, Theodore Beza, and some of the more eminent first reformers, read lectures with uncommon success. The intolerant spirit of Calvin is well known; but little of it now appears in the government of Geneva: on the contrary, it is the most tolerating of all the estates in Switzerland, being the only one of them which permits the public exercise of the Lutheran religion. The advantages of the academy at Geneva are very conspicuous among the citizens at this day, even the lower class of them being exceedingly well informed; so that, according to Mr Coxe, there is not a city in Europe where learning is so generally diffused. "I received great satisfaction (says he) in conversing even with several tradesmen upon topics both of literature and politics; and was astonished to find in this class of men so uncommon a share of knowledge; but the wonder ceases when we are told that all of them were educated at the public academy." In this seminary the industry and emulation of the students are excited by the annual distribution of prizes to those who distinguish themselves in each class. The prizes consist of small medals, but are conferred with such solemnity as cannot fail to produce a striking effect on the minds of youth. There is also a public library to which the citizens have access, and which undoubtedly tends greatly to that universal diffusion of learning so remarkable among the inhabitants. It was founded by Bonivard, remarkable for his sufferings in the cause of the liberties of his country. Having been a great antagonist of the dukes of Savoy, against whom he asserted the independence of Geneva, he had the misfortune at last to be taken prisoner, and was imprisoned for six years in a dungeon below the level of the lake, in the castle of Chillon, which stands on a rock in the lake, and is connected with the land by a drawbridge. In 1536 this castle was taken from Charles III. of Savoy by the canton of Berne, assisted by the Genevans, who furnished a frigate (their whole naval force) to besiege it by water. Bonivard was now taken from his dungeon, where by constant walking backward and forward, his only amusement, he had worn a hollow in the floor which consisted of solid rock. Bonivard considered the hardships he had endured as ties which endeared him to the city, and became a principal promoter of the reformation by the mild methods of persuasion and instruction. He closed his benefactions by the gift of his books and manuscripts, and bequeathing his fortune towards the establishment and support of the seminary. His works, which chiefly relate to the history history of Geneva, are still preserved with great care and reverence. The library contains 25,000 volumes, with many curious manuscripts, of which an account has been published by the reverend M. Semmelier the librarian, who has likewise distinguished himself by several literary works. Messrs Bonnet, Sauvire, Mallet, and De Luc, are the other most distinguished literary geniuses of which Geneva can boast. The last is particularly remarkable for the perfection to which he has brought the barometer, and which is now so great, that very little seems possible to be done by any body else. His cabinet merits the attention of naturalists, as containing many rare and curious specimens of fossils, which serve to illustrate the theory of the globe.

It may be divided into three parts: 1. Such as enable the naturalist to compare the petrifications of animals and vegetables with the same bodies which are still known to exist in our parts of the globe. 2. To compare these petrifications of animals with the same bodies which are known to exist in different countries. 3. To consider the petrifications of those bodies which are no longer known to exist. The second part comprehends the stones under three points of view: 1. Those of the primitive mountains, which contain no animal bodies; 2. Those of the secondary mountains, which contain only marine bodies; 3. Those which contain terrestrial bodies. The third part contains the lavas and other volcanic productions; which are distinguished into two classes: 1. Those which come from volcanoes now actually burning; 2. Those from extinguished volcanoes.

