Classification.

Mammals, having six or more cutting teeth in each jaw, and large canine teeth separated from the cutting teeth. Of these there are eight genera, comprehending those of the Dog, Hyena, Cat, Bear, Badger, Opossum, Weasel, and Otter. The third section contains animals that have no canine teeth, and only two cutting teeth in each jaw, being generally herbivorous or frugivorous. Of these there are eleven genera, viz. Cavy, Hare, Beaver, Porcupine, Marmot, Squirrel, Jerboa, Rat, Shrew, Mole, and Hedgehog. The fourth section comprehends those animals which are without cutting teeth, and which, like those of the last section, live on herbs and fruits. This section contains only two genera, viz. those of the Sloth and Armadillo. The fifth section contains animals that are destitute of teeth, and live on insects. Of these there are two genera, viz. Manis and Ant-Eater.

The third division consists of those animals that are pinnated or furnished with fins, and chiefly live in the water, feeding partly on fish and partly on herbage. Of these there are three genera, viz. the Walrus, Seal, and Manatee.

The fourth division, or that of the winged quadrupeds, contains the single genus of the Bat, which being placed last in the order of quadrupeds, is thus made to form the connecting link between them and the class of birds.

According to Cuvier's arrangement, the mammalia are divided into three general orders: 1. Those having claws or nails; 2. Those having hoofs; and 3. Those having feet like fins: a division very similar to that of Mr Pennant. The first of these orders is subdivided into those mammalia that have three sorts of teeth, and those that want at least one kind of teeth.

The first subdivision of the first order contains three families, viz.

I. BIMANUM, having thumbs separate on the atlantal extremities, comprehending Man alone.

II. QUADRUMANA, having the thumbs or great toes separate on each of the fore feet. This family contains two genera, viz. SIMIA or Apes, comprehending the sub-genera Pithecus or Orang-utan, Callitrix or Papajous, Cercopithecus or Guenons, Cynocephalus or Macaques, Papio or Baboons, Cebus or Alouatta; and Lemur or Loris, comprehending the sub-genera of Lemur, Indri, Lori, Galago, and Tardipus.

III. SARCOPHAGA; having no separate thumbs or great toes on the atlantal extremity. This family is subdivided into four sections, viz. CHEIROPTERA, or those that have elongated hands and membranes, extending between the feet from the neck to the anus; PLANTIGRADA, or those that have no separate thumbs or great toes, and who, in walking, apply the whole sole of the foot to the ground; CARNIVORA, or such as have no separate thumbs or great toes, and whose feet, in walking, rest only on the toes; and PEDIMANA, or such as have separate great toes on the sacral extremities or hind feet. The CHEIROPTERA comprise two genera, viz. Vespertilio or Bats, comprehending the sub-genera of Pteropus or Rousettes, Vespertilio or Common Bats, Rhinolophus, Phyllostoma, and Noctilio; and Galeopterus, or Flying Lemurs. The PLANTIGRADA contain four genera, viz. Erinaceus or Hedgehogs, comprehending the sub-genera of Erinaceus or hedgehogs, and tenrecs; Sorex or Shrews, comprehending the sub-genera of Forex or shrew mice, Claustrumygalis or mole shrew; Chrysochloris, Scaloops; Talpa or mole; and Ursus or Bears, comprehending the sub-genera of Ursus or bear, Taxus or badgers, Nafua or coatis, Procyon or raccoons; Potos or kinkajous, Ichneumon or mangousses. The CARNIVORA comprise four genera, viz. Mustela, or Weasels, comprehending the sub-genera of Mustela, or weasels and martins, Lutra or otters, Mephites or mouffettes, Viverra or civets; Felis, or Cat tribe; and Canis, or the Dog tribe, comprehending the sub-genera of Canis and hyena. The PEDIMANA contains only one genus, viz. Didelphis or Opossum, comprehending the sub-genera of Didelphis or Sariguet, Dasyurus, Phalangista or Phalangers.

IV. RODENTIA, or such quadrupeds as want only the canine teeth. This family comprises eight genera, viz. Kangurus, Kangaroo; Hystrix or Porcupines; Lepus, or Hares and Rabbits, comprehending the sub-genera of Lepus and Lagomys; Cavia, comprehending the sub-genera of Cavia and Hydrochaeris; Castor or Beavers; Sciurus or Squirrels, comprehending the sub-genera of Sciurus, and Pteromys or Flying Squirrels; Cheiromys, or Aye-aye; and Mus, or Rats and Mice, comprehending the sub-genera of Arctomys or marmots, Lemmus or field mice, fiber or Onatra, Mus or rats, Crictetus or hamsters, Iphalax or mole rat, Dipus or jerboas, Myoxus or dormice.

V. EDENTATA, or those mammalia which have neither cutting nor canine teeth. This family comprises three genera, viz. Myrmecophaga, or Ant-Eaters, comprehending the sub-genera of Myrmecophaga, Echidna or Porcupine ant-eaters, and Manis or Scaly lizards; Orycteropus, or Cape Ant-Eaters; and Dasyurus, or Armadillos.

VI. TARDIGRADA, or such as are deficient only in cutting teeth. Of this family there is only one genus, viz. Bradypus, or Sloths; under which Cuvier arranges as a subgenus, the unknown animal which he calls Megatherium.

The second order, or those quadrupeds that are furnished with hoofs, comprises three families, with the following distinctions and subdivisions.

VII. PACHYDERMATA, or those animals that have more than two toes and more than two hoofs. In this family there are six genera, viz. Elephas or Elephants; Tapir or Tapirus; Sus or Swine; Hippopotamus or River Horse; Hyrax or Daman; and Rhinoceros.

VIII. RUMINANTIA, having two toes and two hoofs. Of these there are eight genera, viz. Camelus or Camels, divided into the sub-genera of Camelus and Lama; Moschus or Musk; Cervus or Deer; Camelopardalis or Giraffe; Antelope or Antelopes; Capra or Goats; Ovis or Sheep; and Bos or Oxen.

IX. SOLIFEDA, having one toe and one hoof, and comprising only one genus, viz. Equus or Horse.

The third order, or the mammalia with fin-like feet, contains two families, viz. Amphibia and Cetacea.

X. AMPHIBIA, having four feet, and comprising two genera, viz. Phoca or Seals; and Trichecus or Morfes.

XI. CETACEA, containing five genera, viz. Manatus or Lamantins; Delphinus or Dolphins; Physe* Leconter or Cachalots; Balea or Common Whales; and Monodon or Narwhal*. MAMMALIA.

GENERIC CHARACTERS.

ORDO I. PRIMATES.

Homo. Situs erectus. Hymen et menstrua feminorum.

1. Simia. Dentes lanarii, hinc remoti. 2. Lemur. Dentes primores superiores 4; inferiores 6. 3. Galopithecus. Dentes primores superiores nulli; inferiores 6. * 4. Vespertilio. Manus palmato-volatilis (A).

ORDO II. BRUTA.

5. Bradypus. Dentes molares primo longiore, absque lanariis primoribusve. Corpus pilosum. 6. Myrmecophaga. Dentes nulli. Corpus pilosum. 7. Mans. Dentes nulli. Corpus squamatum. 8. Dasyfus. Molares absque lanariis primoribusve. Corpus cataphractum. 9. Rhinoceros. Cornu in fronte positum. 10. Elephas. Dentes lanarii et molares. Nafus proboscide elongatus. 11. Sukotyro. Cornu ad utrumque latus prope oculos. 12. Platypus. Os anatinum. Pedes palmati. 13. Trichecus. Dentes lanarii superiores, molares ex olle rugoso. Pedes compedes.

ORDO III. FERÆ.

* 14. Phoca. Dentes primores superiores 6; inferiores 4. * 15. Canis. Dentes primores 6, 6; superiores intermedii lobati. * 16. Felis. Dentes primores 6, 6; inferiores æquales. Lingua aculeata. * 17. Viverra. Dentes primores 6, 6; inferiores intermedii breviores. * 18. Lutra. Dentes ut in Viverra. Pedes palmati. * 19. Ursus. Dentes primores 6, 6; superiores excavati. Penis osse flexuofo. 20. Didelphis. Dentes primores superiores 10; inferiores 8. 21. Dasyurus. Dentes primores superiores 8; inferiores 6. 22. Macropus. Dentes primores superiores 6; inferiores 2. Molares utrinque 5, remoti. * 23. Talpa. Dentes primores superiores 6; inferiores 8.

Man. Posture erect. Female furnished with a hymen, and menstruating.

S. Tusks distant from each other. L. Fore teeth upper 4; lower 6 in number. G. Front teeth in the upper jaw wanting; in the lower 6. V. Fore feet palmate, formed for flying.

B. Grinders longer in front, without tusks. Body hairy. M. No teeth. Body hairy. N. No teeth. Body scaly. D. Grinders, without tusks or cutting teeth. Body crustaceous. R. Horn seated in front. E. Tusks and grinders. Nose elongated into a proboscis. S. A horn on each side near the eyes. P. Mouth like a duck's bill. Feet webbed. T. Upper tusks. Grinders rough and bony. Hind feet uniting into a fin.

* P. Six upper cutting teeth; 4 lower. * C. Front teeth, six in each jaw; the intermediate upper ones lobated. * F. Cutting teeth fix in each jaw; the lower equal. Tongue aculeate. * V. Cutting teeth 6 in each jaw; the intermediate lower ones shorter. * L. Teeth as in the last genus. Feet webbed. * U. Cutting teeth 6 in each jaw; the upper hollowed. Penis furnished with a flexible bone. D. Cutting teeth 10 in the upper jaw; 8 in the lower. D. Cutting teeth 8 in the upper jaw; 6 in the lower. M. Cutting teeth 6 in the upper jaw; 2 in the lower. Grinders 5 on each side, remote. * T. Cutting teeth in the upper jaw 6; in the lower 8.

(a) The genera marked * have one or more of the species indigenous to Britain. Part I.

Classification.

* 24. Sorex. Dentes primores superiores 2; inferiores 4. * 25. Erinaceus. Dentes primores superiores 2; inferiores 2.

Ordo IV. GLIRES.

26. Hystrix. Corpus spinis tectum. 27. Cavia. Dentes primores cuneati. Molares 4 ad utrumque latus. Claviculae nulla. 28. Castor. Dentes primores superiores cuneati. Molares ad utrumque latus. Claviculae perfectae. * 29. Mus. Dentes primores superiores cuneati. Molares 3 ad utrumque latus. Claviculae perfectae. 30. Hydromys. Pedes posteriores palmate. Cauda cylindrica. 31. Arctomys. Dentes primores cuneati. Molares superiores 5, inferiores 4, ad utrumque latus. Claviculae perfectae. * 32. Sciurus. Dentes primores superiores cuneati; inferiores acuti. Molares superiores 5, inferiores 4, ad utrumque latus. Claviculae perfectae. Cauda dilatata. Mytaces longae. * 33. Myoxus. Mytaces longae. Cauda rotunda, apice crassior. 34. Dipus. Pedes anteriores perbreves; posteriores praelongi. * 35. Lepus. Dentes primores superiores duplicati. 36. Hyrax. Dentes primores superiores lati. Cauda nulla.

Ordo V. PECORA.

37. Camelus. Ecornis. Dentes lanarii plures. 38. Moschus. Ecornis. Dentes lanarii solitarii; superiorebus exsertis. * 39. Cervus. Cornua folida, ramosa, decidua. Dentes lanarii nulli. 40. Camelopardalis. Cornua brevissima. Pedes posteriores multo longiores. 41. Antilope. Cornua folida, simplicia, persisten- tia. Dentes lanarii nulli. * 42. Capra. Cornua tubulosa, erecta. Dentes lanarii nulli. * 43. Ovis. Cornua tubulosa reclinata. Dentes lanarii nulli. * 44. Bos. Cornua tubulosa porrecta. Dentes lanarii nulli.

Ordo VI. BELLUÆ.

* 45. Equus. Dentes primores superiores 6; inferiores 6. 46. Hippopotamus. Dentes primores superiores 4; inferiores 4. 47. Tapir. Dentes primores superiores 10; inferiores 10. * 48. Sus. Dentes primores superiores 4; inferiores 6.

Ordo VII. CETE.—See CETOLOGY.

PART PART II. ARRANGEMENT AND HISTORY OF THE SPECIES.

CHAP. I. PRIMATES.

OF this order we shall here give an account only of the four genera, Simia, Lemur, Galopithhecus, and Vespertilio, reserving Man for a separate article.

Genus I. Simia. Apes.

Front teeth four in each jaw, near together; canine foliary, longer than the others, and at a distance from the grinders. Grinders obtuse.

The animals of this genus, which are best known by the familiar name of apes or monkeys, form a very interesting part of the animal creation; not so much for their importance and utility in relation to man, as on account of the near resemblance that they bear to the human species. They are a very lively tribe of animals, full of frolic, chatter, and grimace. From the structure of their limbs, they are capable of performing many actions in common with man; and we shall presently relate some diverting instances of their imitative powers. Most of them are fierce and untameable, though some are of a more gentle nature, and even seem capable of an attachment to man. In general, however, they are prone to mischief, and are filthy, obscene, lascivious, and thievish. When offended, they use threatening gestures; and when pleased, they appear to laugh. Many of them have cheek pouches, in which they keep for a while such food as they have not immediate use for. They are commonly gregarious, going together in vast companies, the different species never mixing with each other, but keeping apart, and in different quarters. They inhabit woods, and live on trees, leaping with vast activity from one tree to another, even though loaded with their young, which cling to them. They are not carnivorous, but chiefly feed on fruits and leaves, sometimes on insects, though, for mischief's sake, they will often rob the nests of birds of their eggs and young. They are themselves the prey of serpents, which pursue them to the trees and swallow them entire. They are also devoured by leopards and similar beasts of prey. Some species are eaten by the natives of the countries where they are found.

These animals are almost confined to the torrid zone, and, in particular, the woods of Africa, from Senegal to the Cape, and from thence to Ethiopia, are crowded with them. They are found in all parts of India, and its islands, in the south of China, in Cochin-China and Japan; and they swarm in the forests of South America, from the isthmus of Darien to Paraguay.

In some parts of India monkeys are objects of worship by the natives, and magnificent temples are erected in honour of them (B). In these countries they frequently come in vast numbers into the cities, and enter the houses without molestation. In Amadabad, the capital of Guzurad, there are three hospitals for animals, where lame and sick monkeys, and such as, though well, choose to dwell there, are fed and cherished. Twice a week the monkeys of the neighbourhood assemble spontaneously in the streets of this city, mount on the housetops which are flat-roofed, and lie here during the great heats. On these days the inhabitants take care to leave for them rice, millet, or fruit; and if by any accident they omit to do this, the disappointed animals become furious, break the tiles, and do other mischief.

From the great number of species, it has been found convenient to distribute them into three subdivisions, viz. those of apes, baboons, and monkeys. We shall enumerate the species under each of these subdivisions, with their specific characters, and shall then give a brief account of some of the most remarkable individuals.

A. Apes, destitute of tails. In this subdivision are Apes reckoned 4 species, viz.

1. S. Satyrus, Gran Otan, or Wild Man of the Wood. Tailless, either chestnut colour or black, without callosities behind, and with the hair on the lower parts of the arms reverled.—2. S. Lor, Great Gibbon or long-armed A. Tailless, usually black, without callosities behind, and with arms as long as the body.—3. S. Inuas, Magot or Barbary A. Tailless; pale brown, with callosities behind and an oblong head.—4. S. Sylvanus, Pigmy. Tailless, pale brown, with callosities behind, and a roundish head.

B. Baboons. Tails commonly short; bodies much Babooncular. In this there are 16 species, viz.

5. S. Sphinx, Common B. Short tailed; brown, with callosities behind, with dull flesh-coloured face and pointed nails.—6. S. Mormon, Mantegar, or Great B. Short-tailed; tawny brown, with callosities behind, naked tumid, violet blue cheeks, obliquely furrowed, and the middle of the nose blood red.—7. S. Maimon, Mandril or Ribbed-nose B. Short-tailed, olive brown, with callosities behind; naked violet-blue furrowed cheeks, and the middle of the nose flesh coloured.—8. S. Porcarius, or Hog-faced B. Short-tailed, brown, covered behind, with black naked hog-like face and pointed nails.—9. S. Sylvicola, Wood B. Short-tailed; fleshy brown, with callosities behind, and with black naked face, hands, and feet.—10. S. Sublutea, Yellow

(B) When the Portuguese got possession of the island of Ceylon, they found in one of the temples dedicated to these animals, a golden casket containing the tooth of an ape; a relic which the natives held in such veneration, that they offered to redeem it at no less a price than 700,000 ducats. The viceroy, however, ordered it to be burned; but, some years afterwards, a fellow, who was in the Portuguese ambassador's train, having procured a similar tooth, pretended that it was the old one, and offered it to the priests, who were so much rejoiced at the recovery of their lost treasure, that they purchased it of the fellow for above 10,000l. of our money. Primates. low B. Short-tailed; yellow, freckled with black, with naked black face and hands, hairy on the upper surface.—11. S. Cinerea, Cinereous B. Short-tailed; cinereous, with the crown spotted with yellow; brown face and pale beard.—12. S. Dentata, Broad-toothed B. Short tailed, ash brown, with bluish face, and very large fore teeth.—13. S. Pyga. Brown B. Short-tailed; brown, with callosities behind, a whitish face, and a very broad nose.—14. S. Nemebrina. Pig-tailed B. Olive brown, with short naked tail.—15. S. Criftata. Crested B. Short tailed; black, with very long hair on the crown and cheeks; whitish breast, and bare face and hands.—16. S. Apedia, Little B. Short tailed; yellowish, without callosities behind, with thumbs standing close to the fingers, and furnished with rounded nails; the fingers with narrow ones.—17. S. Hamadryas, Dog-faced B. Tail gray, with callosities behind; tharpih claws, and the hairs on each side of the head very long.—18. S. Ferox, Lion-tailed B. Tailed; black, with very large whitish spreading beard.—19. S. Cynocephalus. Pale brown, bearded, with callosities behind, and with longish flesh-coloured face; a whitish band across the forehead, and a longish sharp-pointed tail.—20. S. Rupaiia, Wrinkled B. Short-tailed, yellowish brown; whitish beneath, with flesh-coloured face, and large blood-red wrinkled callosities behind.

C. Monkeys. Tails generally long. This subdivision contains 42 species, viz.

21. S. Leonina, Leonine Monkey. Black, with callosities behind, very large whitish beard, and very long tufted tail.—22. S. Cynomolgus, Hare-lipped M. Long-tailed, bearded, with callosities behind, rising blunt nostrils, and arched tail.—23. S. Vetus, Purple-faced M. Long-tailed; white, with black beard.—24. S. Roloway, Roloway or Raloure M. Short-tailed, blackish; white beneath, with triangular face, surrounded by a white divided beard.—25. S. Diana, Diana or Spotted M. Long-tailed, blackish, freckled with white; the hair of the forehead and beard growing in a pointed form, with a lunated band across the forehead.—26. S. Nafusa, Long-nosed M. Long-tailed, blackish-rufly; pale ash-coloured beneath, with long naked flesh-coloured face.—27. S. Flavifrons, Yellowish M. Long-tailed, bearded, cinereous; yellow, with black face and ears.—28. S. Sabaeo, Green M. Long-tailed, yellowish gray, with black face, and callosities behind.—29. S. Ethipos, Mangabey or White-eyelid M. Long-tailed, bearded, with black face; white eyelids, white frontal band, and the hair on the forehead upright.—30. S. Cephas, Muffaface M. Long-tailed, blackish rufly, whitish beneath, with bearded cheeks and yellowish crown; red eyelids and whitish muzzle.—31. S. Nictitans, White-nosed M. Long-tailed, bearded, black, freckled with white; the thumb of the hands very short, and no callosities behind.—32. S. Talapoin. Long-tailed, olive-coloured; bearded cheeks, and black ears, nose, and soles.—33. S. Maura, Negro M. Long-tailed, blackish, with fleshy flesh-coloured face and breast, and blackish beard.—34. S. Agulla, Egret M. Long-tailed, bearded; gray, with a rising longitudinal tuft on the crown.—35. S. Rubra, Red M. Long-tailed, red pale ash-coloured beneath, with bearded cheeks, and a black or white band across the forehead.—36. S. Sinica, Chi-

nese M. Bearded, pale brown, with the hair of the History of crown spreading round horizontally.—37. S. Petaurista, Vaulting M. Olive black; white beneath, with a triangular white spot on the nose.—38. S. Pileata, Bonneted M. Rusty brown, whitish; yellow beneath, with black limbs, and the hair at the head rising circularly upwards.—39. S. Mona, Varied M. Olive rusty; white beneath, with the cheeks bearded, and a lunated whitish band across the forehead.—40. S. Nafalis, Proboscis M. Long-tailed, bearded, chestnut colour, with pale limbs and tail, and a very long nose.—41. S. Neumai, Cochin-China M. Long-tailed, with bearded cheeks and white tail.—42. S. Fauna, Tawny M. Subferruginous, with the lower part of the back orange, white beneath, with flesh-coloured face and ears.—43. S. Hircina, Goat M. Long-tailed, brown, with blue furrowed nose, and long-pointed beard.—44. S. Comoa, Full-bottom M. Long-tailed, black, with very long spreading whitish hair on the head, and white tail.—45. S. Ferruginea, Bay M. Long-tailed, rusty, with black limbs and tail.—46. S. Annulata, Annulated M. Rusty brown, whitish beneath, with annulated tail, shorter than the body.—47. S. Pithecia, Fox-tailed M. Blackish brown, with the tips of the hair whitish, and very bushy tail.—48. S. Iacchus, Striated M. Long-tailed, with spreading hairy ears; crooked hairy tail and sharp claws, those on the thumb being rounded.—49. S. Oedipus, Red-tailed M. Long, red-tailed, bearded, with the hair of the head spreading downwards, and sharp nails.—50. S. Rojalia, Silky M. Long-tailed, silky hair, with long hair on the head; yellow body, reddish round the face, and pointed claws.—51. S. Nadus, Great-eared M. Long-tailed, black, with large naked square ears, orange-coloured feet, and pointed nails.—52. S. Argentata, Fair M. Long-tailed, bearded, white, with red face and brown tail.—53. S. Beesbeul, Preacher M. Bearded, black, the feet and tip of the tail brown; tail prehensile.—54. S. Semiculus, Royal M. Long-tailed, bearded red; tail prehensile.—55. S. Paniceps, Four-fingered M. Long-tailed, bearded, black, with four-fingered feet; tail prehensile.—56. S. Fatallus, Horned M. Long-tailed, bearded, with two horns like tufts on the head; tail prehensile.—57. S. Trepida, Fearful M. Long-tailed, bearded, with upright hair on the head, and bluish feet; tail prehensile.—58. S. Apella, Weeper M. Long-tailed, bearded; brown body, black feet, and without callosities; tail prehensile.—59. S. Capucina, Capuchin M. Long-tailed, bearded, without callosities, with black crown and limbs, and hirsute prehensile tail.—60. S. Sciurea, Squirrel M. Long-tailed, yellowish gray, bearded, with orange-coloured hands and feet; four of the claws, and the hind feet pointed.—61. S. Antiquenfis, Antigua M. Blackish brown, white beneath, with black limbs and face-bearded cheeks, and brown prehensile tail.—62. S. Moro, Naked-tailed M. Long-tailed, bearded, brown, with dusky muzzle, and naked scaly tail.

Species i. S. Satyrus. Oran Otan, Wild Man of Satyrus, the Woods. Chimpanzee, Jocko. Tailless Ape.—It is generally believed by naturalists, that the animals which have been described under the names given above, are only varieties of the same species, differing from each other in size, colour, sex, and some other trifling shades of discrimination. Four remarkable specimens have have been described by authors of repute; one by our countryman Tyfon; another by Professor Allamand; a third by Vofmaer; and a fourth by Edwards.

The orangutan is said sometimes to have attained the height of six feet; the specimens brought into Europe have seldom exceeded the half of that stature. His strength, however, is very great; and, in his native forests, it is said that the most muscular man is by no means a match for him. His colour is usually a dusky brown; almost the whole body, except the feet and palms of the hands, is covered with hair; but in some varieties the face is said to be nearly as bare as the human. Indeed there is no animal which bears so strong a resemblance to man as this species. His hands, feet, and ears are almost exactly human; and, to a superficial observer, many others of its features so nearly resemble those of man, that he has been considered, by some writers, as man in his rudest and most uncultivated state. On a closer examination, however, it has been found, that there are marks of distinction sufficiently strong to overturn an opinion so humiliating to the lords of the creation, and to demonstrate, that even in anatomical structure this animal differs as much from the most savage of the human species, as the latter does in point of sagacity and reasoning powers from the most cultivated European. The nose of the orangutan is flatter, and his mouth wider, than that of the Negro; his forehead is more oblique; his chin has no elevation at the base; his eyes are much nearer each other, and the distance between the nose and the mouth is much greater than in man. He has also no calves to his legs, and, though he sometimes walks on two, it is pretty certain that this attitude is not natural to him. Buffon has asserted that these animals always walk upright, and has made this circumstance one of the distinguishing characters of his division of apes. It is now, however, generally understood, that this assertion is too hasty; and it is the opinion of those most capable of judging, that the orangutan, like all other animals except man, was intended by nature to walk on all fours. See Man.

On the whole it appears that there are two principal varieties of this species; one of which has been distinguished by the name of pongo, or great orangutan, and the other has been called jocko. The following account is given of the pongo by Battel. "This pongo is all proportioned like a man, but that he is more like a giant in stature than a man; for he is very tall, and hath a man's face, hollow-eyed, with long hair upon his brows. His face and ears are without hair, and his hands also. He differeth not from man but in his legs, for they have no calf. He goes always upon his legs, and carrieth his hands clasped on the nape of his neck when he goeth upon the ground. They sleep in the trees and build shelters from the rain. They feed upon fruit that they find in the woods and upon nuts, for they eat no kind of flesh. They cannot speak, and have no understanding more than a beast. The people of the country when they travel in the woods, make fires where they sleep in the night; and in the morning when they are gone, the pongo will come and sit about the fire till it goeth out; for they have no understanding to lay the wood together. They go many together, and kill many negroes that travel in the woods. Many times they fall upon the elephants, which come to feed where they be, and so beat them with their clubbed fists, and pieces of wood, that they will run roaring away from them. Those pongoes are never taken alive, because they are so strong that ten men cannot hold one of them, but yet they take many of their young ones with poisoned arrows. The young pongo hangeth on his mother's belly, with his hands clasped about her, so that when any of the country people kill any of the females, they take the young one, which hangeth fast upon his mother."

This is almost the only account which we have of the orangutan in its native state. The other relations of its habits and manners are descriptive of it in a state of captivity, and of these we shall present our readers with some of the most remarkable.

Mr. Buffon gives us the following account of a jocko, which he saw in France. "The orangutan which I saw walked always on two feet, even when carrying things of considerable weight. His air was melancholy, his gait grave, his movements measured, his disposition gentle, and very different from those of other apes. He had neither the impatience of the Barbary ape, the maliciousness of the baboon, nor the extravagance of the monkeys. It may be alleged (says our author) that he had the benefit of instruction; but the other apes, which I shall compare with him, were educated in the same manner. Signs and words were alone sufficient to make our orangutan act; but the baboon required a cudgel, and the other apes a whip; for none of them would obey without blows. I have seen this animal present his hand to conduct the people who came to visit him, and walk as gravely along with them as if he had formed a part of the company. I have seen him sit down at table, unfold his towel, wipe his lips, use a spoon or a fork to carry the victuals to his mouth, pour his liquor into a glass, and make it touch that of the person who drank along with him. When invited to tea, he brought out a cup and saucer, placed them on the table, poured out the tea, and allowed it to cool before he drank it. All these actions he performed without any other instruction than the signs or verbal orders of his master, and often of his own accord. He did no injury to any person; he even approached company with circumspection, and presented himself as if he wanted to be caressed. He was very fond of dainties, which every body gave him; and as his breast was diseased, and he was affected with a teasing cough, this quantity of sweet-meats undoubtedly contributed to shorten his life. He lived one summer in Paris, and died in London the following winter. He ate almost everything, but preferred ripe and dried fruits to all other kinds of food. He drank a little wine, but spontaneously left it for milk, tea, or other mild liquors."

Doctor Tyfon describes the orangutan which was exhibited in London about the end of the seventeenth century as the most gentle and loving creature that could be. Those that knew him on board the ship in which he was brought to England, he would come and embrace with the greatest tenderness, and though there were other monkeys on board, it was observed that he would never associate with any of them, but always avoided their company as of nothing akin to them. He was sometimes dressed in clothes of which he at length became very fond, would put on part of them without help, and carry the rest in his hands to some of the Pere Carbaso brought up an orangutan, which became so fond of him, that wherever he went it was always desirous of accompanying him; whenever, therefore, he had to perform the service of his church, he was obliged to shut it up in a room. Once, however, the animal escaped and followed the father to the church, where, mounting on the sounding board above the pulpit, he lay perfectly still till the sermon commenced. He then crept to the edge of the board, and overlooking the preacher, imitated all his gestures in a grotesque manner, that the congregation was unavoidably caused to laugh. The father surprised and confounded at this ill-timed levity, reproved his audience for their inattention. The reproof failed in its effect; the congregation still laughed, and the preacher in the warmth of his zeal redoubled his vociferations and his actions; then the ape so exactly imitated, that the congregation could no longer restrain themselves, but burst into loud and continued laughter. A friend of the preacher at length stepped up to him, and pointed out the cause of this improper conduct; and such was the arch demeanour of the animal, that it was with the utmost difficulty he could command his countenance and keep himself apparently serious, while he ordered the servant of the church to take the ape away.

Perhaps one of the most interesting accounts of the orangutan is that given by Vofmaer, and with this we shall close our history of this species.

This animal (says M. Vofmaer) was a female; its height was about two Rhenish feet and a half. It showed no symptoms of fierceness or malignity, and was even of a somewhat melancholy appearance. It was fond of being in company, and showed a preference of those who took daily care of it, of which it seemed to be sensible. Often when they retired, it would throw itself on the ground, uttering lamentable cries, and tearing pieces of linen within its reach. Its keeper having sometimes been accustomed to sit near it on the ground, it took the hay of its bed, and laid it by its side, and seemed by every demonstration to invite him to be seated near. Its usual manner of walking was on all fours, like other apes, but it could also walk on its two hind feet only. One morning it got unchained, and we beheld it with wonderful agility ascend the beams and rafters of the building; it was not without some pains that it was retaken, and we then remarked an extraordinary muscular power in the animal, the assistance of four men being necessary to hold it in such a manner as to be properly secured. During its state of liberty it had among other things taken a cork from a bottle of Malaga wine, which it drank to the last drop, and had set the bottle in its place again. It ate almost everything which was given to it; but its chief food was bread, roots, and especially carrots, all sorts of fruits, especially strawberries; and it appeared extremely fond of aromatic plants, and of the leaves and roots of parsley. It also ate meat, both boiled and roasted, as well as fish. It was not observed to hunt for insects like other monkeys, was fond of eggs, which it broke with its teeth, and sucked completely; but fish and roasted meat seemed its favourite food. It had been taught to eat with a spoon and a fork. When presented with strawberries on a plate, it was extremely pleasant to see the animal take them up one by one with a fork, and put them into its mouth, holding at the same time the plate in the other hand. Its common drink was water, but it also very willingly drank all sorts of wine, and particularly Malaga. After drinking, it wiped its lips; and after eating, if presented with a toothpick, would use it in a proper manner. I was assured (continues our writer), that on shipboard it ran freely about the vessel, played with the sailors, and would go like them into the kitchen for its meals. At the approach of night, it lay down to sleep, and prepared its bed by shaking well the hay on which it slept, and putting it in proper order, and lastly covering itself with the coverlet. One day seeing the padlock of its chain opened with a key, and shut again, it seized a little bit of stick, and put it into the key-hole, turning it about in all directions, endeavouring to see whether the padlock would open or not. This animal lived seven months in Holland. On its first arrival it had but very little hair except on its back and arms; but on the approach of winter it became extremely well covered; the hair on the back being three inches in length. The whole animal then appeared of a chestnut colour; the skin of the face, &c., was of a mouse colour, but about the eyes and round the mouth, of a dull flesh colour." It came from the island of Borneo, and was after its death deposited in the museum of the prince of Orange.

3. S. Inuus. Magot, Barbary Ape.—This species is Inuus, considered by some naturalists as forming the connecting link between the ape, properly so called, and the baboon. Like the latter it has posterior callosities, and though it properly has no tail, it is furnished with an appendage of skin in the place where the tail is situated in other species. The hair on the greatest part of its body is of a greenish brown, the belly being paler than the rest; the face is of a fleshy flesh-colour, and the fingers and toes are furnished with nails resembling those of the human species.

It is found most commonly in Barbary and some other parts of Africa as far as the Cape of Good Hope, and it is also occasionally met with in Tartary, in Arabia, and in some parts of the Indian peninsula.

It is probable that Tavernier alludes to this species, in the account he gives of a custom amongst some of the inhabitants of India of amusing themselves at the expense of the ape. These people place five or six baskets of rice, forty or fifty yards afar, in an open ground near their retreat, and by every basket put a number of stout cudgels, each about two feet long; they then retire to some hiding place not far distant, to wait the event. When the apes observe no person near the baskets, they soon descend in great numbers from the trees, and run towards them; they grin at each other for some time before they dare approach; sometimes they advance, then retreat seeming much disinclined to encounter. At length the females, which are more courageous than the males, especially those that have young ones (which they carry in their arms as women do their children), venture to approach the baskets, and as they are about to thrust their heads in to eat, the males on the one side advance to hinder them. Immediately the other party comes forward; and the feud being kindled on both sides, the combatants seize the

History of cudgels, and commence a most severe fight, which always ends with the weakest being driven into the woods, with broken heads and limbs. The victors, he tells us, then fall in peace, and devour the reward of their labour.

Of all the apes this agrees best with the temperature of an European climate, and may easily be kept in a state of domestication. Buffon had one which he kept for several years. In summer he delighted to be in the open air, and in winter he appeared sufficiently comfortable in a room without a fire, which showed he was by no means delicate. He was always of a grave deportment, and sometimes dirty in his manner. His movements were brisk, and his countenance rather ugly than ridiculous. When agitated with passion, he exhibited and grinded his teeth. He filled the pouches of his cheeks with the food which was given him, and generally ate everything except raw flesh, cheese, and whatever had undergone a kind of fermentation. When about to sleep, he loved to perch upon an iron or wooden bar. He was always chained, because though he had been long in a domestic state he was not civilized, and had no attachment to his masters. He seems to have been ill educated, for Buffon had seen others of the same species more intelligent, more obedient, more gay, and less docile as to learn to dance and make gesticulations in cadence, and to allow themselves peaceably to be clothed.

The flesh of this species is used as food by the wild Arabs.

4. S. Sylvanus. Pitheque. Pigmy.—This species greatly resembles the last, except that its head is rounder, and that it is much inferior in size, being seldom larger than a cat. It is thought by Mr Pennant to be the pigmy of the ancients; or one of that nation which was by them supposed to carry on periodical wars with the cranes. It is a native of Africa, and is also found in the East Indies and in Ceylon. They associate in troops, and live chiefly on vegetable food. They are often found walking erect. They are said to be very malicious and spiteful.

We are told by Marmol that they go in troops into the gardens or fields; but before they leave the thickets, one of them ascends an eminence from which he views the country; and when he sees no person, he gives the signal by a cry for the rest to proceed, and removes not from his station as long as they continue abroad: but whenever he perceives any person approaching, he screams with a loud voice, and by leaping from tree to tree they all fly to the mountains. Their flight is worthy of admiration; for the females, though they carry four or five young ones on their backs, make great springs from branch to branch. Though extremely cunning, vast numbers of them are taken by different arts. When wild they bite desperately, but by carefies they are easily tamed. They do much mischief to the fruits and corn; for they gather it together in heaps, cut it, and throw it on the ground whether it be ripe or not, and destroy more than they eat or carry off. Those who are tamed perform things incredible, and imitate every human action.

They chiefly reside in caverns, which gives the natives an easy opportunity of taking them alive. For this purpose the natives place vessels containing intoxicating liquors in the caverns frequented by the apes, and these animals assemble together to drink these liquors. After having become intoxicated, they fall asleep, and are easily taken by the hunters.

5. S. Sphinx. Great baboon. Papion. Mottled Sphinx, baboon.—This is a very large species, measuring when sitting on its posterior, three or four feet high. It is very strong and muscular, especially towards the fore parts of the body; but its waist, as is common to all the baboons, is slender. All the nails are not pointed, those on the thumbs and great toes being rounded. The tail is short and thick, and rounded; the posteriors are perfectly bare and callous, and of a red colour.

The baboon is a native of Borneo, and of the hottest parts of the African continent. It lives chiefly on vegetables, but is said to be very fond of eggs. The female brings forth one young at a time, and carries it in her arms.

From the great size and strength of these animals they are not a little formidable; and as their natural disposition is very ferocious, it is dangerous to encounter any number of them in their native wilds.

The baboons are passionately fond of raisins, apples, and in general of all fruits which grow in gardens. Their teeth and paws render them formidable to dogs, who overcome them with difficulty, unless when eating has made them heavy and inactive. Buffon has remarked that they neither eat fish nor flesh, except when boiled or roasted, and then they devour both with avidity. In their expeditions to rob orchards, gardens, or vineyards, they generally go in troops. Some of them enter the inclosure, while others remain on the walls as sentinels to give notice of any approaching danger. The rest of the troop are stationed without the garden, at convenient distances from each other, and thus form a line, which extends from the place of pillage to that of their rendezvous. Matters being disposed in this manner, the baboons begin the operation, and throw to those on the wall melons, gourds, apples, pears, &c. Those on the walls throw these fruits to their neighbours below; and thus the spoils are handed along the whole line, which generally terminates on some mountain. They are so dexterous and quick-fisted, that they seldom allow the fruit to fall in throwing it from one to another. All this is performed with profound silence and great dispatch. When the sentinels perceive any person, they cry, and at this signal the whole troop fly off with astonishing rapidity.

In confinement the great baboon loses nothing of his native ferocity. He is indeed one of the most unmanageable of his tribe, grinding his teeth, putting on a threatening aspect, and shaking the bars of his cage so as often to make the spectators tremble. Mr Smellie speaks of one that he saw at Edinburgh in 1779, that was remarkable for its size, strength, and beautiful colours. He was nearly five feet high, and was excessively fierce, presenting uniformly to the spectators a most threatening aspect, and attempting to seize every person that came within the length of his chain. On such occasions he made a deep grunting noise, and was perpetually tossing up his head. This seems to have been the same animal that is described by Mr Pennant as having been seen by him at Chester about two months after the time mentioned by Mr Smellie. He was particularly fond of cheese; his voice was a kind of roar not unlike that of a lion, but low and somewhat inward. It went on all-fours, and never stood on its hind legs unless forced to do so by its keeper. He would frequently sit on his rump in a crouching posture, and drop his hands before his belly.

It is not a little extraordinary that an animal of this disposition should be kept in private houses as a pet, especially when we consider the mischiefs that they often commit. Dr Goldsmith says that he has seen one of them demolish a whole service of china, without appearing in the least conscious of having done amiss, though the mischief was evidently intentional.

14. S. Nemebrina. Pig-tailed baboon.—Olive brown, with short naked tail.

This is but a small species, seldom exceeding the size of a cat. The tail exactly resembles that of a pig. It is a native of Sumatra, and is very lively and active. He is sometimes seen in an exhibition in this country, but seldom lives long in a climate so much colder than his own.

Mr Edwards had a male of this species: it lived with him for a year, and was about the size of a common house cat. Another of the same species being at that time exhibited at Bartholomew fair in London, Mr Edwards carried his to compare with it; and he remarks that they seemed highly pleased with each other's company, though this was the first time of their meeting.

53. S. Beelzebul. Preacher monkey.—This species is found in great numbers in the woods of South America, especially in Guiana and Brazil. It is the largest of the American monkeys, being about the size of a fox, and of a gloomy black colour. There is in the throat of this animal a hollow bony substance, which is supposed to produce that peculiar dreadful howl for which this animal and the next species are so remarkable. They are exceedingly mischievous and spiteful, and if attacked they bite cruelly. They usually keep together in parties of from 20 to 30, rambling over the tops of the trees, and leaping with great agility from one tree to another. If they see any one approach alone, they always tease and threaten him.

Maregrave informs us that they assemble every morning and evening in the woods of Brazil, and make a most dreadful howling. Sometimes one of them mounts on a higher branch, and the rest seat themselves beneath: the first begins, as it were to harangue, and sets up a howl so loud and shrill as to be heard to a great distance: after a while, he gives a signal with his hand, when the whole assembly joins in chorus; but on another signal they are again silent, and the orator finishes his address. Their clamour is the most disagreeable and tremendous that can be conceived.

They are extremely sagacious; and when hunted, not only distinguish particularly those who are active against them, but defend themselves vigorously when attacked. When the hunters approach, the monkeys assemble together, uttering loud and fearful cries, and throwing at their assailants dried branches which they wrench from the trees. It is said that they never abandon each other, and that in passing from tree to tree they fling themselves headlong from one branch to another without ever falling to the ground, always catching hold either with their hands or tail. If they are not at once shot dead it is scarcely possible to take them, as, though mortally wounded, they cling firmly to the trees as to maintain their hold even after death.

Gen. 2. Lemur. Macacus.

Four front teeth in the upper jaw, the intermediate being remote; six in the lower jaw, longer, stretched forwards, compressed, parallel and approximated. Canine teeth solitary and approximated. Grinders sublobated, the foremost of them being rather longer and sharper than the rest.

The animals of this genus resemble the monkey tribe in the use of their hands, but they are much less mischievous and ferocious than that tribe. None of them, except the indri, bears any resemblance to man; but in this species the arms, hands, body, and feet, are very similar to the human. A few of them are tailless, but most of them have long tails.

They are harmless inoffensive creatures, live chiefly in woods, and feed on fruits, vegetables, or insects. At least one species, viz. the 12th, serves for food to the natives of the countries where it is found.

There are 13 species which are distinguished by the following names and characters:

1. Lemur Tardigradus. Slow Lemur. Tailless; of a rusty ash colour, with a brown dorsal line; very small ears.

2. L. Loris. Loris. Tailless; of a rusty ash colour, with extremely slender limbs, and large ears.

3. L. Indri. Indri. Tailless; black greyish beneath, with the face and space round the anus whitish.

4. L. Potto. Potto. Tailless; subferruginous.

5. L. Mongoz. Mongoz or Woolly L. Long-tailed; grey brown.

6. L. Macaco. Ruffled L. Tailless; black, with the neck bearded like a ruff.

7. L. Laniger. Flocky L. Tailless; pale tawny, white beneath, with rusty tail.

8. L. Catta. Ring-tailed L. Tail long, and annulated with black and white.

9. L. Bicolor. Heart-marked L. Long-tailed; blackish white beneath, with a white heart-shaped spot on the forehead.

10. L. Tarifer. Tarifer. Long-tailed; ash-coloured; with slender almost naked tufted tail; and very long hinder feet.

11. L. Murinus. Tail long, and rusty; body ash coloured.

12. L. Calago. Whitish L. Tail long and rusty; body whitish, gray beneath.

13. L. Epilodactylus. Long-fingered L. Ash-ferruginous, with extremely villous tail, and the middle finger of the hands very long and naked.

1. L. Tardigradus. Slow Lemur.—This animal is Tardigrada about the size of a small cat, with the body of an elephant, slow gait pale brown or mouse-colour; a flatish face, extremely prominent eyes, that are surrounded with a circle of dark brown, and a sharpish nose. Of its manner in its native state we know almost nothing, but in a state of domestication it has been accurately observed.

The late Sir William Jones had one of these animals in his possession for some time, and has given a very interesting account of its form and manners. This was published in the Asiatic Researches, from which we shall extract the most interesting particulars.

"In his manners he was for the most part gentle, except in the cold season, when his temper seemed wholly changed; and his Creator who made him so sensible to cold, to which he must often have been exposed even in his native forests, gave him probably for that reason..." History of his thick fur, which we rarely see in animals in these tropical climates; to me, who not only constantly fed him, but bathed him twice a-week in water accommodated to the seasons, and whom he clearly distinguished from others, he was at all times grateful; but when I disturbed him in winter, he was usually indignant, and seemed to reproach me with the uneasiness which he felt, though no possible precaution had been omitted to keep him in a proper degree of warmth. At all times he was pleased with being stroked on the head and throat, and frequently suffered me to touch his extremely sharp teeth; but his temper was always quick, and when he was unreasonably disturbed, he expressed a little resentment, by an obscure murmur, like that of a squirrel, or a greater degree of displeasure by a peevish cry, especially in winter, when he was often as fierce, on being much importuned, as any beast of the woods.

"From half an hour after sunrise to half an hour before sunset, he slept without intermission, rolled up like a hedgehog; and, as soon as he awoke, he began to prepare himself for the labours of his approaching day, licking and dressing himself like a cat; an operation which the flexibility of his neck and limbs enabled him to perform very completely: he was then ready for a flight breakfast, after which he commonly took a short nap; but when the sun was quite set he recovered all his vivacity.

"His ordinary food was the sweet fruit of this country; plantains always, and mangoes during the season; but he refused peaches, and was not fond of mulberries, or even of guavas: milk he lapped eagerly, but was content with plain water. In general he was not voracious, but never appeared satisfied with grasshoppers; and passed the whole night, while the hot season lasted, in prowling for them: when a grasshopper, or any insect, alighted within his reach, his eyes, which he fixed on his prey, glowed with uncommon fire; and having drawn himself back to spring on it with greater force, he seized the prey with both his fore paws, but held it in one of them while he devoured it. For other purposes, and sometimes even for that of holding his food, he used all his paws indifferently as hands, and frequently grasped with one of them the higher parts of his ample cage, while his three others were severally engaged at the bottom of it; but the posture of which he seemed fondest was to cling with all four of them to the upper wires, his body being inverted; and in the evening he usually stood erect for many minutes, playing on the wires with his fingers, and rapidly moving his body from side to side, as if he had found the utility of exercise in his unnatural state of confinement.

"A little before daybreak, when my early hours gave me frequent opportunities of observing him, he seemed to solicit my attention; and if I presented my finger to him, he licked or nibbled it with great gentleness, but eagerly took fruit when I offered it, though he seldom ate much at his morning repast; when the day brought back his night, his eyes lost their lustre and strength, and he composed himself for a slumber of ten or eleven hours.

"My little friend was, on the whole, very engaging; and when he was found lifeless in the same position in which he would naturally have slept, I comforted myself with believing that he died without much pain, and lived with as much pleasure as he could have enjoyed in a state of captivity."

Its pace is exceedingly slow, scarcely moving above six or eight yards in a minute; whence its name.

It is of considerable importance in a physiological point of view, to investigate the structure of these slow-moving animals, such as the species just described, and the sloth to be afterwards mentioned. An anatomical examination of the blood-vessels in the limbs of this species by Mr Carlisle has thrown considerable light on the connection of slow motion with a particular distribution of the arteries in the slow-moving limbs; this distribution is thus described by Mr Carlisle. "Immediately after the subclavian has penetrated the axilla it is divided into 23 equal-sized cylinders, which surround the principal trunk of the artery, now diminished in size to an inconsiderable vessel. These cylindrical arteries accompany each other, and divide with the ulnar and radial branches, being distributed in their route upon the muscles, each of which has one of these cylinders. The other branches, for example the radial and ulnar, proceed like the arteries in general, dispersing themselves upon the skin, the membranes, joints, bones, &c. in an arborecent form. The iliac artery divides upon the margin of the pelvis into upwards of twenty equal-sized cylinders, surrounding the main trunk as described in the axillary artery. These vessels are also finally distributed, as in the upper extremity; the cylinders wholly upon the muscles and the arborecent branches on all the other parts. The carotid arteries do not divide the equal-sized cylinders, but are distributed as in the generality of animals."

Gen. 3. GALEOPITHECUS. CALUGO.

Front teeth in the upper jaw wanting; in the lower six, Galeopithecus short, broad and pectinated. Canine teeth very short, triangular, broad, sharp and serrated. Grinders four, truncated, and muncated with conical protuberances. Flying skin surrounding the body, limbs, and tail.

There is only one species, viz.

G. Volans. Flying Calugo, or Flying Lemur.—This Volans is one of those extraordinary quadrupeds whom nature has raised above their usual element, and enabled them to transport themselves through the air in a manner which, though it cannot strictly be denominated flying, is at least very similar to it. The body of the flying lemur is about three feet long; but, except when the membrane is expanded, it is very slender. It has a slender tail, about a span long. The membrane, which extends from the neck to the fore legs, hind legs, and tail, is covered with fur, but appears membranaceous on the inner side. The upper side of the animal is of a deep ash colour, inclining to black when young, and the back is crossed transversely with blackish lines. Its head is long, its mouth small, and its teeth differ from those of every other quadruped hitherto examined. The cutting teeth in the lower jaw are deeply cut like a comb; the canine teeth, as Pallas calls them, (though Geoffroy thinks they are more properly cutting teeth), are triangular, very broad at the base, and very short. The occiput or large intestine is very voluminous.