In the time of Charles the Great, the city and territory of Geneva made part of his empire; and, under his successors, it became subject to the German emperors. By reason of the imbecility of these princes, however, the bishops of Geneva acquired such authority over the inhabitants, that the emperor had no other means of counterbalancing it than by augmenting the privileges of the people. In these barbarous ages also the bishops and counts had constant disputes, of which the people took the advantage; and by siding sometimes with one, and sometimes with the other, they obtained an extension of their privileges from both. The house of Savoy at length purchased the territory, and succeeded the counts with additional power; against them therefore the bishops and people united in order to resist their encroachments; and, during this period, the government was strangely complicated, by reason of the various pretensions of the three parties. The counts of Savoy, however, had at last the address to dissolve the union between the bishops and citizens, by procuring the episcopal see for their brothers, and even their illegitimate children; by which means their power became gradually to extensive, that towards the commencement of the 16th century, Charles III. of Savoy (though the government was accounted entirely republican) obtained an almost absolute authority over the people, and exercised it in a most unjust and arbitrary manner. Thus violent commotions took place; and the citizens became divided into two parties, one of which, viz. the patriots, were styled Eidgenossen or confederates; the partisans of Savoy being disgraced by the appellation of Mamelucks or slaves. The true period of Genevan liberty may therefore be considered as commencing with the treaty concluded with Berne and Friburg in Geneva, the year 1526; in consequence of which the duke was in a short time deprived of his authority, the bishop driven from the city, and the reformed religion and a republican form of government introduced. A long war commenced with Savoy on this account; but the Genevans proved an overmatch for their enemies by their own bravery and the alliance of the inhabitants of Berne. In 1584, the republic concluded a treaty with Zurich and Berne, by which it is allied to the Swiss cantons. The house of Savoy made their last attempt against Geneva in 1602, when the city was treacherously attacked in the night time during a profound peace. Two hundred soldiers had scaled the walls, and got into the town before any alarm was given; but they were repulsed by the desperate valour of a few citizens, who perished in the encounter. A petard had been fastened to one of the gates by the Savoyards; but the gunner was killed before it could be discharged. The war occasioned by this treachery was next year concluded by a solemn treaty, which has ever since been observed on both sides; though the independence of Geneva was not formally acknowledged by the king of Sardinia till the year 1754.

The restoration of tranquillity from without in consequence of the above treaty, was however soon followed by the flames of internal discord, so common in popular governments; so that during the whole of the last century the history of Geneva affords little more than an account of the struggles betwixt the aristocratical and popular parties. About the beginning of the present century the power of the grand council was become almost absolute; but in order to restrain its authority, an edict was procured in 1727 by the popular party, enacting, that every five years a general council of the citizens and burgurers should be summoned to deliberate upon the affairs of the republic. In consequence of this law a general assembly was convened in 1712; and the very first act of that assembly was to abolish the edict by which they had been convened. A proceeding to extraordinary can scarcely be accounted for on the principles of popular fickleness and inconstancy. Rousseau, in his Miscellaneous Works, ascribes it to the artifices of the magistrates, and the equivocal terms marked upon the billets then in use. For the question being put, "Whether the opinion of the councils for abolishing the periodical assemblies should pass into a law?" the words approbation or rejection, put upon the billets by which the votes were given, might be interpreted either way. Thus, if the billet was chosen on which the word approbation was written, the opinion of the councils which rejected the assemblies was approved; and by the word rejection, the periodical assembly was rejected of course. Hence several of the citizens complained that they had been deceived, and that they never meant to reject the general assembly, but only the opinion of the councils.

In consequence of the abolition of the general assemblies, the power of the aristocratical party was greatly augmented; till at length the inhabitants exerting themselves with uncommon spirit and perseverance, found means to limit the power of the magistrates, and enlarge their own rights. In 1776, as Mr Cox informs us, the government might be considered as a mean betwixt twixt that of the aristocratical and popular cantons of Switzerland. The members of the senate, or little council of 25, enjoyed in their corporate capacity several very considerable prerogatives. By them half the members of the great council were named; the principal magistrates were supplied from their own body; they convoked the great and general councils, deliberating previously upon every question which was to be brought before these councils. They were vested also with the chief executive power, the administration of finances, and had in a certain degree the jurisdiction in civil and criminal causes. Most of the smaller posts were likewise filled by them; and they enjoyed the sole privilege of conferring the burghership. These, and other prerogatives, however, were balanced by those of the great council and the privileges of the general council. The former had a right to choose the members of the senate from their own body; receiving appeals in all causes above a certain value, pardoning criminals, &c., besides which they had the important privilege of approving or rejecting whatever was proposed by the senate to be laid before the people.