It is a native of the Molucca and Philippine islands, frequents woody places, and feeds on fruits, and probably... Primates, hably on insects. It almost constantly resides on trees; in descending from which it spreads its membranes, and balances itself in a gentle manner towards the place at which it aims, but in ascending it uses a leaping pace. It brings forth two young, which are said to adhere to the breasts of the parent by their teeth and claws.

Geoffroy and Cuvier make two varieties or species of this genus, viz. G. Rufus, Red Calugo; and G. Variegatus, Varied Calugo—but these are probably no more than sexual differences.

Genus 4. Vespertilio. Bats.

Teeth erect, sharp-pointed, and approximated; hands palmated; with a membrane surrounding the body, and enabling the animal to fly.

The animals of this genus have their atlantal extremities exceedingly long, especially what may be termed the fingers; and the delicate membrane that is stretched over them is so contrived, as to form a wing when the animals wish to fly, and to fold up into a small space when they are at rest. All the species have two breasts, more or less conspicuous, to which the young adhere. They have no cecum.

The Bats are natives of very different regions; three of them are found in Britain, and several in the warmer regions of Asia and Africa; one in the West Indies, and a few in America. Those of warm climates are usually very large. Those which inhabit the colder regions live all winter in a torpid state, without taking nourishment. The smaller species live chiefly on insects which they seize in their flight; but the larger attack birds, or even the lesser quadrupeds.

From some experiments made by the abbé Spallanzani, on three species of this genus, it appears that these animals perceive some additional sense, by which they are enabled, when deprived of sight, to avoid obstacles as readily as when they retained the power of vision. When the eyes of these bats were covered, or even entirely destroyed, they would fly about in a darkened room, without striking against the walls, and would constantly suspend their flight, when they came near a place where they could conveniently perch. In the middle of a dark fewer that turned at right angles, they would, though at a considerable distance from the walls, regularly alter the direction of their flight with the greatest nicety, when they came to the angles. When branches of trees were suspended in the room in which they were flying, they always avoided them, and even flew between threads hung perpendicularly from the ceiling, though these were so near each other that they were obliged to contract their wings in order to pass through them.

These experiments were repeated by Vaillant at Turin, by Rossi at Pisa, Spadon at Bologna, and Jurin at Geneva. M. Jurin conceives that no other of the five senses could, in these instances, supply the place of sight; and as, from some anatomical observations that he made on these animals, he found a prodigious number of nerves expanded on the upper jaws, the muzzle, and the organ of hearing, he conceived that these nervous productions would account for the extraordinary faculty above described. From some observations made by Mr Carlile on this subject, it appears probable that the sense of hearing, which in the bat is uncommonly delicate, enables these animals when blinded, to avoid History of those objects which would impede their flight. This the Species gentleman collected several specimens of the vespertilio auritus or large-eared bat, and observed, that when the external ears of the blinded ones were closed, they hit against the sides of the room, without being at all aware of their situation. They refused every species of food four days, as did a larger number which were afterwards caught and preserved in a dark box for above a week. During the day time they were extremely delirious of retirement and darkness; and, while confined to the box, never moved or endeavoured to get out during the whole day; and, when spread on the carpet, they commonly reeled some minutes, and then beginning to look about, crawled slowly to a dark corner or crevice. At sunset the scene was quite changed: everyone then endeavoured to scratch its way out of the box; a continued chirping was kept up; and no sooner was the lid of their prison opened, than each was active to escape, either flying away immediately, or running nimbly to a convenient place for taking wing. When the bats were first collected, several of the females had young ones clinging to their breasts, in the act of sucking. One of them flew with perfect ease, though two little ones were thus attached to her, which weighed nearly as much as their parent. All the young were devoid of down, and of a black colour.

Many of the larger species of bats attack men and other animals when asleep, make a flight wound with their sharp teeth to divertly as not to awaken their victim, and then suck the blood. This property is attributed chiefly to one species, which we shall particularly notice presently; but it is probably possessed by most of the larger bats that inhabit the warm climates.

Some of the species may be employed as food.

There are described about 24 species of Bats; and as they are so numerous, they may be distributed into two sections, as the tailed, and the tailless.

A. Tailed Bats, of which there are 18; viz.

1. * Vespertilio murinus, Common B. Nose inappended; ears shorter than the head.—2. * V. Auritus, Long-eared B. Nose inappended; ears larger than the head, and double.—3. V. Noctula, Noctule B. Nose and mouth simple; oval ears and very small valves.

—4. V. Ferrum equinum, Horse-flake B. Nose horse-shoe shape; ears, valve lesser; tail half as long as the body.—5. V. Serotinus, Serotine B. Yellowish, with short emarginate ears.—6. Pipistrellus, Pipitrelle. Blackish brown, with convex front, and ovate emarginated ears, scarcely longer than the head.—7. V. Barbastellus, Barbastelle. Cheeks elevated, hairy; ears large, angulated below.—8. Lasiopterus, Lasiopter B. Membrane connecting the feet extremely broad, covered above with hair.—9. V. Lasiurus, Rough-tailed B. Lips tumid; tail broad and hairy.—10. V. Gephyrotes, Molucca B. Yellowish gray, with large head; spiral nostrils, small valveless ears.—11. V. Pictus, Striped B. Nose simple; ears funnel-shaped, appendediculated.—12. Noveboracensis, New-York B. Tail long, rusty; nose short and sharp; ears short and round, with a white spot at the base of each wing.—13. Hipposideros, Bearded B.—Hairy, with channelled nostrils, and long narrow ears.—14. V. Auripendulus, Slouch-eared B. Nose blunt; History of blust; ears large and pendent, with pointed tips.—the Species.

15. *V. Lepturus*, Slender-tailed B. Nostrils tubular; tail slender, with a purse-shaped cavity on the inside of each wing.—16. *V. Nigrita*, Senegal B. Yellowish brown, with the forepart of the head, feet and tail black.—17. *V. Molossus*, Bull-dog B. Upper lip pendulous; tail stretching beyond the connecting membrane.

18. *V. Leporinus*, Peruvian B. Upper lip bifid.

**B. Tailless Bats**; of which there are 6; viz:

19. *V. Spalma*, Cordated B. A double heart-shaped leaf-like membrane on the nose.—20. *V. Soricinus*, Leaf B. Snout lengthened, furnished with a heart-shaped leaf-like membrane.—21. *V. Hestatus*, Javelin B. Nose furnished with a trefoil-shaped upright membrane.—22. *V. Nasiatus*, Great Serotine B. Ruby, with long flopping nose, and long upright rounded ears.—23. *V. Spectrum*, Spectre B. Nose furnished with a funnel-shaped pointed membrane.—24. *Vampyrus*, Vampyre B. Nose without appendage; flying membrane divided between the thighs.

After having said so much on the general structure and habits of this genus, we shall briefly notice only two of the species.

Species 2. *V. Auritus*, Long-eared B.—This is one of the most common species of Britain, and may be seen flying through the air in the evenings of summer and autumn, in search of insects. It is about two inches long, and seven from the tip of one wing to that of the other. Its ears are half as long as its body, very thin, and almost transparent, and within each there is a membrane which probably serves as a valve to defend the organ of hearing during the inactive state of the animal. These bats are sometimes taken by throwing up at them the heads of burdock whitened with flour. The animals either mistaking these for prey, or accidentally striking against them, are entangled by the hooked prickles, and brought to the ground. This is one of the species that remains in a torpid state during winter. At the end of summer they retire to their hiding places in old buildings, walls, or caverns, where they remain, generally in great numbers, suspended by the hind legs, and enveloped in their wings, till the genial warmth of summer again calls them forth. These animals are said to drink on the wing like swallows, and they love to frequent waters, partly for the sake of drinking, and partly to prey on the insects which hover over them. As Mr White was going pretty late on a warm summer's evening, in a boat on the Thames, from Richmond to Sunbury, he saw prodigious multitudes of bats between the two places; and he says, that the air swarmed with them all round the Thames, so that hundreds were in flight at a time. Bats are supposed to produce two young at a birth, and these they fuckle for a considerable time. The young, when recently born, adhere most tenaciously to the nipple of the parent, so as not to be removed without great difficulty.

This animal is capable of being to a certain degree domesticated; and we are told by Mr White, that he was once much amused with the sight of a tame bat. "It would, says he, take flies out of a person's hand. If you gave it any thing to eat, it brought its wings round before the mouth; hovering and hiding its head in the manner of birds of prey when they feed. The adroitness it shewed in sheering off the wings of flies (which were always rejected) was worthy of observation, and pleased me much. Insects seemed to be most acceptable, though it did not refuse raw flesh when offered; so that the notion that bats go down chimneys, and gnaw people's bacon, seems no improbable story. While I amused myself with this wonderful quadruped, I saw it several times confute the vulgar opinion, that bats, when down on a flat surface, cannot get on the wing again, by rising with great ease from the floor. It ran, I observed, with more dispatch than I was aware of, but in a most ridiculous and grotesque manner."

Species 24. *V. Vampyrus*, Vampire Bat.—This is Selborne, one of the largest species, being about a foot long, and nearly four feet in the extent of its wings; it is sometimes found even larger, and of the extent of five feet between the wings. Its colour is generally a deep reddish brown; its head is shaped like that of a fox, the nose being sharp and black, and the tongue pointed, and terminated by sharp prickles. The ears are naked, flat, and pointed; and in colour resembling those of the common bat. These animals are said not to be carnivorous, but live principally upon fruit; and are so fond of the juice of the palm tree, that they will suck it till they are intoxicated, and fall motionless to the ground. They often hang together in vast clutters in hollow trees, or from the boughs of trees, and make a horrid noise. They are found in the Friendly islands, New-Holland, in South America, and in the East Indies.

Linnaeus has given to this species the name *Vampyrus*, from the idea that this is the principal species that sucks the blood of people when asleep. It is not certain whether the bat by which Captain Stedman was attacked, while in Surinam, be this species; but his account of the accident is so diverting, that we shall give it in his own words. "I cannot here (says he) forbear relating a singular circumstance respecting myself, viz. that on waking about four o'clock one morning in my hammock, I was extremely alarmed at finding myself weltering in congealed blood, and without feeling any pain whatever. Having started up, and rung for the surgeon, with a fire-brand in one hand, and all over befouled with gore; to which, if added, my pale face, short hair, and tattered apparel, he might well ask the question,

'Be thou a spirit of health, or goblin damn'd, Being with thee airs from heaven, or blasts from hell?'

The mystery, however, was, that I had been bitten by the vampire or spectre of Guiana, which is called the flying dog of New Spain, and by the Spaniards, *perro-volador*: this is no other than a bat of a monstrous size, that sucks the blood from men and cattle while they are fast asleep, even sometimes till they die; and as the manner in which they proceed is truly wonderful, I shall endeavour to give a distinct account of it.—Knowing by instinct, that the person they intend to attack is in a sound slumber, they generally alight near the feet, where, while the creature continues fanning with his enormous wings, which keeps one cool, he bites a piece out of the tip of the great toe, so very small indeed, that the head of a pin could scarcely... Chap. II.

Bruta scarcely be received into the wound, which is consequently not painful; yet through this orifice he continues to suck the blood, until he is obliged to disgorge. He then begins again, and thus continues sucking and disgorging till he is scarcely able to fly, and the sufferer has often been known to sleep from time into eternity. Cattle they generally bite in the ear, but always on places where the blood flows spontaneously. Having applied tobacco ashes as the best remedy, and walked the gore from myself and hammock, I observed several heaps of congealed blood all round the place where I had lain, upon the ground; on examining which, the surgeon judged that I had lost at least 12 or 14 ounces of blood during the night.*

The flesh of this species is considered by the Indians as excellent food, and it is said that the French residents sometimes boil them in their bouillon to give it a relish.

From the general appearance and usual time of flight of bats, they have always been looked on with a sort of superstitious terror, and are commonly introduced as principal objects in those awful scenes of haunted castles, and mysterious caverns, that have exercised the fancy of poets and romantic writers. The bat has been represented by the ancient epic poets as one of the inhabitants of that dreary vault that forms the entrance to the infernal regions; and it has from time immemorial lent its wings to decorate the shoulders of those terrific figures under which the ingenious fancy of painters has represented imps and demons. Probably the fabulous harpies of the ancient poets may be traced to a similar origin, as some of the larger bats may with a little poetical exaggeration, easily be converted into those rapacious and filthy beings.

This first order contains four genera, and about 100 species.

Chap. II. BRUTA.

Genus 5. BRADYUS. SLOTH.

Cutting teeth wanting in both jaws; canine teeth single, obtuse, longer than the grinders, and placed opposite; grinders five on each side, obtuse; fore legs by much the longer; claws very long.

The animals of this genus are called sloths, as their movements, more especially those of one species, are very slow and sluggish. There are but three species, two of which are natives of South America, and the third of India. They all live chiefly on vegetable food, and are mild harmless creatures. They are thus distinguished.

1. B. Tridactylus, Three-toed S. Feet three-toed; tail short.—2. B. Didactylus, Two-toed S. Tailless; fore feet two-toed.—3. B. Ursinus, Ursine S. Black, with very long shaggy hair; long snout, and five-toed feet.

We shall here give an account only of the first species, or the Three-toed S.

Bradypus Tridactylus. This animal is remarkable for its slow movements, affording almost a singular example of languid motion and habitual inactivity. The following account of it is given us by Kircher. "Its figure is (he says) extraordinary: it is about the size of a cat, has a very ugly countenance, and claws extended like fingers. It sweeps the ground with its belly, and moves so slowly that it would scarcely go the length of a bow-shot in 15 days, though constantly in motion; hence it obtained the name of sloth. It lives generally on the tops of trees, and employs two days in crawling up, and as many in getting down again. Nature has doubly guarded it against its enemies, first, by giving it such strength in its feet, that whatever it seizes, it holds so fast, that it can never be freed, but must there die of hunger. Secondly, in having given it such an affecting countenance, that when it looks at any one who might be tempted to injure it, it is almost impossible not to be moved with compassion; it also fears tears, and upon the whole persuades one that a creature so defenceless and so object ought not to be tormented.

"To try an experiment with this animal, the provincial had one of them brought to the Jesuit's college at Carthagena. He put a long pole under its feet, which it seized very firmly, and would not let go again. The animal, therefore, thus voluntarily suspended, was placed between two beams, where it remained without food for 40 days, the eyes being always fixed on those who looked at it, who were so affected that they could not forbear pitying its dejected state. At length, being taken down, a dog was let loose on it, this, after a while the sloth seized in its claws, and held till he died of hunger."

The slowness of its motions is, in the above account greatly exaggerated, as we are informed by later writers that it will move fifty or sixty paces in a day, and one that was on board ship climbed to the mast head in about an hour.

In ascending a tree, this animal first carelessly stretches out one of its fore paws, and fixes its claws in the bark of the tree, as high as it can reach, then heavily raises its body, and gradually fixes its other paw, thus attending with the greatest slowness and apparent difficulty. When got up into the tree, he continues there till he has depolished it of every thing that can serve him for food, and then so save himself the trouble of a tedious and difficult descent, it is said he suffers himself to drop from the tree upon the ground, being safe from any injury in the fall by his very tough and hairy skin. Here he remains till the calls of hunger again incite him to the arduous task of climbing another tree, when he proceeds in the same manner.

The female produces only one young, which she frequently carries on her back. This animal is a native of the hotter parts of South America.

In Dr Shaw's description of this species, it is remarked, that "the fore legs are short, the hinder ones far longer." As this contradicts the generic character, and is different from the other descriptions that we have read of the three-toed sloth, we suppose it to be an inadvertency, though Mr Bingley has copied the passage without remarking its inaccuracy.

The third species, or urfne sloth, is the same animal that is figured in Mr Bewick's History of Quadrupeds, p. 266, (2d edit.) and which was by him considered as a species of bear.

Megatherium Some years ago, there was discovered below the surface of the earth in South America, an entire fossil skeleton of an animal at present unknown; but which M. Cuvier found to resemble the present present genus more than any other. From its vast size, Cuvier gave it the name of *megatherium* (μεγας θηρος, great wild beast), and he has given the following description of it in the "Annales de Muséum National," accompanied with a figure.

"This skeleton is twelve feet (French) long, by six feet in height. The spine is composed of seven cervical, 16 dorsal, and four lumbar vertebrae; it has consequently sixteen ribs. The sacrum is short; the osa ilia very broad, and their plane being almost perpendicular to the spine, they form a very open pelvis. There is no pubis or ischium, at least they are wanting in this skeleton, and there is no mark of their having existed when the animal was alive.

"The thigh bones are excessively thick, and the leg bones still more so in proportion; the entire sole of the foot bore on the ground in walking; the shoulder blade is much broader than long; the clavicles are perfect, and the two bones of the fore arm are distinct and moveable upon each other; the fore limbs are longer than the hind. To judge by the form of the last phalanges, there must have been very large pointed claws, enclosed at their origin in a long sheath. There appears to have been only three of these claws on the fore feet, and a single one on the hind; the other toes seem to have been deprived of them, and, perhaps, entirely concealed beneath the skin.

"The head is the greatest singularity of this skeleton; the occiput is elongated and flattened, but is pretty convex above the eyes; the two jaws form a considerable projection, but without teeth, there being only four on each side above and below, all grinders, with a flat crown, and grooved across; the breadth of the branches of the lower jaw, and the great apophysis placed on the base of the zygomatic arch, deserve particular notice.

"This quadruped, in its characters, taken together, differs from all known animals, and each of its bones, considered apart, also differs from the corresponding bones of all known animals. This results from a detailed comparison of the skeleton with that of other animals, and will readily appear to those who are conversant in such researches; for none of the animals which approach it in bulk have either pointed claws, or similarly formed head, shoulder blades, clavicles, pelvis, or limbs."

**GENUS 6. MYRMECOPIHAGA. ANT-EATERS.**

Teeth wanting; tongue cylindrical and extensible; mouth lengthened out so as to be somewhat of a tubular form; body covered with hair.

The ant-eaters, as their name imports, live chiefly on ants and similar insects, and for this purpose they are furnished with a very remarkable tongue, it being of great length and of a roundish or worm-like form, and covered with a very glutinous saliva. This tongue the animals thrust into the nests of the ants, &c., and when a sufficient number of the insects has adhered to it, they withdraw the tongue and swallow the prey. Though the want of teeth makes part of the generic character, it appears from the observations of M. Broufetone, that in most of the species there are certain bones or processes not unlike teeth, situated at the entrance of the gullet, or rather, according to Camper, at the lower end of the jaws. The ant-eaters are confined to warm climates, and most of them have hitherto been found only in South America.

There are seven species described by Shaw, though Gmelin admits only five.

1. *M. Jubata*. Great A. Gray brown; with four toes on the fore feet, five on the hind; long snout, and very long bushy tail.—2. *M. Tetradactyla*, Middle A. Four toes on the fore, and five on the hind feet, and half naked, prehensile tail.—3. *M. Tridactyla*, Three-toed A. Three toes on the fore, and four on the hind feet, and villoso tail.—4. *M. Didactyla*, Little A. Two toes on the fore, and four on the hind feet, and prehensile tail.—5. *M. Capensis*, Cape A. Four toes on the fore feet; long snout; large pendant ears; tail shorter than the body, and attenuated towards the tip.—6. *M. Aculeata*, Spiny A. Tail very short.—7. *M. Striata*, Striped A. Yellowish, with transverse dusky bands, and the upper jaw longer than the lower.

Of the above seven species, it is probable that the third is only a variety of the second; and M. M. Cuvier and Geoffroy have placed the fifth in a new genus, *orychtheropus*, (see p. 451) as it differs considerably from the rest. Most naturalists agree that the spines on the body of the fifth entitle it, equally with the genus *Manis*, to a separate place in systematic arrangement. On the whole, from an extensive consideration of this tribe, M. La Cepede is of opinion that only three species should be admitted into it, viz. the first, second, and fourth. Of these the first and fourth are best known; the second, or what Cepede calls *tamandua-ti*, or little *tamandua*, has been well described by this naturalist in a memoir on the genus *Myrmecophaga*, printed in the sixth volume of "Memoires de l'Institut."

**Genus 7. Manis.**

Teeth wanting; tongue cylindrical and extensible; mouth lengthened into a narrow snout; body covered with scales.

This genus is nearly allied to the last, differing in little more than in the nature of the covering of the body, which in this is composed of large scales that are of a horny consistence, and extremely strong, constituting a suit of armour that is capable of defending the animals, when rolled up, against the attacks of the most ferocious enemies. The animals have the power of raising these scales; thus presenting to the assailants a most formidable front. From some distant resemblance to the lizard tribe (see Herpetology), the animals of this genus have been called *scaly lizards*, but they are more commonly known by the name of *pangolins*. They are harmless creatures, and feed on similar food with the ant-eaters, taking it in the same manner. They are found in India and the Indian islands.

There are only two, or at most three species, viz.

1. *M. Tetradactyla*, Long-tailed M, or Phatagin. Feet four-toed, and tail very long.—2. *M. Pentadactyla*, Short-tailed M, or Pangolin. Feet five-toed, and tail about as long as the body.—3. *M. Platurus*, Broad-tailed M. Tail extremely broad.

It is doubtful whether the last be a distinct species, or only a variety, the effect perhaps of advanced age. So little is known of the habits and manners of these animals that we shall not dwell longer on them.

Genus 8. Dasyphus. Armadillos.

Cutting and canine teeth wanting; grinders several; body covered with a shelly armour, divided into zones or bands.

The animals of this tribe are called armadillos, from the very fingular armour, by which the upper part of their bodies is defended. This is composed partly of large irregular pieces covering the shoulders and rump, and partly of regular bands lying between these, and folding one over another, like the parts of a lobster's tail, so as to accommodate themselves to all the motions of the animal. The number of these bands varies in the several species; and though this circumstance makes part of the specific characters, it is doubtful whether it is sufficiently constant or exact, as various authors have numbered them very differently. The armadillos resemble each other so much in their habits and way of life, that a general account of them may suffice.

They are very harmless animals, and live retired in subterraneous retreats, which they burrow for themselves by means of the large strong claws with which their feet are furnished. They wander about chiefly by night, in search of roots, grain, worms, insects, and other small animals; when attacked, they coil themselves up in a ball like the pangolins, and are then invulnerable. They are said to drink much, and often grow very fat. They are very prolific, breeding three or four times in a year, and producing several young at a birth. They are all natives of South America, and are considered as excellent food. The Indians hunt them with small dogs trained for that purpose. When surprised, they run to their holes, or attempt to make a new one, which they do with great expedition, having strong claws on their fore feet, with which they adhere firmly to the ground, that if they should be caught by the tail whilst making their way into the earth, their resistance is so great, that they will sometimes leave their tails in the hand of their pursuers: to avoid this, the hunter has recourse to artifice; and, by tickling the animal with a stick, it gives up its hold, and suffers itself to be taken alive. If no other means of escape be left, it rolls itself up within its covering, by drawing in its head and legs, and bringing its tail round them, as a band to connect them more forcibly together: in this situation it sometimes escapes by rolling itself over the edge of a precipice, and generally falls to the bottom unhurt.

The most successful method of catching armadillos is by snares laid for them by the sides of rivers or other places which they frequent.

There are five species of armadillos, that are, as we have said, chiefly distinguished by the number of shelly bands that envelope the middle part of their body.

1. Dasyphus Tricinctus, Three-banded A. Armour divided into three bands, and five-toed feet.—2. D. History of Sexcinctus, Six-banded A. Six bands, and five-toed feet.—3. D. Septemcinctus, Seven banded A. Seven bands, and fore feet four-toed, hind feet five-toed.—4. D. Novemcinctus, Nine-banded A. Nine bands; fore feet four-toed, hind feet five-toed.—5. D. I2-cinctus, I2-banded A. Twelve bands.—6. D. I8-cinctus, Eighteen-banded A. Eighteen bands.

Genus 9. Rhinoceros.

Horn solid, perennial, conical, seated on the nose.

There are at least two species, viz. R. Unicornis, Single-horned R. with a single horn, and 2. R. Bicornis, Two-horned R. with two horns.

As both species are remarkable, both for their form and habits, we shall describe both pretty much at large.

1. R. Unicornis, Single-horned rhinoceros. This Unicornis animal, if we except the elephant, is the largest of all single-terrestrial animals, and in strength and power it is excelled by none. It is generally about 12 feet long, and nearly as many in the circumference of its body. Its whole form is very awkward and clumsy; its head is large and long; its back sticks in considerably, and its skin is puckered up into several folds, giving the animal the appearance as if it were invested with a coat of mail. The upper lip hangs over the lower in the form of a lengthened tip, which seems to answer the purpose of a small proboscis, and, being extremely pliable, is useful to the animal in taking hold of the shoots of vegetables, and delivering them into the mouth. The horn is situated on the nose, and is slightly curved, sharp pointed, and very strong, and is sometimes three feet long, and 18 inches round at the base. This horn the rhinoceros uses both as an offensive and defensive weapon, by which it is completely armed against the attacks of the most ferocious animals, who cannot face it without danger of having their bowels torn out. The Roman epigrammatist, Martial, long ago remarked, that with this horn the rhinoceros could lift up a bull as easily as a foot-ball. The ears are pretty large, upright and pointed; the eyes small. The skin is naked, very rough, and marked with numerous large callous granulations; it is destitute of hair, except a few straggling coarse bristles on some parts of the head. The folds of the skin are very remarkable, and are disposed in various parts of the body in a singular manner. There is one large plait about the neck, another passing through the shoulders to the fore legs, and a third from the hind part of the back to the thighs. The belly is pendulous like that of a hog; the legs are very short, strong and thick; and the feet marked with three large hoofs all standing forwards. The tail is slender, flattened at the end, and covered on the sides with very stiff, thick, black hairs (c).

This animal is a native both of the continent of Asia, and of several of the islands in the Indian ocean, especially Ceylon, Java, and Sumatra; and is sometimes found in Ethiopia. It usually resides in cool sequestered

(c) For an accurate osteological account of this species, with a figure of his skeleton by Cuvier, see Annales de Muséum National, No 13, or Philosophical Magazine, vol. xix. The flight of this animal is but indifferent; but he is said to possess an acute and most attentive ear, and to listen with a deep, long-continued attention to any kind of noise. It is generally of a quiet inoffensive disposition, but when provoked or attacked, he becomes furious and implacable. He is even said to be subject to paroxysms of rage which nothing can allay. One that was sent as a present to the pope by Emmanuel king of Portugal in 1513, destroyed the vessel in which they were transporting it. He runs with great swiftness, and from his prodigious strength rushes with irresistible violence through woods, and over every obstacle, bending the small trees as he passes like so many twigs.

The female produces but one young at a birth, but its time of gestation is not certainly known.

The flesh of this animal is eaten by the natives, who often engage in hunting parties against it. It is a difficult matter to kill the rhinoceros, its skin being so hard that an ordinary leaden bullet will not pierce it, and they are obliged to use iron bullets for that purpose. The horn is employed for many useful purposes, especially for making drinking cups, which are used by the Indian princes, under an idea that if any poisonous liquor is poured into them, it will ferment and boil over the top. Professor Thunberg tried several of these horns, both of old and young animals, brought into goblets and unwrought, with several poisonous liquors, both weak and strong, without observing any effervescence; but on pouring a solution of corrosive sublimate into one of them, there arose a few bubbles, which he supposes to have been inclosed in the pores of the horn, and discharged from them by the liquor. The skin is also employed by the Javanese for making shields, and in some parts of India almost every part of the animal is used medicinally.

Several of these animals have been brought into Europe. Buffon gives an account of one, and Dr Parsons has given a particular description of one that was brought to England from Bengal. This animal was only two years old, and yet consumed so much food, that his voyage cost 100l. He had every day at three meals seven pounds of rice mixed with three pounds of sugar, besides hay and green plants, and he drank large quantities of water. He was in general, very quiet and peaceable, readily suffering people to touch every part of his body; but when hungry, or when struck, he became very mischievous, and nothing would appease him but food. At this time he was about the size of a young cow.

In the year 1748, there was exhibited at Paris a rhinoceros brought from the kingdom of Ava. It was very tame, gentle, and even careless; was fed principally on hay and corn; and was much delighted with sharp or prickly plants, and the thorny branches of trees. The attendants frequently gave him branches that had very sharp and strong thorns on them; but he bent and broke them in his mouth without seeming in the least inconvenienced. It is true they sometimes drew blood from the mouth and tongue, but that, says Father Le Comte, who gives us the description, might even render them more palatable, and those little wounds might serve only to cause a sensation similar to that excited by salt, pepper, or mustard on ours.

The rhinoceros is even sometimes domesticated, and brought into the field of battle by the Afghans, in order to terrify their enemies; but he is so unmanageable, that his use seems to be attended with more disadvantage than benefit, and when wounded, they are as likely to turn on their masters as on the enemy.

R. Bicornis, Two-horned rhinoceros. In size, and Bicornis, in many of its general habits, this species greatly resembles the former, but differs much in its external appearance, as the skin, instead of the regularly marked folds in that, has only a slight wrinkle across the shoulders, and on the hind parts, so as, in comparison with the other species, to appear almost smooth, though its surface is rough and tuberculated, especially in the larger specimens. It is chiefly distinguished, however, by the two horns, one smaller than the other, and situated higher up on the front. These horns are said to be loose when the animal is quiet, but to become fixed and immovable when he is in an enraged state. Dr Sparman has observed that these horns are fixed to the nose by a strong apparatus of muscles or tendons, so as to enable the animal to fix or relax them at pleasure, and on inspecting the horns and skin on which they are seated, it does not appear that the horns are firmly attached to the skull bone, or closely connected with it.

This species is found in various parts of Africa, and appears to have been that which was introduced by the Romans into their public shows.

Mr Bruce has given us an account of this animal, which is highly interesting. He says that besides the trees capable of most resistance, there are in the vast forests within the rains, trees of a softer consistence, and of a very succulent quality, which seem to be destined for his principal food. For the purpose of gaining the highest branches of these, his upper lip is capable of being lengthened out so as to increase his power of laying hold with it, in the same manner as the elephant does with his trunk. With this lip, and the affluence of his tongue, he pulls down the upper branches, which have most leaves, and these he devours first; having stripped the tree of its branches, he does not therefore abandon it, but placing his snout as low in the trunk as he finds his horns will enter, he rips up the body of the tree, and reduces it to thin pieces like so many laths; and when he has thus prepared it, he embraces as much of it as he can in his monstrous jaws, and twists it round with as much ease as an ox would do a root of celery, or any such pot herb or garden stuff.

When pursued, and in fear, he possesses an astonishing degree of swiftness, considering his size, the apparent unwieldiness of his body, his great weight before, and the shortness of his legs. He is long, and has a kind of trot, which after a few minutes increases in a great proportion, and takes in a great distance; but this is to be understood with a degree of moderation. It is not true, that in a plain he beats the horse in swiftness, Mr Bruce has passed him with ease, and seen many worse mounted do the same; and though it is certainly true that a horse can seldom come up with him, this is owing to his cunning, and not to his swiftness. He makes constantly from wood to wood, and forces himself into the thickest parts of them. The trees that are dead or dry, are broken down, as with a cannon shot, and fall behind him and on his side in all directions. Others that are more pliable, greener, or fuller of sap, are bent back by his weight and the velocity of his motions; and after he has paused, restoring themselves like a green branch to their natural position, they often sweep the incautious pursuer and his horde from the ground, and dash them in pieces against the surrounding trees.

The eyes of the rhinoceros are very small; he seldom turns his head, and therefore sees nothing but what is before him. To this he owes his death, and never escapes if there be so much plain as to enable the horde to get before him. His pride and fury then make him lay aside all thoughts of escaping but by victory over his enemy. He stands for a moment at bay; then at a start runs forward at the horde like a wild boar, which in his manner of action he very much resembles. The horde easily avoids him by turning to one side, and this is the fatal instant; the naked man with the sword drops from behind the principal huntsman, and unseen by the rhinoceros, who is seeking his enemy the horde, he gives him a stroke across the tendon of the heel, which renders him incapable of further flight or resistance.

In speaking of the great quantity of food necessary to support this enormous mass, we must likewise consider the vast quantity of water which he needs. No country but that of the Shangalla, which he pollutes, deluged with six months rain, and full of large deep basins made in the living rock, and shaded by dark woods from evaporation, or watered by large and deep rivers, which never fail low or to a state of dryness, can supply the vast draughts of this monstrous creature; but it is not for drinking alone that he frequents wet and marshy places; large, fierce, and strong as he is, he must submit to prepare himself against the weakest of all his adversaries. The great consumption he makes of food and water necessarily confine him to certain limited spaces; for it is not every place that can maintain him; he cannot emigrate or seek his defense among the sands of Atbara.

This adversary is a fly (probably of the genus Oestrus) which is bred in the black earth of the marshes; it persecutes him so unremittingly, that it would in a short time entirely subdue him, but for a stratagem which he practises for his preservation. In the night when the fly is at rest, the rhinoceros chafes a convenient place, and there rolling in the mud, clothes himself with a kind of case, which defends him against his enemy for the following day. The wrinkles and folds of his skin serve to keep this muddy plaster firm upon him, except about his hips, legs, and shoulders, where by motion it cracks and falls off, leaving him exposed to the attacks of the fly. The itching and pain which follow, occasion him to rub himself in those parts against the roughest trees, and this is supposed to be one cause of the numerous pustules or tubercles which we see upon him.

He seems to enjoy the rubbing of himself very much, and groans and grunts so loud during this action that he is heard at a considerable distance. The pleasure he receives from this enjoyment, added to the darkness of the night, deprives him of his usual vigilance and attention. The hunters guided by his noise, History of ideal secretly on him; and while lying on the ground, the Species wound him with their javelins, mostly in the belly, where the wound is mortal.

It is by no means true that the skin of this rhinoceros, as it has been often represented, is hard and impenetrable like a board. In his wild state he is easily killed by javelins thrown from different hands, some of which enter many feet into his body. A musket shot will go through him, if it meet not with the intervention of a bone; and the Shangalla, an Abyssinian tribe, kill him by the worst and most inartificial arrows that ever were used by any people practising that weapon, and cut him to pieces afterwards with the very worst of knives.

To shew the amazing strength of the rhinoceros, even after being severely wounded, we shall quote Mr. Bruce's account of the hunting of this animal in Abyssinia. "We were on horseback (says this gentleman) by the dawn of day in search of the rhinoceros, many of which we had heard making a very deep groan and cry as the morning approached. Several of the agaegers (hunters) then joined us, and after we had searched about an hour in the very thickest part of the wood, one of them rushed out with great violence, croiling the plain towards a wood of canes that was about two miles distance. But though he ran, or rather trotted, with surprising speed considering his bulk, he was in a very little time transfixed with 30 or 40 javelins, which so confounded him that he left his purpose of going to the wood, and ran into a deep hole or ravine, a cul de sac, without outlet, breaking above a dozen javelins as he entered. Here we thought he was caught as in a trap, for he had scarce room to turn, when a servant who had a gun standing directly over him, fired at his head, and the animal fell immediately to all appearance dead. All those on foot now jumped in with their knives to cut him up; and they had scarce begun, when the animal recovered so far as to rise upon his knees; happy then was the man that escaped first; and had not one of the agaegers who was himself engaged in the ravine, cut the sinews of the hind leg as he was retreating, there would have been a very sorrowful account of the foot hunters that day.

"After having dispatched him, I was curious to see what wound the shot had given, which had operated so violently upon so huge an animal, and I doubted not it was in the brain; but it had struck him nowhere but upon one of the horns, of which it had carried off above an inch, and this occasioned a concussion, that had stunned him for a minute till the bleeding had recovered him."

It has been often asserted that the tongue of the rhinoceros is so hard and rough as to take away the skin and flesh wherever it licks any person that has unfortunately fallen a victim to its fury. Dr. Sparrow says, however, that he thrust his hand into the mouth of one that had just been shot, and found the tongue perfectly smooth and soft.

Fossil bones have been found below the earth in Siberia that seem to belong to a third species of rhinoceros, differing from the two above mentioned in having a longer head, and in the partition between the nostrils being otherwise shaped. It seems also to have had two horns. In 1772 a specimen was dug up almost Genus 10. Elephas.

No cutting teeth in either jaw; very long tusks in the upper jaw; nose ending in a very long prehensile proboscis; body nearly naked.

We know of only one species, which has been called *elephas maximus*. Of all the animals that have engaged the attention of mankind from the earliest times, none has been so much, or perhaps so deservedly celebrated as the elephant. Possessed of magnitude and strength superior to all other quadrupeds, he is more gentle and tractable than almost any of them, and in sagacity and obedience to the commands of man, he is not excelled by any, except perhaps the dog.

The usual height of the elephant is nine or ten feet, though he is said to be sometimes found at least twelve feet high (d). His body is of a very clumsy and awkward form; his head very large; his back very much arched, and his legs very short, and extremely thick. His eyes are very small; but his ears large, pendulous, and irregularly waved about the edges. His trunk may be considered as one of the most wonderful instruments with which nature has gifted her most favoured animals, being little inferior in flexibility and utility, even to the hand of man. This organ appears to be composed of a great number of flexible rings, forming a double tube, ending in a circular tip that is somewhat flattened, and furnished with a projecting point, or fleshy moveable hook, of exquisite sensibility, and so pliable, that by means of it the animal can pick up from the ground almost the smallest object. Its lower surface is somewhat flattened, and it is circularly formed on the upper. The trunk is the principal organ of breathing to the elephant, being terminated by two orifices that are the nostrils. By means of this tube he supplies himself with food, taking hold of it with the trunk, and conveying it into his mouth. He drinks by sucking up the water into his trunk, and then pouring it into his mouth. The skull of the elephant is extremely thick, but not solid, there being a number of cavernous cells between the outer and inner laminae. The feet of this animal are edged with five rounded hoofs; the tail is of a moderate length, and is terminated by a few scattered hairs, very thick, and of a black colour. The general colour of the skin is a dusky or blackish brown, but in some parts of India they are found of a white colour, though this is a rare occurrence.

The teeth of the elephant deserve particular notice, as, till lately, our information respecting them was very imperfect. It has long been known that the females either seldom have tusks, or that in them these are very short. The tusks of the male are sometimes of an immense length, those brought from the Mozambique and Cochin China having been seen 10 feet long.

Mr Corfe has given us the best account of the elephant's teeth; and we shall extract some of the most interesting particulars from his paper, which appeared in the Philosophical Transactions for 1799.

The tusks in some female elephants are so small as not to appear beyond the lip, whilst in others they are almost as large and long as in one variety of the male, called mooknah. The grinders are so much alike in both sexes, that one description may serve for both. The largest tusks, and from which the best ivory is supplied, are taken from that kind of male elephant, called dauntelah from this circumstance, in opposition to the mooknah, whose tusks are not larger than those of some females. In one variety of the elephant the tusks point downwards, projecting only a little way beyond the trunk. The tusks in elephants are fixed very deep in the upper jaw; and the root or upper part, which is hollow, and filled with a core, goes as high as the insertion of the trunk, round the margin of the nasal opening to the throat; which opening is just below the protuberance of the forehead. Through this opening the elephant breathes, and by its means he sucks up water into his trunk: between it and the roots of the tusks there is only a thin bony plate. The first or milk-tusks of an elephant never grow to any considerable size, but are shed between the first and second year, when not two inches in length. The time at which the tusks cut the gum varies considerably: sometimes a young elephant has his tusks at five months old, and sometimes not till seven. Even in a fetus which has arrived at its full time, the deciduous tusks are formed. A young elephant shed one of his milk-tusks on the 6th of November, 1790, when about 13 months old, and the other on the 7th of December, when above fourteen months old. Two months afterwards the permanent ones cut the gums, and on the 10th of April, 1791, they were an inch long. Another young elephant did not shed his milk-tusks till he was 16 months old, which proves that the time of this process varies considerably. The permanent tusks of the female are very small compared with those of the male, and do not take their rise so deep in the jaw. The largest elephant tusks Mr Scot ever saw in Bengal did not exceed the weight of 72 pounds avoirdupois; and at Tipperah they seldom exceed 50 pounds each. Both these weights are very inferior to that of the tusks brought from other parts to the India house, where some have weighed 150 pounds each. These, Mr Scot suspects, were from Pegu. The African elephant is said to be smaller than the Asiatic; yet the ivory dealers in London affirm that the largest tusks come from Africa, and are of a better texture, and less liable to turn yellow, than the Indian ones. The increase of the tusks arises from circular layers of ivory, applied internally, from the core on which they are formed, similar to what happens in the horns of some animals.

The grinders of elephants may be considered as composed of several distinct laminae or teeth, each covered

(d) There is little doubt that the accounts generally given of the great height of the elephant have been much exaggerated. To John Corfe Scot, Esq., F.R.S., naturalists are greatly indebted for clearing up many circumstances relating to this animal. That gentleman declares that he never saw an elephant above ten feet high, and that the highest of which he could procure any authentic account did not exceed ten feet six inches. vered with its proper enamel; and these teeth are merely joined to each other by an intermediate softer substance, acting as a cement. This structure, even at the first glance, must appear very curious, being composed of a number of perpendicular laminae, which may be considered as so many teeth, each covered with a strong enamel, and joined to one another by the common osseous matter: this, being much softer than the enamel, wears away faster by the mastication of the food; and in a few months after these teeth cut the gum, the enamel rises considerably higher, so that the surface of each grinder soon acquires a ribbed appearance, as if originally formed of ridges. The number of these teeth or portions, of which an elephant's grinder is composed, varies from four to 23, according as the animal advances in age; so that a grinder or cale of teeth in a full grown elephant is more than sufficient to fill one side of the mouth. The shape of the grinders of the lower jaw differs from those of the upper, which are very convex on the back part; whereas the lower has a bent or curved direction, adapting itself to the shape of the jaw, and is concave on the surface. The grinders, like the tusks, are already formed, even in the very young animal. The first set of grinders, or milk teeth, begin to cut the gum eight or ten days after birth; they are not shed or cast, as the milk-tusks are, but are gradually worn away during the time the second set are coming forward. Mr Scot could not ascertain the exact time at which the second set of grinders make their appearance; but when the elephant is two years old, the second set are then completely in use. At about this period the third set begins to cut the gum; and from the end of the second to the beginning of the fifth year, the third set comes gradually forward as the jaw lengthens, not only to fill up this additional space, but also to supply the place of the second set, which are, during the same period, gradually worn away, and their fangs or roots absorbed. From the beginning of the fifth to the end of the ninth year, the fourth set of grinders comes forward, to supply the gradual waste of the third set. After this period other sets are produced, but in what time, and in what proportion, is not yet ascertained; but it is reasonable to conclude, that every succeeding grinder takes a year longer than its predecessor to be completed; and consequently, that the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth set of grinders will take from five to eight years (and probably much longer) each set, before the posterior lamina has cut the gum.

The time of gestation of the female elephant has been much disputed. Aristotle stated it at two years, and Buffon was at one time led to fix the same period. Afterwards, however, this naturalist was induced to consider nine months as the most likely time, and in this he was followed by Mr Pennant. We are indebted to Mr Scot for setting us right in this particular also; that gentleman having ascertained by actual experiment, that the female goes with young nearly twenty-one months.

It is now fully proved that the elephant will readily breed in captivity, and that neither male nor female shew those signs of modesty and shyness which have been attributed to them. Mr Scot has repeatedly witnessed the ceremony.

Mr. Buffon was led to conceive that elephants could not copulate in the situation that is customary to other History of quadrupeds, but this Mr Scot has also found to be an error. The young when first born is about three feet high, and continues growing for 16 or 18 years. The female has two teats a little behind the fore legs. It was supposed by Buffon, that the young elephant sucked by means of its trunk, but later observations have shewn, that they suck in the usual way with their mouth, using the trunk for grasping the dug of the mother to press out the milk.

Mr Scot corrects another mistake, respecting the fondness of the female for her young. It was supposed that this was most exemplary, and that she would defend her young with her life; but Mr Scot relates an instance where females suffered their young to be gored to death by a male elephant, without attempting to protect or rescue them.

It has not yet been ascertained how long an elephant usually lives in its native forests. In captivity they are said to live above 100 years.

The elephant is found on the continent of Asia, in several of the Asiatic islands, especially Ceylon, and in the southern part of Africa. The Ceylonese elephants are, in general, larger than those of Africa. Captain Beaver informs us, that the little island of Bulama (on the western coast of Africa) abounds with them. He says "the number of these animals on this little island almost exceeds belief; it was nearly impossible for us to proceed fifty yards inland without meeting recent and palpable vestiges of them, and the skeletons of old ones that had died in the woods are frequently found." They often pass over the arm of the sea from the continent to this island, but what is very extraordinary, they have never been observed to return to the continent.*

*Beaver's

The ordinary food of the elephant consists of herbs, African roots, leaves, and the tender branches of trees, which Memorandum breaks off with his trunk. As he is not a ruminating animal, he has only one stomach; but the extent of his bowels is very considerable, the colon alone being 15 or 20 feet long, and two or three in diameter. When an elephant discovers a plentiful pasture, he calls his neighbours together, to partake with him of the feast. They feed together in considerable herds, and as they require a large quantity of fodder, frequently shift their situation. They usually march in troops, the oldest keeping foremost, and the middle aged bringing up the rear. The females are placed in the centre, carrying their young firmly held in their trunks. This order they observe when they forage near the haunts of men; but when at liberty to range in extensive desert plains, they are less guarded. They often make great havoc in the cultivated fields, destroying even more with the weight of their enormous feet than they consume as food. They are fond of cool sequestered places, where they may be sheltered from the mid-day sun, and love to bathe themselves with water, which they do by pouring it over their bodies with their trunks. They are said frequently to roll themselves in mud, probably like the rhinoceros, for the purpose of fleathering their skin from the attacks of insects. The elephant uses many other artifices to rid himself of these winged enemies; he strikes them with his tail, his ears, or his trunk; he contracts his skin, and crinkles them between its wrinkles; he gathers boughs from the trees with his trunk, and brushes them away; and when all History of these arts are unsuccessful, he collects dust with his trunk, and throws it over the most sensible parts of his body. He has been seen to dust himself in this manner several times a day, especially after bathing. He swims with great ease, and in this way whole troops of them sometimes pass over rivers and narrow straits. The largest tusks elephants lead the way, and pass first. When they arrive at the opposite shore, they try whether the landing place is good, and if so, they make a signal with their trunk, and some more of the old elephants swim over, the young following with their trunks locked together, and the rest of the old ones bring up the rear.

This is nearly all we know of the manners of the elephant in the wild state. Still more interesting observations remain to be noticed respecting this animal when domesticated. We shall first give an account of the manner in which elephants are taken; and this differs according as the object is to capture single elephants, or a whole troop. Of the mode of taking elephants in Ceylon, Captain Percival has given us an interesting description in his account of Ceylon, to which we refer the reader.

The following is the method usually employed at Tipperah in the East Indies, for securing a single male elephant. As the hunters know the places whither the elephants come to feed, they advance towards them in the evening, bringing with them four koomkees, or female elephants trained for the purpose. In the dark nights it is easy to discover the male elephants by the noise they make in cleaning their food, by whisking it against their fore legs, and by moonlight they may be distinctly seen at some distance. Having determined on the animal they wish to secure, they silently and slowly conduct three of the koomkees at a little distance from each other, near the place where the male is feeding. The females advance very cautiously, feeding as they approach, and appear like wild elephants that have strayed from the forest. When the male perceives them, he sometimes takes the alarm, and if viciously inclined, he makes a noise, and beats the ground with his trunk, shewing evident marks of displeasure, and of his unwillingness for them to come near him. If they persist, he will immediately attack and gore them with his tusks; they therefore take care to retreat in time. He generally, however, allows them to approach, and sometimes even advances to meet them.

When the drivers find him thus gentle, they conduct two of the females close to him, one on each side, and make them press gently against his neck and shoulders; the third then comes up, and is placed directly across his tail. In this situation he is so far from suspecting any design against his liberty, that he begins to toy with the females, and careless them with his trunk. The fourth female is now brought near, and proper assistants furnished with ropes get under his belly at the tail, and fasten a slight cord round his hind legs. If he takes no notice of this, they proceed to tie his legs with a stronger cord, passed alternately from one leg to the other, so as to form a figure of 8. Six or eight such cords are usually employed, one above another, and fastened at their intersections, by another cord made to pass perpendicularly up and down. A strong cable about 60 cubits long, with a running noose, is next put round each hind leg, above the other cords, and over these six or eight more cords are crossed as before from one leg to the other, all which takes up about 20 minutes, a strict silence being observed all the time.

When thus properly secured, he is left to himself, the koomkees retiring to a little distance; in attempting to follow them, he finds his legs tied, and becoming sensible of the danger of his situation, immediately retreats towards the jungle. The drivers on the tame elephants, accompanied by a number of people who till this time had been kept out of sight, follow him at a little distance, and as soon as he passes near a tree sufficiently stout to hold him, they make a few turns of the long cables which trailed behind him round its trunk. His progress being thus checked, he becomes furious, and exerts his utmost efforts to disengage himself. The koomkees dare not now come near him, and in his fury he falls down on the earth and tears it up with his tusks. In these exertions he sometimes breaks the cables, and escapes into the thick jungle; here the drivers dare not advance for fear of the other wild elephants, and are therefore obliged to leave him to his fate; and in this hampered situation, it is said, he is even ungenerously attacked by his former companions. But as the cables are strong, and very seldom give way, when he has exhausted himself by his exertions, the koomkees are again brought near him, and take their former positions, one on each side, and the other behind. After getting him nearer the tree, the people carry the ends of the long cables two or three times round it, so as to prevent even the possibility of his escape. His fore legs are now tied exactly in the same manner as his hind legs were, and the cables are made fast, one on each side, to trees or stakes driven deep into the earth.

When he has become more settled, and will eat a little food, with which he is supplied as soon as he is taken, the koomkees are again brought near, and a strong rope is put twice round his body, close to his fore legs, like a girth, and tied behind his shoulder; then the long end is carried back close to his rump, and there fastened, after a couple of turns more have been made round his body. Another cord is next fastened to this, and from thence carried under his tail like a crupper, and brought forward and fastened to each of the girths. A strong rope is now put round his buttocks, and made fast to each side of the crupper, so as to confine the motion of his thighs, and prevent his taking a full step. A couple of large cables, with running nooses, are put about his neck, there secured, and then tied to the ropes on each side. Thus completely hampered, the cables round his neck are made fast to two koomkees, one on each side.

Every thing being now ready, all the ropes are taken from his legs, except the strong one round his buttocks to confine the motion of his hind legs, which is still left. The koomkees pull him forward, sometimes, however, not without much struggling and violence on his part. When brought to his proper station, and made fast, he is treated with a mixture of severity and gentleness, and generally in a few months becomes tractable, and appears perfectly reconciled to his fate. It has happened that an elephant which escaped from captivity, suffered itself to be taken again by the hunters. This is not the only fact, as we shall see hereafter, that contradicts the observation of Horace, that no beast once escaped from slavery, suffers himself again to be entrapped (e).

The elephant when tamed, is gentle, obedient, and tractable, patient of labour, and submits to the most toilful drudgery. He is so attentive to the commands of his governor, that a word or look is sufficient to stimulate him to the greatest exertions. His attachment to his keeper is remarkable; he caresses him with his trunk, and frequently will obey no other matter. He knows his voice, and can distinguish between the tones of command, of approbation, and of anger. He receives his orders with attention, and executes them with eagerness, but without precipitation. All his motions are grave, majestic, regular and cautious, and seem to correspond with the dignity of his appearance. He kneels down for the accommodation of those who would mount upon his back, and even helps them to ascend with his trunk. He suffers himself to be harnessed, and seems proud of the finery of his trappings; he will easily perform the work of several horses, being able to carry from 3000 to 4000 weight. His conductor or cornac is usually mounted on the neck of the elephant, and uses a rod of iron sharp at the end and hooked, with which he urges the animal forward, by pricking his head, ears, or muzzle, though this is seldom necessary, a word being usually sufficient.

In India, Mr Scot tells us, elephants are divided into two casts, viz. the koomareah and the merghee. The first consists of the large or full-bodied kind; the second of the more slender, with longer legs and thinner trunk in proportion; it is also a taller animal, but not so strong as the former. A large trunk is always considered as a great beauty in an elephant, so that the koomareah is preferred not only on this account, but for its superior strength in carrying burdens, &c. Many indistinct varieties are again produced from the intermixture of these two breeds. The torrid zone seems to be the natural climate of the elephant, and the most favourable for the production of the largest and hardiest race; and when this animal migrates beyond the tropics, the species degenerates.

The following marks are laid down by Mr Scot as descriptive of a perfect elephant. His ears should be large and rounded, not ragged or indented at the margin: his eyes of a dark hazel colour, free from specks: the roof of his mouth and his tongue without dark or blackish spots of any considerable size: his trunk large: his tail long, with a tuft of hair reaching nearly to the ground. There must be five nails on each of his fore feet, and four on each of his hind ones; his head well set on, and carried rather high; the arch or curve of his back rising gradually from the shoulder to the middle, and thence descending to the insertion of the tail; and all his joints firm and strong.

The value of an elephant varies much, according to his cast, and as he has more or less of the above marks. History of the usual price at Ceylon is 50 guineas, but they some times fetch considerably more.

Elephants are kept by the princes and grandees of India, chiefly for show and magnificence. In their travels the Indian princes are attended by hundreds of these animals. Some are employed to carry the ladies which compose the feraglio, who are placed in latticed cages covered with branches of trees; while others transport the immense quantities of baggage which the sovereigns of the east usually carry with them in their journeys. Great care is taken in the management and decoration of these elephants. They are daily fed, bathed, oiled, and rubbed, and frequently painted about the ears and head with various colours, and their tusks surrounded with rings of gold and silver. When employed in processions, they are covered with the most gaudy and sumptuous trappings.

Elephants are now seldom employed in war, as in the present state of warfare they can be of little advantage. The ancients, as is well known, used numbers of them in their armies, and we are told that Porus opposed the passage of Alexander over the Hydaspes with 83 elephants. The accounts related of those brought by Pyrrhus against the Romans, are familiar to most of our readers, and Buffon supposes that some of these were among the number that Alexander took and sent into Greece. In the later periods of the Roman republic, elephants were frequently exhibited to the people, for the cruel purpose of being put to death in conflicts with armed men. It is said that Pompey, in the space of five days, destroyed 18 elephants in this way, with a view of entertaining the populace, among whom the cries of the elephants are said to have excited much commiseration.

In the east, elephants are sometimes employed as the executioners of public justice, and they will trample a criminal to death, break his limbs with their trunk, or impale him on their enormous tusks, according to the orders given them. In some parts of India they were formerly employed in launching ships, which they effect by pushing the vessel with their heads. We are told that one of them being directed to force a large vessel into the water, and this proving too much for his strength, the matter in an angry tone cried out, Take away that lazy beast, and bring another in his place. The poor animal repeated his efforts, fractured his skull, and died upon the spot.

A great many instances have been recorded of the sagacity, and almost reasoning power of this wonderful animal. We shall mention a few of these. "I was," says M. Philippe, an eye witness to the following facts:—At Goa, there are always some elephants employed in the building of ships. I one day went to the side of the river, near which a great ship was building, where there is a large area filled with beams for that purpose. Some men tie the ends of the heaviest beams with a rope, which is handed to an elephant, who carries it to his mouth, and after twisting it round his trunk,

(e) Quae bellua ruptis, Cum femel effugit, reddit fe prava catenis. History of trunk, draws it, without any conductor, to the place where the ship is building, though it may have been only once pointed out to him. One of these sometimes drew beams so large, that more than 20 men would have been unable to move them. But what surprised me still more, when other beams obstructed the road, he elevated the ends of his own beams that they might run easily over those which lay in his way. Could the most enlightened man do more?"

He well knows when he is mocked, or otherwise ill treated. The story of the taylors of Delhi, who were drenched with puddle water by an elephant for having pricked his trunk with a needle, is well known. The following instance of retaliation is not less worthy of notice. An elephant driver at Macasa having a cocoanut given him, he, out of wantonness struck it twice against his elephant's head, to break it. The next day when the animal was passing through the street, he saw some cocoanuts exposed for sale, and taking up one of them with his trunk, he beat it about the driver's head till he completely killed the man. This comes, says the relater, of jesting with an elephant.

When much provoked, he has been known to take the most dreadful vengeance. He is extremely fond of wine and spirits, and by throwing him a vessel of arrack, he is induced to use the greatest efforts, and take the utmost pains in hopes of gaining it as the reward of his labour. An elephant disappointed of his reward in this way, out of revenge killed his cornac or governor. The poor man's wife, who beheld the dreadful scene, took her two infants, and threw them at the feet of the enraged animal, saying, "since you have slain my husband, take my life also, as well as that of my children." The elephant instantly flapped, retracted, and as if stung with remorse, took the eldest boy in his trunk, placed him on his neck, adopted him for his cornac, and would never allow any other person to mount it.

The elephant is sometimes seized with periodical fits of rage, and during these he will destroy the first person he meets with; but what is very remarkable, when he has sacrificed one victim, he becomes instantly appeased, and may be then led and governed as usual.

The following instance of mutual affection between a male and female elephant, who had before been much together, and were brought to Paris in separate conveyances, is very interesting.

The place for their reception had been long prepared. It was a spacious hall in the museum of natural history, well aired and lighted. A stove was placed in it to warm it during the winter; and it was divided into two apartments, which had a communication with each other by means of a large door resembling a portcullis. The inclosure round these apartments, consisted of rails made of strong thick beams, and a second inclosure, breast-high, ran round them, to keep the spectators at some distance, and preserve them from accidents.

The morning after their arrival, these animals were put in possession of their new habitation. The first conducted to it was the male, who issued from his cage with precaution, and seemed to enter his apartment with a degree of suspicion. His first care was to reconnoitre the place. He examined each bar with his trunk, and tried their solidity by shaking them. Care had been taken to place on the outside the large screws by which they were held together. These he sought out, and, having found them, tried to turn them, but was not able. When he arrived at the portcullis which separates the two apartments, he observed that it was fixed only by an iron bar, which rode in a perpendicular direction. He raised it with his trunk, pushed up the door, and entered into the second apartment, where he received his breakfast. He ate it quietly, and appeared to be perfectly easy.

During this time people were endeavouring to make the female enter. We still recollect the mutual attachment of these two animals, and with what difficulty they were parted and induced to travel separately. From the time of their departure they had not seen each other, not even at Cambrai, where they passed the winter. They had only been sensible that they were near neighbours. The male never lay down, but always stood upright or leaned against the bars of his cage, and kept watch for his female, who lay down and slept every night. On the least noise, or the smallest alarm, he sent forth a cry to give notice to his companion.

The joy which they expressed on seeing each other, after so long a separation, may be readily imagined. When the female entered, she sent forth a cry expressive only of the pleasure which she felt at finding herself at liberty. She did not at first observe the male, who was busy feeding in the second apartment. The latter did not immediately discover that his companion was so near him; but the keeper having called him, he turned round, and immediately the two animals rushed towards each other, and sent forth cries of joy, animated and loud, that they shook the whole hall. They breathed also through their trunks with such violence, that the blast resembled an impetuous gust of wind. The joy of the female was the most lively: she expressed it by quickly flapping her ears, which she made to move with astonishing velocity, and drew her trunk over the body of the male with the utmost tenderness. She, in particular, applied it to his ear, where she kept it a long time; and after having drawn it over the whole body of the male, would often move it affectionately towards her own mouth. The male did the same thing over the body of the female; but his joy was more concentrated: he seemed to express it by his tears, which fell from his eyes in abundance.

Besides the use made of the elephant, when living, he is sometimes hunted for the sake of his tusks and flesh. Mr Bruce has given us an interesting account of the mode of hunting elephants in Abyssinia, and with this we shall conclude our history of this animal.

The men who make the hunting of elephants their business, dwell constantly in the woods, and live entirely upon the flesh of the animals they kill, which is chiefly that of the elephant or rhinoceros. They are exceedingly thin, light, and agile, both on horseback and on foot. They are called agageer, a name derived from the word agar, which signifies to hamstring with a sharp weapon. More properly it means, indeed, the cutting of the tendon of the heel, and is a characteristic of the manner in which they kill the elephant, which is thus:—Two men, quite naked, to prevent their being laid hold of by the trees or bushes in making their escape from this very watchful enemy, get on horseback. One of these riders sits on the back of the horse, sometimes times with a faddle, and sometimes without one, with only a short stick in one hand, carefully managing the bridle with the other: behind him sits his companion, armed only with a broad sword. His left hand is employed in grasping the sword by the handle; about 14 inches of the blade of which are covered with whip cord. This part he takes in his right hand, without any danger of being hurt by it; and though the edges of the lower part of the sword are as sharp as a razor, he carries it without a scabbard.

"As soon as an elephant is found feeding, the horseman rides before him, as near his face as possible; or if he flies, chases him in all directions, calling out, 'I am such a man and such a man, this is my horse, that has such a name; I killed your father in such a place, and I am now come to kill you; you are but an ass in comparison with them.' This nonsense he believes the elephant perfectly understands, who, chafed and angry at hearing the noise immediately before him, attempts to seize him with his trunk; and, intent upon this, follows the horse everywhere, turning round and round with him, neglectful of making his escape by running straight forward, in which consists his only safety." After having made him turn a few times in pursuit of the horse, the horseman rides up alongside of him, and drops his companion just behind on the off-side; and while he engages the elephant's attention upon the horse, the footman behind gives him a drawn stroke just above the heel, into what in man is called the tendon of Achilles. This is the critical moment; the horseman immediately wheels round, again takes his companion up behind him, and rides off after the rest of the herd, if they have started more than one; and sometimes an expert agagger will kill three out of one herd. If the sword is good, and the man not afraid, the tendon is commonly entirely separated; and if it is not cut through, is generally so far divided, that the animal, with the stick he puts upon it, breaks the remaining part asunder. In either case, he remains incapable of advancing a step, till the horseman returning, or his companions coming up, pierce him through with javelins and lances; he then falls to the ground, and expires from loss of blood.

"The elephant once slain, they cut the whole flesh off his bones into thongs, like the reins of a bridle, and hang these, like sails, upon the branches of trees, till they become perfectly dry, without salt, and they then lay them by for their provision in the season of rain."

Bofman and Labat give us terrible ideas of the courage of the elephant, and his fury when wounded; but either their accounts are much exaggerated, or the modern elephant is a much more timid animal than that of their time. Captain Beaver affirms us, that when an elephant is attacked, it will endeavour to escape by any opening it can perceive; that whenever they fired at it on shore, it never turned on its enemies, but made for the openings that led into the woods. The Lijugas and Biafors use a very long gun, loaded with a piece of an iron rod nearly equal to its caliber, for attacking the elephant, and always aim at the flank, or behind the ear, these being the most dangerous parts in which the animal can be wounded. The elephant is scarcely ever killed by a single shot.

For many years past a number of large bones and extraordinary teeth, have been discovered in the northern parts both of Asia and America, which at first were generally attributed to the elephant, though in Siberia they were considered as belonging to a monstrous animal called mammoth, whose fabulous existence they supposed to be underground. In North America these large bones and carnivorous grinders have been found in great abundance on the Ohio and its tributary streams, washed from their banks, or discovered by digging in salt marshes in the neighbourhood of Cincinnati, where they are found intermixed with the bones of buffaloes and deer, which a tradition of the Indians states to have been destroyed by a herd of these animals which came upon them from the north. This event happened, the Indians believe, as a punishment for their sins; but they say that the good spirit at length interposed to save them, and seating himself on a neighbouring rock, where they knew you the print of his feet and of one foot, hurled his thunderbolts against them. All were killed except one male, who, presenting his forehead to the shafts, shook them off, until at length wounded, he sprang over the Wabash, the Illinois, and the Great Lakes, where he still lives.

These bones were forwarded with eagerness to all parts of Europe, and deposited in museums, where they attracted the curiosity of all naturalists, whose conjectures and theories on them were very various, until Dr Hunter, by a more accurate comparison between them and the bones of other animals, determined that they must have belonged to a large non-descript animal of the carnivorous kind, somewhat resembling the hippopotamus and the elephant, yet essentially different from both.

The subject is now completely elucidated. Not long since some farmers in the state of New York, in America, digging marl from their morasses in the neighbourhood of New Windsor, accidentally discovered several of these bones, which were preserved by physicians in the neighbourhood. In the autumn of 1801, Mr Charles Peale, and his son Mr Rembrandt Peale, having obtained possession of those bones, persevered for near three months, with much labour and expense, in searching for the remainder of this animal, and were at length fortunate as to obtain two skeletons found in two distinct situations, and unmixed with the bones of any other individual. One of these is preserved in the museum at Philadelphia, and the other was exhibited a few years ago in London, previously to its being taken to Paris.

The length of this skeleton, from the chin to the rump, was 15 feet, and its height over the shoulders 11 feet; and from the point of the tusks to the end of the tail, in a straight line, it was 17 feet long. The whole skeleton weighed about 1000 lbs.

The following differences between the skull of the mammoth, and that of the elephant, are given by Mr R. Reale.

On examining the head of the elephant, it will appear, that the sockets for the tusks are situated, with respect to the condyle of the neck, nearly in an angle of 45°, so that the tusks, which have but little curve, are directed downwards and forwards, and may be with ease employed offensively and defensively. On the other hand it will be observed, that, in the mammoth, the socket is nearly in a horizontal line with the condyle;

Part II.

History of the Species.

In the elephant, the orbit of the eye is situated where, in the mammoth, there is a large mass of bone. The cheek of the elephant is formed of two bones; but in the mammoth, besides other variations, there is but one bone. The whole figure of the under jaw differs considerably, in the length of the condyles or arms, which in the mammoth is short and angular, but in the elephant forms a semicircular line.

Mr R. Peale seems to have no doubt that the mammoth was a carnivorous animal, feeding chiefly on shell fish; but if the animal, whose stomach was lately found in digging a well near a salt lake in Wythe county, Virginia, were really a mammoth, it is clear that this animal was at least capable of living on herbage. The contents of this stomach, which were in a state of perfect preservation, consisted of half masticated reeds, twigs, and grasses or leaves.

Genus 11. Sukotyro.

Of this genus there is only one species, of which we know little or nothing, and are not even certain that it exists; the little information that has been given of it being confined to a single traveller, Nieuhoff. He describes it as a quadruped of a very singular shape, about the size of a large ox, with a snout like that of a hog, long and rough ears, and a thick and bushy tail. He says that the eyes are placed upright in the head, and that on each side of the head, next to the eyes, stand two horns or rather tusks, not quite so large as those of the elephant, that it feeds on herbage, and is a native of Java.

Genus 12. Platypus.

Mouth shaped like the bill of a duck, with two grinders on each side in each jaw; feet webbed.

There is only one species, which has been called P. Anatinus, or Duck-billed Platypus. It was brought from New Holland, and presented to Sir Joseph Banks. An account of it was first published by Dr Shaw in the Naturalists Miscellany, and afterwards in the General Zoology of the same author, from which the following account is taken.

"Of all the mammalia yet known, this seems the most extraordinary in its conformation, exhibiting the perfect resemblance of the beak of a duck engrafted on the head of a quadruped. So accurate is the similitude, that, at first view, it naturally excites the idea of some deceptive preparation by artificial means; the very epidermis, proportion, ferratures, manner of opening, and other particulars of the beak of a shoveler, or other broad-billed species of duck, presenting themselves to the view; nor is it without the most minute and rigid examination that we can persuade ourselves of its being the real beak or snout of a quadruped.

"The body is depressed, and has some resemblance to that of an otter in miniature. It is covered with a very thick, soft, and beaver-like fur, and is of a moderately dark brown above, and of a bufferruginous white beneath. The head is flatish, and rather small than large. The mouth or snout, as before observed, so exactly resembles that of some broad-billed species of duck, that it might be mistaken for such. Round the base is a flat circular membrane, somewhat deeper or wider below than above, viz. below, near the fifth of an inch, and above, about an eighth. The tail is flat, furry like the body, rather short, and obtuse, with an almost bifid termination; it is broader at the base, and gradually lessens to the tip, and is about three inches in length; its colour is similar to that of the body. The length of the whole animal, from the tip of the beak to that of the tail, is 13 inches; of the beak an inch and a half. The legs are very short, terminating in a broad web, which on the fore feet extends to a considerable distance beyond the claws; but on the hind feet reaches no farther than the roots of the claws. On the fore feet are five claws, straight, strong, and sharp-pointed; the two exterior ones somewhat shorter than the three middle ones. On the hind feet are six claws, longer and more inclining to a curved form than those on the fore feet; the exterior toe and claw are considerably shorter than the four middle ones; the interior, or fifth, is feated much higher up than the rest, and resembles a strong sharp spur. All the legs are hairy above: the fore feet are naked, both above and below. The internal edges of the under mandible (which is narrower than the upper) are serrated or channelled with numerous striæ, as in a duck's bill. The nostrils are small and round, and are situated about a quarter of an inch from the tip of the bill, and are about one-eighth of an inch distant from each other. There is no appearance of teeth: the palate is removed; but it seems to have resembled that of a duck: the tongue also is wanting in the specimen here described. The ears or auditory orifices, are placed about an inch beyond the eyes; they appear like a pair of oval holes of the eighth of an inch in diameter, there being no external ear. On the upper part of the head, on each side, a little beyond the beak, are situated two smallish oval white spots, in the lower part of each of which are imbedded the eyes, or at least the parts allotted to the animal for some kind of vision; for, from the thickness of the fur, and the smallness of the organs, they seem to have been but obscurely calculated for distinct vision, and are probably like those of moles, and some other animals of that tribe; or perhaps even subcutaneous, the whole apparent diameter of the cavity in which they are placed not exceeding the tenth of an inch.

"When we consider the general form of this animal, and particularly its bill and webbed feet, we shall readily perceive, that it must be a resident in watery situations; that it has the habits of digging, or burrowing in the banks of rivers, or under ground, and that its food consists of aquatic plants and animals. This is all that can at present be reasonably guessed at; future observations, made in its native regions, will, it is hoped, afford us ample information, and will make us fully acquainted with the natural history of an animal which differs so widely from all other quadrupeds, and which verifies in a most striking manner the observation of Buffon, viz. that whatever was possible for nature to produce, has actually been produced."

This animal was first called Ornithorhynchus Paradoxus, and it has been described under this name by Blumenbach of Göttingen, and by Mr Home of London. See Phil. Trans. for 1800.

Mr Mr Home found on dissection, that the beak of the platypus differs materially from the bill of a bird; that it was independent of the cavity of the mouth, which was similar to that of other quadrupeds, having two grinders on each side in both jaws, but without fangs.

Genus 13. Trichecus. Walruses.

No fore teeth in the full-grown animal in either jaw. Tusks in the upper jaw solitary, grinders with wrinkled surfaces. Lips double. Hind feet uniting at the extremity of the body into a fin.

This genus constitutes one of the links that connect the quadrupeds with the fishes; the walruses and manati being marine animals, who, though they sometimes come on shore, pass most of their time in the water. They feed on sea weeds and shell fish, and do not appear to be carnivorous. There are about seven species, which are distinguished by the following names and characters.

1. T. Rostratus, Morle or Arctic Walrus. Tusks distant and exerted.—2. T. Dugon, Dugon or Indian Walrus, Tusks exerted and approximate.—3. T. Borealis, Whale-tailed W. Hairless, with a horizontal tail in place of hind feet.—4. T. Australis, Round-tailed W. Hairy, with a horizontal tail in place of feet.—5. T. Manatis, Guiana W. Slightly hairy, without tusks, and with a horizontal tail in place of hind feet.

The following are named, but not characterized, by Dr Shaw, viz. 6. T. Amazonius, and 7. T. Hydrophilus.

1. T. Rostratus, Arctic Walrus.—This is a very large animal, growing sometimes to the length of 18 feet, and so thick as to measure 12 feet about the middle of the body. Its form is clumsy and inelegant, having a small head, short neck, thick body, and short legs. The lips are very thick, and the upper lip is indented or cleft into two large rounded lobes; over the whole surface of this part are scattered numerous semitransparent bristles, of a yellowish tinge, and of such a thickness as almost to equal a straw in diameter; they are about three inches long, and are slightly pointed at their extremities. The eyes are small. Instead of external ears, there are only two small round orifices. The skin, on the whole, is thick, and more or less wrinkled, and is scattered over with short brownish hair. On each foot are five toes, all connected by webs, and on each toe is a small nail; the hind feet are considerably broader than the fore feet. The tail is extremely short. In the upper jaw are two large and long tusks bending downwards.

The arctic walrus inhabits the northern seas, and is chiefly found within the arctic circle. Great numbers are often met with in the Magdalen islands in the gulf of St Lawrence. They are gregarious, and are sometimes seen in vast multitudes on the masses of floating ice that are found in those high latitudes. They are harmless, unless when attacked or provoked, in which case they become furious, and extremely vindictive. When surprised on the ice, the females first provide for the safety of their young, by flinging them into the sea, and themselves after them. Having carried these to a secure distance, they will return to the place again with great rage to revenge any injury they have received. They will sometimes attempt to fasten their teeth on the boats, in order to sink them, or rise in great numbers under them with the intention of overfishing them, History of at the same time flewing all the marks of rage, by the Species roaring in a dreadful manner, and gnashing their teeth with great violence. They are strongly attached to each other, and will make every effort in their power, even to death, to set at liberty their harpooned companions. A wounded walrus has been known to sink to the bottom, rise suddenly again, and bring up with it multitudes of others, who have united in an attack on the boat from which the insult came.

The following picture of a herd of walruses on a mass of floating ice, is given by Captain Cook. "They lie in herds of many hundreds upon the ice, huddling over one another like swine, and roar or bray very loud, so that in the night, or in foggy weather, they gave us notice of the vicinity of the ice, before we could see it." We never found the whole herd asleep, some being always upon the watch. These, on the approach of the boat, would wake those next to them; and the alarm being thus gradually communicated, the whole herd would be awake presently. But they were seldom in a hurry to get away, till after they had been once fired at. They then would tumble over one another into the sea in the utmost confusion. And if we did not, at the first discharge, kill those we fired at, we generally lost them, though mortally wounded. They did not appear to us to be that dangerous animal which some authors have described, not even when attacked. They are rather more so in appearance than in reality. Vast numbers of them would follow and come close up to the boats. But the flash of a musket in the pan, or even the bare pointing of one at them, would send them down in an instant. The female will defend the young to the very last, and at the expense of her own life, whether in the water or upon the ice. Nor will the young one quit the dam, though the be dead; so that if one is killed, the other is certain prey. The dam, when in the water, holds the young one between her fore fins."

The tusks of this animal are used as ivory; but authors seem to differ with respect to its quality, some taking it as superior, and others far inferior to that of the elephant. The walrus is taken chiefly for the sake of its oil and its skin, from which latter is prepared a very strong and elastic leather.

This order contains nine genera, and about 30 species.

Chap. III. Ferae.

Genus 14. Phoca. Seals.

Six fore teeth in the upper jaw, pointed, parallel, outer the larger; four in the lower jaw, bluntish, parallel, equal and distinct. One canine tooth on each side in both jaws, large and pointed; the upper distinct from the cutting teeth; the lower from the grinders. Five grinders on each side in the upper, and six in the lower jaw; obtutely tricuspidated. Hind feet growing together.

This constitutes another tribe of marine animals; but these are much better fitted for living on land than the walruses, and indeed they pass much of their time either on the sea shores, on insulated rocks, or on the ice in the frozen seas, assembling in these places in vast numbers, especially at the time when the females bring forth.

Part II.

History of forth their young. Here they lie basking in the sun or sporting with each other, and here they take their repose. They are found in all seas, and some of them are said to inhabit large inland lakes. They feed chiefly on fish and sea weeds.

The species are numerous, at least 19 being described by naturalists, viz.

1. *P. Vitulina*, Common Seal. Earless, brown, with smooth head and neck.—2. *P. Bicolor*, Pied S. Earless, black, variegated with white, with elongated nose and lamated hind feet.—3. *P. Monachus*, Mediterranean S. Earless, with four cutting teeth in each jaw, undivided fore feet, and the hinder pinniform and without claws.—4. *P. Longicollis*, Long-necked S. Earless, long-necked, with the fore feet pinniform.—5. *P. Falklandica*, Falkland-isle S. Cinerous, with small-pointed ears, and furrowed cutting teeth.—6. *P. Tefudinea*, Tortoise-headed S. Tortoise-shaped head and slender neck.—7. *P. Fuscata*, Ribbon S. Blackish, with a squarish dorsal yellow band.—8. *P. Leporina*, Leporine S. with white, soft, tubercled fur.—9. *P. Barbatia*, Great S. Earless, blackish, with smooth head.—10. *P. Haida*, Rough S. Pale brown, subauriculated, with smooth head, and the body covered with rising bristly hair.—11. *P. Porcina*, Porcine S. Earred, with long-like stout and five-toed feet.—12. *P. Flavofascia*, Yellow S. Yellowish, with pointed ears.—13. *P. Criflata*, Hooded S. Gray, with a folding skinny crest on the forehead.—14. *P. Groenlandica*, Harp S. Earless, gray, with a black dorsal crescent; the horns pointing downwards along the sides.—15. *P. Puffila*, Little S. Subauriculated, dusky, with smooth head.—16. *P. Ursina*, Ursine S. Earred, blackish, with flatish nose, and fin-like fore feet.—17. *P. Leonina*, Bottle-nosed S. Brown, male having a projecting crest or inflated membrane on the front.—18. *P. Jubata*, Leonine S. Reddish brown, male furnished with a large mane round the neck.—19. *P. Lapponia*, Urigne S. Earless, with dog-like head, and fin-like fore feet.

1. *P. Vitulina*, Common Seal, or Sea Calf.—The usual length of this species is from five to six feet. It has a large round head, a small short neck, and several strong bristles on each side of its mouth; large eyes, no external ears, and a forked tongue. The body tapers from the shoulders to the tail. The legs are very short, and the feet all webbed. The hind legs are placed so far back as to be of but little use, except in swimming. The tail is very short. They vary in colour, being sometimes gray, sometimes brown or blackish, and now and then spotted with white and yellow. They inhabit all the European seas, and are found round all the coasts of the northern hemisphere. They are also seen in vast quantities about the southern polar regions; and Mr Pennant informs us, that they even inhabit some fresh-water lakes, especially that of Baikal. Their dens or habitations are formed in hollow rocks or caverns out of the reach of the tide.

They are excellent swimmers, and ready divers, and are very bold when in the sea. In the summer they will come out of the water, to bask or sleep in the sun, on the top of large stones, or shivers of rocks; and that is the opportunity our countrymen take of shooting them: if they chance to escape, they hasten towards their proper element, flinging stones and dirt behind them as they scramble along; at the same time expressing their fears by piteous moans; but if they happen to be overtaken, they will make a vigorous defence with their feet and teeth, till they are killed. They are taken for the sake of their skins, and for the oil their fat yields; the former fell for 4s. or 4s. 6d. a piece, and, when dressed, are very useful in covering trunks, making waistcoats, shot pouches, and several other conveniences. The flesh of these animals, and even of porpoises, formerly found a place at the tables of the great, as appears from the bill of fare of that vast feast that Archbishop Nevill gave in the reign of Edward IV., in which is seen, that several seals were provided on the occasion. They couple about April, on large rocks, or small islands, not remote from the shore; and bring forth in those vast caverns that are frequent on our coasts. They commonly bring forth two at a time, which, in their infant state, are covered with a whitish down, or woolly substance.

They suckle their young for about a fortnight, in the place where they were born, and then take them out to sea, and instruct them in swimming, and seeking for their prey, which consists chiefly of sea weed. When the young are fatigued, the parents are said to carry them on their backs. The growth of the young seals is said to be so rapid, that, in about nine tides after their birth, they become as active as their parents.

Seals are very swift in their proper depth of water, dive like a thot, and in a trice rise at 50 yards distance; so that weaker fishes cannot avoid their tyranny, except in shallow water; a person of the parish of Senon, saw, not long since, a seal in pursuit of a mullet (that strong and swift fish): the seal turned it to and fro in deep water, as a greyhound does a hare. The mullet at last found it had no way to escape, but by running into shoal water: the seal pursued, and the mullet, to get more securely out of danger, threw itself on its side, by which means it darted into shoaler water than it could have swum in with the depth of its haunch and fins, and so escaped.

They sleep on rocks surrounded by the sea, or on the less accessible parts of our cliffs, left dry by the ebb of the tide; and if disturbed by any thing, take care to tumble over the rocks into the sea. They are extremely watchful, and never sleep long without moving; seldom longer than a minute, then raise their heads, and if they hear or see nothing more than ordinary, lie down again, and so on, raising their heads a little, and reclining them alternately, in about a minute's time. Nature seems to have given them this precaution, as being unprovided with auricles, or external ears; and consequently not hearing very quick, nor from any great distance.

When taken young, these animals may be domesticated, will follow their master like a dog, and come to him when called by name. Some years ago a young seal was thus domesticated that had been taken at a little distance from the sea. It was usually kept in a vessel full of salt water, but was allowed to crawl about the house, and would sometimes come near the fire; its natural food was regularly brought to it, and it was every day taken to the sea, and thrown in from a boat, but would swim after the boat, and always allowed itself. Gen. i5. Canis. Dogs.

Six cutting teeth in each jaw; the lateral of the upper jaw longer and dilatant, the intermediate lobated; the lateral of the lower jaw lobated. Canine teeth solitary and curved. Grinders six or seven, or more than in the other genera of this order.

The individuals of this genus, like those of the next, have so little in common with respect to their habits and manners, and are otherwise so important in themselves, as to call for a separate account. Without making any general remarks here, we shall merely give the specific differences, and then proceed to such of the species as are most worthy of notice.

There are about 23 species; viz.

1. *Canis Familiaris*, Common Dog. Recurved tail, turned towards the left.—2. C. Lupus, Wolf. Tail incurvated.—3. C. Mexicanus, Mexican wolf. Tail deflected; body ash-coloured, and variegated with dusky bands and fulvous spots.—4. C. Lycaon, Black wolf. Tail straight.—5. C. Hyena, Hyena. Pale brown, striped with black, with upright mane, naked ears, straight tail and four-toed feet.—6. C. Crocuta, Spotted hyena. Reddish brown, spotted with black; with straight tail, and four-toed feet.—7. C. Aureus, Jackall. Pale fulvous, with straight tail.—8. C. Melo, Cape jackall. Ferruginous, with straight tail, and black dorsal band.—9. C. Barbarus, Barbary jackall. Pale brown with straight tail; a black descending forked band behind each ear, and three dusky bands on the tail.—10. C. Ceilonicus, Ceylonese dog. Yellowish gray, with lengthened snout, long sharp pointed tail, and crooked claws.—11. *C. Vulpes*, Fox. Tail straight tipped with white.—12. C. Alopex, Brant fox. Tail straight, tipped with black.—13. C. Corac, Corsac fox. Tail straight, fulvous, with the base and tip white.—14. C. Karagan, Karagan fox. Tail straight; body gray, and ears black.—15. C. Cinereargentatus, Fulvous-necked fox. Ash gray, with straight tail; and the sides of the neck fulvous.—16. C. Virginianus, Virginian fox. Whitish gray, with straight tail.—17. C. Argentatus, Silvery fox. Deep brown, with longer hairs of a silvery white.—18. C. Lagopus, Arctic fox. Tail straight, feet covered with thick fur.—19. C. Thous, Surinam dog. Grayish white beneath, with deflected tail.—20. C. Bengalensis, Bengal fox. Light brown, with a longitudinal black stripe down the face, white orbits, fulvous legs, and tail tipped with black.—21. C. Fuliginosus, Sooty fox. Of a footy colour, with straight tail.—22. C. Antarcticus, Antarctic fox. Cinereous brown, villous; tail tips with white.—23. C. Zerda, Fennec. Whitish, with straight tail, and very large upright ears, that are internally of a rose colour.

1. C. Familiaris. Domestic dog.—The varieties of the common dog are so numerous, that it is scarcely possible to give any general description of the species that would apply to all. We shall therefore, only give Linnaeus's characteristic picture, as modified by Mr Daniel, and then enumerate the several varieties with Linnæus's characters, marking with a star those that are generally found in this country.

The dog eats flesh and farinaceous vegetables, but not greens (this is a mistake, for they will eat greens when boiled); its stomach digests bones; it uses the tops of grass as a vomit; is fond of rolling in carrion; voids its excrements on a stone; its dung (the album græcum) is one of the greatest encouragers of putrefaction; it laps up its drink with its tongue; makes water sidewise, by lifting up one of its hind legs; is most diuretic in the company of a strange dog, and very apt to repeat it where another dog has done the same: Odorat anus alvearius; menstruans catulit cum variis; nondet illa illos; coheret copula junctura. Its scent is most exquisite when its nose is moist; it treadeth lightly on its toes, scarcely ever sweats, but when hot rolls out its tongue; generally walks frequently round the place it intends to lie down on; its sense of hearing is very quick; when asleep, it dreams. It goes with young 63 days, and commonly brings from four to ten; the male puppies resemble the dog, the female the bitch (an affection by no means accurate, any more than the tail always bending to the left, is a common character of the species). It is the most faithful of animals, is very docile, fawns at its master's approach; runs before him on a journey; often pales over the same ground; on coming to crossways stops, and looks back; drives cattle home from the field; keeps herds and flocks within bounds, protects them from wild beasts; points out to the sportsman the game, brings the birds that are shot to its master; will turn a spit; at Brussels, and in Holland, draws little carts to the herb market; in more northern regions, draws sledges with provisions, travellers, &c.; will find out what is dropt; watchful by night, and when the charge of a house or garden is at such times committed to him, his boldness increases, and he sometimes becomes perfectly ferocious; when he has been guilty of a theft, flinks away with his tail between his legs; eats voraciously with oblique eyes; enemy to beggars; attacks strangers without provocation; hates strange dogs; howls at certain notes in music, and often urines on hearing them; will snap at a stone thrown at it; is sick at the approach of bad weather (a remark vague and uncertain); is afflicted with worms; spreads its madness; grows blind with age; sepe gonorrhoea infestus; driven as unclean from the houses of the Mahometans; yet the same people establish hospitals for, and allow them daily food.

1. *Shepherd's dog*; ears erect; tail woolly underneath.

2. Wolf dog; hair on the head long, ears erect, tail very much curved on the rump.

3. Siberian dog; ears erect, hair all long.

4. Iceland dog; ears erect, tips pendulous, hair long, except on the head.

5. Water-dog; hair long, curled like a sheep.

6. *Little water-dog*; legs; hair long, curled, round; the ears long, and hanging down.

7. King Charles's dog; head; legs, rounded; snout short, tail curved back.

8. *Spaniel*; ears long, woolly, pendulous.

9. Maltese dog; hair soft, silky, very long.

10. Lion dog; very small; hair on the belly and tail shorter. 11. Danjib dog; ears small, subpendulous; snout small, acute; legs slender.

12. Ballard pug-dog; ears small, subpendulous; nose thick, flatish.

13. * Pug-dog; nose crooked upwards; ears pendulous; body square.

14. * Bull-dog; sides of the lips pendulous; body robust; size of a wolf.

15. * Maltese; very large; sides of the lips pendulous; body robust.

16. German hound; ears pendulous; a spurious claw on the hind feet.

17. * Hound; ears pendulous; a spurious claw on the hind feet; whitish.

18. * Bloodhound; very sagacious.

19. * Pointer; tail truncate; spotted.

20. Barbet; tail truncate; hair long, coarse.

21. * Greyhound; head long; snout robust; ears small, subpendulous; legs long, stout; body long, slender.

22. Irish greyhound; body curved; snout narrowing; size of 15.

23. Turkish greyhound; body curved; snout tapering; hair a little curled; size of 25.

24. Common greyhound; body curved; snout tapering; size of a wolf.

25. Rough greyhound; body curved; snout tapering; hair longer, curled; size of a wolf.

26. Italian greyhound; legs; body curved; snout tapering.

27. Naked dog; body naked.

28. Oriental dog; tall, slender; ears pendulous; hair on the tail very long, hanging down.

29. * Lurcher; body narrow; legs stout; tail strong, straight; hair short, thick set.

30. Rough lurcher; body narrow; legs stout; tail thick, straight; hair long, rough.

31. Boar lurcher; head and snout thick; body narrow behind; feet long; hair long, rough.

32. * Turnspit; legs short; body long, often spotted.

33. Aloe; head small; ears pendulous; back curved; tail short; size of 9.

34. New Holland dog; tail bushy, pendulous; ears short, erect; snout pointed.

Of these, the shepherd's dog, the Siberian dog, the bull dog, the mastiff, the hound, the bloodhound, the greyhound, the Irish greyhound, and the terrier, are the most deserving of our attention. We shall make a very few remarks on each, and shall take occasion to intersperse a few anecdotes characteristic of the sagacity, cunning, strength, or courage, of this most valuable species.

The Shepherd's dog is supposed by many to be the original stock whence most of the other varieties are derived. This is one of the most useful of the species, and is ever faithful to his charge. This sagacious animal is of the greatest importance in those large tracts of land which in many parts of our island are appropriated to the feeding of sheep and cattle, and where vast flocks may be seen ranging without control, their only guides being the shepherd and his dog. This animal is strictly attentive to the commands of his master, and always prompt in the execution of them. He is the watchful guardian of the flock, keeps them together, and often drives them by himself from one pasture to another. We have heard of one of these dogs who was employed by a farmer in the south of Scotland to steal other people's sheep. His master had only to point out to him beforehand the sheep which he wished to appropriate to himself, and to send the dog at a convenient time to fetch them home. This charge he was sure to execute with the utmost punctuality and address. The proprietors of the stolen sheep were surprised at their loss, when they could not discover the person who had robbed them. The matter of the dog was at length detected and hanged.

Mr Bewick speaks of a remarkable singularity in the feet of the shepherd's dogs in the northern parts of this island, viz. their having one or two toes more than other dogs, which appear to be deficient in muscles, and hang dangling behind like an unnatural excrescence. This, however, is not peculiar to the shepherd's dog, but is found in the spaniel, pointer, and hound.

The Siberian or Greenland dog is a most useful animal to the inhabitants of the dreary regions of North America, and the north-west of Asia, especially Greenland and Kamtchatchka. It bears a considerable resemblance to the shepherd's dog, but is much larger, and has more shaggy hair, and a more bushy tail. It is ferocious and savage, and rather howls than barks. It is principally employed in drawing sledges across the frozen snow; several of these animals being fastened to the sledge, which they draw with so much speed, that they have been known to perform a journey of 270 miles in less than four days.

The sledges are usually drawn by five dogs, four of them yoked two and two abreast; the foremost acting as a leader to the rest. The reins are fastened to a collar round the leading dog's neck, but are of little use in directing the pack, the driver depending chiefly upon their obedience to his voice, with which he animates them to proceed. Great care and attention are consequently used in training up those intended for leaders, which are more valuable according to their steadiness and docility; the sum of 40 rubles, or 10l. being no unusual price for one of them. The rider has a crooked stick, answering the purpose both of whip and reins, with which, by striking on the snow, he regulates the speed of the dogs, or stops them at his pleasure. When they are inattentive to their duty, he often chastises them by throwing it at them. He discovers great dexterity in regaining his stick, which is the greatest difficulty attending his situation; for if he should happen to lose it, the dogs immediately discover the circumstance, and seldom fail to set off at full speed, and continue to run till their strength is exhausted, or till the carriage is overturned and dashed to pieces, or hurried down a precipice.

The Bull-dog is the fiercest of the species, and in courage is scarcely excelled by any creature in the world. It is of a low stature, but very strong and muscular; has a short nose, and its under jaw projects forward, so as to render its aspect fierce and unpleasing. The cruel purpose for which these animals were formerly much employed, viz. bull-baiting, is now, much to the credit of the present times, going fast out of fashion, and we should hope, in the course of another century, will be entirely abolished. The uncommon ardour and obstinacy displayed by these dogs in attacking the bull, bull, even under the greatest pain, are well illustrated by the following fact, related by Mr Bewick. Some years ago at a bull-baiting in the north of England, a young man, confident of the courage of his dog, laid some trifling wager, that he would, at separate times, cut off all the four feet of his dog, and that it would, after each amputation, still attack the bull. The inhuman experiment was tried; and the dog continued to seize the bull as eagerly as at first.

The Beagle is one of the largest and strongest dogs, and one of those for which this country is particularly famous. His principal office is that of guarding and securing houses, gardens, and other property, and for this he is admirably calculated, both from his strength and courage. The power of this dog was put to a severe trial in the reign of James I., when three of them were made to attack a lion. The result of the engagement is thus related by Stow. "One of the dogs being put into the den, was soon disabled by the lion, which took it by the head and neck, and dragged it about; another dog was then let loose, and served in the same manner; but the third being put in, immediately seized the lion by the lip, and held him for a considerable time, till being severely torn by his claws, the dog was obliged to quit his hold, and the lion, greatly exhausted in the conflict, refused to renew the engagement; but taking a sudden leap over the dogs, fled into the interior part of his den. Two of the dogs soon died of their wounds; the last survived, and was taken great care of by the king's son, who said, he that had fought with the king of beasts, should never after fight with any inferior creature."

M. D'Obfonville relates an instance of memory in a mastiff, which exceeds anything of which even the human race seems capable. This dog, which had been brought up by him in India from a puppy, accompanied himself and a friend from Pondicherry to Benglour, a distance of above 300 leagues. The journey occupied nearly three weeks, and they had to traverse plains and mountains, to ford rivers, and go through several by-paths. The dog, which had certainly never before been in that country, left his master at Benglour, and immediately returned to Pondicherry. He went directly to the house of a friend of M. D'Obfonville's, with whom that gentleman had generally resided. Now the difficulty is, not so much to know how the dog subsisted on the road (for he was very strong, and able to procure himself food), but how he should so well have found his way, after an interval of more than a month.

An anecdote related by Mr Bewick shews that the mastiff possesses forbearance equal to his courage, and that he disdains to attack an inferior foe, while he knows how to chastise his impertinence. A large dog of this kind belonging to the late M. Ridley, esq. of Heatton, near Newcastle, being frequently molested by a mongrel, and teased by its continual barking, at last took it up in his mouth by the back, and with great composure dropped it over the quay into the river, without doing any farther injury to an enemy so much his inferior.

There are several varieties of hounds, as the fox-hound, the beagle, and the harrier. Of these the fox-hound most merits our attention.

The Fox-hounds of Britain are considered as superior in swiftness, strength, and sagacity, to those of every History of other country in Europe. As fox-hunting forms one of the Species, the most favourite diversions among our country gentlemen, the greatest attention is paid to the breeding, education, and maintenance of the fox-hounds; and this climate seems so congenial to their nature, that they will thrive nowhere else. It is asserted that when our fox-hounds are carried over to the continent, they always degenerate.

The proper shape of a fox-hound is of considerable consequence, for if he is not of a perfect symmetry he will neither run fast nor bear hard work, and in a fox-chase, both great speed and strength are required. According to Mr Daniel, his legs should be as straight as arrows, his feet round and not too large; his shoulders should lie back; his breast should be rather wide than narrow; his chest deep, his back broad, his neck thin, his head moderately small, his tail thick and bushy.

Fox-hounds are sometimes employed to hunt the stag, and there is on record a remarkable instance of the stoutness displayed by these dogs in such a chase. Many years since a stag was hunted from Whinfield park, in the county of Westmoreland, until by fatigue or accident the whole pack was thrown out, except two fox-hounds, bred by Lord Thanet, who continued the chase the greatest part of the day. The stag returned to the park from whence he had been driven, and as his last effort leapt the wall, and died as soon as he had accomplished it. One of the hounds ran to the wall, but being unable to get over it, lay down, and almost immediately expired; the other hound was found dead about half a mile from the park. The length of this chase is uncertain, but as they were seen at Red-kirks, near Annan, in Scotland, distant by the post-road about 46 miles, it is conjectured that the circuitous course they took, could not make the distance run, less than 120 miles.

The following anecdote is an admirable proof of the sagacity of the fox-hound. Two gentlemen had their hounds at Whinneck, Northamptonshire, and used sometimes to go to Lutterworth in Leicestershire for a fortnight's hunting. A favourite hound was left in Northamptonshire, on account of not being quite sound. The first day's hunting from Lutterworth produced an extraordinary chase, in which the hounds and horses were so tired, that it was deemed necessary to stop that night at Leicester. Upon their arrival next day at Lutterworth, they were told that a hound (which answered the description of that left in Northamptonshire), came there soon after their going out the preceding morning, and waited quietly until towards the evening; he had then shown signs of uneasiness, and in the morning had disappeared. It was concluded that, disappointed of finding his companions where he expected, the hound, whose name was Dancer, had returned to Whinneck; but to the surprise and concern of his masters, upon their returning home, they were informed that the hound had come back from Leicestershire, stayed one day at the kennel, and then left it. Every possible inquiry was made, at length it was discovered that Dancer, upon not finding the pack either at Lutterworth or Whinneck, had proceeded into Warwickshire, to a Mr Newcome's, where the hounds had been Daniel's Rural Sports, for a week some months before.