The general council or assembly of the people is composed of the citizens and burghers of the town; their number in general amounting to 1500, though usually not more than 1200 were present; the remainder residing in foreign countries, or being otherwise absent. It meets twice a-year, chooses the principal magistrates, approves or rejects the laws and regulations proposed by the other councils, imposes taxes, contracts alliances, declares war or peace, and nominates half the members of the great council, &c. But the principal check to the power of the senate arose from the right of re-election, or the power of annually expelling four members from the senate at the nomination of the syndics or principal magistrates, and from the right of representation. The syndics are four in number, chosen annually from the senate by the general council; and three years elapse before the same members can be again appointed. In choosing these magistrates, the senate appointed from its own body eight candidates, from whom the four syndics were to be chosen by the general council. The latter, however, had it in their power to reject not only the first eight candidates, but also the whole body of senators in succession: in which case, four members of the senate retired into the great council; and their places were filled by an equal number from that council. With regard to the power of representation, every citizen or burgher has the privilege of applying to the senate in order to procure a new regulation in this respect, or of remonstrating against any act of the magistracy. To these remonstrances the magistrates were obliged to give an explicit answer; for if a satisfactory answer was not given to one, a second was immediately presented. The representation was made by a greater or smaller number of citizens according to the importance of the point in question.

Since the 1776, however, several changes have taken place. This right of re-election, which the aristocratical party were obliged to yield to the people in 1768, soon proved very disagreeable, being considered by the former as a kind of ostracism; for which reason they watched at every opportunity of procuring its abolition. They were now distinguished by the title of negatives, while the popular party had that of representatives; and the point in dispute was the compilation of a new code of laws. This measure the negatives opposed, as supposing that it would tend to reduce their prerogatives; while, on the other hand, the representatives used their utmost endeavours to promote it, in hopes of having their privileges augmented by this means. At last in the month of January 1777, the negatives were obliged to comply with the demands of their antagonists; and a committee for forming a new code of laws was appointed by the concurrence of the little, great, and general councils. The committee was to last for two years, and the code to be laid before the three councils for their joint approbation or rejection. A sketch of the first part of the code was presented to the little and great councils on the first of September 1779, that they might profit by their observations before it was presented to the general council. Great disputes arose; and at length it was carried by the negatives that the code should be rejected and the committee dissolved. The opposite party complained of this as unconstitutional, and violent disputes ensued; the issue of which was, that the great council offered to compile the code, and submit it to the decision of the public. This did not give satisfaction to the popular party, who considered it as insidious; the contentions revived with more fury than ever, until at length the negatives supposing, or pretending to suppose, that their country was in danger, applied to the guarantees, France, Zurich, and Berne, entreating them to protect the laws and constitution. This was productive of no good effect; so that the negatives found no other method of gaining their point than by fomenting dissension among the different classes of inhabitants. The natives were discontented and jealous on account of many exclusive privileges enjoyed by that class named citizens: they were besides exasperated against them for having, in 1779, banished eight of the principal natives, who pretended that the right of burghership belonged to the natives as well as to the citizens, and demanded that this right ought to be gratuitously conferred instead of being purchased. The negatives, in hopes of making such a considerable addition to their party, courted the natives by all the methods they could think of, promising by a public declaration that they were ready to confer upon them those privileges of trade and commerce which had hitherto been confined exclusively to the citizens. The designs of the negatives were likewise openly favoured by the court of France, and despatches were even written to the French resident at Geneva to be communicated to the principal natives who sided with the aristocratic party. The attorney-general, conceiving this mode of interference to be highly unconstitutional, presented a spirited remonstrance; by which the French court were so much displeased, that they procured his deposition from his office; and thus their party was very considerably increased among the natives. The representatives were by no means negligent in their endeavours to conciliate the favour of the same party, and even promised what they had hitherto opposed in the strongest manner, viz., to facilitate the acquisition of the burghership, and to bestow it as the recompense of industry and good behaviour. Thus two parties were formed among the natives themselves; and the dissensions becoming course of his life had ever been disposed to render him friendly offices; and it was but a short time after Gemminian's arrival at Dublin that he was called upon to do him the last. It appears that Gemminian had spent many years in compiling an elaborate treatise on music, which he intended for publication; but soon after his arrival at Dublin, by the treachery of a female servant, who, it was said, was recommended to him for no other end than that she might steal it, it was conveyed away, and could not be recovered. The great-ness of this loss, and his inability to repair it, made a deep impression on his mind; and, as it is conjectured, hastened his end; at least he survived it but a short time, ending his days off the 17th of September 1762.