The Blood-hound, was held in great esteem by our ancestors. ancestors, and was so remarkable for the fineness of its scent, that they employed it for recovering game that had escaped wounded from the hunters. It would also follow with considerable certainty the footsteps of a man to a great distance. In barbarous and uncivilized times, when a thief or murderer had fled, the bloodhound would trace him through the thickest and most secret coverts, and ceased not the pursuit till it had seized the felon. This is finely described by Sommerville in his poem of The Chase.

Mr Boyle relates a story that shows the extreme acuteness of this dog's smell, as well as his surprising facility. A person of quality, to make a trial whether a young bloodhound was well instructed, caused one of his servants to walk to a town four miles off, and then to a market town three miles from thence. The dog, without seeing the man he was to pursue, followed him by the scent to the above-mentioned places, notwithstanding the multitude of market-people that went along the same way, and of travellers that had occasion to cross it; and when the bloodhound came to the chief market-town, he passed through the streets without taking notice of any of the people there, and left it not till he had gone to the house where the man he sought resided himself, and he found him in an upper room, to the wonder of those that followed him.

Bloodhounds are still employed in the southern part of the kingdom, either for recovering wounded deer, or for pursuing deer-stealers, whom they infallibly trace by the blood that issues from the wounds of their victims.

The Greyhound is the fleetest of all dogs, and can out-run every animal of the chase; but as it has not the fine scent of other hounds, it can pursue only by the eye, and must be indebted for success to its astonishing speed. The swiftness of this dog is so great that a swift horse can do little more than keep up with him, and his ardour in pursuit of game is such as not unfrequently to occasion his death.

Greyhounds were formerly held in such repute as to be considered a most valuable present even from or to princes.

The Irish greyhound is supposed to be the largest of the species, as well as the most beautiful and majestic. One described by Mr Lambert, in the third volume of the Linnaean Transactions, measured above five feet from the nose to the tip of the tail, and they are said formerly to have been of a much larger size. They are found only in Ireland, and even in that country are now become extremely rare. The earl of Altamont is said to be the only person who possesses them, and his lordship has not more than eight. They were formerly employed in clearing the country of wolves, and are hence sometimes called Irish wolf-dogs.

The Terrier is of two kinds, one with smooth glossy hair, commonly of a black colour, or black marked with reddish spots; and the other rough and shaggy, usually of a reddish brown mixed with gray. This dog is generally an attendant on every pack of foxhounds, being employed to force the fox from his kennel, in which he is very expert. He is also the determined enemy of rats, weasels, and other vermin, and no dog is better calculated for the useless and cruel sport of hunting the badger. He is also a good water-dog.

Mr Hope has related an anecdote respecting the terrier, which shows that this animal is both capable of resentment when injured, and of great contrivance in order to accomplish his revenge; it indeed shows that he is possessed of a certain power of combining ideas, and communicating his thoughts to other dogs.

A gentleman of Whitmore in Staffordshire, used to come twice a-year to town, and being fond of exercise, generally performed the journey on horseback, accompanied most part of the way by a faithful little terrier dog, which, left he might lose it in town, he always left to the care of Mrs Langford, the landlady at St Albans; and on his return he was sure to find his little companion well taken care of. The gentleman calling one time, as usual, for his dog, Mrs Langford appeared before him with a woeful countenance—'Alas! sir, your terrier is lost! Our great house-dog and he had a quarrel, and the poor terrier was so worried and bit before we could part them, that I thought he could never have got the better of it. He, however, crawled out of the yard, and no one saw him for almost a week: he then returned, and brought with him another dog, bigger by far than ours, and they both together fell on our great dog, and bit him so unmercifully, that he has scarcely since been able to go about the yard, or to eat his meat. Your dog and his companion then disappeared, and have never since been seen at St Albans.' The gentleman heard the story with patience, and endeavoured to reconcile himself to his loss. On his arrival at Whitmore, he found his little terrier; and on inquiring into circumstances, was informed that he had been at Whitmore, and had coaxed away the great dog, who it seems had, in consequence, followed him to St Albans, and completely avenged his injury.

The above anecdote, with others which we have before given, are abundantly sufficient to show the great facility of the dog; but of all the qualifications that have been attributed to him, that of learning to speak must appear the most extraordinary. The French academicians, however, have given us an account of a dog in Germany which would call for tea, coffee, chocolate, &c. The account was communicated to the Royal Academy by the celebrated Leibnitz, and in substance is as follows: 'This dog was of a middling size, and was the property of a peasant in Saxony. A little boy, the peasant's son, imagined that he perceived in the dog's voice an indistinct resemblance to certain words, and therefore took it into his head to teach him to speak. For this purpose he spared neither time nor pains with his pupil, who was about three years old when this his learned education commenced; and at length he made such a progress in language as to be able to articulate so many as thirty words. It appears, however, that he was somewhat of a truant, and did not very willingly exert his talents, being rather pressed into the service of literature, and it was necessary that the words should be first pronounced to him each time, which he, as it were, echoed from his preceptor. Leibnitz, however, attests that he himself heard him speak; and the French academicians add, that unless they had received the testimony of so great a man as Leibnitz, they should scarcely have dared to report the circumstance. This wonderful dog was born at Zeitz in Mifinia, in Saxony.'

The flesh of the dog is eaten by some savage nations, vol. i. and part 2. and we have heard of some epicures in this country who fatten young puppies for their table. The skin of this animal is made into leather for gloves, &c.

For the construction and management of dog kennels, see Farrery, Part iv, chap. i, sect. 3. For the best method of feeding hounds, see chap. ii, of the same part; and for the diseases of dogs and their treatment, especially the distemper and canine madness, see Farrery, Part vi.

2. C. Lupus. The Wolf.—The wolf is much larger, stronger, and more muscular than the dog; the upper part of his face is broader, and his whole form longer; the tail too has an inward direction, and is rather long and bushy; the opening of his mouth appears a little shorter in proportion than that of the dog, but his jaws are much stronger, his teeth larger, and his eyes placed more obliquely. His general colour is a pale gray with a cast of yellow; but it varies much in shade in different parts of the world.

He is found in almost all the temperate and cold regions of the globe, even as high as the arctic circle. He was formerly very common in Britain and Ireland, inasmuch that King Edgar commuted the punishment of certain crimes into the acceptance of a number of wolves tongues, and in Wales converted the tax of gold and silver into an annual tribute of 300 wolves heads. Notwithstanding these endeavours to extirpate the race of wolves, we find that in the reign of Edward I. these animals had so much increased in number, as to require a mandate from that monarch to Peter Corbet to assist in their destruction. In the county of Derby certain persons held their lands by the suit of hunting and destroying the wolves that infested the country; whence they were called wolse-hunt. They infested Ireland many centuries after their extinction in England; for we are told that they were found there so lately as the year 1710. In Scotland the last wolf was killed in the latter end of the 17th century, by Sir Ewen Cameron of Lochiel. In the parts of America possessed by the United States, wolves are nearly extirpated; but very lately a reward of 20 or 30 shillings was offered for killing a wolf.

Wolves prey on all kinds of animals; but in case of necessity will feed upon carrion; in hard weather assemble in vast troops, and join in dreadful howlings. Horses generally defend themselves against their attacks, but all weaker animals fall a prey to them. Throughout France the peasants are obliged nightly to house their flocks. The wolf is naturally a suspicious animal, and though so ravenous as to devour his own species when pressed by hunger, yet he is so mistrustful as to imagine every thing he sees to be a snare laid to entrap him. If he finds a rein-deer tied to a post for the purpose of being milked, he dares not approach it for fear it should be placed there only to betray him; but when once the deer is let loose, he will pursue and seize him. He is however, so cowardly, that if the animal stands on the defensive, he will scarcely venture to attack it. They fall forth with great caution in quest of their prey; have a fine scent; hunt by nose; they are capable of bearing long abstinence; to allay their hunger will fill their bellies with mud; a mutual enmity subsists between the dogs and them; the female is in heat in winter, followed by several males, which occasions great combats; goes with young ten weeks; near her History of time prepares a soft bed of moss, in some retired place; the Species brings from five to nine at a birth; the young born blind. Their bite is terrible, as their strength is great; the hunters therefore clothe their dogs, and guard their necks with spiked collars. Wolves are proscripted animals; destroyed by pitfalls, traps, or poison; a peasant in France who kills a wolf, carries its head through the villages, and collects some small reward from the inhabitants. The Haussocks take the wolves by the help of a large sort of hawk called betak, which is trained for the diversion, and will fall on them and tear out their eyes*.

These animals abound in the immense forests of Germany, where the following methods are taken to destroy them. In some very sequestered part of the forest they hang up a large piece of carrion to the branch of a tree, having previously made a train of some miles long, leaving small pieces of putrid flesh here and there to allure the wolves to the spot; they then wait till it is dark, and approach the place with great circumspection. Here they sometimes find two or three wolves assembled, leaping up, and straining themselves to catch the bait, which is placed just within their reach; while the animals are busily employed in this way, the hunters being provided with fire-arms, seldom fail to dispatch them. Again in a convenient place, at the foot of a declivity, they make a small enclosure of strong poles, so high, that the wolf having once entered, cannot return again. An opening is left at the top of the bank; and a sheep that has been long dead, is the bait; to which he is allured by long trains, made from different places where he is known to haunt. As soon as he arrives at the spot, he examines every part of the inclosure, and finding no other way to come at the booty, he precipitates himself to the bottom; and having made a plentiful meal, endeavours in vain to ascend. His disappointment at not being able to get back, is productive of the most dismal howlings, which alarm his enemies, and they either take him alive, or dispatch him with bludgeons. It is remarkable that when this animal finds there is no possibility of escaping, his courage entirely forsakes him; and he is for some time so stupified with fear, that he may be killed without offering to resist, or taken alive without much danger.

Notwithstanding the savage ferocity of the wolf, more than one instance has occurred of his being tamed. Buffon brought up one which remained very quiet and docile till he was 18 or 19 month old, when he broke his fetters, and ran off, after destroying a number of fowls, and killing a dog with whom he had lived in the greatest familiarity. It is said that Sir Atherton Lever had a tame wolf, which by proper education, was entirely divested of the ferocious character of its species.

The wolf is valuable for nothing but his skin, which makes a warm and durable fur.

It is now fully ascertained that the wolf and dog will breed together, and that the breed may be continued between the mules themselves, or between them and other dogs.

It has hence been conjectured that the wolf is the original stock whence the dog is derived, but the differences... History of differences between the two animals are so striking, that the species this supposition must be abandoned in favour of some other animal.

5. C. Hyæna. Hyæna.—This animal is about the size of a large dog; though it is sometimes found nearly five feet long from the root to the base of the tail. It is chiefly distinguished by its great strength of limbs, and a remarkable fullness of the snout, which is black; the ears are long, sharp pointed, and nearly naked, and from the neck there runs a strong bristly mane along the upper part of the back. The tail is rather short, but extremely thick and bristly with hair. All the feet have four toes. Its usual colour is a pale grayish brown, with a tawny cast, and the whole body is marked with several blackish transverse bands, running from the back downwards, those on the legs being most numerous, and of the deepest colour.

The hyæna is found in Asiatic Turkey, Syria, Persia, and in some parts of Africa, especially Barbary and Abyssinia.

It is one of the most ferocious animals of which we have any account; will prey on cattle, and frequently commits great devastation among the flocks, and prows about in the night to feed on the remains of dead animals, or on whatever living prey it can seize. Troops of hyænas sometimes assemble, and follow the movements of an army, in order to feast on the bodies of the slain. The will even violate the sepulchres of the dead, and greedily devour the putrid contents of the grave. The courage of this animal is equal to its capacity, and on occasion he will obstinately defend himself against much larger animals. He will sometimes attack the ounce and the panther, and Kaempfer speaks of one that he saw put two lions to flight. This character, however, seems not to apply to the hyænas of Barbary; for we are told by Mr Bruce, that he has seen the Moors in the daytime take this animal by the ears, and drag him along without his offering any other resistance than drawing back. The Abyssinian hyænas on the contrary, are extremely bold, and infest the towns so much in the night, that it is dangerous to stir out after dark. Mr Bruce tells us, that they were a plague in Abyssinia in every situation, both in the city and in the field, and he thinks surpassed even the sheep in number. "Gondar was full of them, from the time it became dark till the dawn of day, seeking the different pieces of slaughtered carcases, which this cruel and uncouth people expose in the streets without burial, and who firmly believe that these animals are Falasha from the neighbouring mountains, transformed by magic, and come down to eat human flesh in the dark in safety. Many a time in the night, when the king had kept me late in the palace, and it was not my duty to lie there, in going across the square from the king's house, not many hundred yards distant, I have been apprehensive lest they should bite me in the leg. They grunted in great numbers about me, although I was surrounded with several armed men, who seldom passed a night without wounding or slaughtering some of them.

"One night in Maitcha, being very intent on observation, I heard something pass behind me towards the bed; but upon looking round, could perceive nothing. Having finished what I was then about, I went out of my tent, resolving directly to return, which I immediately did, when I perceived two large blue eyes glaring at me in the dark. I called upon my servant with a light, and there was the hyæna standing near the head of the bed, with two or three large bunches of candles in his mouth. To have fired at him, I was in danger of breaking my quadrant or other furniture; and he seemed, by keeping the candles steadily in his mouth, to wish for no other prey at that time. As his mouth was full, and he had no claws to tear with, I was not afraid of him, but with a pike struck him as near the heart as I could judge. It was not till then that he showed any sign of fierceness; but upon feeling his wound, he let drop the candles, and endeavoured to run up the shaft of the spear to arrive at me; so that, in self-defence, I was obliged to draw my pistol from my girdle and shoot him; and nearly at the same time my servant cleft his skull with a battle-axe. In a word, the hyæna was the plague of our lives, the terror of our night walks, and the destruction of our mules and asses; which above all others, is his favourite food."

The voice of this animal is singular, beginning somewhat like the moaning of a human voice, and ending like a person making a violent effort to vomit.

Hyænas generally inhabit caverns and rocky places, where they keep themselves retired during the day.

There is said to be a remarkable particularity in this animal, viz. that when it is first dislodged from cover, and obliged to run, it always appears lame for a considerable space, sometimes to such a degree as would lead people to suppose one of his hind legs to be broken, though after running for some time this affection goes entirely off.

There is something peculiarly savage and gloomy in the aspect of the hyæna, which seems to indicate an extreme malignity of disposition, and his manners while in captivity seem to correspond with this appearance, being in general fierce and untractable. The opinion so decidedly maintained by most keepers of wild beasts, that the hyæna cannot be tamed, appears, however, to be erroneous, as there are at least two instances of the contrary on record, one by Mr Pennant, who declares that he saw a hyæna that had been rendered as tame as a dog, and the other by Buffon, who affirms us, that in an exhibition of animals at Paris, in the year 1773, there was a hyæna which had been tamed very early, and was apparently divested of all its natural malevolence of disposition.

7. C. Aureus. Jackal. In external figure the jackal resembles the wolf more than the fox. It is also larger, and stands higher on its legs than the fox. The head is of a fox-red above, mixed with ash gray hairs, which have each a blackish ring and tip; the upper lip is white on each side of the nose, and the throat is of the same colour; the whiskers, the long hairs on the chin, and those above the eyes, which are five in number, are black; the ears are fox-red externally, and white internally; the neck and back are all over gray yellow, and both, but especially the latter, are dished with a shade of dusky, owing to the tips of the long hairs on those parts; the under parts of the body and the legs are of a light reddish yellow, but the shoulders and thighs are externally of a fox-red; the claws are black; the thumb claw stands higher than in the dog, and is crooked; the tail is straight, somewhat longer, and... and more hairy than in the wolf, and is of a grayish yellow, more inclining to fox-red towards the end; the long hairs have black tips, and consequently the tip of the tail appears black; the hair of the jackal is stronger and coarser than that of the wolf, and is longest on the shoulders and tail, where it measures four inches; on the neck and back it is shorter by an inch; between the hairs is situated a woolly fur of a gray colour. The four middle front teeth are of a truncated form, or if cut off, flat, not perceptibly notched or indented; the two exterior larger ones in the upper jaw are somewhat carinated, in the lower rounded; the side or canine teeth in the upper jaw are somewhat larger than in the under; the grinders are fix on each side, the first being the smallest, and of a conical shape; the next grinders, to the number of two in the upper and three in the lower, are gradually larger, and divided into three points: the fourth of the upper jaw and the fifth of the under are the largest, and have two points: the remaining ones stand deeper in the jaw, or more inwards, and are smaller than the preceding; the tongue has on each side a border or row of small verrucose or warts.

The female breeds only once a year, goes with young about four weeks, and brings forth from six to eight at a time.

Jackals go in packs of 40, 50, or even 200 at a time, and hunt like hounds in full cry, from evening to morning. They are less destructive to poultry than the wolf; they ravage the streets and villages, and gardens, and will even destroy children, if they are left unprotected. They will enter stables and out-houses, and eat any materials made of leather; they will familiarly come into a tent, and carry off whatever they can take from the sleeping traveller. For want of living prey, they will devour putrid carcasses, eat the most infected carrion, and even disinter the dead, for which reason the graves in many countries are made of a great depth. Like the hyenas they will follow armies, in hopes of feasting on the slain. When they cannot get animal food, they will even feed on fruits and roots. They burrow in the earth, and lie there all the day, coming out at night to hunt. They hunt by the nose, and are very quick in scent, filling the air with the most horrid howlings when they begin the chase. The lion, panther, and other beasts of prey, take advantage of the general consternation, and follow the jackals in silence till they have hunted down their prey, when they come up and devour the fruits of the jackal's labours, leaving them only the remains of the spoil. Hence the jackal has been vulgarly termed the lion's provider.

There is great reason to believe that the jackal forms the primeval stock from which the domestic dog has originated. The external form, internal structure, and manners of both are very similar. According to Mr Guldenstadt, the jackal has a natural propensity to follow mankind, instead of flying from him like the wolf or the fox; the whelp of the jackal is readily tamed, and when grown up, assumes all the habits of the domestic dog; fawns on his master, expresses his joy by wagging his tail, throws himself on his back, murmurs gently, distinguishes his name, jumps on the table, &c. The jackal and dog also readily breed together, as appears from various testimonies.

11. C. Vulpes. Fox. The fox is found in all the History of temperate regions of the globe; throughout Europe, and the great part of Asia; he abounds in North America, but is scarcely met with in Africa, except in Barbary. It Fox. is very common in this island. There are several varieties of the common fox; and three of these, viz. the greyhound, the mastiff, and the cur fox, are met with in Britain. Of these the greyhound is the largest, and is chiefly found in the mountainous parts of this island; the cur is the smallest, but the most common.

Foxes differ very much in point of colour, according to the climate which they inhabit. In Britain they are usually of a yellowish brown colour, with white or ash-coloured marks on the forehead, shoulders, hind part of the neck, and outside of the hind legs; the lips, throat, and cheeks are white, and there is usually a white stripe running along the under side of the legs; the breast and belly whitish gray, mixed with a ash colour; the tips of the ears and feet are black, and the tail is of a reddish yellow, with the tip white. In general form the fox much resembles the dog, except that his head is larger in proportion to his body, his snout more pointed, his ears shorter, and his tail more long and bushy. His eyes are prominent and piercing, of a lively hazel colour, and very expressive of the several passions by which the animal is agitated.

The smell of this animal is proverbially strong and offensive, and is said to resemble so exactly that of the root of crown imperial, (Fritillaria imperialis, Lin.) as scarcely to be distinguished from it. It has however been remarked, that from a spot at the base of the tail, there proceeds an odour which has been compared to that of violets. He possesses the faculty of smelling in a degree equal to the dog, and can scent his food or his foe at the distance of some hundred yards. He has a yelping kind of bark, consisting of a quick succession of similar tones, concluding in an elevation of the voice, something like the cry of a peacock. He yelps much when in heat, and during winter, especially in frost and snow; but in summer he is almost entirely silent. In summer he casts his hair.

The fox chooses his habitation in brakes, woods, or coppices; and here he prepares his bed below hard ground, the roots of trees, or similar situations, where he can make proper outlets to escape danger. The fox's bed, in the language of hunters, is called his kennel; when he retires to it, he is said to go to earth, and when forced from it by his pursuers, he is said to be unkenneled. Foxes have been known to form their beds in hollow trees, that they may the better secure their young. This animal does not always take the trouble to construct a hole for himself, but often procures one by dispossessing the badger, which he does, as is said, by depositing his urine in the badger's hole, and thus obliging that cleanly animal to abandon his contaminated dwelling. He usually fixes his habitation not far from the dwellings of man, especially in the neighbourhood of farm yards. He generally keeps retired during the day, though sometimes he may be seen in clear warm weather basking in the sunshine in some dry place, and sometimes amusing himself with running round after his tail. He is so much attached to his usual abode, that it is not easy to induce him to leave. The food of the fox consists chiefly of birds, especially game and poultry, and of the lesser quadrupeds, as of young hares, rabbits, and even field mice, rats, lizards, toads, and serpents. The greyhound fox is said to attack sheep, and carry off young lambs. When pressed by hunger he will eat carrion, roots, and insects, and near the sea coast will feed on crabs, shrimps, or shell fish. He is very fond of grapes, and in France and Italy often does great mischief among the vines. He is said also to be fond of honey, for which he will attack the bee-hives, and though obliged repeatedly to make off by the fury of the enraged bees, after ridding himself of his enemies by rolling on the ground and killing them, he successively returns to the charge, and seldom fails to make himself master of the booty.

In his attack upon the neighbouring poultry, he chooses his time with judgement; and concealing his road, glides forward with caution. If he can leap the fence, or get in below it, he ravages the yard, puts all the poultry to death, and then takes measures for securing what he has killed. He retires softly with his prey, which he either hides in holes that he digs for that purpose, carefully covering it with earth, or carries it to his kennel if this be near; in a few minutes he returns for more, which he conceals in a similar manner, but in a different place, and he will thus carry off a whole flock of poultry, one by one, to his hiding places, thrusting them in with his nose, and leaving them till hunger calls for a supply. In this way he proceeds till the rising of the sun, or some noise about the farm house, gives him notice that it is time to retire.

In procuring young rabbits from their burrows, he exhibits a great degree of cunning. He does not enter the hole, for as this is very narrow, he would be obliged to dig several feet along the ground below the surface; but he follows the scent of the rabbits above, till he comes to the end where they lie, and then scratching up the earth, descends upon them and devours them.

When foxes are in heat they are said by sportsmen to go to cubs; this takes place in winter: the females produce but once a year, and have from three to six young ones at a birth. While breeding, the bitch seldom lies far from the earth, and after littering, if she perceives her retreat to be discovered, she removes her cubs one by one to some more secure situation. The cubs are usually first found in the latter end of March; when brought forth, they are blind like puppies, and of a very dark brown colour; they grow for 18 months, and live about 13 or 14 years. The fox is exceedingly careful of her young, and a remarkable instance of her parental affection is recorded by Goldsmith. A fox that had, as it should seem, but one cub, was unkindled by a gentleman's hounds, and hotly pursued. The poor animal braving every danger, rather than leave her cub behind to be worried by the dogs, took it up in her mouth, and ran with it in this manner for some miles; at last, passing through a farmer's yard, she was assaulted by a mastiff, and obliged to drop her cub, which was taken up by the farmer. It is pleasing to add that the affectionate creature got off in safety.

The fox and the dog readily breed together, and the produce is a very useful animal as a dog.

Foxes are sometimes domesticated, but are scarcely ever fully tamed.

The hunting of this animal is one of the greatest diversions of our country gentlemen. For an account of fox-hunting, see HUNTING. The skins are valuable for muffs, tippets, &c.

The Arctic fox, C. lagopus, is well described by Steller, for whose entertaining account of their manners, we must refer to Mr Bingley's Animal Biography, vol. i.

23. C. Zerda. Fennec. This beautiful little animal is about 10 inches long, and of a yellowish white Fennec colour; its eyes are large and of a bright black; its ears of an uncommon size, internally of a bright rose colour, and edged with a broad margin of white hair, with an orifice so small as to be scarcely visible; its legs and feet are shaped like those of a dog; its tail long, tapering, and tipped with black.

It inhabits the vast deserts of Sahara, that extend beyond Mount Atlas, and is said to be called by the Moors, zerda, though Mr Bruce, who saw it often, and kept two or three specimens of it, says that its proper name is fennec. It feeds on insects, especially locusts, sits on its rump, barks like a dog, only with a shriller voice; is very vigilant, and so swift that it is very rarely taken alive.

The following interesting account of its manners and appearance, is given by Mr Bruce.

"Though his favourite food seemed to be dates, or any sweet fruit, yet I observed he was very fond of eggs; and small birds eggs were first brought him, which he devoured with great avidity; but he did not seem to know how to manage that of a hen; but when broke for him, he ate it with the same avidity as the others. When he was hungry he would eat bread, especially with honey or sugar. It was very observable that a bird, whether confined in a cage near him, or flying across the room, engrossed his whole attention. He followed it with his eyes wherever it went, nor was he, at this time, to be diverted by placing biscuit before him; and it was obvious, by the great interest he seemed to take in its motions, that he was accustomed to watch for victories over it, either for his pleasure or his food. He seemed very much alarmed at the approach of a cat, and endeavoured to hide himself, but showed no symptom of preparing for a defence. I never heard he had any voice; he suffered himself, not without some difficulty, to be handled in the day, when he seemed rather inclined to sleep, but was exceedingly unquiet and restless so soon as night came, and always endeavouring his escape, and though he did not attempt the wire, yet with his sharp teeth he very soon mastered the wood of any common bird cage. From the snout to the anus he was about 16 inches long, his tail five and a quarter, near an inch on the tip of it was black. From the point of his fore shoulder to the point of his fore toe, was two inches and seven-eighths. He was two inches and a half from his occiput to the point of his nose; the length of his ears three inches and three-eighths. These were doubled, or had a plait on the bottom on the outside; the border..." Furs. borders of his ears on the inside were thick covered with soft white hair, but the middle part was bare, and of a pink or roe colour. They were about an inch and a half broad, and the cavities within were very large. It was very difficult to measure these; for he was very impatient at having his ears touched, and always kept them erect, unless when terrified by a cat. The pupil of the eye was large and black, surrounded by a deep blue iris. He had strong, thick moustaches; the tip of his nose very sharp, black, and polished. His upper jaw reached beyond the lower, and had four grinders on each side of the mouth. It had six fore teeth in each jaw; those in the under jaw are smaller than the upper; the canine teeth are long, large, and exceedingly pointed; his legs are small and his feet very broad; he has four toes armed with crooked, black, sharp claws; those on his fore feet more crooked and sharp than behind. All his body is nearly of a dirty white, bordering on cream-colour; the hair of his belly rather whiter, softer, and longer than the rest; and on it a number of paps, but he was so impatient it was impossible to count them. He very seldom extended or stiffened his tail, the hair of which was harsher. He had a very fly and wily appearance. But as he is a solitary animal, and not gregarious, as he has no particular mark of feelings about him, no shift or particular cunning which might occasion Solomon to qualify him as wise, as he builds his nest upon trees, and not on the rock, he cannot be the Sophan (or coney) of the scripture, as some, both Jews and Arabians, not sufficiently attentive to the qualities attributed to that animal, have nevertheless erroneously imagined."

Genus 16. Felis.

Six front teeth, of which the intermediate are equal; three grinders on each side; tongue beset with reversed pricks; claws retractile.

In this as in the last genus, the individuals would require a particular examination, though they agree more together in their form and habits than those of the dog tribe. We shall here, as in the last genus, first discriminate the species, and then give an account of some of the most remarkable individuals.

Dr Shaw distinguishes 25 species by the following names and characters.

Species 1. Felis Leo, Lion. Colour pale, tawny, or dun; tail long and flocky at the tip.—2. F. Tigris, Tiger. Tail elongated; body marked with long transverse streaks.—3. F. Pardus, Panther. Tail elongated; body yellow, marked with orbicular spots above, and lengthened ones below.—4. F. Leopardus, Leopard. Body yellow, marked with black spots, nearly contiguous, disposed in circles.—5. F. Jubata, Hunting Leopard. Colour pale fulvous, with round black spots; tail of moderate length; neck slightly maned.—6. F. Uncia, Ounce. Tail long; body whitish, with irregular black marks.—7. F. Onca, Jaguar. Tail of moderate length; body yellowish, with black ocellated roundish cornered spots, with yellow central spaces.—8. F. Pardalis, Occlot. Tail longish, long stripe-shaped spots on the upper parts, and round ones on the lower.—9. F. Cinerea, Cinerous Cat.—10. F. Puma, Puma. Tail long; body reddish-brown, whitish beneath.—11. F. Dicolor, Black Tiger. Tail long; body black above, whitish below.—12. F. Tigrina, Mar- gay. Tail long; body fulvous, striped and spotted the species with black, whitish beneath.—13. F. Capensis, Cape Cat. Fulvous, with longish tail annulated with black; body marked with black stripes above, with rounded and lunated black spots on the other parts, and a lunate white bar on the ears.—14. F. Bengalenfis.—15. F. Manul, Manul. Tail elongated, and annulated with black; head marked with spots, and two lateral bands of black.—16. F. Caius, Common Cat. Yellowish grey, with dusky bands, three on the back longitudinal; those on the sides spiral; tail barred with dusky rings.—17. F. Japanensis, Japan Cat.—18. F. Gaima, Gaima Cat.—19. F. Corololo, Corololo.—20. F. Serval, Serval. Tail shortish; body tawny brown, whitish beneath, marked with roundish dusky spots; orbits of the eyes white.—21. F. Montana, Mountain Lynx.—22. F. Chaus, Chaus. Tail moderately short, annulated towards the tip, with the tip black; body brownish yellow; ears brown, bearded with black at the tips.—23. F. Rufa, Bay Lynx. Tail short; body bay, obscurely spotted with black; tail white beneath and at the tip; ears bearded at the tip.—24. F. Caracal, Caracal. Tail shortish; body reddish-brown; ears black externally, and tipped with long black hairs.—25. F. Lynx, Common Lynx. Tail short; body rufous, gray, slightly spotted with black, white beneath; tail black at the tip; ears terminated by long black hairs.

F. Leo, The Lion.—The lion has usually been considered as the most dignified and majestic inhabitant of the forest. His vast size and prodigious strength well entitle him to the rank of lord over most other beasts; though from the observations of modern travellers and naturalists, we are obliged to consider him in a light less formidable and less amiable than that in which he is displayed by earlier writers.

This animal seldom exceeds eight feet in length from nose to tail, and the tail itself usually measures about four feet; his head is very large; his ears rounded; his face covered with short or close hair, while the upper part of the head, the neck and shoulders are coated with long and shaggy hair, hanging down below the breast and fore part of the belly, like a mane; the hair on the body is short and smooth; and the tail is terminated by a blackish tuft. The usual colour of the lion is a pale tawny, inclining to white on the lower part of the body.

The lioness is smaller than the lion, of a whiter colour beneath, and destitute of mane.

The lion is principally found in Africa, and is also met with, though by far less plentifully, in the hotter parts of Asia; but it is in the interior of Africa that he exerts his greatest ravages, and reigns superior among the weaker quadrupeds. His habitation is in the thickest parts of the forest, and he is seldom seen by day; but, when night approaches, he quits his retreat, and prowls about for prey. The roaring of this animal when in quest of prey, is generally said to resemble the sound of thunder; and being echoed by the rocks and mountains, it appals the whole race of animals. Frequently, however, he varies his voice into a sort of a scream or yell. His strength is so great, that it is affirmed a single stroke of his paw is sufficient to break the back of a horse; and he has been seen to carry off History of with apparent ease a middle-sized ox, or even a buffalo.

We are told by Kolben, that he usually knocks down his prey with his paw, and seldom bites it till he has given the mortal blow. His teeth are so strong, that he breaks the largest bones with ease, and swallows them with the flesh; and the prickles on his tongue are so large and strong, as to be capable of lacerating the skin. He usually conceals himself in a thicket, from which he darts upon his prey: and, it is said, that if he chances to miss his aim, he will not follow his prey any farther; but, as though ashamed, he turns back to the place from which he sprung on it, slowly, and step by step, as it were, measuring the distance between the two points, as if to find out how much too short, or how much beyond the mark, he had taken his leap.

Dr Sparman says, that from all the most credible accounts he could collect concerning lions, as well as from what he himself saw, he thinks he may safely conclude, that this wild beast is frequently a great coward, or, at least, deficient in point of courage comparatively to his strength; on the other hand, however, he sometimes shews an unusual degree of intrepidity, of which he mentions the following instance as it was related to him.

A lion had broken into a walled inclosure for cattle through the latticed gate, and done considerable damage. The people belonging to the farm were assured of his coming again by the same way: in consequence of which they stretched a rope directly across the entrance, to which several loaded guns were fastened in such a manner, that they must necessarily discharge themselves into the lion's body, as soon as ever he should push against the cord, as it was expected he would, with his breast. But the lion, who came before it was dark, having probably some suspicions respecting the cord, struck it away with his foot, and without betraying the least fear, in consequence of the report made by the loaded pieces, went on steadily, and carelessly of every thing, and devoured the prey he had left untouched before.

The lion is said to prefer the flesh of a Hottentot to that of any other animal; and in order to procure it, will sometimes depart from his usual method of quitting his prey when he misses his aim. It is surprising with what obstinacy he will follow one of these unfortunate savages. We are informed by Mr Barrow, that one of the Namaraqua Hottentots, endeavouring to drive his master's cattle into a pool of water, inclosed between two ridges of rocks, espied a huge lion couching in the midst of the pool. Terrified at the unexpected sight of such a beast, that seemed to have its eyes fixed upon him, he instantly took to his heels. In doing this he had presence of mind enough to run through the herd, concluding, that, if the lion should pursue, he would take up with the first beast that presented itself. In this, however, he was mistaken. The lion broke through the herd, making directly after the Hottentot, who, on turning round, and perceiving that the monster had singled him out, breathless and half dead with fear, scrambled up one of the tree-aloes, in the trunk of which a few steps had luckily been cut out, to come at some birds nests that the branches contained. At the same moment the lion made a spring at him, but missing his aim, fell upon the ground. In fury silence he walked round the tree, casting at times a dreadful look towards the poor Hottentot, who had crept behind the netts. We should here remark, that these netts belong to a small bird of the genus Loxia, that lives in a state of society with the rest of its species, constructing a whole republic of netts in one clump, and under one cover. One of these clumps of netts will sometimes extend a space of 10 feet in diameter, and contain a population of several hundred individuals. It was under the cover of one of these edifices that the Hottentot screened himself from the sight of the lion. Having remained silent and motionless for a length of time, he ventured to peep over the side of the nett, hoping that the lion had taken his departure; when to his great terror and astonishment, his eyes met those of the animal, which, as the poor fellow afterwards expressed himself, flashed fire at him. In short, the lion laid himself down at the foot of the tree, and did not remove from the place for 24 hours. At the end of this time becoming parched with thirst, he went to a spring at some distance in order to drink. The Hottentot now, with trepidation, ventured to descend, and scampered off home, which was not more than a mile distant, as fast as his feet could carry him, where he arrived in safety. The perseverance of the lion was such, that it afterwards appeared, he returned to the tree, and finding the man had defended, hunted him by the scent to within 300 paces of the house.

An elderly Hottentot observed a lion following him at a great distance for two hours together. Hence naturally concluded, that the lion only waited the approach of darkness, in order to make him his prey; and in the meantime expected nothing else than to serve for this fierce animal's supper, as he had no other weapon of defence than a staff. But as he was well acquainted with the nature of the lion, and the manner of its seizing upon its prey, and at the same time had leisure at intervals to ponder on the ways and means in which it was most probable that his existence would be put an end to, he at length bethought of a method of saving his life. For this end, in place of making his way home, he looked out for a klipkrans, or a rocky place level at top, and having a perpendicular precipice on one side of it; and sitting down on the edge of one of these precipices, he found, to his great satisfaction, that the lion also made a halt, and kept the same distance as before. As soon as it grew dark, the Hottentot sliding a little forwards, let himself down below the upper edge of the precipice upon a projecting part of the rock, where he could barely keep himself from falling. But in order to deceive the lion still more, he set his hat and cloak on the stick, making with it at the same time a gentle motion just over his head, and a little way from the edge of the mountain. This crafty expedient had the desired effect. He did not remain long in that situation, before the lion came creeping softly towards him like a cat, and mistaking the skin cloak for the Hottentot himself, took his leap with such exactness and precision, as to fall headlong down the precipice, directly close to the snare which had been placed for him; when the Hottentot is said, in great joy, exultingly to have called out, "Kafis;" an interjection which is of very extensive import and significance.

Next to Hottentots flesh he is said to prefer that of mink horfes. horses and buffaloes, but on the sheep he seldom deigns to fix his paw, perhaps from his woolly covering, which he is too indolent to be at the labour of uncausing. It is commonly said, that a lion will devour as much at once as will serve him for two or three days, and when satiated with food, he returns to his den, where he remains in a state of inactivity till hunger again compels him to seek for food.

Though this animal has generally been represented as extremely brave as well as ferocious, it has not unfrequently happened, that he has been frightened or driven away by the opposition of a much inferior enemy. It is said, that a traveller once had an opportunity of seeing a female buffalo with her calf, defended by a river at her back, keep at bay for a long time five lions which had partly surrounded her, but did not, as long as the traveller looked on, dare to attack her; and we are informed, that Mr Brew, commander of the Senegal company on the African coast, had once near him a large full-grown tame lion, about four years old, when a flock of goats passed. All the goats except one, ran off with terror at the sight of the lion, but this one looking steadfastly at the lion, stamped with his foot on the ground in a menacing manner, then retreated three steps, and instantly returning, struck the lion's forehead so violently with his horns, that the animal was stunned by the blow, and having repeated this several times before the lion could recover himself, the monstrous animal was thrown into such confusion, that he went behind his master for protection.

The lion does not always destroy the object that he attacks, but seems sometimes to spring on an animal through wantonness. Dr Sparman was told of several who had escaped from the paw of lions. At St Catharine Cru's church, Leadenhall-street, London, provision is made, under the will of Sir John Gager, who was lord mayor in the year 1646, for a sermon to be annually preached, with a charitable donation, on the 16th of November, in commemoration of his happy deliverance from a lion, which he met in a desert as he was travelling in the Turkish dominions, and which suffered him to pass unmolested.

There seems no doubt, that in those places where mankind have made the greatest advances towards civilization, the lion has lost much of his native boldness and ferocity. Experience seems to have taught him, that in cunning and resources he is inferior to man, and he therefore seldom attacks the human race, except forced to it by the imperious calls of hunger.

The lionesses is said to breed only once a-year, and to produce four or five at a birth, which she nurses with great assiduity, and attends in their first excursions for plunder. These animals readily breed in captivity.

Buffon, reasoning from the size and constitution of the lion, and the time required for his arrival at full growth, concluded, that he ought to live about 25 years; but if we may depend upon the accounts that have been given of some lions kept in the Tower of London, the period of his life may be considerably extended. One of these called Pompey, is said to have lived at least 70 years, and another 63.

The lion has been often brought from his native forests into Europe; and, when taken young, is capable of being made very gentle and tractable. Many of our readers will have seen the keepers of wild species beat up tricks with this monstrous animal, which he appears to bear without shewing any marks of anger. He seems to bear all with the greatest composure, and we seldom hear of his revenging these unprovoked fallies of impertinent curiosity. It is, however, not always safe to play with, and fill his fo to mingle blows with careless, as is done by some injudicious keepers.

Numerous instances are on record of the lion's gentleness, sagacity, and gratitude, while in a state of domestication. He has been known to spare the lives of animals that were thrown to be devoured by him; to lie peaceably with them; to afford them part of his food, and even to want food himself, rather than deprive them of that life which his generosity had once spared. A dog was put into the cage of a lion in the menagerie at the tower, some years ago, for food; the stoutly animal, however, spared his life, and they lived together for a considerable time in the same den, in the most perfect harmony, and appeared to have a great affection for each other. The dog had sometimes the impudence to growl at the lion, and even dispute with him the food which was thrown to them; so true is the old proverb, familiarity breeds contempt; but the noble animal was never known to chastise the impertinent conduct of his little companion, but usually suffered him to eat quietly till he was satisfied, before he began his own repast.

Mr Hope relates an anecdote of a lion in the possession of the duchess of Hamilton some years ago, which affords a striking instance both of the retentive memory of this animal, and of his attachment to those who have been kind to him. "One day" (says Mr Hope) I had the honour of dining with the duchess of Hamilton: after dinner the company attended her grace to see a lion, that she had in the court, fed. While we were admiring his fierceness, and teasing him with sticks to make him abandon his prey and fly at us, the porter came and informed the duchess, that a sergeant with some recruits at the gate, begged permission to see the lion. Her grace, with great condescension and good nature, asked permission of the company for the travellers to come in, as they would then have the satisfaction of seeing the animal fed. They were accordingly admitted at the moment the lion was growling over his prey. The sergeant, advancing to the cage, called out, "Nero, Nero, poor Nero, don't you know me?" The animal instantly turned his head to look at him, then rose up, left his prey, and came wagging his tail, to the side of the cage. The man then put his hands upon him, and patted him: telling us, at the same time, that it was three years since they had seen each other, but that the care of the lion on his passage from Gibraltar, had been committed to him, and he was happy to see the poor beast show so much gratitude for his attention. The lion indeed seemed perfectly pleased; he went to and fro, rubbing himself against the place where his benefactor stood, and licked the sergeant's hand as he held it out to him. The man wanted to go into the cage to him, but was prevented by the company, who were not altogether convinced of the safety of the act."

The lion is frequently hunted at the Cape of Good Hope, History of Hippo, for the sake of his skin and flesh, which latter is esteemed by some an excellent food, and is often eaten by the negroes. The colonists of the Cape hunt him with dogs, and it is said that 12 or 16 are sufficient to overcome one lion. The lion runs for some time after being routed, then stops and shakes his mane, as if in defiance of the dogs, who, as soon as they have an opportunity, rush all at once upon him, and soon overpower him. Three or four of the dogs, however, are commonly killed in the conflict, being struck dead by the first strokes of his paw.

2. F. Tigre, the Tiger.—This most beautiful, but most destructive of quadrupeds, is nearly equal in size to the lion, and has even been seen larger, viz. 15 feet long from the nose to the tip of the tail. The prevailing colour of the body is a deep tawny, or orange yellow; the face, throat, and lower part of the belly being nearly white, and the whole is traversed by numerous long black stripes, forming a bold and striking contrast with the ground colour. These stripes are proportionally smaller on the face and breast, than on the other parts of the body. The tail is shorter than the body, and is surrounded with black rings. Dr Shaw observes, that when seen in perfection, and before its health has been impaired by confinement, it is scarcely possible to conceive a more elegantly variegated animal than the tiger: the bright and intense orange yellow which constitutes the ground colour; the deep and well-defined stripes of black, in some parts double, in others single; the pure white of the cheeks and lower parts of the sides, over which a part of the black striping is continued, form, altogether, an appearance far superior in beauty to the skin of the zebra, or that of any other regularly-marked quadruped, not excepting even the panther itself.

This animal is confined to the warmer parts of Asia, and is principally found in the peninsula of India, and the Indian islands. The species extends, however, as far as China and Chinefe Tartary, to the lake Ural and the Altai mountains.

The tiger is of a disposition so fierce and sanguinary, as to surpass in rapacity every other wild beast; indeed there is no animal that he will not venture to attack. Dreadful combats sometimes take place between him and the lion, and they are carried on with such fury and obstinacy, that both parties are often found dead together. He commits horrid ravages among the flocks and herds, and neither the sight nor opposition of man have power to make him desist. It is said that when undisturbed, he plunges his head into the body of the animal he has slaughtered, and greedily sucks its blood. His strength is astonishing. We are told that a peasant in the East Indies, had a buffalo fallen into a quagmire, and while he went to call for assistance, an immense tiger came, that immediately drew out the animal, on which the united efforts of several men had no effect. When the people returned, the first object they beheld was the tiger, with the buffalo thrown over his shoulder, as a goose is by a fox; he was carrying him away with his feet upward, towards his den. As soon, however, as he saw the men, he let fall his prey, and instantly fled to the woods; but he had previously killed the buffalo, and sucked its blood. If we consider that a buffalo is often twice the size of our ordinary cattle, we may form some idea of the immense strength of an animal that could thus run off with a carcass as large again as himself.

The tiger's method of seizing his prey is similar to that of the lion, rushing on it at once from his concealment, with a horrid roar. His voice when springing on his victim, is said to be hideous beyond conception. Like the lion, if he misses his aim, he makes off without repeating the attack for that time.

The tiger seems to prefer the flesh of man to that of any other prey, as he takes all opportunities of seizing a man where he thinks there is any chance of success. Many of our readers will perhaps remember to have read an account of the melancholy fate of Mr Monro, who was killed by a tiger in the East Indies in the year 1792. "We went (says the narrator) on shore on Sangar island, to shoot deer, of which we saw innumerable tracks, as well as of tigers; notwithstanding which, we continued our diversion till near three o'clock, when, fitting down by the side of a jungle to refresh ourselves, a roar like thunder was heard, and an immense tiger leaped on our unfortunate friend, and rushed again into the jungle, dragging him through the thickest bushes and trees, every thing giving way to his monstrous strength; a tiger's accompanied his progress. The united agonies of horror, regret, and fear, rushed at once upon us. I fired on the tiger; he seemed agitated; my companion fired also; and in a few moments after this, our unfortunate friend came up to us bathed in blood. Every medical assistance was vain, and he expired in 24 hours, having received such deep wounds from the teeth and claws of the animal, as rendered his recovery hopeless. A large fire, consisting of 10 or 12 whole trees, was blazing by us at the time this accident took place, and ten or more of the natives were with us. The human mind can scarcely form an idea of this scene of horror. We had hardly pushed our boat from that accursed shore, when the tigress made her appearance, almost raging mad, and remained on the land all the while we continued in fight.

In the beginning of the last century, as Mr Pennant was informed, some gentlemen and ladies being on a party of pleasure, under a shade of trees, on the banks of a river in Bengal, observed a tiger preparing for its fatal spring. One of the ladies, with amazing presence of mind, laid hold of an umbrella, and furling it full in the animal's face, which instantly retired, and gave the company opportunity of removing from so terrible a neighbour.

The tigress, like the lioness, produces four or five young at a litter, and though at all times furious, her rage rises to the greatest extremity in defence of her young. If robbed of them, she pursues her plunderers with the greatest fury and obstinacy, and they are often obliged to drop some of the young tigers, to prevent her from attacking them.

We are told by keepers of wild beasts, that the tiger when full grown, is incapable of being tamed; but it appears that when young, they are gentle, and as playful as a kitten.

The skin of this animal is much esteemed throughout the east, especially in China, where the seats of justice, on which the mandarins sit, are covered with it.

3. and 4. F. Pardus and F. Leopardus, the Panther and Lion. and the Leopard.—These species have frequently been confounded, and we mention them together for the sake of marking their distinguishing characters. They are usually distinguished by the form of the spots; those on the panther having commonly a central spot in each circle, while those of the leopard this is usually wanting. This distinction, however, by no means holds universally, and the animals are better distinguished by their general shade of colour, and by their size. The panther is of a darker colour, and larger than the leopard. After all, the distinction is by no means so strongly marked that we can always discriminate between them, and perhaps they should rather be considered as varieties of the same species. In manners and disposition they nearly resemble the tiger, yet the leopard is generally considered as less fierce than the panther. Both are found in Africa, especially about the river Senegal. It was supposed that they were to be met with in America, but this appears to be a mistake.

16. F. Catus, Common Cat.—This animal is found wild in several parts of the north of Europe, and is so formidable, that it may be called the European tiger. It is three or four times as large as the house cat; the head larger, and the face flatter. The teeth and claws tremendous; its muscles very strong, as being formed for rapine; the tail is of a moderate length, but very thick and flat, marked with alternate bars of black and white, the end always black; the hips and hind part of the lower joints of the leg, are always black; the fur is very soft and fine. The general colour of these animals is of a yellowish white, mixed with a deep gray. These colours, though they appear at first sight confusedly blended together, yet on a close inspection will be found to be disposed like the streaks on the skin of the tiger, pointing from the back downwards, rising from a black list that runs from the head along the middle of the back to the tail.

It is the fiercest and most destructive beast we have, making dreadful havoc among our poultry, lambs, and kids. It inhabits the most mountainous and woody parts of these islands, living mostly in trees, and feeding only by night. It multiplies as fast as our common cats; and often the females of the latter will quit their domestic mates, and return home pregnant by the former.

Mr Bingley informs us, that at Barnborough, a village between Doncaster and Barnby, in Yorkshire, there is a tradition extant of a serious contest that once took place between a man and a wild cat. The inhabitants say that the fight commenced in an adjacent wood, and that it was continued from thence into the porch of the church. We do not recollect in what manner it is reported to have begun; they, however, tell us, that it ended fatally to both combatants, for each died of the wounds he received. A rude painting in the church commemorates the event; and as in many similar traditions, the accidentally natural red tinge of some of the stones has been construed into bloody stains, which all the properties of soap and water have not been able to efface.*

They are taken either in traps, or by shooting: in the latter case it is very dangerous, only to wound them; for they attack the person who injured them, and have strength enough to be no desppicable enemy.

Wild cats were formerly reckoned among the beasts of chace, as appears by a charter of Richard II. to the abbot of Peterborough, giving him leave to hunt the hare, fox, and wild cat; and in much earlier times it was also the object of the sportsman's diversion.

The domestic cat is so well known as to render a description of it unnecessary. It is an useful but generally a deceitful domestic; active, neat, fedate, intent on its prey. When pleased, purrs and moves its tail. When angry, spits, hisses, and strikes with its foot. When walking, it draws in its claws; it drinks little; is fond of fish; its urine is corrosive; it buries its dung; it washes its face with its fore foot (Linnaeus says at the approach of a storm); the female is remarkably fickle; a piteous, squalling, jarring lover. Its eyes shine in the night; its hair when rubbed in the dark emits electric sparks; it is even proverbially tenacious of life; always lights on its feet; is fond of perfumes, as marum, cat-mint, valerian, &c.

The cat usually lives from 6 to 10 years. A friend of ours had a cat that lived 18 years.

The female brings forth twice, and sometimes thrice, a year. The period of her gestation is fifty-five or fifty-six days, and she generally produces 5 or 6 at one litter. She conceals her kittens from the male, lest he should devour them, as he is sometimes inclined; and, if apprehensive of being disturbed, will take them up in her mouth, and remove them one by one to a more secure retreat. Even the female herself, contrary to the established law of nature, which binds the parent to its offspring by an almost indissoluble tie, is sometimes known to eat her own young the moment she has produced them.

Instances of such conduct in the female cat are, however, very rare, and few mothers exhibit more tenderness or greater attachment to their young. The affluence with which she attends them, and the pleasure she seems to take in witnessing their playful tricks, are extremely amusing. She has also been known, not only to suckle kittens belonging to other cats, but even the young of such animals as are generally objects of prey to her kind. A very extraordinary example of this is recorded by Mr White, in his Natural History of Selborne, in a cat belonging to a friend of his.

"My friend (says Mr White) had a little helpless leveret brought to him, which the servants fed with milk from a spoon, and about the same time his cat kittened, and the young were dispatched and buried. The hare was soon lost, and was supposed, as with most foundlings, to have been killed by some dog or cat. However, in about a fortnight, as the matter was fitting in his garden, in the dusk of the evening, he observed his cat, with tail erect, trotting towards him, and calling with little short inward notes of complacency, such as they use towards their kittens, and something gamboling after, which proved to be the leveret, that the cat had supported with her milk, and continued to support with great affection.—Thus was a carnivorous animal nurtured by a carnivorous and predacious one!"

* Bingley's Animal Biography, vol. i. p. 281. too much distended with milk; from habit, she became as much delighted with this foundling as if it had been her real offspring.

"A boy (says the same gentleman) had taken three young squirrels in their nest. These small creatures he put under a cat who had lately lost her kittens, and finds that the nurses and suckles them with the same alacrity and affection as if they were her own offspring.

"So many people went to see the little squirrels suckled by a cat, that the foster-mother became jealous of her charge, and in pain for their safety, and therefore hid them over the ceiling, where one died. This circumstance showed her affection for these foundlings, and that she supposed the squirrels to be her own young."

The cat is usually stigmatized as an ungrateful animal, incapable of attachment to her master. There are, however, not wanting instances that show this character to be unmerited. Mr Pennant, in his history of London, tells us that Henry Wriothesley earl of Southampton, the friend and companion of the earl of Essex in his fatal insurrection, having been some time confined in the tower, was one day surprised by a visit from his favourite cat, which, says tradition, reached its master by descending the chimney of his apartment.

The following anecdote affords a striking example, both of the sagacity of this animal, and of its grateful remembrance of those with whom it had been accustomed to live. A physician of Lyons was, in July 1809, requested to inquire into a murder that had been committed on a woman of that city. In consequence of this request he went to the habitation of the deceased, where he found her extended lifeless on the floor and weltering in her blood. A large white cat was mounted on the cornice of a cupboard, at the far end of the apartment, where he seemed to have taken refuge. He sat motionless, with his eyes fixed on the corpse, and his attitude and looks expressing horror and affright. The following morning he was found in the same station and attitude; and when the room was filled with officers of justice, neither the clattering of the folder's arms, nor the loud conversation of the company, could in the least degree divert his attention. As soon, however, as the suspected persons were brought in, his eyes glared with increased fury, his hair bristled, he darted into the middle of the apartment, where he gazed for a moment at them, and then retreated precipitately under the bed. The countenances of the assistants were disconcerted, and they were now, for the first time during the whole course of the horrid business, abandoned by their atrocious audacity.

Our ancestors seem to have had a high sense of the utility of this animal. That excellent prince Howel the good, did not think it beneath him to include that of the cat, and to describe the qualities it ought to have. The price of a kitten before it could see, was to be a penny; till it caught a mouse, 2d.; when it commenced mouser, 4d. It was required besides, that it should be perfect in its senses of hearing and seeing, be a good mouser, have the claws whole, and be a good nurse; but if it failed in any of these qualities, the feller was to forfeit to the buyer the third part of its value. If any one stole or killed the cat that guarded the prince's granary, he was to forfeit a milch ewe, its fleece and lamb, or as much wheat as, when poured on the cat suspended by its tail, would form a heap high enough to cover the tip of the former. This is an evidence of the simplicity of ancient manners; and it almost proves to a demonstration that cats are not aborigines of these islands, or known to the earliest inhabitants. The large price set on them, and the great care taken of the improvement and breed of an animal that multiplies so fast, are almost certain proofs of their being little known at that period.

A beautiful variety of the cat, the Cat of Angora, is described in an interesting manner by M. Sonnini in his Travels in Egypt, vol. i.

Genus 17. VIVERRA. WEASELS.

Six sharpish cutting teeth; canine teeth longer than the former. Tongue smooth in some species, in others furnished with reverted prickles. Body of a lengthened form.

The last circumstance mentioned in the generic character is one of the principal characteristics of this tribe, most of the species being remarkable for the length and slenderness of their form. The visage is usually sharp, the feet short, and the tail in most species long. Many of the species are notorious for a most abominable odour, with which they are capable of annoying their enemies when attacked or disturbed. If the accounts given of this odious vapour are not aggravated by the abhorrent recollection of those who have experienced its effects, every other ill smell which nature can produce, is surpased by the overpowering stench of these extraordinary quadrupeds. In consequence of this dreadful emanation, the dogs are said to relinquish the pursuit, and the men to fly with precipitation from the tainted spot; but if unfortunately the least particle of the fluid which the animal commonly discharges at this juncture, should happen to light on the clothes of the hunter, he becomes a general nuisance wherever he appears, and is obliged to divest himself of his drefs, and practise all the arts of ablution, in order to be restored to the society of mankind. They are generally harmless animals, live on rabbits, birds, and vermin, and many of them are extremely useful in destroying rats and mice, and catching rabbits. The skins of many of the species form a valuable article of the fur trade.

There are about 43 species that have been distinguished by specific characters.

1. V. Ichneumon. Gray, with distant thumbs, and tail tapering gradually from a thick base, and tufted at the end.—2. V. Caffra, Cafrarian W. Yellowish brown, with tail gradually tapering from a thick base, and black at the tip.—3. V. Zenik, Zenik. Gray, four-toed, with 10 transverse black bands, and deep chestnut-coloured tail, black at the tip.—4. V. Surikatta, Surikate. Gray brown, with long moveable snout, four-toed feet, and rusty black-tipped tail.—5. V. Nafua, Coatimondi. Reddish, tail marked with white rings, and a lengthened moveable snout.—6. V. Vulpecula, Coche. Dark chestnut, with lengthened snout.—7. V. Striata, Striated W. Blackish, with five parallel white stripes on the back.—8. V. Conepatis, Conepati. Blackish, with two white lines on the back extending to the tail.—9. V. Mephitica, Mephitic W. or Chinche. Brown, with white back, The greater variety has also the tail slightly tufted at the end. In other respects they bear a near resemblance to each other. They are commonly of a pale reddish grey colour, each hair being mottled with brown, so as to make the whole body appear speckled. The eyes are of a bright red or flame colour; the ears rounded and almost naked; the nose long and slender, and the body rather thicker than in most other species of this genus. The tail is very thick at the base, and the hair on the whole animal is hard and coarse.

The larger ichneumon is found chiefly in Egypt, and in some other parts of Africa; the smaller seems confined to the East Indies. In their wild state these animals frequent the banks of rivers, and, during floods, approach the highest grounds and inhabited places in quest of prey. They are said to swim and dive occasionally, and are able to continue under water for a considerable time. The voice of the ichneumon is very soft, resembling a murmur; but it is said never to exert it unless struck or irritated. When going to sleep, it rolls itself up like a ball, and is not easily awakened.

Both varieties, but especially the Egyptian, are great enemies to serpents, rats, and other noxious animals; and the Indian variety attacks with great eagerness that dreadful snake, the cobra-di-capello. Hence they are held in great esteem both by the Egyptians and the natives of India, and are kept like our dogs and cats as domestic animals. It is easily tamed, is very active, and springs with great agility on its prey. It will glide along the ground like a serpent, and seem as if without feet. It fits up like a squirrel, and eats with its fore feet; catches any thing that is flung to it. It is a great enemy to poultry, and will feign itself dead till they come within its reach. It is said to be extremely skilful in seizing the serpents by the throat, in such a manner as to avoid receiving any injury. Lucan has beautifully described the same address of this animal in conquering the Egyptian asp.

M. d'Olonville had an ichneumon very young, which he brought up; he fed it at first with milk, and afterwards with baked meat, mixed with rice. It soon became tamer even than a cat; for it came when called, and followed him, though at liberty, into the country. One day he brought to the animal a small water serpent alive, being desirous to know how far his instinct would carry him against a being with which he had been hitherto unacquainted. His first emotion seemed to be astonishment mixed with anger, for his hair became erect; but an instant after, he flipped behind the reptile, and with a remarkable swiftness and agility leaped upon its head, seized it, and crushed it between his teeth. This essay, and new aliment, seemed to have awakened in him his innate and destructive voracity, which till then had given way to the gentleness he had acquired from his education. M. d'Olonville had about the house several curious kinds of fowls, among which the ichneumon had been brought up, and which before the above adventure he had suffered to go and come unmolested and unregarded; but in a few days after, when he found himself alone, he strangled every one of them, ate a little, and, as appeared, had drunk the blood of two.

The ichneumon is said to be short-lived, but grows very rapidly. They have been brought into our climates, History of mates; but cannot, without great difficulty, be either reared or preserved. They appear much incommodeed by frothy weather, and soon fall victims to the change of climate.

18. V. Civetta, Civet, or Civet Cat.—This animal is about two feet long from nose to tail, and the tail measures about 14 inches. The ground colour of the body is a yellowish gray, marked with large blackish or dusky spots, disposed in longitudinal rows on each side, and sometimes intermixed with a tinge of rusty colour. The hair is coarse, and stands up along the top of the back like a sort of mane; the ears are short and rounded; the eyes of a bright icky blue; the tip of the nose, sides of the face, chin, breast, lips, and feet, are black; the remainder of the face and part of the sides of the neck of a yellowish white; and from each ear there are three black stripes terminating at the throat and shoulders. The tail is generally black, but is sometimes marked with pale spots near its base. At a little distance below the tail there is a large, double, glandular receptacle, which contains the secretion called civet, employed as a perfume. See Civet.

This animal is found in several parts of Africa and India. It is of a wild disposition, living, like most of its kind, on birds and the smaller quadrupeds. It is said to be very voracious, and will sometimes roll itself for some time on its food before it eats it. It is very destructive to poultry, which it feizes whenever it can steal into a farm yard. It is very prolific, active, and nimble, jumping like a cat, and running very nimbly. Its voice is stronger than that of a cat, and somewhat resembles the cry of an enraged dog. It is capable of being tamed, and is usually kept by perfumers at Amsterdam and some other places for the sake of the civet.

These animals, in a state of confinement, are placed, from time to time, in strong wooden cages or receptacles, so constructed as to prevent the creature from turning round, and biting the person employed in collecting the civet: this operation is said to be performed twice a week, and is done by scraping out the civet with a small spoon. The quantity usually collected at each time amounts to about a dram.

27. V. Foine, the Martin.—This is an animal of a very elegant appearance. It is about 18 inches long from nose to tail, and its tail is about 10 inches. It is of a blackish tawny colour, with a white throat, and a dusky brown belly. The tail is bushy, and darker than the rest of the body; the ears are pretty large and rounded, and the eyes are very lively.

It is found in most parts of Europe, and is not uncommon in Britain. It inhabits woods and fields, and preys on birds and other small animals. It breeds in the hollows of trees, and brings forth from three to five young at a birth.

The martin attacks pheasants when at roost, and makes great havoc among them. For this reason game-keepers are careful to set traps for them, which are baited with a piece of pheasant or wood-pigeon. Mr Daniel recommends the following mode of catching them, in parks or places that are paled in. As they constantly run to the pales and posts to dry themselves in the morning, have a groove cut in some of the posts or gate-posts where they run, sufficient to contain a strong hawk or rat trap; the trap must be set in this groove without a bait; in leaping upon the place they are sure to be taken; a small chain should be fixed to the trap and fastened to the post. The skin of the martin affords a valuable fur.

29. V. Libellina, the Sable.—This animal is very similar in its general appearance to the martin, but its sable fur is finer, and of a deep glossy brown; the hair being ash-coloured at the root, and black at the tips. The tail is also much shorter than in the martin.

It inhabits the northern parts of Asia, where it lives in holes underground, especially below the roots of trees. In manners and disposition it greatly resembles the martin.

The skins of sables form one of the most valuable articles of the fur trade; and for these the animals are hunted with great eagerness.

The hunting is usually carried on by criminals confined to the desert regions of Siberia, or by soldiers sent thither for that purpose, who generally remain there for several years. Both are obliged to furnish a certain quantity of furs. They shoot with a single ball, to injure the skin as little as possible. They frequently take them in traps, or kill them with blunt arrows. As an encouragement to the hunters, they are allowed to share among themselves whatever skins they take above the allotted number; and this, in a few years, amounts to a considerable premium.—The hunters form themselves into small troops, each of which is directed by a leader of their own choosing.

The season of hunting is from November to February; for at that time the fables are in the highest perfection. Those caught at any other time of the year are full of short hairs, and are sold at inferior prices. The best fables are such as have only long hair, which is always black, and of a glossy brightness. Old furs do not retain their gloss.—Both the Ruffians and Chinese have a method of dyeing their furs; but the dyed fables are easily discovered, having neither the smoothness nor the brightness of the natural hair.

29. V. Putorius, the Polecat, Fitchet, or Foumart. Putorius, Polecat, or Foumart.

The length of this animal is about 17 inches, excluding the tail; that of the tail fix. Its shape is long and slender; the nose sharp-pointed, and the legs short; in fine, admirably formed for insinuating itself into the smallest holes and passages, in search of prey. It is very nimble and active, runs very fast, will creep up the sides of walls with great agility, and spring with vast force. In running, the belly seems to touch the ground; in preparing to jump, it arches its back, which afflicts it greatly in that action. The ears are short, rounded, and tipped with white; the circumference of the mouth is wholly of a chocolate colour, almost black. The sides are covered with hairs of two colours, the ends of which are of a blackish hue, like the other parts; the middle of a full tawny colour.

The toes are long, and separated to the very origin; the tail is covered with pretty long hair.

The polecat is very destructive to young game of all kinds, and to poultry: it generally resides in woods, or thick brakes, burrowing under ground, forming a shallow retreat, about two yards in length, which commonly ends, for its security, among the roots of some large trees. It will sometimes lodge under hay ricks, and Ferret and in barns; in the winter it frequents houses, and makes a common practice of robbing the dairy of the milk. It also makes great havoc in warrens.

Though the smell of the polecat, when alive, is rank and disagreeable, even to a proverb, yet the skin is dried with the hair on, and used as other furs for tips, &c., and is also sent abroad to line clothes.

Mr. Bewick mentions an extraordinary method which this animal sometimes practises to procure itself subsistence. During a severe storm, one of these animals was traced in the snow from the side of a rivulet to its hole, at some distance from it. As it was observed to have made frequent trips, and as other marks were to be seen in the snow which could not be easily accounted for, it was thought a matter worthy of greater attention. Its hole was accordingly examined, the foumatt taken, and eleven eels were discovered to be the fruits of its nocturnal excursions. The marks in the snow were found to have been made by the motion of the eels in the creature's mouth.

30. V. Furo, the Ferret.—This animal is about fourteen inches long, and its tail about five. Its nose is sharper than that of the polecat; its ears are round, eyes red and fiery, and the colour of its whole body a very pale yellow. It breeds twice in the year, unless it devours its offspring, as it sometimes does as soon as brought forth; it then has three litters. The ferret goes with young six weeks, and has generally six or seven young, which are blind for a month.

It is a native of Africa, and was originally brought into Spain, to free that country from the multitudes of rabbits with which it was overrun.

After two months the young are fit for service in catching rabbits; they should be kept in tubs, or small boxes, where they can be supplied with plenty of clean straw, as they are offensive and smell strong; before you use, do not feed them, for with their bellies full they will not hunt, but sleep in the burrows for hours.

The ferret is the natural enemy to the rabbit, inasmuch that if a dead rabbit be laid before a ferret, it instantly feigns upon it, although it has never seen one before; if thrown a living rabbit, the ferret is still more eager, fattens on the neck, winds itself round and sucks the blood until satiated. The ferret, however, is apt to lose its savage nature, unless the breed is crossed with the polecat, which the warreners frequently do, and the produce is of a much darker colour, partaking of that of the fire.

31. V. Vulgaris, Common Weasel.—This is one of the smallest of the tribe; its general length being about seven inches, with a tail little more than two inches long. It is usually of a reddish brown on the back, sides, and legs, white on the throat and belly, and below the corners of the mouth on each jaw is a spot of brown. The ears are small and rounded; the mouth furnished with whiskers, and the eyes are black.

The female brings forth in the spring, and produces four or five at a birth. Of these she is very careful, and, as we are told by Aldrovandus, will carry them about from place to place, when the suspects that they will be stolen from her.

The food of this animal is similar to that of the other species, and it is very destructive to young birds, poultry, and rabbits. Its favourite food seems to be the field mouse. It is also very fond of eggs. It is exceedingly active, and will run up the sides of walls with such facility, that scarcely any place is secure from it; the Species and its body is so small, that there are few holes through which it cannot creep.

It is found in most of the temperate parts of Europe, is very common in this island, and is also occasionally met with in Barbary. It inhabits the cavities below the roots of trees, and the banks of rivulets, from which it falls out in quest of its prey.

The weasel was supposed by Buffon to be untameable; but it appears from a communication made to him by a lady, and published in his 7th supplemental volume, that it may be rendered very gentle and docile. The account is very amusing, but we have not room for it here. It is given by Dr. Shaw, vol. i. p. 521, and Mr. Bingley, vol. i. p. 314.

Genus 18. Lutra. Otters.

Teeth as in the former genus. Feet webbed.

Linnaeus formed two genera of the animals which are usually called weasels, viz. viverra and mustela, in the latter of which he comprised the otters. Mr. Pennant and Dr. Shaw have united the mustela to the viverra, and have made a new genus of the otters, to which Dr. Shaw gives the name of lutra.

There are eight species, viz:

1. *L. Vulgaris, Common O.—Brown, with naked feet, and tail half as long as the body.—2. L. Lutreola, Smaller O. Blackish tawny, with hairy feet, equal toes, and white muzzle.—3. L. Marina, Sea O. Black, with hairy feet, and very short tail.—4. L. Braziliana, Brazilian O. Black, with yellow throat.—5. L. Sarcocivenna, Saricovienne O. Gray, spotted with black.—6. L. Gracilis, Slender O. Brown, with extremely slender body.—7. L. Vifon, Vivon O. Body entirely of a deep chestnut colour.—8. L. Felina, Chinchemin O. Of the shape and appearance of a cat.

1. L. Vulgaris, Common O.—The usual length of Vulgaris, this animal is about two feet from nose to tail, and the common tail is about fifteen inches long. The head and nose are broad and flat; the eyes are small, but very brilliant, and are placed nearer to each other than in most quadrupeds, which gives the otter a singular appearance, not unlike an eel. The ears are extremely short; the opening of the mouth small; the lips very muscular, capable of being brought very close together; and the nose and corners of the mouth are furnished with long whiskers. The legs are remarkably short, but very muscular; and the joints are articulated so loosely, that the animal can bring its legs on a line with its body, and use them as fins for swimming. Its fur is of a deep brown colour.

Otters are found in most parts of Europe, and are met with occasionally in Britain. They inhabit the banks of rivers, and their principal food consists of fish, though they will sometimes attack poultry and the smaller quadrupeds. They are said to be as destructive in a fishpond as a polecat is in a henhouse.

The otter makes its nest in some retired spot, where it can have an easy and secure access to the water, to which it immediately flies on the least alarm; and as it is very active, and swims with great rapidity, it is not easily taken. This animal is very nice, and will eat no fish but such as are perfectly fresh. As soon as he catches... catches a fish; he drags it on shore, and devours it as far as the vent; but unless extremely preliefed with hunger, he always leaves the rest. It swims against the stream in rivers, and may sometimes be seen in concert with a companion hunting the salmon. It has been supposed that the otter never goes out to sea, but this appears to be a mistake, for they have been seen about the Orkneys, hunting sea fish, especially cod.

When taken young, the otter is easily tamed, and may be made to catch fish for its master's use. The usual way of teaching them is, first to make them fetch and carry like a dog; they have then given them a truss stuffed with wool, in the shape of a fish, which they are accustomed to take in their mouths, and drop at command. From this they proceed to real fish, which are thrown dead into the water, whence they are taught to fetch it; and thus by degrees they are made to catch living fish. Mr Bewick informs us that a man near Wooler had a tame otter, which followed him wherever he went. He frequently carried it to fish in the river, and, when satiated, it never failed returning to its master. One day, in the absence of his master, being taken out by his son to fish, instead of returning as usual, it refused to come at the accustomed call, and was lost. The father tried every means to recover it; and after several days search, being near the place where his son had lost it, and calling it by its name, to his inexpressible joy it came creeping to his feet, and showed many marks of affection and firm attachment. Its food, exclusive of fish, consisted chiefly of milk and hasty pudding.

Some years ago, one James Campbell, near Inverness, had a young otter, which he brought up and tamed. It would follow him wherever he chose, and if called on by its name, would immediately obey. When apprehensive of danger from dogs, it sought the protection of its master, and would endeavour to fly into his arms for greater security. It was frequently employed in catching fish, and would sometimes take eight or ten salmon in a day. If not prevented, it always made an attempt to break the fish behind the fin next to the tail; and as soon as one was taken away, it immediately dived in pursuit of more. When tired, it would refuse to fish any longer, and was then rewarded with as much fish as it could devour. Being satisfied with eating, it always curled itself round, and fell asleep, in which state it was carried home. The same otter fished as well in the sea as in the river, and took great numbers of codlings and other fish. Its food was generally fresh fish, and sometimes milk. What is still more extraordinary, the otter has been made to hunt fish along with dogs, who never gave him the smallest molestation, though accustomed to hunt other otters.

The flesh of the otter is rank and disagreeable, and partakes so much of the nature of fish, that by the Roman Catholic religion it is allowed to be eaten on fast days; and Mr Pennant tells us, that he saw in the kitchen of the Carthusian convent, near Dijon, an otter preparing for the dinner of that religious order, who by their rules are prohibited during their whole lives the eating of flesh.

The sea otter is chiefly valuable on account of its fur, which is thick and long, generally of a shining black colour, but sometimes of a silvery hue. It is hunted for its furs in Kamtschatka, and the opposite coasts of America.

Genus 19. Ursus. Bears.

Six front teeth in both jaws; the two lateral of the lower jaw longer than the rest, and lobed, with smaller or secondary teeth at their inner bases. Canine teeth solitary. Grinders five or six on each side, the first very near the canine teeth. Tongue smooth. Snout prominent. Eyes furnished with a nictitating membrane.

The individuals of this species have not many circumstances in common, except those mentioned in the generic characters. The soles of their feet are long, and extend to the heel, from which circumstance they tread very firmly. Their claws are long and sharp, and they are thus enabled to climb trees with great dexterity, either in search of prey, or to escape from their enemies. Some of the species use their fore paws as hands.

There are about nine species, which are thus distinguished:

1. U. Arctos, Brown Bear. Blackish brown, with abrupt tail.—2. U. Americanus, American B. Black, with rusty cheeks and throat.—3. U. Maritimus, White or Polar Bear. White, with elongated neck and head, and abrupt tail.—4. U. Gulo, Glutton. Reddish brown, with tail of the same colour, and the middle of the back black.—5. U. Lagopus, Wolverine. Rusty, with dusky snout, and forehead and lateral band of the body whitish.—6. U. Lotor, Raccoon. Tail ring-marked, and a black band across the eyes.—7. U. Meles, Badger. Tail unmarked; body gray above, black below, and a longitudinal black band through the eyes and head.—8. U. Labradorius, American Badger. Pale yellowish gray, with the throat and belly white, and head striped with black.—9. U. Indicus, Indian Badger. White above, black beneath.

1. Ursus Arctos, Common or Brown Bear.—There is a considerable variety of colour in different individuals of this species, according to the climate it inhabits. Fig. 40. The prevailing colour is a blackish brown, but they are sometimes seen gray, or even quite white. His general appearance is very clumsy; his body thick, legs very strong, head round, neck short, and he is covered with a very long thick fur.

He is a native of almost all the northern parts of Europe and Asia, and is said to be found in some of the Indian islands, especially Ceylon. He inhabits woods and unfrequented forests, where he passes the greatest part of winter in a state of repose and abstinence, coming out only at distant intervals, and again concealing himself till the approach of spring. He lives chiefly on vegetables, such as roots and fruits; but when pressed by hunger, he becomes fierce and ravenous, and will attack animals of almost every description. He is said to be particularly fond of honey, in search of which he climbs trees, in order to get at the nests of wild bees. He will catch and devour fish, and occasionally frequents the banks of rivers for that purpose. It is observed that the brown and black varieties differ somewhat in their choice of food, the former living almost entirely on vegetables, while the latter frequently attack cattle, lambs, and kids, the blood of which they suck, like many of the cat and weasel tribe. The females bring forth two young at a birth. It was formerly supposed that these cubs were nearly shapeless masses, that were gradually licked and fashioned into shape by the parent, whence the expression of a "naked cub," for an awkward-ill manner'd booby. This has long been proved to be a vulgar error. Though not shapeless, the cubs are, however, usually blind for about a month. The bear is an animal that is extremely useful to the inhabitants of the north of Europe; his flesh is nearly as good as pork, and makes excellent bacon. His skin is used for muffs, tippets, and other articles of dress, and the fat is held in great estimation by the inhabitants of Kamtchatka as a very favourite and wholesome nourishment.

When tamed, it appears mild and obedient to its master, but is not to be trifled without the utmost caution.—It may be taught to walk upright, to dance, to lay hold of a pole with its paws, and perform various tricks to entertain the multitude, who are highly pleased to see the awkward measures of this rugged creature, which it seems to suit to the sound of an instrument, or to the voice of its leader. But to give the bear this kind of education, it must be taken when young, and early accustomed to restraint and discipline. An old bear will suffer neither, without discovering the most furious resentment; nor either the voice nor menace of his keeper has any effect upon him; he equally growls at the hand that is held out to feed, as at that which is raised to correct him.

The excessive cruelties practised upon this poor animal, in teaching it to walk erect, and regulate its motions to the sound of the flageolet, are such as make tenderness shudder. Its eyes are put out, and an iron ring being put through the cartilage of the nose, to lead it by, it is kept from food, and beaten, till it yield obedience to the will of its savage leaders. Some of them are taught to perform by setting their feet upon hot iron plates, and then playing to them whilst in this uneasy situation. It is truly shocking to every feeling mind to reflect, that such cruelties should be exercised upon any part of the brute creation by our fellow men. That they should be rewarded by numbers of unthinking people, who crowd around them to see the animal's rude attempts to imitate human actions, is not to be wondered at; but it is much to be wished, that the timely interference of the magistrate would prevent every exhibition of this kind, that in Britain at least, we might not be reproached with tolerating practices so disgraceful to humanity.

One of these animals, presented to the prince of Wales a few years ago, was kept in the tower. By the carelessness of the servant, the door of his den was left open, and the keeper's wife happening to go across the court at the same time, the animal flew out, seized the woman, threw her down, and fastened upon her neck, which he bit, and without offering any farther violence, lay upon her, sucking the blood out of the wound. Remorse was in vain, as it only served to irritate the brute, and the mult inevitably have perished, had not her husband luckily discovered her situation. By a sudden blow he obliged the bear to quit his hold, and retire to his den, which he did with great reluctance, and not without making a second attempt to come at the woman, who was almost dead through fear and loss of blood. It is somewhat remarkable, that whenever it happened to see her afterwards, it always growled, and made most violent struggles to get out of the Species. The prince, upon hearing of the circumstance, ordered the bear to be killed.

A few years ago, a man exhibited at Edinburgh a bear, which it was discovered he chiefly fed with dead bodies taken from the burying-grounds. On complaint being made to the magistrates, they ordered the bear to be shot. What punishment was inflicted on the man we do not recollect.

3. U. Maritimus, the White or Polar Bear.—This species is considerably larger and longer than the common bear, having been sometimes found 12 feet in length. It is exceedingly strong and fierce, and its body is covered with a very long, thick, white fur. It inhabits the coldest regions of the north, and is sometimes carried on floating ice as far as the southward as Newfoundland. In winter it buries itself in the snow, where it lies in a torpid state; but in summer it takes up its residence in the cliffs and caverns of the numerous ice islands that are found in those high latitudes. Here it brings forth its young, usually one or two at a birth. The parent is exceedingly tender and affectionate to her young, of which the following anecdote affords a striking and interesting example.

While the Carcass frigate, which went out some years ago to make discoveries towards the north pole, was locked in the ice, early one morning the man at the mast-head gave notice that three bears were making their way very fast over the frozen ocean, and were directing their course towards the ship. They had, no doubt, being invited by the scent of some blubber of a sea-horse that the crew had killed a few days before, which had been set on fire, and drew out of the flames a part of the flesh of the sea-horse that remained unconsumed, and ate it voraciously. The crew from the ship threw great lumps of the flesh of the sea-horse, which they had still left upon the ice, which the old bear fetched singly, laid every lump before her cubs as she brought it, and dividing it, gave to each a share, reserving but a small portion to herself. As she was fetching away the last piece, they levelled their muskets at the cubs, and shot them both dead, and in her retreat they wounded the dam, but not mortally. It would have drawn tears of pity from any but unfeeling minds, to have marked the affectionate concern expressed by this poor beast in the dying moments of her expiring young. Though she was herself dreadfully wounded, and could but just crawl to the place where they lay, she carried the lump of flesh she had fetched away, as she had done others before; tore it in pieces, and laid it before them; and when the fawn that they refused to eat, she laid her paws first upon one, and then upon the other, and endeavoured to raise them up: all this while it was pitiful to hear her moan. When she found she could not stir them, she went off, and when she had got at some distance, looked back and moaned; and that not availing her to entice them away, she returned, and smelling round them, began to lick their wounds. She went off a second time as before, and having crawled a few paces, looked again behind her, and for some time stood moaning. But still, her cubs not rising to follow her, she returned to them again, and with signs of inexplicable fondness went round one, and round the other, pawing them, and moaning. Finding at last that they were cold, History of cold and lifeless, she raised her head towards the ship, and uttered a growl of despair, which the murderers returned with a volley of musket balls. She fell between her cubs, and died licking their wounds.

The polar bear lives chiefly on fish, but sometimes attacks the seals. He in his turn becomes a prey to the inhabitants of the arctic regions, who eat the flesh, though it is very coarse, and use the skin for coverings of various kinds.

5. U. Lagopus. Wolverine.—This, by most naturalists, is considered only as a variety of the glutton. It is a large animal, almost equalling the wolf in size. It is pretty common in the northern parts of North America, where it burrows under ground. It is a beast of prey, living on deer and similar animals. Though its pace is very slow, it has a very acute scent, is extremely strong, and possessed of great sagacity. It is said to be so fierce as to be a terror even to the wolves and bears; and its strength is so great, that it has been known to pull down a pile of immense logs of wood, in order to get at some provisions that had been hidden there, though some of the logs were as much as two men could carry. It is a great enemy to badgers and foxes. It is hunted in North America for the sake of its skin.

7. U. Meles, The Badger.—This is an animal of a very clumsy make, being thick-necked and thick-bodied, with very short legs. His usual length from nose to tail is about two feet and a half, and the tail itself seldom exceeds six inches. His eyes are very small, ears short and rounded. The body is covered with long coarse hairs like bristles, that are of a dirty yellowish white next the root, black in the middle, and gray at the tips. The badger differs from most other animals in having his back of a lighter colour than his belly. He is exceedingly strong, especially about the legs and feet, which are formed for burrowing in the earth.

This animal is found in all the temperate parts of Europe and of Asia. It makes its habitation below ground, and is a very cleanly animal, so that when his retreat is defiled by any other animal, as the fox, he quits it for another. It seldom leaves its hole during the day, feeding only by night. Its principal food appears to consist of the smaller quadrupeds, as rabbits, birds, &c., though Mr Pennant will scarcely allow it to be a carnivorous animal. It is also said to be very fond of honey. It sleeps much during winter, confining itself like the bear, in a half torpid state.

The female brings forth three or four young, in the early part of summer.

Badgers were formerly distinguished into sow badgers and dog badgers, from the supposed resemblance of their heads to those animals, though we do not know of any with a head like that of swine, its usual appearance being that of the dog.

No animal has suffered more from vulgar prejudices than the badger: harmless in his nature, he seems to have had the character of ferocity given him, merely because he is a beast of great strength, and is furnished with strong teeth, as if formed to live by rapine; he is, however, found to be an animal perfectly inoffensive. Nature has denied the badger the speed requisite to escape its enemies, but has supplied it with such weapons of offence that scarcely any creature will attack; few animals defend themselves better, or bite harder, when pursued; it soon comes to bay, and fights with great obstinacy; the badger is very tenacious of life, yet a small blow on the snout is mortal both to him and the otter. It is hunted with terriers, and its obstinate defence affords great diversion to those human brutes who are capable of finding pleasure in the torments of a harmless, inoffensive creature.

Its skin is used for pistol furniture, when dressed with the hair on; the hairs are made into brushes that are used by painters to soften their shades, and the flesh is said to make excellent bacon.

Genus 20. Didelphis. Opossums.

Front teeth small and rounded; superior 10, the two middle ones longer; inferior eight, the two middle ones broader and very short; canine teeth long; grinders denticulated; tongue ciliated with papillae; abdominal pouch (in most species) containing the teats.

This curious tribe of animals first became known to naturalists on the discovery of America, where only, most of the species are met with. They are principally distinguished by the extraordinary contrivance which nature has adopted for enabling most of the genus to secure their young, and which consists of a pouch or bag formed by a fold of the skin of the belly. Into this the young are received soon after birth, and are there suckled at teats within the bag, till they are able to shift for themselves. In some of these there are two or three distinct cavities that can be opened or shut at pleasure, by means of bones with which they are provided for that purpose. Some of the species carry their young on their backs, covering them with their tails.

This is a numerous genus, comprehending about 19 species.

1. D. Virginiana, Virginian O. Yellowish gray, with naked tail, and black, naked, rounded ears, edged with white.—2. D. Maripuspialis, Molucca O. Brown, with naked tail.—3. D. Cayennensis, Mexican O. Brown, with tail longer than the body, and the eyes surrounded with a blackish border.—4. D. Brachyura, Short-tailed O. With hairy tail; very short, naked ears, reddish body, and no pouch.—5. D. Brunii, Java O. Short naked tail, and long three-toed hind feet.—6. D. Orientalis, Phalanger. Rusty white beneath, with blackish dorsal line; tail of the length of the body, and hairy almost to the middle, and the two middle toes of the hind feet united.—7. D. Canivora, Cayenne O. Nearly naked; scaly tail almost the length of the body, and the nail of the thumbs flat.—8. D. Philander, Philander. The tail hairy at the base, and with four teats in the abdominal pouch.—9. D. Murina, Murine O. Tail half-naked, and five teats.—10. D. Dorfigera, Merian O. Tail naked, hairy at the base, and the fore feet without claws.—11. D. Lemurina, Lemurine O. Ash-coloured, tawny beneath, with cylindric, black, furry, prehensile tail.—12. D. Obefula, Porcupine O. Subferruginous, whitish beneath, with longish tail; the fore feet five-toed, with small exterior claws; the hind feet four-toed, with two interior toes united.—13. D. Petaurus, Petaurine O. Blackish-gray, tinged with ferruginous; whitish beneath. beneath, with lateral flying membrane, and long, sub-cylindric, very villose tail.—15. *D. Sciurea*, Squirrel O. Pale gray, snow-white beneath, with lateral flying membrane, and very villose prehensile tail.—15. *D. Macrourus*, Long-tailed O. Ash-coloured, whitish beneath, with lateral flying membrane, and very long black tail.—16. *D. Pygmea*, Pygmy O. With lateral flying membrane, and flatly pinnated linear tail.—17. *D. Vulpina*, Vulpine O. Ferruginous, with black villous tail.—18. *D. Australis* (sic), New Holland O.—19. *D. Ursina*, Urine O. Yellowish, with cleft upper lip.

1. *D. Virginiana*, Virginian Opossum.—This animal is about the size of a cat, but appears of a thicker form, from the length and erect position of the hair. It has an inelegant aspect, having a long harsh face, and very wide mouth, armed with numerous sharp teeth. The legs are short, and all the toes, except the thumbs of the hind feet, are furnished with sharp claws. The tail is strongly prehensile, enabling the animal to suspend itself thereby.

This is one of those species in which the abdominal pouch is most strongly marked, and into this receptacle the female receives her young when they are in danger, or when fatigued.

The Virginian opossum, like all the other American species, is a carnivorous animal, and preys on poultry, small birds, &c. in the manner of the European polecat; it is also frugivorous, eating several kinds of fruits, roots, &c. It is of a gentle disposition, and may easily be tamed; but, like some other species, it has a disagreeable smell. Its voice is a sort of grunting squeak; its pace in running is not swift, but it is very expert in climbing trees, and readily passes, by means of its clinging tail, from bough to bough, in the manner of a monkey. The female produces four or five at a birth, and has the power of closing the pouch so strongly as to make it extremely difficult to open it by the hand, nor will any torture compel the animal to loosen it. The female, when ready to bring forth her young, is said to make herself a nest of dry grass, in some bush near the root of a tree.

10. *D. Dorfigera*, Merian O.—Almost the only account we have of this animal is given by Madame Merian, in her work on the insects of Surinam. Her account is as follows. "By way of filling up a plate, I have represented a kind of wood-rat, which always carries her young ones upon her back; the is of a yellowish brown colour, and white beneath. When these rats come out of their hole, either to play or to seek their food, they run about with their mother; but when they are satisfied with food, or are apprehensive of danger, they climb up again on the back of the mother, and twist their tails round that of the parent, who runs with them into her hole again."

**Genus 21. Dasyurus.**

The organs of generation and abdominal pouch in the female, as in the last genus. Front teeth in the upper jaw eight, in the lower six. Canine teeth, two in each jaw, Grinders 14, of which six are sharp. Head conical; snout furnished with large whiskers. Tail furnished with long hair. Five toes on each foot, all separate; the thumb of the hind feet extremely short.

This is a new genus, formed by Geoffroy, to comprehend several species which are placed by Dr Shaw under *Viverra* and *Didelphis*, but which Geoffroy thinks have sufficiently distinguishing characters to be separated from both. They are all found in New Holland, and are herbivorous animals.

Geoffroy enumerates six species, to which he gives the following names and characters.

1. *D. Macrourus*, Long-tailed D. Chestnut-colour spotted with white. Tail equally speckled.—2. *D. Maugei*, Maugei D. Olive-coloured, spotted with white; tail without spots.—3. *D. Viverrinus*, Viverrine D. Black, spotted with white; tail without spots.—4. *D. Tafa*, Tafa D. Entirely brown, tail of the same colour.—5. *D. Pennicillatus*, Brush-tailed D. Ash-coloured, without spots.—6. *D. Minimus*, Least D. Entirely red; tail of the same colour.

M. Geoffroy has also formed a new genus, which he calls Perameles, in which he includes the *Didelphis obesula* of Shaw, and another species that had not before been described. As we are not very certain of the necessity of this new genus, we have not included it in the arrangement of the generic characters; and for a description of the genus, we must refer to Geoffroy's Memoir, in the fourth volume of *Annales de Muséum National*, page 56.

Geoffroy calls the species Perameles *nafusa*, and *P. Obesula*. The latter has been thus described by Dr Shaw. It is about the size of a half-grown domestic rat, and is remarkable for a thicker or more corpulent habit than most others of the genus. The hind legs are considerably longer than the fore legs, and have in miniature the form of those of the kangaroo, and some other Australasian quadrupeds; though the middle claws are far less in proportion; the interior ones are double, or both covered by a common skin. The colour of this species is a pale yellow brown, paler and inclining to whitish below; and its hair is of a coarser or harsher appearance than in the rest of the small opossums; the ears are rounded, the tail rather long. When viewed in a cursory manner, the animal bears a distant resemblance to a pig in miniature.

In Collins's account of New South Wales, there is described a very curious animal under the name of *Wombat*, which seems nearly allied to the opossums, and the other animals which we have just mentioned. The teeth, however, differ so much from those of the three last genera, that it can scarcely be ranked as a species of any of them, and perhaps it may hereafter constitute a new genus. The account given in the work referred to is as follows.

Its length, from the tip of the tail to the tip of the nose, is two feet seven inches, of which its body takes up one foot eleven inches. The head is seven inches, and the tail five-tenths of an inch. Its circumference behind the fore legs, 27 inches; across the thickest part of the belly, 31 inches. Its weight by hand is between 25 and 30 pounds. The hair is coarse, and is about one inch, or one and five-tenths in length, thinly set upon the belly, thicker on the back and head, and thickest upon the loins and rump; the colour of it a light sandy brown, of varying shades, but darkest along the back.

The head is large and flattened, and, when looking the animal full in the face, seems, excluding the ears, to form nearly an equilateral triangle, any side of which is about seven inches and five-tenths in length; but the upper side, or that which constitutes the breadth of the head, is rather the shortest. The hair upon the face lies in regular order, as if it were combed, but its ends pointed upwards in a kind of radii, from the nose their centre.

The ears are sharp and erect, of two inches and three-tenths in length, stand well asunder, and are in nowise disproportionate. The eyes are small, and rather sunk than prominent, but quick and lively. They are placed about two inches and five-tenths asunder, a little below the centre of the imaginary triangle towards the nose. The nice co-adaptation of their ciliary processes, which are covered with a fine hair, seems to afford the animal an extraordinary power of excluding whatever might be hurtful.

The nose is large or spreading, the nostrils large, long, and capable of being closed. They stand angularly with each other, and a channel is continued from them towards the upper lip, which is divided like the hare's. The whiskers are rather thick and strong, and are in length from two to three inches and a half.

The opening of its mouth is small; it contains five long gristle-cutting teeth in the front of each jaw, like those of the kangaroo; within them is a vacancy for an inch or more, then appear two small canine teeth of equal height with, and so much similar to, eight molars situated behind, as scarcely to be distinguishable from them. The whole number in both jaws amounts to 24.

The neck is thick and short, and greatly restrains the motions of the head, which, according to the common expression, looks as if it were stuck upon the shoulders.

From the neck the back arches a little as far as the loins, whence it goes off at a flat slope to the hindermost parts, where not any tail is visible. A tail, however, may be found by carefully pressing the finger over the flat slope in a line with the back bone. After separating the hairs, it is seen of some half an inch in length, and from three-tenths to one-tenth of an inch in diameter, naked, except a few fine short hairs near its end. This curious tail seemed to hold a much bolder proportion in the young than in the full grown animal.

The fore legs are very strong and muscular: their length, to the sole of the paw, is five inches and a half, and the distance between them is five inches and a half. The paws are fleshy, round, and large, being one inch and nine tenths in diameter. Their claws are five in number, attached to as many short digitations. The three middle claws are strong, and about nine-tenths of an inch in length; the thumb and little finger claws are also strong, but shorter than the others, being only seven-tenths of an inch long. The fleshy root of the thumb claw is stronger and more flexible than the others. The sole of the paw is hard, and the upper part is covered with the common hair, down to the roots of the claws which it overhangs. The hind legs are less strong and muscular than the fore; their length, to the sole, is five inches and a half; the distance between, about seven inches and a half. The hind paw is longer than the fore, but not less fleshy; its length is two inches and seven-tenths, in breadth two inches and three-fifths. The claws are four in number; the three inner ones are less strong, but about one-fifth of an inch longer than the longest of the fore claws, and there is a fleshy spur in the place of the thumb claw. The whole paw has a curve, which throws its fore part rather inward.

In size the two sexes are nearly the same, but the female is perhaps rather the heaviest.

In the opinion of Mr Bals, this wombat seemed to be very economically made; but he thought it unnecessary to give an account of its internal structure in his journal.

This animal has no claim to swiftness, as most men could run it down. Its pace is hobbling, like the awkward gait of a bear. It is mild and gentle as becomes a grass-eater; but it bites hard, and is furious when provoked. Mr Bals never heard its voice but then; it was a low cry, between a hissing and a whizzing which could not be heard at a distance of above 40 yards. He chafed one, and suddenly lifted it off the ground with his hands, and laid him along his arm like a child. It made no noise, nor any effort to escape. Its countenance was placid, and seemed as content as if Mr Bals had nursed it from its infancy. He carried it more than a mile, on his arm or his shoulder, which it took in good part; but when he secured its legs, in order to go into a bush to cut a specimen of new wood, its anger rose, and it snapped a piece from the elbow of Mr Bals's jacket with his gristle-cutting teeth. Here their friendship ended, and the creature remained implacable all the way to the boat, and kicked till he was exhausted.

This circumstance seemed to prove, that with kind treatment the wombat might soon be rendered docile and affectionate; but let his tutor beware of giving him provocation, at least if he should be full grown.

Besides Furneaux island, the wombat inhabits the mountains to the west of Port Jackson. It lives below ground, being admirably formed for burrowing; but what depths it defends, does not seem to be ascertained. According to the account given of it by the natives, the wombat of the mountains is never seen during the day, but lives retired in his hole, feeding only in the night; but that of the islands seems to feed in all parts of the day. His food is not well known, but it is probably varied according to the situation in which he may be placed. The stomachs of such as Mr Bals examined were distended by the coarse wiry gristle; and he, as well as others, had seen the animal scratching among the dry ricks of sea-weed thrown upon the shores, though he could never discover what the animal was in search of.

Genus 22. Macropus, Kangaroo.

Front teeth in the upper jaw six, emarginated; in the lower jaw two, very large, long, sharp, and pointing forwards; grinders five on each side, both in the upper and lower jaw, distant from the other teeth; fore legs very short; hind legs very long; abdominal pouch in the female.

There are only two species at present known, viz. 1. M. Major, Great K. Brownish, with shaggy ears, and and five-toed fore feet.—2. *M. Minor*, Rat K., or kangaroo rat. Brown, ash coloured below, with rounded ears, and four-toed fore feet.

These were ranked by Linnaeus under the genus *Didelphis*, but differ so much in many circumstances, that they have been very properly formed into a separate genus.