The following list comprises the whole of his publications, except two or three articles of small account:

Twelve solos for a violin, opera prima; six concertos in seven parts, opera seconda; six concertos in seven parts, opera terza; twelve solos for a violin, opera quarta; six solos for a violoncello, opera quinta; the same made into solos for a violin; six concertos from his opera quarta; six concertos in eight parts, opera sextima; rules for playing in taste; a treatise on good taste; the art of playing the violin; 12 sonatas from his first solos, opera undecima; Ripieno parts to ditto; lessons for the harpsichord; Guida Armonica; supplement to ditto; the art of accompaniment, two books; his first two operas of concertos in score; and the Enchanted Forest.—Of his solos the opera prima is esteemed the best. Of his concertos some are excellent, others of them scarce pass the bounds of mediocrity. The sixth of the third opera not only surpasses all the rest, but, in the opinion of the best judges of harmony, is the finest instrumental composition extant.

GEMMA, or Bud, in Botany: a compendium or epitome of a plant, seated upon the stem and branches, and covered with scales, in order to defend the tender rudiments enclosed from cold and other external injuries, till, their parts being unfolded, they acquire strength, and render any further protection unnecessary.

Buds, together with bulbs, which are a species of buds generally seated upon or near the root, constitute that part of the herb called by Linnaeus hibernacula; that is, the winter quarters of the future vegetable: a very proper appellation, as it is during that severe season that the tender rudiments are protected in the manner just mentioned.

Plants, considered in analogy to animals, may properly enough be reckoned both viviparous and oviparous. Seeds are the vegetable eggs; buds, living fetuses, or infant plants, which renew the species as certainly as the seeds.

Buds are placed at the extremity of the young shoots, and along the branches, being fixed by a short footstalk upon a kind of brackets, the remainder of the leaves, in the wings or angles of which the buds in question were formed the preceding year. They are sometimes placed single; sometimes two by two, and those either opposite or alternate; sometimes collected in greater numbers in whirls or rings.

With respect to their construction, buds are composed of several parts artificially arranged. Externally, we find a number of scales that are pretty hard, frequently armed with hairs, hollowed like a spoon, and placed over each other like tiles. These scales are fixed into the inner plates of the bark, of which they appear to be a prolongation. Their use is to defend the internal parts of the bud; which, being unfolded, will produce, some flowers, leaves, and stipules; others, footstalks and scales. All these parts, while they remain in the bud, are tender, delicate, folded over each other, and covered with a thick clammy juice, which is sometimes resinous and odoriferous, as in the tamarack tree. This juice serves not only to defend the more tender parts of the embryo plant from cold, the assaults of insects, and other external injuries; but likewise from excessive perspiration, which, in its young and infant state, would be very destructive. It is conspicuous in the buds of horse chestnut, poplar, and willow trees.

In general, we may distinguish three kinds of buds; that containing the flower, that containing the leaves, and that containing both flower and leaves.

The first, termed gemma florifera, and by the French bouton à fleur or à fruit, contains the rudiments of one or several flowers, folded over each other, and surrounded with scales. In several trees, this kind of bud is commonly found at the extremity of certain small branches, which are shorter, rougher, and less garnished with leaves, than the rest. The external scales of this species of bud are harder than the internal; both are furnished with hairs, and in general more swollen than those of the second sort. The bud containing the flower too is commonly thicker, shorter, almost square, less uniform, and less pointed; being generally terminated obtusely. It is called by Pliny oculus gemmeus; and is employed in that species of grafting called inoculation, or budding.