1. *M. Major*, Great K.—This animal was first discovered by Captain Cook's people, while at Botany Bay in New Holland, in 1770, and an interesting, though not strictly accurate account of it, is given in Captain Cook's first voyage. It is thus described by Shaw. The general size of the kangaroo is, at least, equal to that of a full grown sheep; the upper parts of the animal are small, while the lower are remarkably large in proportion; yet such is the elegance of gradation in this respect, that the kangaroo may justly be considered as one of the most picturesque of quadrupeds. The head bears some resemblance to that of a deer, and the visage is mild and placid; the ears are moderately large, of a slightly sharpened form, and upright; the eyes large, and the mouth rather small; the neck thin and finely proportioned, the fore legs extremely short, with the feet divided into five toes, each furnished with a sharp and somewhat crooked claw. From the breast downwards the body gradually enlarges, and again decreases a little towards the tail; the thighs and hind legs are extremely stout and long, and the feet are so constructed as to appear, at first sight, to consist but of three toes, of which the middle is by far the largest, and is furnished with a claw of great size and strength; the exterior toe is also furnished with a very strong claw, but far smaller than that of the middle one; and the interior consists of two very small toes united under a common skin, with their respective claws placed close to each other as to appear like a split or double claw; the whole appearance of the foot bears a distant resemblance to that of a bird. The kangaroo rests on the whole length of the foot, which is callous, blackish, and granulated beneath. The colour of the animal is an elegant pale brown, lighter or more inclining to whitening on the abdomen; the ventral pouch, or receptacle for the young, is situated in the same manner as in the opossums, and is extremely large and deep.

The dimensions of a full grown kangaroo are given as follows, in Governor Phillip's Voyage to Botany Bay, viz. eight feet from the tip of the nose to that of the tail; length of the tail three feet and an inch; of the head eleven inches; of the fore legs two feet; of the hind, three feet seven inches; circumference of the fore part of the animal near the legs, three feet nine inches; of the lower part near the legs, four feet five inches; round the thickest end of the tail 13 inches. The weight of the largest specimens is said to have been about 150 pounds; but it is imagined that this animal attains a much larger size.

Though the general position of the kangaroo, when at rest, is standing on its hind feet, yet it frequently places its fore feet on the ground also, and thus feeds in the manner of other quadrupeds. It drinks by lapping. In its natural state it is extremely timid, and springs from the flight of mankind by vast bounds of many feet in height, and to a surprising distance. When in a state of captivity, it has sometimes a way of springing forwards and kicking with its hind feet in a History of very forcible and violent manner; during which action the Species it refts or props itself on the base of the tail. In a natural state it sometimes uses its tail as a weapon of defense, and will give such severe blows with it to dogs as to oblige them to desist from their attack. The female kangaroo has two mammary situated in the abdominal pouch, and in each are seated two teats; yet so far as has hitherto been observed, the animal produces but one young at a birth; and so exceedingly diminutive is the young, when first found in the pouch, as scarcely to exceed an inch in length. The young continues in the pouch till it is grown to a large size, and takes occasional refuge in it long after it has been accustomed to come abroad.

The kangaroo feeds entirely on vegetable substances, and chiefly on grass. In their native state these animals are said to feed in herds of 30 or 40 together, and one is generally observed to be stationed, as if apparently on the watch, at a distance from the rest.

The flesh of the kangaroo is said to be rather coarse; and such as to be eaten rather in defect of other food than as an article of luxury.

**Genus 23. Talpa. Moles.**

Front teeth in the upper jaw six, unequal; in the lower eight. Canine teeth one on each side, the upper larger. Grinders in the upper jaw seven, in the lower six.

The moles are furnished by nature for perforating the earth in the most expeditious manner. Their head is long, and provided with very strong muscles for enabling it to raise up the earth; their snout is much lengthened, and is moveable; their hands are large, broad, and flat, and armed with strong, flat, pointed claws, directed backwards for throwing the earth behind them, and the fore legs are very short and strong, and nearly hidden below the skin. They have no external ears, and their eyes are very small, and hidden in the fur. They mostly feed on worms and insects, and in this way would be of service, were it not that in seeking for these, they make much havoc among young plants by turning up the earth. This circumstance renders them very troublesome to gardeners and farmers, who take every method to destroy them.

Naturalists have described about 7 species, viz. 1. *T. Europaea*, Common M. Black (usually) with short tail and five toed feet.—2. *T. Purpurascens*, Purple M. Black, with a glost of purple, with white tail and five-toed feet.—3. *T. Capensis*, Cape M. Gold-green, with a glost of copper colour, with three-toed fore feet.—4. *T. Rufa*, Red M. Red, with short tail; three-toed fore feet, and four-toed hind feet.—5. *T. Longicaudata*, Long-tailed M. Brown, with tail moderately long, and five-toed feet, hinder fealy.—6. *T. Radiata*, Radiated M. Black, with white feet, and nose radiated with papillae.—7. *T. Fuca*, Brown M. Brown, with white feet and tail, and very broad fore feet.

S. i. *T. Europaea*, Common M. Moldwarp, or Europæa, Moule.

The figure of this animal is well known. Its eyes are so small that it was long doubted whether it really had

The skin of the mole is extremely tough; its fur close set, and softer than the finest velvet, or perhaps than the fur of any other animal; it is usually black, but moles have been found spotted with white, and sometimes, though rarely, they have been seen altogether white.

Genus 24. Sorex. Shrews.

Front teeth in the upper jaw two, long, bifid. In the lower two or four; the intermediate ones shorter; canine teeth several on each side; grinders culpiated.

This genus is nearly allied to the last, and indeed a few of its species are scarcely to be distinguished from some of the moles. It is therefore not surprising that Linnaeus, in the twelfth edition of his Systema Naturae, ranked two species under Sorex, which should more properly have been placed under Talpa.

There are 16 species, which are thus distinguished:

1. *S. Araneus*, Common S. or Shrew moule. Rusty brown, whitish below, with tail rather shorter than the body.—2. S. Moschatus, Musk S. Web-footed, with naked compressed tail.—3. S. Radiatus, Canada S. Blackish, with lengthened snout, radiated at the tip with tentacula.—4. S. Carulifrons, Perfuming S. Blue-gray, with flesh-colored feet, feet and tail.—5. S. Fodiens, Water S. Black, and white below.—6. S. Braziliensis, Brazilian S. Brown, with three black stripes on the back.—7. S. Surinamensis, Surinam S. Bay, yellowish ash colour below, with tail shorter than the body.—8. S. Proboscideus, Elephant S. Brown, with very long cylindric snout.—9. S. Leucodon, White-toothed S. Dull, white below, with tail of middling length.—10. S. Tetragonurus, Square-tailed S. Quadrangular tail.—11. S. Leucurus, White-tailed S. Brownish, whitish beneath, with short tail, whitish towards the tip.—12. S. Unicolor, Cinerous S. Dullly ash-colored, with tail narrowed at the base.—13. S. Murinus, Murine S. Brown, with ash-colored feet and tail, the latter of middling length.—14. S. Pufillus, Persian S. With rounded ears, and short subfasciculated tail.—15. S. Minutus, Minute S. With very long snout.—16. S. Exilis, Pygmy S. Extremely small, with very thick cylindric tail.

1. S. Araneus, Shrew Moule, or Hardy S. The Araneus, length of this little animal, from the end of the nose to the origin of the tail, is two inches and a half; that of the tail, near one inch and a half; the nose is very long and slender, and the upper mandible is much longer than the lower; the ears are short and rounded, the eyes very small, and like those of the mole, almost concealed in the hair. The colour of the head, and upper part of the body, is of a brownish dark red, the belly of a dirty white; the tail is covered with short dark hairs, the legs are very short; the hind legs are placed very far back; the feet are divided into five distinct toes.

The teeth are 28 in number, and of so singular a form, as to engage the attention of most naturalists. Gefner is of opinion, that nature seems to have formed in this animal teeth of mixed shape, between those of mice and serpents; the two upper fore teeth are very sharp, and on each side of them grows a minute pro-

Moles are found in every part of Europe, and are extremely common in Britain.

These animals, as is well known, live below the earth, where they make subterranean passages leading from one hillock to another. They live in pairs, and are said to be the most domestic of all quadrupeds. They seldom quit their holes except when compelled to do so by heavy rains, or when the earth is so much parched by constant drought, that they are unable to continue their work of burrowing. In winter they retire to elevated places, where they may be best secured from inundations; but in summer, descend to the low and flat lands, especially meadows, which they prefer on account of the earth there being freer and softer.

They generally breed in the spring, being found big with young in January and February, and in April a great many of their young may be seen.

It appears that moles are capable of swimming to a considerable distance, and a remarkable instance of one having been seen swimming towards a small island in the middle of a lake 180 yards from land, is given by Mr Bruce in the third volume of the Linnean Transactions.

People in general are not aware of the great mischief occasioned in fields and gardens by these animals. We are however informed by Buffon, that in the year 1740 he planted 15 or 16 acres of land with acorns, and that the greater part of them was in a little time carried away by the moles to their subterranean retreats. In many of these there were found half a bushel, and in others a bushel. Buffon, after this circumstance, caused a great number of iron traps to be constructed, by which in less than three weeks he caught 1300. To this instance of the devastation occasioned by these animals, we may add the following: In the year 1742 they were so numerous in some parts of Holland, that one farmer alone caught between 5000 and 6000 of them. The destruction occasioned by these animals is however no new phenomenon. We are informed by history, that the inhabitants of the island of Tenedos, the Trojans, and the Aeolians, were infested by them in the earliest ages. For this reason a temple was erected to Apollo Smythius, the destroyer of moles.

The catching of moles constitutes a profession which is well understood in this country. For the particular modes of taking them, we must refer our readers to Dr Darwin's Phytologia, p. 370, and to the second volume of the Philosophical Magazine, p. 34. According to Mortimer, as quoted by Pennant, the roots of white hellebore made into a paste and laid into their holes, will destroy them. They seem to have few enemies among other animals, but we are told by Sir Robert Sibbald, that there is a kind of mouse with a beak that destroys moles. We are assured that these animals are not found in Ireland. Genus 25. Erinaceus. Hedgehogs.

Front teeth, two both above and below; those of the upper jaw distant, of the lower approximated. Canine teeth on each side, in the upper jaw five, in the lower three. Grinders on each side, both above and below, four. Body covered on the upper parts with spines.

There are five species, viz. 1. *Erinaceus Europaeus*, European or common H. With rounded ears and crested nostrils.—2. E. Inauris, Earless H. Without external ears.—3. E. Auritus, Long-eared H. With long oval ears, and crested nostrils.—4. E. Madagascariensis, Striped H. With spines and long bristles; the body longitudinally banded with black and white, with long, sharp pointed snout.—5. E. Malaccensis, Malacca H. With long spines and pendulous ears.

1. Erinaceus Europaeus, Common Hedgehog, or Urchin.

The usual length of this animal, exclusive of the tail, is about ten inches; the tail is little more than an inch long, but so concealed by the spines as scarcely to be visible. The snout is like that of the hog; the upper jaw being much longer than the lower, and the end flat; the nostrils are narrow, terminated on each side by a loose thin flap; the colour of the snout is dusky; it is covered with a few scattered hairs; the upper part of the head, the sides, and the rump, are clothed with strong stiff hair, approaching the nature of bristles, of a yellowish and ash hue.

The legs are short, of a dusky colour, and almost bare; the toes on each foot are five in number, long, and separated the whole way; the thumb or interior toe is much shorter than the others; the claws long but weak; the whole upper part of the body and sides are strongly covered with close spines of an inch in length, and very sharp pointed; their lower part is white, the middle black, the points white. The mouth is small, but full of teeth. The barbarity of anatomists furnishes us with an amazing instance of its patience; one that was dissected alive, and whose feet were nailed down to the table, endured that, and every stroke of the operator's knife, without even one groan.

It is found in most parts of Europe, and is not uncommon in this island.

It produces four or five young at a birth, which are soon covered with prickles like those of the parent, but shorter and weaker.

It is a nocturnal animal, keeping retired in the day, but is in motion the whole night in search of food. It generally resides in small thickets, in hedges, or in ditches covered with bushes, lying well wrapped up in History of moths, grubs, or leaves; its food is roots, fruits, worms, the Species, and insects. It lies under the undeserved reproach of sucking cattle, and hurting their udders; but the smallness of its mouth renders that impossible. It is a mild, helpless, and patient animal; and would be liable to injury from every enemy, had not providence guarded it with a strong covering, and the power of rolling itself into a ball, by that means securing the defenceless parts. It is hunted with dogs; but few of them will venture to attack it while rolled up, so that its persecutors throw it into water, to oblige it to unroll itself. Its flesh is esteemed good food.

The hedgehog may be tamed; and we are told of one that lived at the Angel inn at Felton in Northumberland in 1799, which performed the duty of a turnspit, as well in every respect as the dog of that name; ran about the house as familiarly as any other domestic quadruped; displayed a facility till then unknown in this species of animals; and used to answer to the name of Tom.

This order contains 12 genera, and about 184 species.

Chap. IV. Glires.

Gen. 26. Hystrix. Porcupine.

Front teeth two, both in the upper and under jaw, obliquely cut; grinders eight. Body covered with spines intermixed with hairs. Four toes on the fore feet, five on the hind.

There are six species; viz.

1. H. Crispata, Long-spined Porcupine; with four-toed fore feet, and five-toed hind feet; crested head, and short tail.—2. H. Prehensilis, Prehensile P. Short-spined, with four-toed feet; and long half-naked prehensile tail.—3. H. Mexicana, Mexican P. Short-spined, with four-toed feet, and tail of moderate length.—4. H. Macroura, Long-tailed P. Short-spined, with five-toed feet, and very long tail; tufted at the end with club-shaped bristles.—5. H. Fasciculata, Brush-tailed P., Four-toed fore feet, five-toed hind feet, and tail terminated by a tuft of flattened bristles.—6. H. Dorfata, Canada P. Short-spined, with very long fur; four-toed fore feet, five-toed hind feet; spiny back, and short tail.

1. H. Crispata, Common Porcupine.—The figure which we have given of this animal will convey a better idea of it than any description. We may remark only that Porcupine is about two feet long from head to tail; and that the tail is about four inches long, being almost entirely hidden by the quills and long hair.

It is a native of Africa, India, and the Indian islands, and is found in some of the warmer parts of Europe, particularly in Sicily and Malta.

It was long believed that the porcupine had the power of darting its quills to a considerable distance, at any enemy that assaulted it. This is proved to have been a vulgar error, arising probably from the manner in which the quills are detached when the animal is moulting, at which time they are often thrown with a jerk to a little distance. The quills seem intended merely as weapons of defence, and when attacked, the animal has the power of raising them, as was remarked with respect to the scales of the manis. The flesh of the porcupine is eaten in some places; and we are told by Mr. Brydone, that when in Sicily, he dined on it, and found it extremely luscious, soon palling on the appetite.

This animal feeds chiefly on fruits, roots, and vegetable substances. It commonly lives under ground, sleeps much by day, and goes in search of food only during the night. The female produces two young at a birth, and these, when taken early, are easily tamed.

Gen. 27. Cavia, Cavy.

Front teeth two, wedge-shaped; grinders eight. Toes on the fore feet, four or five; on the hind feet, from three to five. Tail very short, or wanting. No clavicles.

The animals of this genus are chiefly found in America; they live on vegetable substances, and inhabit holes in the ground, or beneath the roots of trees. There are seven species; viz:

1. Cavia Cobaya, Variegated Cavy, or Guinea Pig. Tailless; generally variegated either, with black and white, or rufous, &c.—2. C. Paca, Spotted C. Tailed, with five-toed feet, and sides marked by rows of yellowish white spots.—3. C. Capybara, Capybara. Tailless, with three-toed palmated hind feet.—4. C. Agui, Aguti. Tailed, with the body reddish brown, and the belly yellowish.—5. C. Acouchy, Acouchy. Tailed, with olive-coloured body.—6. C. Aperia, Rock C. Tailless, with reddish silh-coloured body.—7. C. Patagonica, Patagonian C. Rusty gray, whitish below, with extremely short naked tail; large white patch on each thigh, and black rump.

1. C. Cobaya, Reflelles Cavy, or Guinea Pig.—This animal is pretty well known among us, being frequently kept as a kind of pet. It is a native of South America, and naturally of a chilly tender constitution; yet it lives and breeds in our climates when kept in the house, and properly fed. Few animals breed so early as the Guinea pig. Though it does not attain its full growth till eight or nine months old, it has been known to bring forth at two months. The female goes with young about three weeks, and at her first litter produces four or five young, but her subsequent litters often consist of ten, or twelve. As these animals are thus prolific, and will breed five or six times in a year, it is computed that a thousand of them may be produced in one year from a single pair. They seem capable of no sentiment but the lowest sensuality, and pass their whole time in eating, sleeping, &c. They live entirely on vegetable food, and are very fond of parsley, apples, and other fruits. They eat often, but little at a time.

They are very neat and cleanly, and are often seen dressing each other's fur. They are easily tamed, but seem to feel no attachment to man. They grunt like a pig, make a chirping noise when pleased, and utter a sharp cry when hurt.

The flesh may be eaten, but is very indifferent.

Gen. 28. Castor, Beaver.

Front teeth in the upper jaw truncated, and hollowed with a transverse angle; in the lower jaw transverse at the tips. Grinders on each side four. Tail long, with flat ovate naked tail.—2. C. Hudobrissus, Chili Beaver. With long, compressed, lance-shaped, hairy tail; lobed fore feet, and webbed hind feet.

There are two species; viz:

1. C. Fiber, Common Beaver. Chestnut-coloured, with flat ovate naked tail.—2. C. Hudobrissus, Chili Beaver.

1. C. Fiber, Common Beaver.—This animal is easily distinguished from all quadrupeds by the peculiar appearance of its tail, which is of an oval form, nearly flat, except on its upper surface, where it is slightly convex, entirely destitute of hair, except at the base, and marked with scaly divisions like the skin of a fish. The body is about three feet long, and the tail about a foot in length. The general colour of the fur is a deep chestnut, but it is sometimes found perfectly black, white, cream-coloured, or spotted.

The beaver is found in most of the northern parts of Europe and Asia, and is very abundant in North America. It was once met with in Britain, but the species has long been there extinct. It delights in shady watery situations.

Many accounts have been given of the manners and labours of this extraordinary animal, but we believe none are in general more correct than the following by Buffon.

The beavers begin to assemble in the month of June or July, for the purpose of uniting into society. They arrive in numbers from all corners, and soon form a troop of 200 or 300. The place of rendezvous is generally the place fixed for their establishment, and is always on the banks of waters. If the waters be flat, and never rise above their ordinary level, as in lakes, the beavers make no bank or dam; but in rivers or brooks, where the waters are subject to risings and fallings, they build a bank, and by this artifice they form a pond or piece of water, which remains always at the same height. The bank traverses the river from one side to the other, like a sluice, and it is often from 80 to 100 feet long, by 10 or 12 broad at the base. This pile, for animals of a size so small, appears to be enormous, and supposes an incredible labour. But the solidity with which the work is constructed is still more astonishing than its magnitude. The part of the river where they erect this bank is generally shallow. If they find on the margin a large tree, which can be made to fall into the water, they begin with cutting it down, to form the principal part of their work. This tree is often thicker than the body of a man. By gnawing the foot of the tree with their four cutting teeth, they accomplish their purpose in a very short time, and always make the tree fall across the river. They next cut the branches from the trunk to make it lie level. These operations are performed by the whole community. Several beavers are employed in gnawing the foot of the tree, and others in lopping off the branches after it has fallen. Others at the same time traverse the banks of the river, and cut down smaller trees, from the size of a man's leg to that of his thigh. These they dress, and cut to a certain length to make stakes of them, and first drag them by land to the margin of the river, and then by water to the place where the building is carrying on. These piles they sink down, and and interweave the branches with the larger stakes. This operation implies the vanquishing of many difficulties; for to dress these stakes, and to put them in a situation nearly perpendicular, some of the beavers must elevate, with their teeth, the thick ends against the margin of the river, or against the crosstree, while others plunge to the bottom, and dig holes with their fore feet, to receive the points that they may stand on end. While some are labouring in this manner, others bring earth, which they plash with their feet, and beat firm with their tails. They carry the earth in their mouths, and with their fore feet, and transport it in such quantities that they fill with it all the intervals between the piles. These piles consist of several rows of stakes of equal height, all placed opposite to each other, and extend from one bank of the river to the other. The stakes facing the under part of the river, are placed perpendicularly; but the rest of the work slopes upwards, to sustain the pressure of the fluid, so that the bank, which is 10 or 12 feet wide at the base, is reduced to two or three at the top. It has, therefore, not only all the necessary thickness and solidity, but the most advantageous form for supporting the weight of the water, for preventing its inflow, and to repel its efforts. Near the top, or thinnest part of the bank, they make two or three sloping holes, to allow the surface water to escape, and these they enlarge or contract, according as the river rises or falls; and when any breaches are made in the bank by sudden or violent inundations, they know how to repair them as soon as the water subsides.

It would be superfluous, after this account of their public work, to give a detail of their particular operations, were it not necessary, in a history of these animals, to mention every fact, and were not the first great structure made with a view to render their smaller habitations more commodious. These cabins or houses are built upon piles near the margin of the pond, and have two openings, the one for going to the land, and the other for throwing themselves into the water. The form of the edifices is either oval or round, some of them larger and some less, varying from four or five, to eight or ten feet diameter. Some of them consist of three or four stories, and their walls are about two feet thick, raised perpendicularly upon planks, or plain stakes, which serve both for foundations and floors to their houses. When they consist but of one story, the walls rise perpendicularly only a few feet, afterwards assume a curved form, and terminate in a dome or vault, which serves them for a roof. They are built with amazing solidity, and neatly plastered both without and within. They are impenetrable to rain, and resist the most impetuous winds. The partitions are covered with a kind of flueco, as nicely plastered as if it had been executed by the hand of man. In the application of this mortar, their tails serve for trowels, and their feet for plastering. They employ different materials, as wood, stone, and a kind of sandy earth, which is not subject to dilution in water. The wood they use is almost all of the light and tender kinds, as alders, poplars, and willows, which generally grow on the banks of rivers, and are more easily felled, cut, and transported, than the heavier and more solid species of timber. When they once attack a tree, they never abandon it till they cut it down, and, carry it off.

They always begin the operation of cutting at the foot, History of or a foot and a half above ground; they labour in a Species fitting posture; and, beside the convenience of this situation, they enjoy the pleasure of gnawing perpetually the bark and wood, which are most palatable to their taste; for they prefer fresh bark and tender wood to most of their ordinary aliment. Of these provisions they lay up ample stores, to support them during the winter; but they are not fond of dry wood. It is in the water, and near their habitations, that they establish their magazines. Each cabin has its own magazine, proportioned to the number of its inhabitants, who have all a common right to the store, and never pillage their neighbours. Some villages are composed of 25 or 25 cabins. But these large establishments are rare, and the common republic seldom exceeds 10 or 12 families, of which each has his own quarter of the village, his own magazine, and his separate habitation. They allow no strangers to sit down in their neighbourhood. The smallest cabins contain 2, 4, or 6, and the largest 18, 20, and, it is alleged, sometimes 30 beavers. They are almost always equally paired, being the same number of females as of males. Thus, upon a moderate computation, the society is often composed of 150 or 200, who all, at first, laboured jointly, in raising the great public building, and afterwards in select tribes or companies, in making particular habitations. In this society, however numerous, an universal peace is maintained. Their union is cemented by common labours, and it is rendered perpetual by mutual convenience, and the abundance of provisions which they amass, and consume together. Moderate appetites, a simple taste, an aversion against blood and carnage, deprive them of the idea of rapine and war. They enjoy every possible good, while man only knows how to pant after it. Friends to each other, if they have some foreign enemies, they know how to avoid them. When danger approaches, they advertise one another by striking their tail on the surface of the water, the noise of which is heard at a great distance, and resounds through all the vaults of their habitations. Each takes his post; some plunge into the lake, others conceal themselves within their walls, which can only be penetrated by the fire of heaven, or the steel of man, and which no animal will attempt either to open or to overturn. These retreats are not only very safe, but neat and commodious. The floors are spread over with verdure; the branches of the box and the fir serve them for carpets, upon which they permit not the least dirtiness. The window that faces the water answers for a balcony to receive the fresh air, and to bathe. During the greatest part of the day, they sit on end, with their heads and anterior parts of the body elevated, and their posterior parts sunk in the water. This window is made with caution, the aperture of which is sufficiently raised to prevent its being stopped up with ice, which, in the beaver climates, is often two or three feet thick. When this happens, they slope the sole of the window, cut obliquely the stakes which support it, and thus open a communication with the unfrozen water. This element is so necessary, or rather so agreeable to them, that they can seldom dispense with it. They often swim a long way under the ice; it is then that they are most easily taken, by attacking the cabin on one hand, and, at the same time, watching at a hole made at some distance, distance, where they are obliged to repair for the purpose of respiration. The continual habit of keeping their tail and posterior parts in the water, appears to have changed the nature of their flesh. That of their anterior parts, as far as the reins, has the taste and consistence of the flesh of land or air animals; but that of the tail and posteriors has the odour and all the other qualities of fish. The tail, which is a foot long, an inch thick, and five or six inches broad, is just like an extremity or genuine portion of a fish attached to the body of a quadruped. It is entirely covered with scales, and with skin perfectly similar to those of large fishes. They may be scraped off with a knife, and, after falling, they leave an impression on the skin, as is the case with all fishes.

It is in the beginning of summer that the beavers assemble. They employ the months of July and August in the construction of their bank and cabins. They collect, in September their provisions of bark and wood; afterwards they enjoy the fruits of their labours, and taste the sweets of domestic happiness. This is the time of repose and the season of love. Knowing and loving one another from habit, from the pleasures and fatigues of a common labour, each couple join not by chance, nor by the pressing necessities of nature, but unite from choice and from taste. They pass together the autumn and the winter, and perfectly satisfied with each other, they never separate. At ease in their cabins, they go not out but upon agreeable or useful excursions, to bring in supplies of fresh bark, which they prefer to what is too dry, or too much moistened with water. The females are said to go pregnant for four months; they bring forth in the end of winter, and generally produce two or three young ones. About this time, they are left by the males, who retire to the country to enjoy the pleasures and the fruits of the spring. They return occasionally to their cabins, and are occupied in nursing, protecting, and rearing their young, who at the end of a few weeks, are in a condition to follow their dams. The females, in their turn, make little excursions to recruit themselves by the air, by eating fresh bark and herbage; and in this manner pass the summer upon the waters, and in the woods. They assemble not again till autumn, unless their banks or cabins be overturned by inundations; for when accidents of this kind happen, they suddenly collect their forces, in order to repair the breaches which have been made.

Some places they prefer to others for their habitations; and they have been observed, after having their labours frequently destroyed, to return every summer to repair them, till, being fatigued with this persecution, and weakened by the loss of several of their numbers, they took the resolution of changing their abode, and of retiring to solitudes still more profound. It is in winter that they are chiefly sought by the hunters, because their fur is not perfectly found in any other season; and, after their village is ruined, and numbers of them are taken, the society is sometimes too much reduced to admit of a fresh establishment; but those which escape death or captivity, disperse and become vagabonds. Their genius, withered by fear, never again expands. They hide themselves and their talents in holes; or, sunk to the condition of other animals, they lead a timid and solitary life. Occupied only by pressing wants, and exerting solely their individual powers, they lose forever those social qualities which we have been so justly admiring.

The beaver is hunted for the sake of its fur, which, as is well known, forms a considerable article in the manufacture of fine hats, as well as for the drug called Cepor, for an account of which see Materia Medica. Its flesh is eaten in some places, and is said to have a fishy taste.

Genus 29. Mus. Rats and Mice.

Upper front teeth wedge-shaped. Grinders on each side three, sometimes only two. Clavicles or collar-bones in the skeleton.

These animals generally live in holes in the ground, are very swift, and able to climb trees. Their food is chiefly vegetable, which most of them seek in the night, keeping in their retreats during the day. They feed in a somewhat upright position, carrying the food to their mouth with their paws. They are very prolific, the females breeding many times a year and bringing numerous litters. The females have usually eight teats. The ears of these animals are usually short and rounded; their fore feet are commonly four-toed, with a warty excretion in place of a fifth. Many of them are almost amphibious, living much in the water and swimming very well. A few of them are furnished with cheek pouches for carrying food to their holes. They are found in almost all parts of the world, and many of them are natives of Britain.

The species are very numerous, and are therefore by Dr Shaw distributed into the following sections.

A. With flattened tails.

1. M. Zibethicus, Musk Rat. Rusty brown, with long compressed lanceolate tail, and unwebbed feet.

B. With round naked tails.

2. M. Pilarides, Pileris. Whitish, with length, scaly, obtuse truncated tail.—3. M. Caraco, American rat. Gray, with long, scaly, somewhat obtuse tail, and slightly semi-palmed hind feet.—4. *M. Decumanus, Norway R. Gray, stiff-haired, with very long scaly tail, and body whitish below.—5. *M. Rattus, Black R. Blackish, ash-coloured beneath, with very long scaly tail.—6. M. Malabaricus, Bandicoot R. Gray, with naked round ears, and the two exterior toes of the hind feet shorter than the rest.—7. M. Perchal, Perchal R. Rusty brown, with the hind legs larger than the fore.—8. *M. Mulculus, Common M. Brown, ash-coloured beneath, with four toed fore feet, five-toed hind feet, and long nearly naked tail.—9. *M. Sylvaticus, Wood M. Yellowish brown, with long naked tail, and body white beneath, the colours being abruptly separated on the sides.—10. M. Agrarius, Rustic M. Yellowish brown, with long scaly tail and black dorsal streak.—11. M. Mefforius, Harveft M. Rusty, white beneath, with long slightly hairy tail, and ears longer than the fur of the head.—12. M. Minutus, Minute M. Rusty, whitish beneath, with long scaly tail.—13. M. Soricinus, Soricine M. Yellowish gray, with long snout, round furred ears, and hairy tail of moderate length.—14. M. Vagus, Wandering M. Ash-coloured, with black dorsal band, very long naked tail, and plaited ears.—15. M. Be- C. With hairy tails, in general either of a middling length or short.

18. M. Cyanus, Blue R. Blue, whitish beneath, with four-toed fore feet, five-toed hind feet, and slightly hairy tail of middling length.—19. M. Saxatilis, Rock R. Grayish brown, with longish tail; ears longer than the fur, and feet about four-toed.—20. M. Amphibius, Water R. Blackish brown, ash-colored below, with ears scarcely projecting from the fur; fore feet about four-toed, and tail about half as long as the body.—21. M. Scherman, Scherman R. Deep brown, ash-colored below, with slightly hairy tail of moderate length, small feet, and ears shorter than the fur.—22. M. Lemnus, Lemming R. Short-tailed, with ears shorter than the fur, five-toed fore feet, and body white below, variegated above with black, white and fulvous.—23. M. Arvicolis, Meadow M. Dusky rusty, short-tailed, deep ash-colored beneath, with ears longer than the fur, and about four-toed fore feet.—24. M. Torquatus, Collared M. Short-tailed, rusty, with dusky variegations; ears shorter than the fur; five-toed fore feet, interrupted white collar, and black spinal stripe.—25. M. Lagurus, Hare-tailed M. Short-tailed, ash-colored, white below; ears shorter than the fur; about four-toed fore feet, and black dorsal line.—26. M. Economus, Economic R. Short-tailed, tawny whitish below, with naked ears concealed by the fur, and about four-toed fore feet.—27. M. Allarius, Garlick M. Ash-colored, whitish below, with rather large ears slightly hairy, and tail about an inch long.—28. M. Rusticus, Red M. Fulvous ash-colored beneath, with tail about an inch long; ears longer than the fur, and about four-toed feet.—29. M. Laniger, Woolly M. Ash-colored, with four-toed fore feet, five-toed hind feet, and tail of middling length.—30. M. Gregalis, Baikal M. Gray, with ears shorter than the fur, about four-toed fore feet, and tail about one inch and a half long.—31. M. Socialis, Social M. Pale gray, white beneath, with very short rounded ears, about four-toed fore feet, and tail of half an inch long.—32. M. Hudsoni, Hudson's Bay M. Short-tailed, earless, ash-colored, white beneath, with yellowish brown dorsal stripe, and five-toed hind feet.

D. With cheek pouches for the temporary reception of their food.

33. M. Cricetus, Hamster R. Reddish brown, pouched, with three white spots on each side, and deep black belly.—34. M. Burfarinus, Canada R. Ash-colored, with short nearly naked tail, pouched cheeks, and the claws of the fore feet very large, and formed for burrowing in the ground.—35. M. Accedula, Yaik R. Yellowish gray, whitish beneath, with pouched cheeks and furred ears.—36. M. Arenarius, Sand R. Ash-colored, pouched; with the feet, sides of the body, belly and tail white.—37. M. Pheus, Astracan M. Ash brown, pouched, white beneath.—38. M. Songaricus, Ash-colored, pouched, white beneath, with black spinal line, and the sides spotted with white.—39. M. Furunculus, Baraba R. Yellowish gray, pouched, whitish beneath, with black dorsal streak.

E. Subterranean or Ground Rats, resembling Moles in habit and manner of life:

40. M. Maritimus, Coast R. Pale yellowish brown, whitish beneath, with very large and long naked teeth, five-toed feet, no external ears, and short tail.—41. M. Typhlus, Blind R. Short-tailed, rufous brown, dusky beneath, with five-toed fore feet, broad front teeth and without eyes or external ears.—42. M. Alpax, Daurian R. Short-tailed, earless, yellowish ash-colored, with large wedged fore teeth, and long claws on the fore feet.—43. M. Capensis, Cape R. Short-tailed, reddish ash, paler below, with very large naked fore teeth, five-toed feet and white muzzle.—44. M. Talpinus, Mole R. Short-tailed, brown, with large wedged front teeth, no external ears, and five-toed fore feet formed for burrowing.

4. * M. Decumanus, Common brown or Norway rat. Decumanus.

—This is one of the most common species of rat, by which our houses and granaries are infested, and is too well known to require any description. It was originally brought to this country from Norway, and has multiplied so prodigiously, and is so strong and voracious, as to form one of our most unpleasant inmates.

St Pierre informs us that in the Isle of France these rats are found in such prodigious swarms, that 30,000 of them have been killed in some of the housetops in a single year. It is even said that the Dutch entirely abandoned that port from the number of rats by which it was infested. They will in a single night entirely destroy a whole crop of corn. They frequently infest ships in such numbers as to destroy large quantities of provisions, and even endanger the vessel by gnawing its timbers. When the Valiant came from the Havannah, in the year 1766, the rats had increased on board her so much as to destroy nearly one hundred weight of biscuit in a day; and on the ship being smoked between decks, to suffocate the rats, six hampers were for some time filled every day with those that had been thus killed.

In summer it frequents the banks of rivers, ponds, and ditches; where it lives on frogs, fishes, and small animals. But its rapacity is not confined entirely to these; it destroys rabbits, poultry, young pigeons, &c. It infests the granary, the barn, and the store-house; does infinite mischief among corn and fruit of all kinds; and, not content with satisfying its hunger, frequently carries off large quantities to its hiding place. It is a bold and fierce little animal; and when closely pursued, will turn and fasten on its assailant. Its bite is keen, and the wound it inflicts is painful, and difficult to heal, owing to the form of its teeth, which are long, sharp, and irregular.

Their produce is enormous, as the female brings forth from 12 to 18 at a litter, and usually breeds thrice a year, so that from a single pair, provided food were sufficiently plentiful, and they had no enemies to diminish their numbers, there might be propagated above 1,000,000 in the space of two years! Their enemies are, however, numerous. They are destroyed by dogs, cats, and especially weasels; and it is said that...

History of a strong rat is as much dreaded by its own species, as the whole race is by those animals that are their prey. They are commonly taken by traps, or destroyed by poison, which latter is the surest method. Mr Bewick recommends for the purpose a composition of nux vomica mixed with oat meal, and a small proportion of malm and oil of rhodium.

33. MT. Cricetus, Hamster, or Hamster Rat.—This is one of the fiercest of the rat tribe, being rather larger and much stronger than the Norway rat. It is of a pale reddish brown colour above, and blackish below, with a whitish muzzle, reddish cheeks, pretty large rounded ears, and a short tail almost bare. The male is always larger than the female.

The hamster is the only European species of rat that is furnished with pouches. It is found in Austria, Silesia, and many parts of Germany. It lives underground, burrowing down obliquely. At the end of its passage, the male finds one perpendicular hole, and the female several, sometimes seven or eight. At the end of these are formed various vaults, either as lodges for themselves and young, or as store-houses for food. Each young has its different apartment, and each sort of grain its different vault; the former is lined with straw or grass. The vaults are of different depths, according to the age of the animals: a young hamster makes them scarcely a foot deep; an old one sinks them to the depth of four or five. The whole diameter of the habitation, with all its communications, is sometimes eight or ten feet. The female breeds twice or three times a year, and produces from six to ten at a litter. The young grow very rapidly, and are soon able to shift for themselves. The male and female have always separate burrows; for, except in their short season of courtship, they have no intercourse. The whole race is so malevolent, as constantly to reject all society with one another. They will fight, kill, and devour each other. The female shows little affection even for her young; for if any person digs into the hole, she attempts to save herself by burrowing deeper into the earth, leaving them a prey to the intruder. They would willingly follow her, but she is deaf to their cries, and even turns up against them the hole which she has made. They feed on grain and fruits, which they collect in large quantities in their granaries; and in some countries they do so much damage among the corn, that a considerable reward is offered for destroying them. According to Mr Sultzzer, they abound to such a degree in Gotha, that in one year 11,564, in another 54,429, and in a third 80,136 of their skins were delivered in at the hotel de ville of that capital.

The life of a hamster (says Buffon) is divided between eating and fighting. He seems to have no other passion than that of rage, which induces him to attack every animal that comes in his way, without in the least attending to the superior strength of the enemy. Ignorant of the art of saving himself by flight, rather than yield, he will allow himself to be beaten to pieces with a stick. If he seizes a man's hand, he must be killed before he quits his hold. The magnitude of the horse terrifies him as little as the address of the dog, which is fond of hunting him. When the hamster perceives a dog at a distance, he begins by emptying his cheek pouches, if they happen to be filled with grain. He then blows them up to prodigiously, that the size of the head and neck greatly exceeds that of the rest of the body. He raises himself on his hind legs, and thus darts upon the enemy. If he catches hold, he never quits it, but with the loss of life. But the dog generally seizes him behind, and strangles him. This ferocious disposition prevents the hamster from being at peace with any animal whatever. He even makes war against his own species, not excepting the females. When two hamsters meet, they never fail to attack each other, and the stronger always devours the weaker. A combat between a male and a female commonly lasts longer than between two males. They begin by purring and biting each other; then each of them retires to a side, as if to take breath; a little after they renew the combat, and continue to fly and to fight, till one of them falls. The vanquished uniformly serves for a repast to the conqueror.

Genus 30. HYDROMYS (F).

Cutting teeth two in each jaw; canine; grinders two in each row, furrowed on the tide, and having a double excavation on the crown. Feet five-toed; toes on the fore feet three; those on the hind webbed. Tail round, and covered with short hair.

This is a new genus, constituted by Geoffroy to comprehend the coypou, which is commonly ranked as a species of mus, and two other species that had not been described.

His account of the genus is contained in the fifth volume of the Annales de Muséum National, and a translation of his memoir is given in the 22d volume of the Philosophical Magazine.

The three species are thus distinguished by Geoffroy:

1. H. Coypus, Coypou H. Hair chestnut brown on the back, red on the flanks, and bright brown below the belly.—2. H. Chrysoaster, Yellow-bellied H. Hair chestnut brown above, orange below.—3. H. Leucogaster, White-bellied H. Hair brown above, white below.

1. H. Coypus, Coypou, or Coypou Rat.—This curious animal was first described by Molina, who speaks of it as a species of water rat, of the size and colour of Rat, an otter. According to Geoffroy, it is a large animal, being about 14 inches from nose to tail, with a tail about two inches long. The general tint of the hair and on the back is a chestnut brown. This colour becomes brighter on the flanks, and paler to bright red; under the belly it is only a dirty and almost dark rufset. Yet this colour is sufficiently changeable according to the manner in which the coypou raises or lowers its hair. This mobility in the tone of its fur arises from each hair being of an ash-coloured brown at the root, and bright red at the point. The felt concealed under

(f) Geoffroy chooses to spell this word hydromys; but we have thought the orthography that we adopt more conformable to the Greek origin of the name, viz. ὕδρος, or water-rat. Chap. IV.

Glires. the long hair is an ash brown, of a brighter tint under the belly. The long hair on the back has the points only reddish, and that on the flanks is of the latter colour throughout the half of its length.

As in all animals which go frequently into the water, the hair of the tail is thin, short, stiff, and of a dirty red colour: in its naked parts it is fealy. The contour of the mouth and extremity of the muzzle are white. The whiskers, which are long and stiff, are also white, some black hairs excepted. Among the great number of skins which form part of the collection of M. Bechem, M. Geoffroy saw some belonging to animals which had no doubt been afflicted with the albine disease; in one of these the silky hairs were entirely ruf-fet, so that the back appeared of the same tint as the sides and the belly; in another, the dorsal stripe, instead of being chestnut, had passed entirely to a red colour, the flanks being of a very pale red. He could not believe that these varieties, on the one hand, were the character of youth or of the female, because these accidents were rare, considering the great number of skins which he examined; and, on the other, because M. d'Azara had expressly told us that the female is entirely similar to the male.

Molina and d'Azara agree in regard to the mild qualities by which the cayou is distinguished. It eats everything given to it. It may be easily tamed, and soon becomes accustomed to the state of domesticity. It is never heard to cry but when harshly used; it then emits a piercing cry. The female produces five young, which she always carries with her.

The cayou is very common in the provinces of Chili, Buenos Ayres, and Tucuman. On the other hand, it is rarely found in Paraguay.

Genus 31. ARCTOMYS. MARMOTS.

Front teeth two in each jaw, strong, sharp, and wedged. Grinders in the upper jaw five on each side; in the lower jaw four. Clavicles or collar bones in the skeleton.

This genus differs in very few particulars from that of mus. The marmots are of a thick form, with large, roundish, and somewhat flattened heads, small mouths, the fissure having somewhat of a perpendicular appearance; ears very short, and sometimes none; a short villous tail, and five-toed hind feet: the skeleton is furnished with clavicles or collar-bones, and the occiput or appendicular intestine is very large. They are diurnal animals; feed on roots and grain, reside in subterraneous holes or burrows, and sleep during the winter.

There are eight species, viz:

1. A. Marmota, Alpine M. Brown, reddish beneath.—2. A. Monax, Maryland M. Rusty brown, with bluish gray snout, and longish villous tail.—3. A. Empetra, Quebec M. Gray, waved with darker and lighter shades, reddish below, with dusky tail.—4. A. Bobac, Bobac. Gray, reddish below, with a thumb claw on the fore feet.—5. A. Prunola, Hoary M. Hoary, with black legs and tail.—6. A. Maulina, Mau-line M. Tail of middling length; ears sharp-pointed, and feet five-toed.—7. A. Gundl, Gundl M. Reddish, with abruptly terminated ears.—8. A. Citillus, Variegated M. Earless, with villous tail.

1. A. Marmota, Alpine M.—This animal is rather larger than a rabbit, being about 16 inches long, exclusive of the tail, which measures about 6 inches. Its head is rather large and flattened; the ears short and hidden in the fur, and the tail thick and bushy.

It is a native of the Alps and Pyrenees, being most Alpine frequently found in Savoy and Switzerland, where it inhabits the higher regions, and feeds on various roots, plants, insects, &c. It climbs readily, and ascends with ease the rocky eminences and fissures.

It is an animal which delights in the regions of high mountains. In such situations several individuals unite in forming a place of retreat, which is contrived with great art, and consists of an oval cavity or general receptacle, large enough to contain several of the animals, and having a large canal or passage, which divaricates in such a manner as to present two outlets to the surface of the ground. These recesses are prepared on the declivity of elevated spots; and the cavern or receptacle is well lined with moss and hay, which they prepare during summer, as if conscious of the necessity of providing for their long hibernal sleep. In fine weather they are seen sporting about the neighbourhood of their burrows, and delight in basking in the sunshine, frequently assuming an upright posture, sitting on their hind feet. When assembled in this manner, it is observed, that one of the exterior number seems to act as a sentinel; and, on the approach of any danger, alarms the fraternity by a loud and shrill whistle, on which they instantly retire to their cavern. These animals make no provision for winter; but as soon as the autumnal fruits commence, they carefully stop up the entrances to their mansions, and gradually fall into a state of torpidity, in which they continue till the arrival of spring, when they again awake, and recommence their excursions. Before they retire to their winter quarters they are observed to grow excessively fat; and, on the contrary, appear greatly emaciated on first emerging from them. If carefully dug up during the winter, from their holes, they may be conveyed away in their sleeping state; and when brought into a warm chamber, gradually awaken, nearly in the same manner as the hamster. If kept in a warm situation, they do not become torpid in winter. They breed early in summer, and the litter commonly consists of three or four, the growth of which is observed to be very rapid.

When taken young, the marmot may be easily tamed, and is often taught to perform various gesticulations. In a domestic state it will also eat almost any kind of animal or vegetable food, and is extremely fond of milk. In feeding it generally sits in an upright position, making use of its paws in the manner of a squirrel.

Genus 32. SCIURUS. SQUIRRELS.

Upper front teeth wedged; lower sharp. Upper grinders five on each side, lower four. Clavicles. Tail in most species spreading towards each side.

The beautiful animals which compose this genus are remarkable for the liveliness of their disposition, the rapidity of their movements, and the general neatness and elegance of their appearance. A few of the species are furnished with an expandible lateral skin, similar to that in the calugo, by means of which they are enabled to spring to a great distance, and to transport themselves occasionally from tree to tree. Like the calugo, they can... History of not, however, continue this motion, and are therefore improperly called flying squirrels. The squirrels inhabit woods, and prepare their nests in hollow trees. They live entirely on vegetable food.

There are 26 species, viz.

A. Not striped.

1. S. Maximus, Great S. Rusty, yellowish below, with the outsides of the limbs and tail black.—2. S. Madagascanus, Madagascar S. Black, with the nose, ears, and under parts yellowish white, and very long tapering tail.—3. S. Macrourus, Long-tailed S. Dark brown, yellowish white below, with the tail twice the length of the body.—4. S. Bicolor, Javan S. Blackish, fulvous below, with pointed beardless ears, and large rounded thumb claw.—5. S. Anomalus, Georgian S. Dusky rusty, with tail and lower parts fulvous, and rounded beardless ears.—6. S. Erythrus, Ruddy S. Yellowish brown, with the under parts and tail red rusty, and ciliated ears.—7. S. Indicus, Bombay S. Purple brown; yellow below; tip of the tail orange-coloured.—8. * S. Vulgaris, Common S. Reddish brown, white below, with pencilled ears.—9. S. Cinereus, Gray S. Ash-coloured, white below, with beardless ears.—10. S. Niger, Black S. Black, with beardless ears.—11. S. Hudsonius, Hudson's Bay S. Iron gray, dished with rusty, whitish below, with dusky side-stripe, and lance-shaped tail edged with black.—12. S. Pericus, Persian S. Dusky, yellow below, with white sides, beardless ears, and blackish gray tail, with a white band.—13. S. Flavus, Fair S. Yellow, with roundish ears and five-toed feet.—14. S. Atlantica, Brazilian S. Dusky; yellow below, with longitudinal white stripe in the middle.

B. Striped or variegated.

15. S. Variegatus, Coquillen S. Rustyish, orangish-tawny below, with the upper parts varied crosswise with black, brown, and whitish.—16. S. Mexicanus, Mexican S. Ash brown, with five or seven longitudinal white stripes.—17. S. Gestulus, Barbary S. Brown, with four longitudinal white stripes.—18. S. Palmarius, Palm S. Brown, pale below, marked above with three longitudinal yellowish stripes, and the tail with blackish ones.—19. S. Ginginianus, Gingi S. Gray brown, with a longitudinal white stripe on each side, and blackish tail.—20. S. Degus, Chilian S. Yellowish brown, with a black stripe on each shoulder.—21. S. Striatus, Striped S. Yellowish brown, with five longitudinal blackish stripes.

C. Flying Squirrels.

22. S. Volans, Common-flying S. Pale gray, white below, with the side skin dilated into a flying membrane.—23. S. Volucella, Virginian flying S. Brown, yellowish white below, with a flying membrane.—24. S. Sabrinus, Severn flying S. Rusty brown, yellowish white below, with flatish villous tail.—25. S. Sagitta? Hooded flying S. Rusty brown, pale rusty below, with the flying membrane commencing on each side of the head.—26. S. Petaurista, Taguan S. Chefnut-coloured; pale rusty beneath, with very long, round, tapering, villous tail.

8. S. Vulgaris, Common Squirrel.—The tail of this species is long enough to cover the whole body, and is covered with long hairs, disposed on each side horizontally, which gives it a great breadth. These serve a double purpose. When erected, they prove a secure protection from the injuries of heat or cold: When extended, they are very instrumental in promoting those vast leaps the squirrel takes from tree to tree. On the authority of Klein and Linnaeus, we may add a third application of the form of the tail. These naturalists tell us, that when the squirrel is disposed to cross a river, a piece of bark is the boat, the tail the sail.