The second species of bud, viz. that containing the leaves, termed gemma foliacea, and by the French bouton à feuilles or à bois, contains the rudiments of several leaves, which are variously folded over each other, and outwardly surrounded by scales, from which the small stipules that are seated at the foot of the young branches are chiefly produced. These buds are commonly more pointed than the former sort. In the hazel nut, however, they are perfectly round; and in horse chestnut, very thick.

The third sort of bud is smaller than either of the preceding; and produces both flowers and leaves, though not always in the same manner. Sometimes the flowers and leaves are unfolded at the same time. This mode of the flower and leaf bud is termed by Linnaeus gemma foliacea et florifera. Sometimes the leaves proceed or emerge out of this kind of bud upon a small branch, which afterwards produces flowers. This mode of the flower and leaf bud is termed by Linnaeus gemma foliacea florifera, and is the most common bud of any.

Such buds as produce branches adorned only with leaves, are called barren; such as contain both leaves and flowers, fertile. From the bulk of the bud we may often with ease foretell whether it contains leaves only, or leaves and flowers together, as in cherry and pear trees.

Neither the buds produced on or near the root, called by some authors turionae, nor those produced on the trunk, and from the angles or wings of the leaves, contain, in strict propriety, an entire delineation of the plant; since the roots are wanting; and in various buds, as we have seen, shoots are contained with leaves only, and not with flowers; but as a branch may be considered as a part similar to the whole plant, and, if planted, would in process of revegetation exhibit or produce roots and flowers, we may in general allow, that the bud contains the whole plant, or the principles of the whole plant, which may be unfolded ad libitum; and thus resembles the seed, in containing a delineation of the future plant in embryo: for although the bud wants a radicle, or plumula, of which the seed is possessed, yet it would undoubtedly form one, if planted in the earth. But as the medullary part adhering to the bud is too tender, and by the abundance of juice flowing into it from the earth would be disposed to putrefaction, the buds are not planted in the soil, but generally inserted within the bark of another tree; yet placed so that the production of the marrow, or pith, adhering to them, may be inserted into the pith of the branch in which the fissure or cleft is made; by which means there is a large communication of juice. This propagation by gems or buds, called inoculation, is commonly practised with the first sort of buds above described.

From the obvious uses of the buds, we may collect the reason why the Supreme Author of nature has granted this sort of protection to most of the trees that are natives of cold climates: and, on the other hand, denied it to such as, enjoying a warm benign atmosphere, have not the tender parts of their embryo shoots exposed to injuries and depredations from the severities of the weather. Of this latter kind are the plants of the following list; some of them very large trees; others smaller woody vegetables, of the shrub and under-shrub kind: Citron, orange, lemon, cassava, mock orange, blad apple, shrubby fowallow wort, alaternus, shrubby geraniums, berry-bearing alder, Christ's thorn, Syrian mallow, boabab or Ethiopian four gourd, jujufia, mild fena, the acacias and sensitive plant, coral tree, flaxing bean trefoil, medicago, oleander, viburnum, sumach, ivy, tamarisk, heath, Barbadoes cherry, lavatera, rue, shrubby nightshades, Guinea henweed, cypres, lignum vitae, and favine, a species of juniper.

On annual plants, whose root as well as stalk perishes after a year, true buds are never produced; in their stead, however, are produced small branches, like a little feather, from the wings of the leaves, which wither without any farther expansion if the plants climb and have no lateral branches; but if, either by their own nature or from abundance of sap, the plants become branched, the ramuli just mentioned obtain an increase similar to that of the whole plant.

The same appearance obtains in the trees of warm countries, such as those enumerated in the above list, in which a plumula, or small feather, sends forth branches without a fealy covering; as, in such countries, this tender part requires no defence or protection from cold. A fealy covering then is peculiar to buds, as it protects the tender embryo enclosed from all external injuries. When we therefore speak of trees having buds that are naked or without scales, our meaning is the same as if we had said that they have no buds at all.

The buds that are to be unfolded the following year, break forth from the evolved buds of the present year, in such a manner as to put on the appearance of small eminences in the wings or angles of the leaves, Gemmatio These eminences or knots grow but little during the summer; as, in that season, the sap is expended on the increase of the parts of the plant: but in autumn, when the leaves begin to wither and fall off, the buds, placed on the wings, increase; and the embryo plant contained in the bud is so expanded, that the leaves and flowers, the parts to be evolved the following year, are distinctly visible. Thus in horse chestnut the leaves, and in cornel tree the flowers, are each to be observed in their respective buds.

As each bud contains the rudiments of a plant, and would, if separated from its parent vegetable, become every way similar to it; Linnæus, to show the wonderful fertility of nature, has made a calculation, by which it appears, that, in a trunk scarce exceeding a span in breadth, 10,000 buds (that is, herbs) may be produced. What an infinite number, then, of plants might be raised from a very large tree!

GEMMATIO, from gemma, "a bud;" a term used by Linnæus, expressive of the form of the buds, their origin, and their contents. It includes both those properly called buds, and those which are seated at the roots, styled bulbs.

As to the origin of buds, they are formed either of the footstalks of the leaves, of stipule, or of scales of the bark. Their contents have been already discovered, in the preceding article, to be either flowers, leaves, or both.

GEMONIÆ SCALEÆ, or Gradus Gemonii, among the Romans, was much the same as gallows or gibbet in England.—Some say they were thus denominated from the person who raised them; others, from the first criminals that suffered on them; and others, from the verb gemo, "I sigh or groan."

The gradus gemonii, according to Publius Victor or Sextus Rufus, was a place raised on several steps, from whence they precipitated their criminals; others represent it as a place whereon offenders were executed, and afterwards exposed to public view. The gemoniae scaleæ were in the tenth region of the city, near the temple of Juno. Camillus first appropriated the place to this use, in the year of Rome 358.

or GENS D'ARMES, in the French armies, a denomination given to a select body of horse, on account of their succeeding the ancient gendarmes, who were thus called from their being completely clothed in armour; (see Scots GENDARMES, infra.) These troops were commanded by captain lieutenants, the king and the princes of the blood being their captains; the king's troop, besides a captain-lieutenant, had two sublieutenants, three ensigns, and three guidons.

Grand GENDARMES, latterly were a troop composed of 250 gentlemen; the king himself was their captain, and one of the first peers their captain-lieutenant, who had under him two lieutenants, three ensigns, three guidons, and other officers.

Small GENDARMES, were the Scots gendarmes, the queen's, the dauphin's, the gendarmes of Anjou, Burgundy, the English and Flemish gendarmes, having each a captain lieutenant, sub-lieutenant, ensign, guidon, and quarter-master.

Scots GENDARMES, were originally instituted by Charles VII. of France, about the middle of the 15th century, Gender, century, and formed a part of his guard; in which Genealogy also they acted under other princes. It was their prerogative to take precedence of all the companies of the gendarmerie of France; and, on particular occa- sions, they even preceded the two companies of the king's mousquetaires. The sons of the Scottish mo- narchs were the usual captains of this company; and, after Mary's accession to the throne, its command belonged to them as a right. It was thence that James VI made a claim of it for his son Prince Henry. This honour, and its emoluments, were also enjoyed by Charles I, and the next in command to this prince was Louis Stuart duke of Lennox. George Gordon marquis of Huntly succeeded the duke of Lennox in the year 1624, and took the title of captain or com- mander in chief when Charles I mounted the English throne. It is not certain whether Charles II was ever captain of this company; but it was conferred on his brother the duke of York, who was captain of the Scots gendarmeries till the year 1667, when he resigned his commission into the hands of the French king. Since that time no native of Great Britain has enjoyed this command. See Scots Guards.

All the different gendarmeries are now abolished, in consequence of the reforming systems that have lately taken place in France.