This animal is remarkably neat, lively, active, and provident, never leaves its food to chance, but secures in some hollow tree a vast magazine of nuts for winter provision. In the summer it feeds on the buds and young shoots, and is particularly fond of those of the fir and pine, and also of the young cones. It makes its nest of moss or dry leaves, between the fork of two branches, and brings forth four or five young at a time. Squirrels are in heat early in the spring, when it is very diverting to see the female feigning an escape from the pursuit of two or three males, to observe the various proofs they give of their agility, which is then exerted in full force.

The colour of the whole head, body, tail, and legs of this animal, is a bright reddish brown: the belly and breast white. In some parts of Wales there is a variety of the squirrel kind, with a cream-coloured tail. The ears are very beautifully ornamented with long tufts of hair, of a deeper colour than those of the body. The eyes are large, black, and lively. The fore teeth strong, sharp, and well adapted to its food. The legs are short and muscular; the toes long and divided to their origin: the nails strong and sharp; in short, in all respects fitted for climbing, or clinging to the smallest boughs. On the fore feet it has only four toes, with a claw in the place of the thumb or interior toe: on the hind feet there are five toes. When it eats or dries itself, it sits erect, covering the body with its tail, and making use of the fore legs as hands. It is observed that the gullet of this animal is very narrow, to prevent it from disgorging its food, in descending of trees, or in down leaps.

In northern climates these animals change their colour to gray on the approach of winter; and it is singular that this change will take place, even though they are kept in the warmth of a stove.

Genus 33. MYOXUS. DORMICE.

Front teeth two; upper wedged, lower compressed. Grinders four in each jaw. Whiskers long. Tail cylindric, villous, thicker towards the end. Legs of equal length; fore feet four-toed.

There are seven species, viz.

1. M. Glis, Fat D. Gray, whitish below.—2. M. Nitela, Garden D. Rufous, grayish white below, with a black mark above the eyes and behind the ears.—3. M. Dryas, Wood D. Grayish rufous, whitish below, with a straight black stripe across the eyes to the ears.—4. * M. Muscardinus, Common D. Rufous, with whitish throat, and the thumbs of the hind feet without claws.—5. M. Chrysurus, Gilt-tailed D. Purplish brown, with the hind part of the tail and longitudinal stripe on the head gold yellow.—6. M. Guerlingui Guerlinguet D. Rusty, yellowish rufous beneath, with with long rather depressed tapering tail.—7. *M. Afri- canus*, African D. Ruffy gray, whitish below, with a white superciliary and lateral line; tail black in the middle, and claws on the fore feet very long.

4. *M. Mycardinus*, Common D.—The size of the dormouse is equal to that of a mouse, but has a plumper appearance, and the nose is blunter; the eyes are large, black, and prominent; the ears broad, rounded, thin, and semitransparent. The fore feet are furnished with four toes, the hind feet with five; but the interior toes of the hind feet are destitute of nails. The tail is about two inches and a half long, covered on every side with hair; the head, back, sides, belly, and tail, are of a tawny red colour; the throat white.

These animals seldom appear far from their retreats, or in any open place, for which reason they seem less common in England than they really are. They make their nests of grass, moss, and dead leaves, and usually bring forth three or four young at a time.

This animal agrees with the squirrel with respect to its food, residence, and in many of its actions; but it wants much of the sprightliness of this animal, never aspiring to the tops of trees, nor, like it, attempting to bound from spray to spray. Like the squirrel, it forms little magazines of nuts for winter provision, takes its food in the same manner, and same upright posture. The consumption during the rigour of the season is but small, for it sleeps most part of the time, retiring into its hole at the first approach of the winter, where it lies torpid for the greatest part of that gloomy season. In that space it sometimes experiences a short revival, in a warm sunny day, when it takes a little food, and then relapses into its former state.

**Genus 34. Dipus. Jerboa.**

Front teeth two both above and below. Fore legs very short; hind legs very long. Clavicles.

There are six species, viz.

1. *D. Sagitta*, Common Jerboa.—Pale brown, white beneath, with extremely long three-toed hind feet, and very long tail, with subpinnated black and white tip.—2. *D. Jaculus*, Alaglaga J. Pale brown; white below, with extremely long five-toed hind feet, and very long tail, with subpinnated black and white tip.—3. *D. Ca- fer*, Cape J. Ruffy, pale ash-coloured below, with five-toed fore feet, four-toed hind feet, and very vil- lous tail, tipped with black.—4. *D. Meridiana*, Tor- rid J. Yellowish brown, white below, with about four toes on the fore feet and five-toed hind feet, and taper- ing tail.—5. *D. Tamaricus*, Tamarisk J. Yellow- ish brown; white below, with about four toes on the fore feet, five-toed hind feet, and tapering tail obscurely ringed with brown.—6. *D. Canadensis*, Canadian J. Yellowish brown, whitish below, with four-toed fore feet; five-toed hind feet, the tail long and mouse- like.

1. *D. Sagitta*, Common J.—This animal appears to have been known to the ancients, under the name of μυσική δίποδος, or two-footed mouse, and is represented, though not very correctly on some coins of Cyrene, where it is found in great abundance. By some it is supposed to be the *aphan* of the sacred writings (in our translation rendered *oney*), though this is denied by Mr Bruce. It is found in Egypt, Barbary, Palestine, in the deserts between Bassora and Aleppo; the sandy history of tracts between the Don and Volga, and some other parts of Asia. M. Sonnini has given a long account of it, as he found it in Egypt, and from this we shall ex- tract the following description.

Its size is nearly equal to that of a large rat. Its head is broad, large in proportion to the body, the up- per part flat, and of a light-fawn colour, striped with black; the upper jaw projects beyond the lower: they are both provided with two cutting teeth; the upper ones broad, square, flat, and divided lengthwise by a groove in the middle; the lower ones longer, convex externally, pointed at their extremity, and bent in- wards. The muzzle is short, wide, and obtuse; a num- ber of stiff hairs grow out on each side, and form long whiskers. The nose is white, bare, and cartilaginous. The iris of its large and projecting eye is brown; the ears long, large, and covered with hair, so short that they appear naked except on very close inspection; ex- ternally they are white in the lower part, and gray up- wards; their middle, as well as the sides of the head, is of a very light-fawn colour, mixed with gray and black: they entirely surround the meatus auditorius for about one-third of their length, so that they exactly re- semble the larger end of a cone. This conformation must increase the animal's faculty of hearing, and is particularly well calculated to defend the inner part of the organ from the extraneous substances that might lodge there. The body is short, well provided with long, soft, silky hair; that which covers the back and sides is of an ash colour throughout almost the whole of its length, and of a light fawn colour where it ap- proaches the points, which are black; but as the all- coloured part is not visible, it may be said that the fur is fawn-coloured, with blackish zigzag stripes. These tints, which are somewhat dusty, form an agreeable contrast with the fine white of the belly. The fore legs are so short that they scarcely extend beyond the hair: they are white, and have five toes, the inner of which is short, rounded at the end, and has no nail. The four other toes, the second outer, one of which is the longest, are long, and armed with great hooked nails; the heel is very high, and the middle of the foot is ne- ked and of a flesh colour. These fore feet are of no use to the animal in walking, but serve him only to lay hold of his food, and to carry it to his mouth, as also to dig his subterranean abode. The hind legs are cov- ered with long hair, fawn-coloured and white; its long feet are almost entirely bare, especially on the out- side, which must necessarily be the case, since the ani- mal, whether in motion or at rest, constantly leans on that part. Those feet, so exceedingly long, have each three toes; the middle one something longer than the other two: they are all provided with nails, which are short, but broad and obtuse; they have also at the heel a kind of spur, or rather a very small rudiment of a fourth toe, which gives the jerboa of Egypt some resem- blance to the alagtaga of Tartary, described by Gmelin in the Peterburgh Transactions, and which part proba- bly escaped Hafelquitt, as well as many others. The toes and the heel are furnished below with long gray hairs tinged with yellow, except that at the origin of the toes, which is of a blackish cast; the nails, both of the fore and hind feet, are of a dirty white. Accord- ing to Hafelquitt the tail of the jerboa is three times History of the length of the body. I never, says Sonnini, found it much more than half that length. It scarcely exceeds the circumference of a goose quill, but is of a quadrangular and not a round shape. It is of a deeper gray above than below, and is furnished with short hairs as far as the extremity, which ends in a tuft of long silky hair, half black and half gray.*

This animal is as singular in its motions as in its form. It always stands erect on its hind feet, the fore feet performing the office of hands. It runs fast, and, when pursued, jumps five or six feet from the ground; burrows like rabbits; keeps close in the day; sleeps rolled up; is lively during night; when taken, emits a plaintive feeble note; feeds on vegetables, and has great strength in its fore feet. Two which Mr Pennant saw living in London, burrowed almost through the brick wall of the room they were in, came out of their hole at night for food, and, when caught, were much fatter and sleeker than when confined to their box.

The jerboa is easily tamed. M. Sonnini kept six of them for some time in a large iron cage, but found it was very difficult to preserve them, owing to their great tenderness.

Genus 35. Lepus. Hares and Rabbits.

Front teeth two in each jaw, the upper pair duplicate; two small inner teeth standing behind the outer.

This genus approaches very nearly to the order of Pecora, and it has even been supposed that the common hare actually ruminates; an opinion which is owing not merely to the peculiar motions of its mouth, similar to those in ruminating animals, but to the structure of the stomach, which appears to be divided into two regions by a particular fold. All the species are herbivorous.

There are 12 species, viz:

1. *L. Timidus*, Common H. Rustyish brown, short-tailed, with ears longer than the head and tipped with black.—2. *L. Variabilis*, Varying H. Tawny-gray, short-tailed, (white in winter) with ears shorter than the head, and tipped with black.—3. *L. Americanus*, American H. Tawny-gray, short-tailed, white below, with the hind legs longer than the body, and the ears and tail tipped with gray.—4. *L. Tolai*, Baikal H. Pale brown, short-tailed, with the upper edges of the ears black.—5. *L. Cuniculus*, Rabbit. Short-tailed, brown, with the tips of the ears black, and the hind legs shorter than the body.—6. *L. Braziliensis*, Brazilian H. Tailless, brown, white below, with a white collar round the neck.—7. *L. Capensis*, Cape H. Brown, with reddish legs, and tail the length of the head.—8. *L. Vifaccia*, Vifaccia. Brownish, with long brittle tail.—9. *L. Alpinus*, Alpine H. Tailless, rusty, with rounded ears, and brownish feet.—10. *L. Ogotana*, Ogotana H. Tailless, pale brown, with oval sharpish ears of the same colour.—11. *L. Pufillus*, Calling H. Tailless, gray-brown, with nearly triangular ears edged with white.—12. *L. Minimus*, Minute H. Short-tailed, brown, long-nosed, with small hairy pointed ears.

* L. Timidus*, Common H.—To describe an animal so well known would be superfluous; we may only remark, that nature, ever kind and provident, in pity to its defenceless state against its numerous enemies, has befellowned on it many faculties, by which it is frequently enabled to evade their pursuit. Fearful of every danger, and attentive to every alarm, the hare is continually upon the watch, and being provided with very long ears, moveable at pleasure, and easily directed to every quarter, is warned of the most distant approaches of danger. Its eyes are large and prominent, adapted to receive the rays of light on every side, and give notice of more immediate alarms. To these may be added its great swiftness, by which it soon leaves most of its pursuers far behind.—The hind are much longer than the fore legs, and are furnished with strong muscles, which give the hare a singular advantage in running up a hill; and, as if sensible of its powers in this respect, it is always observed to fly towards rising ground when first started.

Thus formed for escape, the hare might be supposed to enjoy a state of tolerable security; but as every rapacious creature is its enemy, it is seldom permitted to live out its natural term. Dogs and foxes pursue it by instinct; wild cats and weasels of all kinds, catch and devour it; birds of prey are still more dangerous enemies, whilst man, far more powerful than all, makes use of every artifice to obtain an animal which constitutes one of the numerous delicacies of his table. If we were to enumerate the various stratagems which ingenuity has suggested to circumvent this persecuted creature, we would willingly omit the notable achievements and gallant exploits of the chace, which, to a cool and dispassionate observer, seem to demand a nobler game. This animal has also another means of safety from her colour very much resembling that of the ground where she sits. In the colder regions she is said to become white during the winter, when the ground is covered with snow.

The hare is very prolific, breeds four or five times in the year, goes with young 30 days, and generally produces three or four at a litter. They are first in heat about February. Hares generally keep within their feats during the day, going out only at night in search of food, and they always return to their forms by the same paths by which they left them.

The following instances of the sagacity of the hare, in endeavouring to escape from its enemies, are quoted by Mr Bewick. Toulloux says, he has seen a hare start from its form at the sound of the hunter's horn, run towards a pool of water at a considerable distance, plunge itself in, and swim to some rushes in the middle, where it lay down, and concealed itself from the pursuit of the dogs. He mentions another, which, after running two hours before the dogs, pushed a hare from its seat, and took possession of it. Others he has seen run into a thicket, and lie down among the sheep; and some have effected their escape by mounting an old wall, and clapping themselves down in the midst of the ivy which covered it.

The hare has been sometimes tamed, and rendered very familiar. When Dr Townson was at Gottingen, he had a young hare that became so frolicsome in the evenings, as to run about upon the sofa and bed, sit upon its hind legs, and pat him with its fore feet; and, while he was reading, it would even knock the book out of his hand. Mr Borlase saw a hare that was so familiar as to feed from the hand, lay under a chair in a common sitting room, and appeared, in every other respect, Chap. IV.

Gliss. spect, as easy and comfortable in its situation as a lap-dog. It now and then went out into the garden; but after regaling itself, always returned to the house as its proper habitation. Its usual companions were a greyhound and a spaniel, both so fond of hare-hunting, that they often went out together without any person accompanying them. With these two dogs this tame hare spent its evenings; they always slept on the same hearth, and very frequently it would rest itself upon them.

The fur of the hare is used for hats; and for this purpose many thousands of their skins are imported into this country from Russia, besides what are collected here.

5. L. Cuniculus, the Rabbit.—Referring an animal so well known as the rabbit, we shall remark only, that its fecundity is truly astonishing. It breeds seven times in the year, and generally produces eight young at a time. Hence it is calculated, that the produce of a single pair may, in the course of four years, amount to the amazing number of 1,274,840, so that if frequent reductions were not made by various ways, there is reason to apprehend that they would soon exceed the means of their support, and overrun the face of the country. They are, however, exposed to numerous enemies. Besides the havoc made among them by man for their flesh and skins, which latter are also used in the manufacture of hats, they are the prey of foxes, weasels, polecats, and other beasts of prey.

The rabbit is often kept in a domestic state; but the flesh of the domestic rabbit is far inferior to that of the wild animal.

Genus 36. HYRAX. HYRAX, or DAMAN.

Front teeth in the upper jaw two, broad, and rather distant; in the lower four, broad, flat, twice notched. Grinders four on each side in both jaws, large. Fore feet four-toed; hind feet three-toed. No tail or clavicles.

There are three species, viz.

1. H. Capensis, Cape H. Gray brown, paler below, with flat nails on the fore feet, and a single sharp crooked claw on the hind feet.—2. H. Syriacus, Syrian H. Reddish gray, white below, with three-toed feet, and nearly equal claws.—3. H. Hudfonius, Hudson’s bay H. Ash brown, with the hair whitish at the tips, and all the feet four-toed.

A long account is given of the second species in Mr Bruce’s Travels to Abyssinia. Mr Bruce calls it a kolo, and supposes it to be the saphan or coney of the sacred writings. For his description we must refer to the work itself.

This order contains 11 genera and 124 species.

CHAP. V. PECORA.

Genus 37. Camelus. Camel.

Horns wanting. Front teeth in the lower jaw six; rather thin and broad. Canine teeth distant, three in the upper jaw, two in the lower. Upper lip divided.

There are usually enumerated seven species, viz.

1. C. Dromedarius, Arabian C. With a single bunch on the back.—2. C. Bactrianus, Bactrian C. With two bunches on the back.—3. C. Glama, Glama. Pale ruddy, whitish below, with level back and pectoral bunch.—4. C. Vicugna, Vicuna. Purplish brown, whitish below, with level woolly back, blunt snout, and upright tail.—5. C. Paco, Paco. Purplish brown, woolly, white below, with oblong snout.—6. C. Huanaeae, Guanaco. Tawny, white below, with gibbous back, and upright tail.—7. C. Arcuatus, Chililuque. With smooth woolly body, curved snout, and pendulous ears and tail.

1. C. Dromedarius, Arabian Camel. Dromedary. A Dromedary, or Arabian Camel. Fig. 62.

The general height of the Arabian camel, measured from the top of the dorsal bunch to the ground, is about five feet and a half; but from the top of the head, when the animal elevates it, not less than nine feet. The head, however, is generally so carried as to be nearly on a level with the bunch, or rather below it, the animal bending the neck extremely in its general posture. The head is small; the neck very long; the body of a long and meagre shape; the legs rather slender, and the tail, which is slightly tufted at the end, reaches to the joints of the hind legs. The feet are very large, and are hooped in a peculiar style, being divided into two lobes not reaching through the whole length of the foot; and the extremity of each lobe is guarded by a small hoof. The under part of the foot is covered with an extremely strong, tough, and pliable skin, which, by yielding in all directions, enables the animal to travel with peculiar ease and security, over dry, stony, and sandy regions. On each leg are five callosities, viz. one on each knee, one on the inside of each fore leg on the upper joint, and one on the inside of each hind leg at the bottom of the thigh. On the lower part of the breast is also a large callus or tough tubercle (G).

The camel is generally of a dusky-brown colour, with a ruddy tinge.

Its hair is very fine and soft, and is employed in making pencils for painters, and in the manufacture of various stuffs.

(g) It was formerly supposed that, besides the four stomachs common to all ruminating animals, the camel had a sort of fifth stomach or appendage to the second stomach, calculated for receiving a large quantity of water to supply the animal in his long journeys over the deserts. There is no such receptacle; but in the first, and more especially the second stomach, there are several rows of cells, furnished round their edges with strong muscular fibres, by which they can be closed at pleasure. Into these cells part of the water which the camel drinks is, by a peculiar mechanism, received, and retained, in a pure state, till the animal has occasion for it. In an interesting paper on this subject in the Philosophical Transactions for 1806, Mr Home has given a comparative view of the structure of the stomachs in the ox and the camel, illustrated by plates. This animal attains its full strength at about the age of six years, and lives about 40 years, or sometimes 50. Only the males are usually employed for labour; the females being kept for breeding, and suffered to range at liberty. They go with young about 12 months, and usually bring forth one at a time.

The camel is found wild in the deserts of Arabia, in Africa, and in most of the temperate parts of Asia. It is domesticated chiefly among the Arabs, of whom it forms the principal riches.

We are chiefly acquainted with this animal in a state of domestication; and to this state only the accounts that have been given of him are applicable. A few days after birth the legs of the young camels are folded up below their belly, and they are constrained to remain in this position on the ground, and are loaded with a pretty heavy weight, which is never taken off but to replace it by a greater. Instead of allowing them to feed and drink at pleasure, they begin by regulating their repasts, and increasing the intervals between them, and diminishing the quantity of their nourishment. When they have acquired a little more strength, they are exercised in running, in which they are excited to emulation by the example of horses; and thus in time they become both robust and active.

Thus instructed, the camels traverse with great rapidity the immense deserts of Arabia, marching night and day almost without stopping, and almost without taking food or drink. They are often made with apparent ease to travel 300 leagues in eight days; and during the whole of this time they are allowed but one hour of the day for repose, and for nourishment: often they will run for even nine or ten days without finding water; but when they happen to find water at some distance in their route, if permitted, they eagerly make towards it, and are said to scent it at more than half a league's distance.

The march of camels across the sandy plains of Arabia has been elegantly described by Buffon. "Figure to yourself (says this animated writer) a country without verdure and without water, a burning sun, an air always parched, sandy plains, mountains still more arid, which the eye runs over without perceiving an animated being; a dead earth perpetually tossed with the wind, and presenting nothing but bones, scattered flints, rocks perpendicular or overturned; a desert totally void, where the traveller never breathes under a shade, where nothing accompanies him, nothing recalls the idea of animated nature; absolute solitude, more dreadful than that of the deepest forests; more solitary and naked, more lost in an unlimited wild, he everywhere beholds space surrounding him like a tomb; the light of day, more dismal than the darkness of night, serves only to give him a clear idea of his own wretchedness and impotence, and to conceal from his view the boundaries of the void, by extending around him that immense abyss, which separates him from the habitable parts of the earth.

"The Arab, however, by the assistance of his camel, has learned to surmount, and even to appropriate these frightful intervals of nature. They serve him for an asylum, they secure his repose, and maintain his independence; but man never uses anything without abuse. This same free, independent, tranquil, and even rich Arab, instead of regarding his deserts as the ramparts of his liberty, pollutes them with his crimes; he traverses them to carry off goods and slaves from the adjacent nations; he employs them for perpetrating his robberies, which unluckily he enjoys more than his liberty, for his enterprises are almost always successful; notwithstanding the vigilance of his neighbours and the superiority of their strength, he carries off with impunity all that he ravishes from them. An Arab who gives himself up to this kind of land piracy, is early accustomed to the fatigues of travelling, to want of sleep, and to hunger, thirst, and heat, and with the same view he uses and instructs his camels. After he is certain of the strength, fleetness, and sobriety of his camels, he loads them both with his own and their food, sets off with them, arrives unperceived at the confines of the desert, robs the first passenger he meets, pillages the solitary houses, loads his camels with the booty; and, if pursued, he is obliged to accelerate his retreat. It is on these occasions, that he unfolds his own talents and those of the camels; he mounts one of the fleetest, and conducts the troop, and makes them travel night and day, without almost either stopping, eating, or drinking; and in this manner he easily performs a journey of 300 leagues in eight days. During this period of motion and fatigue his camels are perpetually loaded."

In Turkey, Persia, Arabia, Egypt, and Barbary, the only means of transporting merchandise is by camels, as this is of all others the cheapest and most expeditious method. The merchants and other travellers unite in a caravan, in order to avoid the insults, piracies, and robberies of the Arabs. These caravans always consist of a greater number of camels than of men; each of these animals is loaded according to his strength, and he so well knows the proper extent of his load, that when he is overloaded, he utters the most lamentable cries, and continues lying down till his burden is lightened. The large camels usually carry 10 or even 12 hundred weight, and the smaller 6 or 7 hundred weight.

In these commercial journeys they never hurry the camels in their march, but regulate their days work; they generally go a certain space, and travel about 10 or 12 leagues every day; every evening their load is taken off, and they are suffered to feed at liberty. If they are in a country abounding with herbage, they usually eat as much in an hour as is sufficient to serve them for the next twenty-four hours; and, during the remainder of the night, they continue to ruminate; but they seldom find such good pasturage; and indeed this delicate nourishment does not appear to be necessary for them; they even seem to prefer wormwood, thistles, nettles, broom, cattail, and other prickly plants, to more pleasant herbage. So long as they find plants to browse, they easily go without drink.

Nothing is more admirable than their docility. At the first sign they bow their knees, and crouch to the earth to suffer themselves to be loaded in this situation, and, when loaded, they rise of their own accord without affiance. They follow exactly the motions of their conductors, and require neither whip nor spur to urge them forward; but, when they begin to be fatigued, their masters support their spirit, or rather beguile their fatigue, by singing or by the sound of musical instruments. When they wish to prolong their journey, they give them only an hour for repose; and then resuming their song, they continue the march for several hours longer, and give over singing only when they intend to stop; then the camels crouch again with their burdens, from which they are freed by loosing the cords and fastenings on each side, while the poor animals remain kneeling on the earth, and sleep in this posture in the midst of their baggage. Mr Pennant and some other writers tell us, that camels are made to go more expeditiously by being whistled to by the drivers; but this is at least not an universal practice, as we are told by Sonnini, that the Bedouin Arabs, who possess great numbers of camels, not only never use whistling themselves, but express much uneasiness when they hear others whistle.

When the caravan on these long journeys across the deserts find themselves in want of water, and have no other means of procuring it, it is not uncommon for them to kill a camel for the sake of the water contained in his stomach, which is said to be always sweet and pleasant.

This animal, so patient, so obedient to the voice of man, has, however, his periodical fits of rage, at which he becomes wholly unmanageable. These fits take place at the rutting season, which happens every year about spring, and continues about 40 days. At these times they are quite outrageous, eat little, foam at the mouth, and bite at other animals, and even their masters; and they have been known to take up a man in their teeth, throw him on the ground, and trample him under their feet. Though so remarkably docile, except during the rutting season, they are, however, abundantly sensible of injustice and ill treatment; and, when they experience these, they seldom fail to show their resentment, and endeavour to wreak their vengeance on their unfailing driver, who will not find it easy to escape their vengeance, as they are said to retain for a long time the remembrance of an injury. Though eager to express their resentment, they seem incapable of harbouring any rancour, when they are once satisfied; and it is sufficient to make them believe that they have taken their desired vengeance on their persecutor. Whenever the Arab finds that he has excited the rage of his camel, as he well knows that the animal will take the first opportunity of seeking revenge, he lays down his clothes in a situation which the animal is to pass, and arranges them in such a manner as to seem as if he himself were lying there. The camel recognises the clothes, seizes them in his teeth, shakes them violently, and tramples them under his feet; but when his rage has been thus satisfied, he leaves them, and after this his owner may approach, lead, and guide him as usual. M. Sonnini says, that he has sometimes seen them, when weary with the impatience of their riders, stop short, turn round their long necks to bite them, and utter cries of rage. Under these circumstances the rider must be careful not to dismount, or he would infallibly be torn to pieces; and he must also beware striking the beast, as that would only increase his fury. Nothing can be done but to wait with patience, and endeavour to appease the animal by patting him with the hand. When once appeased, which sometimes is not speedily effected, he can proceed on his journey at his usual pace.

Genus 3. Moschus, Musk.

Horns wanting; front teeth eight in the lower jaw; tusks solitary in the upper jaw, exerted.

There are 7 species, viz. 1. Moschus Moschiferus, Tibetan Musk. Gray-brown, with umbilical follicle. —2. M. Indicus, Indian M. Rufous, whitish below, with spurious hoofs, and somewhat lengthened tail. —3. M. Pygmeus, Pygmy M. Reddish-brown, white below, without false hoofs.—4. M. Meminna, Meminna. Olive all, white below, with the sides spotted with white, and no false hoofs.—5. M. Javaicus, Java M. Rusty, longitudinally white beneath, with villous tail, white below and at the tip, and small appendicular hoofs. —6. M. Americanus, American M. Rufous brown, with black muzzle and white throat.—7. M. Delicatus, Leverian M. Rusty brown, spotted above with white.

Species 1. Moschus Moschiferus, Tibetan Musk. This is an animal of considerable importance, as it is from it that the article musk, so useful as a medicine and perfume, is derived.

The size and general appearance of this animal not ill resemble those of a small roebuck. It measures about three feet three inches in length, about two feet three inches in height from the tip of the shoulders to the bottom of the fore feet, and two feet nine inches from the top of the haunches to the bottom of the hind feet. The upper jaw is considerably longer than the lower, and is furnished on each side with a curved tusk about two inches long, and consequently exposed to view when the mouth is closed. These tusks are of a different form from those of any other quadruped, being sharp-edged on their inner or lower side, so as to resemble in some degree, a pair of small crooked knives; their substance is a kind of ivory, as in the tusks of the babiroula and some other animals. The ears are long and narrow, of a pale yellow on the inside, and deep brown on the outside; the chin is of a yellowish cast; the general colour of the whole body a kind of deep iron-gray, the tips of the hairs being of a rusty cast, the remainder blackish, growing much paler or whitish towards the roots. Each hair is somewhat waved throughout its whole length; and is of a strong elastic nature, growing somewhat upright on the animal, and very thick. In some specimens the cheeks are whitish, and the sides of the neck marked by a longitudinal whitish band, descending to the breast, while the flank and sides are obscurely striped by a few waved whitish streaks; in others the colour is uniform, or as at first described; the hoofs are long and black, the tail extremely short, and so concealed by the fur as to be scarcely, if at all, visible on a general view.

The female is smaller than the male, and wants the tusks; it has also two small teats.

The musk animal is principally found in the kingdom of Tibet, in the province of Mohang Meng, Tonquin, and Doutan; and it is also found about the lake Baikal, and near the rivers Jenisea and Argun. Its favourite haunts are the tops of mountains covered with pines, where it delights to wander in places of the most difficult access, bounding with great celerity, and, when pursued, taking refuge among the most inaccessible summits. It is hunted for the sake of the musk contained in its umbilical follicle, which is an oval receptacle, peculiar to the male, about the size of a small egg, hanging from the middle of the belly. As soon as the animal is killed, the hunters cut off the bag and tie it up for sale. Tavernier informs us, that in one of his eastern journeys, he purchased no fewer than 7673 of these bags; a proof how numerous these animals must be in the east.

For the appearance and uses of musk, see MUSK, MATERIA MEDICA Index. Besides the musk that they produce, the skins of these animals are useful as clothing. The Russians scrape off the hair, and prepare the leather, so as to render it as soft and bright as silk.

Genus 39. CERVUS. DEER.

Horns solid, covered while young with a hairy skin, growing from the top, naked, annual, branched. Front teeth in the lower jaw eight. Canine teeth none (sometimes single in the upper jaw).

There are 12 species, viz.—1. C. Alces, Elk. With flemsels palinated horns, and guttural caruncle.—2. C. Tarandus, Rein D. Branched, recurvate, round horns, with palinated extremities.—3. * C. Elaphus, Stag. Reddish brown, with cylindric, recurvate, branching horns.—4. * C. Dana, Fallow D. Yellowish brown, with slightly recurvate, compressed, branching horns, palimated at the top.—5. C. Virginianus, Virginian D. Pale brown, with slender round branched horns, bending forward, and slightly palimated at the tip.—6. C. Axis, Spotted Axis. Pale reddish brown, spotted with white, with slender three-forked horns.—7. C. Piggyar, Tailles Roe. Tailles, brown, yellowish below, white behind, with three-forked horns and nose surrounded with black.—8. C. Mexicanus, Mexican Roe. Red, with rough three-forked horns, bending forward.—9. C. Porcinus, Porcine D. Brown, ash-coloured below, with slender three-forked horns.—10. * C. Capreolus, Common Roe. Reddish brown, with branching, upright cylindric horns, bifid at the top.—11. C. Munjac, Rib-faced D. With three-forked horns rising from a cylindric hairy base, with the upper fork hooked.—12. C. Guineensis, Gray D. Gray, blackish below.

1. C. Alces, Elk, or Moose Deer.—In conformity with the opinion of most naturalists, we have given the two English names of Elk and Moose Deer as synonymous, though it is not yet clearly ascertained whether they are not really distinct species. The elk is by far the largest of the deer tribe, and if we may believe the accounts of some travellers, a full grown moose is many times bigger than an ox, the tips of its horns being sometimes nearly 12 feet aunder. Its shape is represented as very elegant, having a short thick neck, large head, horns spreading out immediately from the base into a broad palimated form; a thick, broad, heavy upper lip, hanging considerably over the lower; high shoulders and long legs. Its colour is a dark grayish brown, much paler, or inclining to whitish, on the legs, and beneath the tail. The hair, which is of a strong, coarse, and elastic nature, is much longer on the top of the shoulders and on the ridge of the neck than on the other parts, forming a kind of stiff mane; beneath the neck the hair is also of considerable length, and in some specimens of the animal, a sort of caruncle or pendant excrescence, covered with long hair, is seen hanging from beneath the throat; the eyes and ears are large, the hoofs broad, and the tail extremely short. It is usually bigger than a horse, and Mr Pennant estimates its greatest height at 17 hands, and its greatest weight at 1230 pounds. Its horns sometimes weigh 50 pounds; and on a moderate calculation, measure each about 32 inches in length. The female is smaller than the male, and is destitute of horns.

This animal inhabits both the Old and New Continent, but it is commonly called elk on the former, and moose deer on the latter. In Europe it is found chiefly in Sweden, Norway, and in some parts of Russia; in Asia it is met with most frequently in Siberia, where it is of a prodigious size; and in America it is most common in Canada, especially about the great lakes. It usually resides in the midst of forests, where it lives by browsing on the branches of the trees, as from its long legs and short neck it cannot easily graze from the ground. It feeds chiefly by night. Its usual pace is a high, flambelling, but very swift trot, the feet being lifted very high; and, according to most writers, the hoofs during its running separate as they approach the ground in order to give the animal a better purchase, and come together again when they rise, producing a clattering noise that is heard at a considerable distance.

Its faculty of hearing is supposed to be more acute than either its sight or scent, which renders it very difficult to kill it in the summer time, as the Indians have then no other method of doing it but by creeping after it among the trees and bushes, till they get within gunshot. In winter, when the snow is so hard frozen that the natives can go upon it in their snow shoes, they are able frequently to run it down; for its slender legs break through the snow at every step, and plunge them up to the belly. It is so tender-footed, and so short-winded, that a good runner will generally tire it in less than a day; there have been some, however, that have kept the hunters in chase for two days. On these occasions the Indians, in general, take with them nothing more than a knife or bayonet, and a little bag containing implements for lighting a fire. When the poor animal is incapable of further speed, it stands, and keeps its pursuers at bay with its head and fore feet, in the use of the latter of which it is so dexterous, that the Indians are generally obliged to lash their knives or bayonets to the end of a long stick, and stab the elk at a distance. Some who have neglected this necessary precaution, and rashly attempted to rush in upon it, have received very serious blows from its fore feet. When wounded, it sometimes becomes furious, rushes boldly on the hunters, and endeavours to tread them down: in this case the men are frequently compelled to leave their outer garments, and escape into the trees.

When suddenly roused, and endeavouring to make its escape, the elk is observed at times to fall down, as if deprived for some moments of motion. Whether this be owing, as has been frequently imagined, to an epileptic fit, or whether it merely arises from fear, is not perhaps easy to determine. The fact, however, is too well authenticated to admit our doubting it. This has given rise to the popular superstition of attributing to the hoofs the virtue of an antiepileptic medicine; and the Indians even still imagine that the elk has the power of curing itself of its own disorder, or of preventing an approaching approaching fit, by scratching its ear with the hoof till it draws blood.

The female produces from one to three young at a time, generally about the end of April or beginning of May.

The elk is an animal of great utility. Its flesh is eaten, and is reckoned very good, but coarser and tougher than any other kind of venison; its tongue is excellent, and the fat of its nose is so much like marrow, as to be esteemed a great delicacy; its skin makes excellent tent covers and shoe leather, and the hair of its hams, which is of great length, is employed in stuffing saddles.

2. C. Tarandus, Rein Deer.—This, in a domestic point of view, is the most useful animal to the natives of the countries where it resides, serving them most of the purposes of our horses. The height of this species, when full grown, is about four feet and a half. The body is rather of a thick and square form, and the legs shorter in proportion to those of the stag. Its general colour is brown above, and white below; but as it advances in age, it often becomes of a grayish white, and sometimes almost entirely white; the space about the eyes is always black. The hair on the under part of the neck is of much greater length than the rest, and forms a kind of hanging beard in that part. Both sexes are furnished with horns, but those of the male are much larger and longer than those of the female. The hoofs are long, large and black, as are also the false or secondary hoofs behind; and these latter, while the animal is running, as was remarked of the elk, make a remarkable clattering sound, which may be heard at a considerable distance.

The female begins to breed at the age of two years, is in season the latter end of September, goes with young eight months, and generally brings forth two at a time. The fondness of the dam for her young is very remarkable. They follow her for two or three years, but do not acquire their full strength until four. It is at this age that they are trained to labour, and they continue serviceable four or five years. They seldom live above 15 or 16 years.

The rein deer is found in all the northern regions of Europe, Asia, and America, particularly in Lapland, Siberia, and Greenland, where it is employed to draw the sledges of the inhabitants over the frozen snow. To this exercise the animals are accustomed from an early age. They are yoked to the sledge by a collar, from which a trace is brought under the belly between the legs, and fastened to the fore part of the sledge. These carriages are extremely light, and covered at the bottom with the skin of the rein deer. The person who sits in it guides the animal with a cord fastened to its horns; he drives it with a goad, and encourages it with his voice. Those of the wild breed, though by far the strongest, often prove refractory, and not only refuse to obey their master, but turn against him, and strike so furiously with their feet, that his only resource is to cover himself with his sledge, upon which the enraged creature vents his fury. The tame deer, on the contrary, is pliant, active and willing. When hard pushed, the rein deer will trot the distance of 60 miles without stopping; but in such exertions, the poor obedient creature fatigues itself to exceedingly, that its master is obliged to kill it immediately, to prevent a lingering death that would ensue. In general, they go about 30 miles without stopping, and that without any dangerous effort. This mode of travelling can be performed only in the winter season, when the face of the country is covered with snow; and although the conveyance is speedy, it is inconvenient, dangerous, and troublesome.

As the rein-deer constitutes the sole riches of the Laplander, it may well be supposed that a constant attention to preserve and secure it, forms the chief employment of his life. It is no uncommon thing for one person to possess above 500 in a single herd.

These animals are much tormented by gnats, and a species of gadfly, called by Linnaeus *cirsus tarandi*. The havoc made among them by the latter is so great, that their skins are often found pierced almost full of holes.

The rein-deer has sometimes been brought into Europe, and Sir H. G. Liddle, Bart., had several of them in his possession, which he brought over from Lapland. They do not, however, seem to agree with the more temperate climates.

Gen. 40. Camelopardalis, Giraffe.

Horns permanent, bony, covered with a bristly skin. Giraffe. Front teeth in the lower jaw eight; the exterior one Fig. 65, on each side deeply bilobate.

This genus was formed to include a single species that Linnaeus and other naturalists had classified under cervus; but as the form and connection of its horns differ very materially from those of the deers and antelopes, it was judged better to constitute it a new genus. This animal, with respect to its height, exceeds all other known quadrupeds, as it measures, when full grown, nearly 17 feet from the top of the head to the fore feet. The female is lower than the male. Notwithstanding the unusual proportions of this animal, its general form is in the highest degree elegant and picturesque; the head being small, the aspect mild, the neck extremely long and tapering, the fore parts much higher than the hinder, and the disposition of the colours singular and pleasing. At first view, the fore legs seem nearly twice the length of the hind; but this difference, on accurate examination, appears to result chiefly from the extraordinary height of the shoulders, compared with that of the thighs; accordingly, among the old writers who have described this animal, Petrus Gylius perhaps approaches nearest to the truth, when he affirms, that all the legs or tibiae of the camelopardi are of nearly equal length, but that the fore thighs are so long in comparison with the hind, that the back appears inclined like the roof of a house.

The horns of the camelopardalis differ in texture from those of all other horned quadrupeds, forming, as it were, a part of the skull, and consisting of a porous bony substance covered externally with short, coarse, bristly hair; they terminate abruptly, on a flatish or slightly convex head, but little wider than the other part of the horn, and edged with brittles all round the outline. On the middle of the forehead is a considerable protuberance, owing to an elevation or bony rising on that part of the skull. From the head to the middle of the back runs a short flaxen mane. The tail is of moderate length, of a cylindrical form, gradually tapering towards the end, and terminating in a tuft of long hair. The hoofs are moderately large and black. The fore part of the body is very thick and muscular, the Species and the hind part thin and meagre. The ground colour of the animal is whitish, variegated on all parts with numerous, moderately large, and somewhat squarish spots, which in the male are brown, and in the female rusty. In the younger animals they are sometimes of a bright reddish-yellow. These marks or spots are of a somewhat less regular shape on the sides, than on the neck and shoulders.

This animal is an inhabitant of Africa, where it is found chiefly in Ethiopia, and other internal parts of the country, being rarely met with near the coasts. It resides in the forests, where it lives by browsing on the branches of trees. It is of a mild and timid disposition. When pursued, it trots so fast, that even a good horse is scarcely able to keep pace with it, and it continues its course for a long time without requiring rest. When it leaps, it lifts first the fore legs, and then the hinder ones, in the manner of a horse whose fore legs are tied together. Its general position, except when grazing, is with the head and neck erect. It feeds principally on the leaves of trees, and particularly on those of a peculiar species of mimosa, common in the country where it is found, to which the extreme length of its legs and neck admirably adapt it. When it feeds from the ground, it is under the necessity of dividing its fore legs to a considerable distance. In preparing to lie down, it kneels like the camel.

It has been generally supposed that the giraffe possessed neither the power nor the strength to defend itself against the attacks of other animals; this, however, seems to be unfounded, for M. le Vaillant has asserted, that by its kicks it frequently wearies, discourages, and distances even the lion. The utility of the horns appears to be hitherto unknown; this writer says that they are not used as weapons of defence.

The giraffe is hunted by the Hottentots for the sake of its flesh, and its marrow, which latter they esteem as a great delicacy.

Gen. 41. Antilope. Antelopes.

Horns hollow, seated on a bony core, growing upwards, ringed or wreathed, permanent. Front teeth in the lower jaw eight. Canine teeth none.

The individuals of this genus, with the exception of two or three species, inhabit the hottest parts of the globe, or at least those parts of the temperate zones that lie far from the tropics as to form a doubtful climate. None, therefore, except the saiga and the chamois, are to be met with in Europe; and notwithstanding the warmth of South America is suited to their nature, not a single species has yet been discovered in any part of the new world. Their proper climates seem, therefore, to be those of Asia and Africa, where the species are very numerous.

As there appears a general agreement in the nature of the species that form this great genus, it will prevent needless repetition to observe, that the antelopes are animals generally of a most elegant and active make; of a restless and timid disposition; extremely watchful; of great vivacity; remarkably swift and agile, and most of their boundings so light, so elastic, as to strike the spectator with astonishment. What is very singular is, that they will stop in the midst of their course, gaze for a moment at their pursuers, and then resume their flight.

As the chase of these animals is a favourite amusement with the eastern nations, from that may be collected proofs of the rapid speed of the antelope tribe. The greyhound, the fleetest of dogs, is usually unequal in the course, and the sportsman is obliged to call in the aid of the falcon, trained for the purpose, to seize on the animal, and impede its motions, in order to give the dogs an opportunity of overtaking it. In India and Persia a species of leopard is made use of in the chase. This is an animal that takes its prey not by swiftness of foot, but by the greatness of its springs, by motions familiar to those of the antelope; but should the leopard fail in its first essay, the game escapes.

The fleetness of the antelope was proverbial in the country it inhabited, even in the earliest times: the speed of Ahab is beautifully compared to that of the tzebi, and the Gadites were said to be as swift as the antelopes upon the mountains. To this day the greatest compliment that can be paid to female beauty in the eastern regions is Aine el cazool, You have the eyes of an antelope.

Some species of antelopes form herds of 2000 or 3000, while others keep in troops of only five or six. They generally reside in hilly countries, though some inhabit plains. They often browse like the goat, and feed on the tender shoots of trees, from which their flesh acquires an excellent flavour. The flesh of most of the species is eaten, but that of some of them is said to taste of musk.

This is a very numerous genus, and most of the species are comparatively new, only six having been known to Linnaeus, who ranked them under the genus Capra. The following are enumerated by Dr Shaw, though he confesses himself not certain that they are all distinct species.

A. With straight or nearly straight horns.

1. Antilope Oryx, Egyptian A. Gray, with black and white face, dusky dorsal stripe, and very long, tapering, sharply-ringed horns.—2. A. Leucoryx, White A. Milk white, with very long, tapering, slightly-ringed horns.—3. A. Gazella, Gazel. Bay, with slightly-bowed, tapering, wrinkled horns.—4. A. Orcas, Indian A. Slate-coloured, with reddish head, black mane on the neck and breast, and tapering wreathed horns.—5. A. Ourebi, Ourebi. Rusty brown, with the breast, belly, hind part of the thighs, and insides of the limbs, white; and small horns.—6. A. Oreotragus, Klipspringer. Yellowish tawny; whitish below, with very straight upright tapering horns, slightly wrinkled at their base.—7. A. Scriptus, Harnefeld A. Chestnut-coloured, with white crofted stripes on the sides; and tapering wreathed horns.—8. A. Grinnia, Guinea A. Yellowish bay, with short horns, and black bristly tuft on the forehead.—9. A. Pygmaea, Pigmy A. With short convex horns, wrinkled at the base.

B. With curved, bent, or twisted horns.

10. A. Piéta, Nyl-gau. Slate-coloured, with the back of the neck and breast maned, the feet barred with black and white, and somewhat triangular horns bending forwards.—11. A. Trajocamelus, Indolian A. Gray, with maned neck and breast, dorsal protuberance, long Pecora. long floccy tail, and tapering horns bending forwards.

12. A Bubalis, Cervine A. Reddish brown, with large elongated head, thick, strongly wrinkled, lyrated horns, and longish tail.

13. A Strepsiceros, Striped A. Reddish gray, with compressed spirally ridged horns, white longitudinal dorsal, and transverse lateral stripes.

14. A Cervicapra, Common A. Tawny brown, white below, with round, lyrated, ringed horns.

15. A Lorisia, Gambian A. Reddish, with the nape of the neck bearded, and recurved wrinkled horns.

16. A Saiga, Saiga. Yellowish gray, with dilant, semitransparent, lyrated, and ringed horns.

17. A Gutturosa, Chinefe A. Tawny, whitish below, with lyrated yellowish ringed horns, and prominent throat.

18. A Subgutturosa, Guldenst's A. Gray-brown, white below, with lyrated horns, and tumid throat.

19. A Euchore, Springer. Yellowish brown, white below, with dark lateral stripe, lyrated horns, and expanse white patch above the tail.

20. A Arundinacea, Ritbock. Ash-colored, white below, with ringed horns, bending forwards.

21. A Sylvatica, Bolbock. Brown-white below, the hind part of the body spotted with white, the horns spirally, and ringed.

22. A Eleocharis, Cinereous A. Gray, snow-white below, with spirally ringed horns.

23. A Dorcas, Barbary A. Fulvous brown, white below, with lateral brown band, and lyrated horns.

24. A Kevella, Flat-horned A. Tawny-brown, white below, with brown lateral band, and compressed lyrated horns.

25. A Pygarga, White-faced A. Rusty brown, white below, with brown lateral band, white rump, and lyrated horns.

26. A Corinna, Corine. Fulvous brown, white below, with dark lateral band, and subfurlated, rather erect, smoothish horns.

27. A Sumatraensis, Sumatran A. Black, with recurved horns, and whitish bristly mane between the shoulders.

28. A Leucophera, Blue A. Blue gray, with roundish, arcuated, recurved, ringed horns.

C. With hooked horns.

29. A Gnu, Gnu. Rusty brown, with maned neck, whitish tail, and horns directed forwards, and then suddenly backwards.

30. A Dama, Nanguer. White, with fulvous back, and round horns, incurvated forwards.

31. A Riduca, Red A. Red brown, with round slightly ringed horns, recurved forwards at the tips.

32. A Rupicapra, Chamois. Brown, with smooth upright horns, with the tips hooked forwards.

10. A Picta, the Nyl-gbau. This curious animal was first described by Dr W. Hunter, in the Philosophical Transactions, vol. lxi. Its height is about four feet to the top of the shoulders, and it measures nearly about the same in length from the bottom of the neck to the base of the tail. It is of a fine flate colour, with a large white spot below the throat, and two white bands above each foot. Its ears are large, edged with white, white within, where they are marked with two black stripes. Along the top of the neck there is a slight black mane, continued to some distance down the back, and on the breast there is a much thicker mane, or tuft of the same colour. The tail is moderately long, and tufted at the end; the horns are short, pointed, smooth, and three-cornered at the base. The female resembles the male in general appearance, but is considerably smaller. This animal is a native of the interior parts of India, and was a favourite object of the chace with the emperor Aurengzebe. Some years ago two of them were brought into England, and were kept some time by Dr Hunter, who has given the following account of its manners.

Although the nyl-gbau is usually reported to be exceedingly vicious, yet the one he had the care of was very gentle. It seemed pleased with every kind of familiarity, always licked the hand which either stroked it or gave it bread, and never once attempted to use its horns offensively. It seemed to have much dependence on the organs of smell, and sniffed keenly, and with considerable noise, whenever any person came within sight. It did the same when any food or drink was brought to it, and was so offended with an uncommon smell, or was so cautious, that it would not taste bread that was offered with a hand that had touched oil of turpentine or spirits.

Its manner of fighting was very particular; this was observed at Lord Clive's, where two males were put into a little inclosure, and it was thus related by his lordship. While they were at a considerable distance from each other, they prepared for the attack by falling down upon their fore knees, and when they were come within some yards, they made a spring, and darted against each other.

At the time that two of them were in his stable, Dr Hunter observed this particularity, that whenever any attempt was made on them, they immediately fell down upon their fore knees; and sometimes they would do so when he came before them; but as they never darted, he so little supposed this to be a hostile posture, that he rather supposed it to be expressive of a timid humility.

The intrepidity and force with which they dart against any object may be conceived from an anecdote that has been related of the finest and largest of these animals that has ever been seen in England. A poor labouring man, without knowing that the animal was near him, and therefore neither meaning to offend, nor suspecting the danger, came up to the outside of the poles of the inclosure where it was kept; the nyl-gbau, with the swiftness of lightning, darted against the wood-work with such violence that he shattered it to pieces, and broke off one of his horns close to the root. This violence was supposed to occasion his death, which happened not long after. From this it appears, that at certain seasons the animal is vicious and fierce, however gentle it may be at other times.

Gen. 42. Capra, Goats.

Horns hollow, turning upwards and backwards, rough, almost close at their base. Front teeth in the lower jaw eight. No tufts. Chin bearded in the male.

There are eight species; viz.

1. C. Ibex, Ibex. Gray brown, whitish below, with large horns, bending over the back; and bearded throat.

2. C. Aegagrus, Caucalan I. Gray brown, white below, with large, keeled, slightly-wrinkled, bowed horns, and bearded throat.

3. *C. Hircus, Common G. With bowed keeled horns, commonly turning outwards towards the end.

4. C. Mambrica, Syrian G. With

History of With pendulous ears and horns reclined backwards.—The Species. 5. C. Angrensis, Angora G. With very long, pendulous, spirally-curved hair.—6. C. Deprefa, African G. With very small depressed horns, closely incumbent on the head.—7. C. Reversa, Whidaw G. With upright horns, recurved at the tips.—8. C. Capricornus, Capricorn G. With short horns, turning forwards at the tips, and ringed on the sides.

1. Iber, Ibex.—As this is supposed to have been the original stock from which the common goat has been derived, we shall here give a short account of it.

This is an animal of great strength and activity, and is considerably larger than the common goat. It is of a deep hoary, or grayish brown colour, with a whiter flanks below, and on the inside of the limbs. The body is thick and strong, the head rather small; eyes large, and the horns very large and long, so as sometimes to extend the whole length of the body. These are of a deep brown colour, and are marked above with transverse semicircular protuberances or knots. The legs are strong, with short hoofs; the tail is short, and the chin is furnished with a brown or dusky beard. The female is less than the male, and has smaller horns.

The ibex is found in several parts of Europe and Asia, chiefly in the mountainous parts of the country, especially the Carpathian and Pyrenean mountains, the Rhaetian Alps, Mount Taurus, the high lands between Eastern Tartary and Siberia, and on the mountainous parts of the island of Candia.

The flesh of the young ibex is said to be in good esteem as an article of food. Its period of gestation is said to be the same as in the common goat; viz. five months.

In its general habits or manners the ibex resembles the common goat, but possesses every attribute of strength and activity in a degree proportioned to its natural state of wildness. It delights to climb mountains, and hang upon the brink of precipices; and its chace is in consequence considered, like that of the chamois, as in the highest degree difficult and laborious. It is even said, that when hard pressed, this animal will fling itself down a steep precipice, and falling on its horns escape unhurt from its pursuers; nor will this appear in the least incredible, if we may rely on the faith of Monardes, who affirms us that he saw a Caucasian ibex leap from the top of a high tower, and, falling on its horns, immediately spring up on its limbs, and leap about without having received the least apparent injury.

Two or three hunters usually associate in this perilous occupation; they are armed with rifle-barreled guns, and furnished with small bags of provisions; they erect a miserable hut of turf among the heights, where, without fire or covering, they pass the night; and on awaking in the morning, they not unfrequently find the entrance blocked up with snow three or four feet deep. Sometimes, in pursuit of this animal, being overtaken by darkness, amid crags and precipices, they are obliged to pass the whole night standing, and embraced together, in order to support each other, and to prevent themselves from sleeping.

For an account of the common goat, we refer our readers to Buffon and Mr Pennant's British Zoology, where they will meet with every thing of consequence respecting that useful animal.

Gen. 43. Ovis, Sheep.

Horns hollowed, wrinkled, turning backwards, and spirally twisted inwards. Front teeth eight in the lower jaw. Canine teeth none.

There are usually enumerated about eight species,

1. Ovis Ammon, Argali. With arched semicircular horns, flat below, and loose hairy dewlaps.—2. O. Aries, Common S. With compressed lunate horns.—3. O. Strepsiceros, Cretan S. With upright, keeled, spirally-twisted horns.—4. O. Polycerata. Many-horned S.—5. O. Guineensis, African S. With pendulous ears, loose hairy dewlaps, and head prominent at the back.—6. O. Laticaudata, Broad-tailed S.—7. O. Steatophyga, Fat-rumped S.—8. O. Pudu, Pudu. With smooth round diverging horns, and beardless throat.

2. Ovis Aries, Common Sheep.—In its present state of domestication, the sheep seems to far removed from a state of nature as to make it a difficult matter to point out its origin. But naturalists are now generally of opinion, that it has proceeded from the argali or wild sheep, (the mouflon of Buffon).

Climate, food, and above all, the unwearied arts of cultivation, contribute to render this animal in a peculiar manner, the creature of man, to whom it is obliged to trust entirely for its protection, and to whose necessities it largely contributes. Though singularly inoffensive, and harmless even to a proverb, it does not appear to be that stupid, inanimate creature described by Buffon: "devoid of every necessary art of self-preservation, without courage, and even deprived of every instinctive faculty, we are led to conclude that the sheep, of all other animals, is the most contemptible and stupid." But amidst those numerous flocks which range without control on extensive mountains, where they seldom depend upon the aid of the shepherd, it will be found to assume a very different character. In those situations, a ram or ewe will boldly attack a single dog, and often comes off victorious; but when the danger is more alarming, they have recourse to the collected strength of the whole flock. On such occasions they draw up into a compact body, placing the young and the females in the centre, while the males take the foremost ranks, keeping close by each other. Thus an armed front is presented to all quarters, and cannot be easily attacked without danger of destruction to the assailant. In this manner they wait with firmness the approach of the enemy; nor does their courage fail them in the moment of attack; for when the aggressor advances within a few yards of the line, the rams dart upon him with such impetuosity, as lays him dead at their feet, unless he save himself by flight. Against the attacks of single dogs or foxes, when in this situation, they are perfectly secure. A ram, regardless of danger, will sometimes engage a bull, and his forehead being much harder than that of any other animal, he seldom fails to conquer. The bull, by lowering his head, receives the stroke of the ram between his eyes, which usually brings him to the ground.

In the selection of their food, few animals discover greater sagacity than the sheep, nor does any domestic animal show more dexterity and cunning in its attempts to elude the vigilance of the shepherd, in order to steal such delicacies as are agreeable to its palate. Besides Besides its hardness in enduring great severities of weather, the natural instinct of the sheep, in foreseeing the approach of a storm, is no less remarkable. In their endeavours to secure themselves under the shelter of some hill, whole flocks have frequently been buried for many days under a covering of snow, and have afterwards been taken out without any material injury.

There have been instances, where sheep, at the approach of a storm, have fled for shelter to a neighbouring cottage, and taken refuge under the same roof with their shepherd.

The variety in this creature is so great, that scarcely any two countries produce sheep of the same kind. There is found a manifest difference in all, either in the size, the covering, the shape or the horns. The woolly sheep is found only in Europe, and the temperate provinces of Asia. When transported into warmer climates, it loses its wool, and becomes rough and hairy, is less fertile, and its flesh no longer retains the same flavour.

No country produces finer sheep than Great Britain; their fleeces are large, and well adapted to the purposes of clothing. The Spanish fleeces are indeed finer, but for utility cannot be compared with those of Lincolnshire or Warwickshire. In Edward II's time, when wool was allowed to be exported, it brought into the kingdom £50,000 per annum, at the rate of £1.10s. a pack. At this time, when our woollen manufactory stands unrivalled by any nation of the world, and when every method is taken to prevent this valuable commodity from being sent out of the kingdom, the annual value of wool thrown in England is supposed to be about £5,000,000 sterling, and when manufactured together with the Spanish wool imported, amounting to about £60,000,000, the total value must be above £20,000,000.

Two of the front teeth in the sheep drop out before they are two years old, at which time they are replaced by others; at three years old, four of them are renewed, and the remainder at the age of four.

The ewe produces one or two lambs at a time, and sometimes, though rarely, three or four. She bears her young five months, and brings forth in the spring. The ram lives to the age of about 15 years, and begins to procreate at one. When castrated, they are called wethers. They then grow sooner fat, and the flesh becomes finer and better flavoured.

There is hardly any part of this animal that is not serviceable to man: of the fleece we make our clothes; the skin produces leather, of which are made gloves, parchment, and covers for books; the entrails are formed into frings for fiddles, and other musical instruments, likewise coverings for whips; its milk affords both butter and cheese, and its flesh is a delicate and wholesome food.

To the foregoing account of the sheep, for which we are indebted to Mr Bewick, we shall add a few remarks from Mr Cully's observations on live stock, on the most remarkable breeds of sheep at present cultivated in this country.

Mr Cully begins with those of Lincolnshire, which are of a large size, big-boned, and afford a greater quantity of wool than any other kind, owing to the rich fat marshes on which they feed; but their flesh is coarse, leaner, and not so finely flavoured as that of smaller sheep. The same breed extends, with some variations, through most of the midland counties of England. But the largest breed of sheep in this island, is the Species to be met with on the banks of the Tees, which runs through a rich and fertile country, dividing the two counties of Yorkshire and Durham. This kind differs from the preceding, in their wool not being so long and heavy; their legs are longer, but finer boned, and support a thicker, firmer carcass. Their flesh is likewise much fatter, and finer grained. These sheep weigh from 25 or 45 lbs. per quarter; some have been fed to 50 lbs. and one in particular was killed which weighed 62 lbs. 10 oz. per quarter, avoirdupois; a circumstance never before heard of in this island. The ewes of this breed generally bring forth two lambs each season; sometimes 3, 4, and even 5. As an instance of extraordinary fecundity, it deserves to be mentioned, that one of these ewes at the age of two years, brought forth six lambs at one time, the next season five, both within 11 months.

The Dorsetshire breed is likewise remarkably prolific, the ewes being capable of bringing forth twice a year. It is from these, that the tables of our nobility and gentry are supplied with early lamb at Christmas, or sooner if required. Great numbers of these early victims to luxury are yearly sent to the London markets, where they are sold at the enormous price of 10s. 6d. or perhaps 15s. per quarter. The manner of rearing the lambs is curious. They are imprisoned in little dark cabins; the ewes are fed with oil-cakes, hay, corn, turnips, cabbages, or any other food which the season of the year affords; these are given them in a field contiguous to the apartments where the lambs are kept; and at proper intervals, the nurses are brought in to give suck to their young ones, while the attendants, at the same time, make their lodgings perfectly clean, and litter them with fresh straw. Great attention is paid to this as much of the success of rearing these unseasonable productions depends upon warmth and cleanliness.

The Dorsetshire sheep are mostly white-faced, their legs are long and small, and great numbers of them have no wool upon their bellies, which gives them an uncouth appearance. They produce a small quantity of wool, but of a good quality, from which our fine Wiltshire cloths are made. The mutton of these sheep is very sweet and well flavoured. The variations of this breed are spread through most of the southern counties, but the true kind is only to be found in Dorsetshire and Wiltshire. There is a breed, not unlike this, in Norfolk and Suffolk, but they are all gray or black-faced.

For some observations on feeding sheep, see Agriculture, No. 600; for the best method of providing them with shelter against the weather, see Farriery, No. 109; and for some account of their diseases, with the most approved methods of treatment, see the same article, Part vi. passim.

Gen. 44. Bos, Ox.

Horns concave, turned outwards, lunated, smooth. Front teeth eight in the lower jaw. Canine teeth none.

There are numerous varieties, but naturalists have not distinguished more than about six species; viz:

1. *Bos Taurus*, Common O. With round horns curving outwards, and loose dewlap.—2. B. Arnee, Arnee. With upright lunate horns, flat and wrinkled in their upper surface.—3. B. Bubalus, Buffalo. With horns lying backwards, turning inwards, and flat on the fore part.—4. B. Moschatus, Musk O. With very long pendent hair, and horns approximated at the base, bending inwards and downwards, and outwards at the tips.—5. B. Grunniens, Yak. With cylindric horns curving outwards, very long pendent hair, and extremely villous, horse-like tail.—6. B. Caffer, Cape O. With the horns very broad at the base, then spreading downwards, next upwards, and at the tips curving inwards.

1. Bos Taurus, Common Ox.—Few animals are more widely diffused over the globe than the common ox. Under different names, distinguishing several varieties, it is found in a wild or domestic state throughout almost the whole of the old continent, in most of the European and Asiatic islands, and is very abundant in several parts of America. It seems capable of enduring equally the rigours of heat and cold, and inhabits the frozen as well as the most scorching climates. Most animals prefer nature in their form with inflexible perseverance, but the ox appears to suit himself in every respect to the wants and conveniences of mankind. In no animal is there to be found a greater variety of kinds, and in none a more humble and tractable disposition. Though in many countries these animals are larger than those of Britain, yet on the whole our cattle are to be preferred, both for beauty of form, excellence of flesh, and general utility, to those of most other countries.

The climate of the British isles is, above most others, productive of the greatest variety and abundance of wholesome vegetables, which are almost equally diffused throughout every part of them. Hence the number, variety, and excellence of our cattle, the richness of our dairies, and innumerable other advantages. Caesar speaks of the numbers of our cattle, and adds that we neglected tillage, but lived on milk and flesh. Strabo takes notice of our plenty of milk, but says we were ignorant of the art of making cheese. Mela informs us, that the wealth of the Britons consisted in cattle; and in his account of Ireland reports, that such was the richness of the pastures in that kingdom, that the cattle would even burst if they were suffered to feed in them long at a time.

This preference of pasturage to tillage was delivered down from our British ancestors to much later times; and continued equally prevalent during the whole period of our feudal government: the chieftain whose power and safety depended on the promptness of his vassals to execute his commands, found it his interest to encourage those employments that favoured that disposition; the vassal, who made it his glory to fly at the first call to the standard of his chieftain, was sure to prefer that employment which might be tranquillized by his family with equal success during his absence. Tillage would require an attendance incompatible with the services he owed the baron; while the former occupation not only gave leisure for those duties, but furnished the hospitable board of his lord with ample provision, of which the vassal was equally partaker. The relics of the larder of the elder Spencer are evident proofs of the plenty of cattle in his days; for after his winter provisions may have been supposed to be mostly consumed, there were found, so late as the month of May, in salt, the carcases of no fewer than 800 beefes, 600 bacon, and 600 muttons. The accounts of the several great feasts in after times, afford amazing instances of the quantity of cattle that were consumed in them. This was owing partly to the continued attachment of the people to grazing; partly to the preference that the English at all times gave to animal food. The quantity of cattle that appear from the latest calculation to have been consumed in London, is a sufficient argument of the vast plenty of these times; particularly when we consider the great advancement of tillage, and the numberless variety of provisions, unknown to past ages, that are now introduced into these kingdoms from all parts of the world.

This animal seems to have originated from a large wild variety called the bison, distinguished by its general largeness, particular strength of its fore parts, and a thick shaggy mane and beard about its neck and chin. This variety is found both in Europe and America, and from this all the varieties at present met with are descended. Besides the bison, and what may firstly be called the common ox, writers enumerate under this species the varieties called zebu, distinguished by a small flingle bunch over the shoulders; the Indian ox, having a very large double or treble protuberance over the shoulders; the loofa-horned ox, whose horns seem attached only by the skin; the boarly, having a protuberance on the back; the Timian ox, of a white colour with black ears; and several other less important varieties. In Britain we distinguish chiefly the Holstein breed, the Lancashire, and Lincolnshire breeds, the Kyloe or Highland cattle; the Alderney cow, and a particular species of wild cattle.

In most points of view, the female of this species is of more importance than the male. The cow goes with young nine months, and seldom produces more than one at a time. She has, as is well known, four teats, which, in proportion to her young, is a peculiarity scarcely to be found in any other animal, the females of which seldom have more teats than are sufficient to fuckle the number of young which they produce.

The age of a cow is known by its horns. At the age of four years, a ring is formed at their roots, and every succeeding year another ring is added. Thus, by allowing three years before their appearance, and then reckoning the number of rings, the creature's age may be exactly known (H).

The quantity of milk given by cows is very various; some will yield only about six quarts in one day, while others give from 10 to 15, and sometimes even 20.

(H) In the earlier editions of his natural history, Buffon asserted that the bull and cow shed their horns at the age of three years, and at this time had them replaced by others that were permanent. As this mistake was corrected in one of his supplemental volumes, we should not now have thought it necessary to notice it, had we not seen it copied into a late work of considerable merit, and seemingly the result of much experience, Mr John Lawrence's Treatise on Cattle, p. 17. The richness of the pasture contributes not a little to its increase. There have been instances of cows giving upwards of 30 quarts of milk in one day. In such cases there is a necessity for milking them thrice. From the milk of some cows, 12lbs. or 14lbs. of butter are made in a week.

It is a curious fact, that, in some instances, cows are naturally barren; and this is said to happen when a cow brings forth two calves, one of them a male, the other a female: the former is a perfect animal, but the latter is incapable of propagation, and is well known to farmers under the denomination of a free-martins. It resembles the ox, or spayed heifer, in figure, and is considerably larger than the cow. It is sometimes preferred by the farmer, for the purpose of yoking with the oxen, or fattening for the table. Mr Hunter observes, that the flesh of the free-martins, like that of the ox, is in common much finer in the fibre than either the bull or cow. It is supposed to exceed that of the heifer in delicacy of flavour, and bears a higher price at market.*

It is unnecessary to enlarge further on the ox in a domestic state. We shall therefore only give a short account of a very singular species of wild cattle that were formerly found in this country, but which are now nearly extinct.

Numerous herds of them were kept in several parts of England and Scotland, but they have been destroyed by various means. The only breeds now remaining in the kingdom are in the park at Chillingham-castle in Northumberland; at Wollaton in Nottinghamshire, the seat of Lord Middleton; at Giffurne, in Craven, Yorkshire; at Limehall in Cheshire, and at Chartley in Staffordshire.

The principal external appearances which distinguish this breed of cattle from all others are the following: Their colour is invariably white, muzzles black; the whole of the inside of the ear, and about one-third of the outside, from the tip downwards, red; horns white, with black tips, very fine, and bent upwards. Some of the bulls have a thin upright mane, about one inch and a half or two inches long.

At the first appearance of any person, they set off in full gallop, and at the distance of 200 or 300 yards, make a wheel round, and come boldly up again, tossing their heads in a menacing manner. On a sudden they make a full stop, at the distance of 40 or 50 yards, looking wildly at the object of their surprize; but upon the least motion being made, they all again turn round, and fly off with equal speed, but not to the same distance. Forming a short circle, and again returning with a bolder and more threatening aspect than before, they approach much nearer, probably within 30 yards, when they make another stand, and again fly off. This they do several times, shortening their distance, and advancing nearer, till they come within ten yards, when most people think it prudent to leave them, not choosing to provoke them further, for there is little doubt but in two or three turns more they would make an attack.

The mode of killing them was, perhaps, the only modern remains of the grandeur of ancient hunting. On notice being given, that a wild bull would be killed on a certain day, the inhabitants of the neighbourhood came mounted, and armed with guns, &c. sometimes to the amount of 100 horse and 500 foot, who flooded upon walls, or got into trees, while the horsemen rode off the bull from the rest of the herd, until he stood at bay, when a marksman dismounted and shot. At some of these huntings, 20 or 30 shots have been fired before he was subdued. On such occasions the bleeding victim grew desperately furious, from the smarting of his wounds, and the shouts of savage joy that were echoing from every side. But, from the number of accidents that happened, this dangerous mode has been little practised of late years; the park-keeper alone generally shooting them with a rifled gun at one shot.

When the cows calve, they hide their calves for a week or ten days in some sequestered situation, and go and suckle them two or three times a day. If any person come near the calves, they clap their heads close to the ground, and lie like a hare in form, to hide themselves. This is a proof of their native wildness, and is corroborated by the following circumstance that happened to the writer of this narrative, who found a hidden calf, two days old, very lean, and very weak. On stroking its head, it got up, pawed two or three times like an old bull, bellowed very loud, stepped back a few steps, and butted at his legs with all its force: it then began to paw again, bellowed, stepped back, and butted as before; but knowing its intention, and stepping aside, it missed him, fell, and was so very weak that it could not rise, though it made several efforts. But it had done enough. The whole herd were alarmed, and coming to its rescue, obliged him to retire; for the dams will allow no person to touch their calves without attacking them with impetuous ferocity. When any one happens to be wounded, or is grown weak and feeble through age or weakness, the rest of the herd set upon it, and gore it to death.

The weight of the oxen is generally from 30 to 50 stones the four hind quarters, the cows about 30. The beef is finely marbled, and of excellent flavour.*

There is scarcely any part of the ox that is not of some use to mankind. Boxes, combs, knife-handles, &c., and drinking vessels, are made of the horns. These, when softened with boiling water, become so pliable, as to be formed into transparent plates for lanterns; an invention ascribed to King Alfred, who is said to have first used them to preserve his candle time-measures from the wind. Their dung is useful for manure. Glue is made of the cartilages, gristles, and the finer pieces of cuttings and parings of the hides, boiled in water till they become gelatinous, and the parts sufficiently dissolved, and then dried. The bone is a cheap substitute, in many instances, for ivory. The thinnest of the calves' skins are manufactured into vellum. The blood is used as the basis of Prussian blue. Saddlers and others use a fine sort of thread, prepared from the sinews, which is much stronger than any other equally fine. The hair is valuable in various manufactures, and the suet, fat, and tallow, for candles. The utility of the milk and cream is well known.

From the circumstance of these animals furnishing the Gentoos with milk, butter, and cheese, their favourite food, they bear for them a superstitious veneration, founded thus principally in gratitude. There is scarcely

* See Hunter on the animal economy. History of scarcely a Gentoo to be found that would not, were he under a forced option, prefer sacrificing his parents or children to the flaying of a bull or cow.

For the application of oxen to the purposes of agriculture, and for the best methods of rearing, breeding, and feeding cows and cattle, see Agriculture; for an account of the internal structure of this genus, see Anatomy, Part IV. Chap. IV. Sect. III.; for the construction of byres or cow-houses, with some observations on the feeding of cows and calves, see Farriery—Part IV.; and for the diseases incident to cattle, with their treatment, see the same article, Part VI.

3. B. Grunniens, Yak, or Grunting Ox.—The Yak of Tartary account of this singular species is that given by Captain Turner, in his account of an embassy to Tibet. It is as follows.

The yak of Tartary, called soora gay in Hindoostan, and which Captain Turner terms the buffy-tailed bull of Tibet, is about the height of an English bull, which it resembles in the general figure of the body, head, and legs. He could discover between them no essential difference, except that the yak is covered all over with a thick coat of long hair. The head is rather short, crowned with two smooth round horns, which, tapering from the root upwards, terminate in sharp points; they are arched inwards, bending towards each other, but near the extremities are a little turned back. The ears are small; the forehead appears prominent, being adorned with much curling hair; the eyes are full and large; the nose small and convex; the nostrils small, the neck short, describing a curvature nearly equal both above and below; the withers are high and arched. The rump is low; over the shoulder rises a thick muscle, which seems to be the same kind of protuberance peculiar to the cattle of Hindoostan, covered with a profusion of soft hair, which in general, is longer and more copious than that along the ridge of the back to the setting on of the tail. The tail is composed of a prodigious quantity of long, flowing, glossy hair, and is so abundantly furnished, that not a joint of it is perceptible; but it has much the appearance of a large clump of hair artificially let on; the shoulders, rump, and upper part of the body, are clothed with a sort of thick soft wool, but the inferior parts with straight pendant hair that descends below the knee; and Captain Turner has seen it so long in some cattle, which were in high health and condition, as to trail upon the ground. From the chest, between the legs, issues a large pointed tuft of straight hair, growing somewhat longer than the rest; the legs are very short; in every other respect he resembles the ordinary bull.

These cattle, though not large-boned, seem, from the profuse quantity of hair with which they are provided, to be of great bulk. They have a downcast heavy look, and appear, what indeed they are, full and supple, discovering much impatience at the near approach of strangers. They do not low loud like the cattle of Britain, any more than those of Hindoostan, but make a low grunting noise, scarcely audible, and that but seldom, when under some impression of uneasiness. These cattle are pastured in the coldest parts of Tibet, upon the short herbage peculiar to the tops of mountains and bleak plains. The chain of mountains situated between the latitudes of 27° and 28°, which divides Tibet from Boustan, and whose summits are most commonly cloaked with snow, is their favourite haunt. In this vicinity the southern glens afford them food and shelter during the severity of winter; in milder seasons, the northern aspect is more congenial to their nature, and admits a wider range. They are a very valuable property to the tribes of itinerant Tartars, called Dukha, who live in tents, and tend them from place to place; they at the same time afford their herdsmen an easy mode of conveyance, a good covering, and wholesome subsistence. They are never employed in agriculture, but are extremely useful as beasts of burden, for they are strong, sure-footed, and carry a great weight. Tents and ropes are manufactured of their hair, and amongst the humbler ranks of herdsmen, he has seen caps and jackets made of their skins. Their tails are esteemed throughout the east, as far as luxury and parade have any influence on the manners of the people; and on the continent of India they are found, under the denomination of cloveries, in the hands of the meanest grooms, as well as occasionally in those of the first minister of state. They are in universal use for driving away winged insects, flies, and musketeers, and are employed as ornamental furniture upon horses and elephants; yet the belt requital with which the care of their keepers is at length rewarded, for selecting them good pastures, is in the abundant quantity of rich milk which they give, and the butter produced from it, which is most excellent. It is their custom to preserve this in skins or bladders, and the air being thus excluded from it, it will keep in this cold climate throughout the year; so that, after some time tending their herds, when a sufficient store is accumulated, it remains only to load their cattle, and drive them to a proper market with their own produce, which constitutes, to the utmost verge of Tartary, a most material article of commerce.

Dr Pallas informs us, that the calves of this species, when first born, are covered with a strong woolly hair, resembling that of a water spaniel, and that in about three months they begin to acquire the long hair of the throat, lower parts, and tail.

This animal was described by Ælian, under the name of Poepagus.

This order contains eight genera and about 82 species.

**Chap. VI. Belluæ.**

Genus 45. Equus. Horæ.

Front teeth in the upper jaw six, parallel. In the lower jaw, six, somewhat projecting. Canine teeth, one on each side, in both jaws, remote from the reft. Feet with undivided hoofs.

Dr Shaw enumerates five species, viz. 1. *Equus Caballus*, The Horse.—Tail uniformly covered with long hair.—2. *E. Hemionus*, Jickta. Of an uniform colour, without a distinct humeral cross, with naked tail haired at the tip.—3. *E. Afinus*, Als. Blackish cross over the shoulders, and tail tipped with long hair.—4. *E. Zebra*, Zebra. Variegated with numerous dark brown stripes.—5. *E. Quagga*, Quagga. Rather rusty,

Bellows, ty, whitish below, striped above with brown. Spotted towards the hind parts.—6. E. Bifidus, Cloven-footed H. With cloven hoofs.

1. Equus Calotes, Common H.—Though it is in a state of domestication that we are chiefly to consider this most noble animal, we must first, however, mention a few circumstances respecting him in his native state of liberty.

Horses are found wild in several parts of the globe. Large herds of them are occasionally seen in the southern parts of Siberia, and in the great Mongolian deserts, and among the Kalkas to the north-west of China. They are also found in the deserts on each side the river Don; but it is supposed that these are descended from the Russian horses employed in the siege of Apsch, in the year 1697, who being turned loose for want of forage, escaped into the deserts, and their descendants have gradually acquired the appearance of native wildness.

The horse in its wild state is considerably smaller than most of our domestic horses, and possesses much less symmetry of form. He is extremely swift, active and vigilant, and like some other tribes of animals, these horses have always a sentinel, who by a loud neigh gives notice to the herd of approaching danger, when they all gallop off with astonishing rapidity.

In South America there are also found large herds of wild horses; but these are of Spanish origin, derived from those that were carried over by the first conquerors of America. They are now become so numerous as to live in herds, some of which are said to consist of 10,000. As soon as they perceive domestic horses in the fields, they gallop to them, carelessly, and by a kind of grave and prolonged neighing, invite them to run off. The domestic horses are soon feduced, unite themselves to the independent herd, and depart along with them. It happens not unfrequently that travellers are stopped on the road by the effect of this defection. To prevent this, they halt as soon as they perceive these wanderers, watch their own horses, and endeavour to frighten away the others. In this case the wild horses resort to stratagem; some are detached before, and the rest advance in a close column, which nothing can interrupt. If they are so alarmed as to be obliged to retire, they change their direction, but without suffering themselves to be dispersed. Sometimes they make several turns round those who wish to seduce, in order to frighten them, but they often retire after making one turn. When the inhabitants wish to convert some of these wild horses into domestic ones, which they find not very difficult to be done, persons mounted on horseback attack a troop of them, and when they approach them, they throw ropes with great care round their legs, which prevent them from running away. When brought home they are tied with a halter to a stake or tree, without food or drink, for two or three days. After this they are cut, and then broke in the same manner as the domestic horses. They soon become docile, but if not carefully watched, will again join their wild friends.

The attention with which the wild horses of Siberia protect their young, is finely exemplified in a communication by a gentleman in that country to the editor of the Bee. The wild horse, he says, though a gregarious animal, does not go in promiscuous flocks like History of cattle or sheep; but each male chooses for himself a certain number of females, with whom alone he associates during the whole year, beating off every other male which offers to approach them. The strongest of course has the best harem, and the weaker are obliged to go without any. But when he has once fixed himself, he defends his own property, never attempting to encroach on that of another. The battles that are fought for the females at the beginning of the season are furious, and often prove fatal to one of the parties; but when the victory is once decided, the weaker never afterwards for that season dispute for superiority.

The horse, when he has once obtained his females, governs them with despotic authority. Whenever he calls upon them they must obey, otherwise they are punished severely; and the mares are so sensible of this, that they discover every symptom of the most perfect obedience to their lord and master.

His government, however, is founded on love, and his authority is exercised, rather for the protection of his subjects, than their injury. The great enemy they have there to dread is the wolf; and if the horse did not take care to keep them close together, so as to receive the benefit of his protection, they would be soon exterminated. It is the foals only that the wolf ever attacks, and against his attacks they are much upon their guard. When they see any appearance of danger, the horse gives the call, and they all instantly gallop up to him. The foals are then put all together, and the mares laying their heads together above the foals, form a circle all round with their heels outward, ready to strike their enemy if he approaches. The horse in the mean time remains without the circle to be ready to attack wherever the danger shall be greatest. One wolf dares never make the attack by himself. When they come up, the horse gallops round his family, trampling to death every one he can reach, or tearing them with his teeth; and so strong is his bite when thus enraged, that they frequently have been known, with a single gnash of their teeth, to break the back of a wolf, and to kill him entirely. It seldom happens that the wolves prevail in this contest; and they so much dread the power of this noble animal, that they seldom make the attack unless when they are much pinched with hunger.

This breed of horses, though nimble and active, are not of a very large size. The hunting of these horses, which is only attempted by the natives for catching them alive, especially the young ones, is attended with difficulty and danger, and must not be attempted without due precautions.

In a domestic or improved state, the horse is found in almost every country of the world, except within the Arctic circle; but he is found in his highest perfection in Arabia, where he seems as little degenerated in his race and powers as the lion or tyger of the African forests. To the Arabian hordes the horses are as dear as their children; and the constant intercourse arising from living in the same tent with their owner and his family, creates a familiarity that could not otherwise be effected, and a tractability that arises only from the kindled usage. They are the fleetest animals of the desert, and are so well trained as to stop in their tracks. but they are well set, and yet they have tender feet. Bellua.

The Hungarian horses are excellent for the coach, as well as for riding; but they are large, though well proportioned; and they are of all colours, and in general very swift.

The Danish horses are low, short, and square; but they have a fine head, and short hair. The horses of the Low Countries are very fit for the coach, and they are best known by the name of Flanders mares. The Polish horses are like the Danish, only they have not so fine a forehead; their colour is generally a bright bay, and that of the outward peel of an onion, and they are fiery and vicious. The horses of Switzerland are pretty much like those of Germany, which is not surprising, since the Germans purchase a great number of them. The horses of Piedmont are fiery, of a middle size, and of all sorts of colours; their legs are good and handsome, their eyes fine, their ears small, and their mouths good; but they do not carry their heads well.

The horses of Naples and Italy are generally ill made and lean, and yet they are good and useful, for they are light and proper for racing, though not for a long course; they never do well in a colder climate. The Spanish horses are very well made and handsome, as well as very active and nimble; they have good eyes, handsome legs and heads, and are easily managed; they are also good for racing, if they are well kept; however they are not so good in northern climates as in their own country. The Turkish horses are of different shapes, but they are generally swift, though their mouths are bad. Most of them are white, though there are other colours, and they are large, hardy, strong, and fit for the road.

The horses of Barbary, commonly called barbs, have strong hoofs, and are more proper for racing than any others whatever; some have said they never grow old, because they preserve their vigour to the last. They are excellent stallions, and some of them are used as such in Britain; however, the Arabian horses are not quite so good as the Barbary, though some think they are both of the same kind; only those that are used to the deserts of Arabia are always in action. The horses of the Gold coast of Guinea are very few in number, and in other parts of that coast there are none at all; for many of the negroes, when they have been first brought over to our American plantations, have expressed great admiration at the sight of the horse, and even been afraid to come near one.

The horses of the Cape were originally brought from Persia, and they are small, of a chestnut colour, as the natives of that country are all wild, and could never be tamed. The horses of China are good, and more particularly those in the province of Yun Nan, for they are vigorous, though rather low. The horses of the Eluth Tartars are good and full of fire, and their size is much the same as that of the Polish horses; they are afraid of nothing, not even of lions and tygers, but this perhaps may be owing to use. In the country of the Mogul they are very numerous, and of all colours; they are generally of the middle size, though some are as large and handsome as those of Europe.

The breed of horses in Great Britain is as mixed as that of its inhabitants. The frequent introduction of foreign horses has given us a variety, that no single country country can boast of; most other countries produce only one kind, while ours, by a judicious mixture of the several species, by the happy difference of our soils, and by our superior skill in management, may triumph over the rest of Europe, in having brought each quality of this noble animal to the highest perfection.

In the annals of Newmarket, may be found instances of horses that have literally outstripped the wind. Childers is an amazing instance of rapidity, his speed having been more than once exerted equal to 82½ feet in a second, or nearly a mile in a minute. The same horse has also run the round course at Newmarket (which is about 400 yards less than four miles) in five minutes and 40 seconds, in which case his fleetness is to that of the swiftest Barb as four to three. This horse was allowed to be the fleetest that was ever bred in the world; he started repeatedly at Newmarket against the best horses of his time, and was never beaten. He won in different prizes to the amount of nearly £2000, and was afterwards reserved as a stallion. His sire was an Arabian, sent by a gentleman as a present to his brother in England. Next to Childers was the famous Eclipse, who won prizes to a great amount. Highflyer was accounted the best horse of his time in England. Though he never started after he was five years old, he won to the amount of nearly £9000. He was never beaten, nor ever paid a forfeit. Bay Malton, the property of the late marquis of Rockingham, won, in seven prizes, nearly £6000. At York he ran four miles in less than eight minutes.

One of the most remarkable instances of the work done by post-horses in a short time, is that mentioned by Buffon, of the post-master of Stretton, who in the year 1745, rode on different horses along the London road no less than 215 miles in 11 hours and a half; a rate of above 18 miles an hour. In July 1788, a horse belonging to a gentleman of Billesley square, London, was, for a wager, trotted 30 miles in an hour and 25 minutes, which is above 21 miles in an hour.

No country can be compared with ours with respect to the strength and size of draught horses, and for the activity and strength of those that form our cavalry. In London there have been instances of a single horse drawing, for a short space, the weight of three tons; and some of the pack-horses of the north usually carry burdens weighing upwards of 400lb. But the most remarkable proof of the strength of the British horses is in our mill horses, some of which have been known to carry, at one load, 13 measures of corn, that in the whole would amount to more than 900lb. in weight.

Our cavalry in the late campaigns, showed over those of our allies, as well as the French, a great superiority both of strength and activity; the enemy was broken through by the impetuous charge of our squadrons, while the German horses, from their great weight, and inactive make, were unable to second our efforts, though those troops were actuated by the noblest ardour. The present cavalry of this island only supports its ancient glory; it was eminent in the earliest times: our cayked chariots, and the activity, and good discipline of our horses, even struck terror into Caesar's legions. It is now impossible to trace out this species, for those which exist among the indigenes of Great Britain, such as the little horses of Wales and Cornwall, the hobbies of Ireland, and the shelties of Scotland, though admirably well adapted to the uses of those countries, could never have history of been equal to the work of war. Those we employ for the species that purpose, or for the draught, are an offspring of the German or Flemish breed, meliorated by our soil, and a judicious culture.

The English were ever attentive to an exact culture of these animals, and in very early times set a high value on their breed. The esteem that our horses were held in by foreigners so long ago as the reign of Athelstan, may be collected from a law of that monarch prohibiting their exportation, except they were designed as presents. These must have been the native kind, or the prohibition would have been needless, for our commerce was at that time too limited to receive improvement from any but the German kind, to which country their own breed could be of no value.

But when our intercourse with the other parts of Europe was enlarged, we soon laid hold of the advantages this gave of improving our breed. Roger de Bellefyme, earl of Shrewsbury, is the first that is upon record. He introduced the Spanish stallions into his estate in Powysland, from which that part of Wales was for many ages celebrated for a swift and generous race of horses. Giraldus Cambrensis, who lived in the reign of Henry II. takes notice of it, and Michael Drayton, contemporary with Shakepeare, sings their excellence in the sixth part of his Polyallion. This kind was probably destined to mount our gallant nobility, our courteous knights for feats of chivalry, in the generous contests of the tilt-yard. From these sprung, to speak the language of the times, the flower of courtiers, whose elegant form added charms to the rider, and whose activity and managed dexterity gained him the palm in that field of gallantry and romantic honour. That this was the chief object of cultivating the mixed breed, is very probable, for racing in its present form was not introduced into England till the reign of James I., the earliest notice of the diversion being in that reign. Croydon in the south, and Garterly in Yorkshire, were then famous horse courses. That it was not in vogue in the preceding reign, is reasonable to imagine, for among the numerous entertainments exhibited at Kenelworth by Elizabeth's favourite on her visit there, and where no amusement then practised was omitted, we do not find horse-racing among them.

Not that we deny this diversion to be known in these kingdoms in earlier times; we only allude a different mode of it, gentlemen being then their own jockeys, and riding their own horses. Lord Herbert of Cherbury enumerates it among the sports that gallant philosopher thought unworthy of a man of honour. "The exercise (says he) I do not approve of, is running of horses, there being much cheating in that kind; neither do I see why a brave man should delight in a creature whose chief use is to help him to run away."

As no kingdom can boast of parallel circumstances, so none can vie with us in the number of these noble quadrupeds. It would be extremely difficult to guess at the exact number of them, or to form a periodical account of their increase; the number seems very fluctuating. Mr William Fitz-Stephen relates, that in the reign of King Stephen, London alone poured out 20,000 horsemen in the wars of those times; yet we find that in the beginning of Queen Elizabeth's reign, the whole kingdom could not supply 2000 horses to form... History of form our cavalry; and even in the year 1588, when the nation was in the most imminent danger from the Spanish invasion, all the cavalry which the nation could then furnish amounted only to 3000. To account for this difference we must imagine, that the number of horses which took the field in Stephen's reign was no more than an undisciplined rabble; the few that appeared under the banners of Elizabeth, a corps well formed, and such as might be opposed to such a formidable enemy as was then expected. But such is their present increase, that in a late war, the number employed was 13,375; and such is our improvement in the breed of horses, that most of those which are used in our waggons and carriages of different kinds, might be applied to the same purpose. Of those our capital alone employs near 22,000.

Of all quadrupeds, says Buffon, the horse, together with grandeur of stature, possesses the greatest elegance and proportion of parts. If we compare him with the animals immediately above and below him, we shall find that the ass is ill-made; that the head of the lion is too large; the limbs of the ox too short and slender; that the camel is deformed, and the elephant a shapeless mass. The regularity and proportion of the parts of his head, give him a light and sprightly aspect, which is well supported by the beauty of his chest. He elevates his head as if anxious to exalt himself above the condition of quadrupeds, and in this noble attitude he beholds man face to face.

We shall here give Buffon's description of what he considers as a perfect horse; but that this and similar descriptions may be better understood, we shall premise an explanation of the technical terms commonly employed in describing a horse. The figures prefixed to the terms refer to fig. 72. Plate CCCXIII.

The fore part. 1. The forehead. 2. The temples. 3. Cavity above the eye. 4. The jaw. 5. The lips. 6. The nostrils. 7. The tip of the nose. 8. The chin. 9. The beard. 10. The neck. 11. The mane. 12. The fore-top. 13. The throat. 14. The withers. 15. The shoulders. 16. The chest. 17. The elbow. 18. The arm. 19. The plate vein. 20. The chestnut. 21. The knee. 22. The flank. 23. The main tendons. 24. The fetlock joint. 25. The fetlock. 26. The pastern. 27. The coronet. 28. The hoof. 29. The quarters. 30. The toe. 31. The heel.—The body. 32. The reins. 33. The fillets. 34. The ribs. 35. The belly. 36. The flanks.—The hind part. 37. The rump. 38. The tail. 39. The buttocks. 40. The haunches. 41. The stifle. 42. The thighs. 43. The hock. 44. The kerb. 45. The point of the hock.

When the horse is without blemish, says Buffon, the legs and thighs are clean, the knees straight, the thin and flank thin, and the back fine strong and well braced. The finesse and the bones should be so distinct, as to make the legs appear thin and lathy, not full and round. The pastern joints should never be large and round; nor must there be any swelling near the coronet. The hock should be lean and dry, not puffed up with wind. With regard to the hoof, the coronet should be equally thick, and the horn shining and grayish. A white horn is a sign of a bad hoof, for it will wear out in a short time; and likewise when the horn is thin, it is liable to be spoiled in shoeing, and by travelling hard on flinty grounds. This is best known when the shoe Bellevue is taken off, for then the verge all round the sole will appear thin, and the horse will wince at the least touch of the pinces.

A strong foot has the fibres of the hoof very distinct running in a direct line from the coronet to the toe, like the grain of wood. In this case, care must be taken to keep the foot moist and pliable. The greatest inconvenience attending a hard strong foot, is its being subject to rifts and fissures, which cleave the hoof quite through sometimes from the coronet down to the bottom.

A narrow heel is likewise a defect; and when it is not above two fingers in breadth, the foot is bad. A high heel causes a horse to trip and stumble often; and the low one, with long yielding patterns, is very apt to be worn quite away on a journey. Too large a foot in proportion to the rest of the body, renders a horse weak and heavy.

The head of a horse should be small, and rather lean than fleshy. The ears should be small, erect, thin, sprightly, and pointed. The forehead, or brow, should have a star or snip theron. The nose should rise a little, and the nostrils should be wide that he may breathe more freely. The muzzle should be small, and the mouth neither too deep nor too shallow. The jaws should be thin, and not approach too near together at the throat, nor too high upwards towards the onset, that the horse may have sufficient room to carry his head in an easy graceful posture. The eyes should be of a middle size, bright, lively, and full of fire. The tongue should be small, that it may not be too much pressed on by the bit; and it is a good sign when his mouth is full of white froth, as it shows that he will not soon be overheated.

The neck should be arched towards the middle, growing smaller by degrees from the breast and shoulders to the head. The hair of the mane should be long, small, and fine, and it will not be amiss if it be a little frizzled. The shoulders should be pretty long, the withers thin, and should gradually enlarge downwards, but so as to render the breast neither too narrow nor too thick. A thick-shouldered horse soon tires, and trips and stumbles every minute, especially if he has at the same time a thick, large neck. When the breast is so narrow that the fore thighs almost touch, the horse is never good for much. A horse of a middle size should have the distance of five or six inches between his fore thighs, and there should be less distance between his feet than his thighs near the shoulders when he stands upright.

The body or carcass of a horse should be of a middling size in proportion to his bulk, and the back should sink a little below the withers; but the other parts should be straight, and no higher behind than before. He should also be bone-ribbed, but the short ribs should not approach too near the haunches, and then he will have room to fetch his breath. When a horse's back is short in proportion to his bulk, and yet otherwise well limbed, he will hold out a journey, though he will travel slowly. When he is tall, with very long legs, he is but of little value.

The wind should never be overlooked in the choice of a horse, and it may easily be known by his flanks, whether he is broken-winded, when he stands quiet in the stable; The temper of a horse should always be observed; a vicious horse generally lays his ears close to his poll, shows the whites of his eyes, and looks full and dogged. An angry horse may be known by his frowning looks; and he generally seems to stand in a posture of defense. When he is very vicious, he pays no regard to the groom that feeds him, though some horses that are ticklish will lay back their ears, without being of a bad disposition. A fearful horse is apt to start, and never leaves off till he is old and useless. A fretful horse is very unfit for a journey, and you may discover his temper as soon as he gets out of the stable. A dull, heavy, sluggish horse may be easily known, whatever tricks are used to rouse his spirits. With regard to the colour of a horse, the bright bay, and indeed all bays in general, are accounted good colours. The chestnut horse is generally to be preferred to the forelock, unless the former happens to be partly coloured with white legs. Brown horses have generally black manes and tails, and their joints are of a rusty black. Those of this colour that are dapple are much handsomer than the rest. Horses of a shining black, and well marked without too much white, are in high esteem for their beauty. A flaxen or blaze, or white muzzle, or one or more feet tipped with white, are generally thought to be rather better than those that are quite black.

Of grays, the dappled are accounted best, though the silver gray make a more beautiful appearance, and often prove good. The iron gray with white manes and tails, are thought not to be so hardy. Grays of every kind will turn white sooner or later; but the nutmeg gray, when the dappled parts incline to bay or chestnut, are said to be good hardy horses. Roan horses have a diversity of colours mixed together; but the white is more predominant than the rest. They are all generally hardy, and fit for the road; and some are exceeding good. Those of a strawberry colour most resemble the forelock, and they are often marked with white on the legs and face. When the bay is blended with it, he seems to be tinctured with claret, and some of these prove to be very good. Dun, fallow, and cream-colored horses have a lift down their backs, and their manes and tails are black. Dun horses are seldom chosen by gentlemen, and yet they may be very useful to the country farmer. The fallow and cream-colored are more esteemed, both for beauty and use. Those horses that are finely spotted with gray colours like leopards are a great rarity, and for that reason they are only in the hands of great men.

As in this country the form of the race-horse is more particularly attended to, we shall give the following rules for the best proportions of race-horses, as laid down by Mr Feron.

"It has been observed by several authors, with good authority, that the head of a horse, divided into 22 equal parts, is the common measure for every part of the body; but if the head should appear too long or too short, that measure must be abandoned, to take the height of the body from the top of the withers to the ground. The third part of this measure will give you a just length for every other part of the body, and will shew you likewise how much the head was defective.

"A horse well made and beautiful in his fore hand, should measure 3 heads and 16 parts from the top of the head to the ground, the head standing in its natural position—the neck should measure one head and 13 parts from the withers to the top of the head,—the same measure gives the length of the neck from the top of the head to its termination in the chest—the height of the body should measure three heads from the withers to the ground—we observe the same measure from the rump to the ground,—the length of the body should measure three heads and four parts, from the point of the shoulder to the posterior part of the buttock.

"The line which falls from the articulation of the shoulder with the arm, should measure two heads and seven parts. This line must directly touch the hoof in front of the toe. If the foot should stand before this line, the leg will be in an oblique direction forward, which structure will confine the horse in all his actions, because the fore legs are obliged to come upon the ground nearly the same way as those of a horse going down hill; that is to say, the heels will touch the ground first, instead of the toes; but if the legs stand obliquely backwards from above, which is the opposite defect, the calf is a great deal worse, because the animal is continually stumbling or even falling, on account of his feet being drawn too much under the belly, which situation obliges him to support too great a weight of the body. When this defect originates from the knees only, it bends the legs more or less, in which case the horse is called bow-legged. In either case such an animal must be rejected, and considered as unfit for a racer.

"The line which falls from the top of the fore leg to the point of the heel, should measure one head and 20 parts. This line is extended to show the perfect perpendicular position of the whole limb. The distance from the top of the withers to the stifle should measure one head and 20 parts; the same measure gives the distance from the rump to the elbow, or vice versa. The width of the neck should measure one head, taken from the top of the withers to the point of the shoulder.

"The narrowest part of the neck, and the breadth of the head taken a little below the eyes, measures 12 parts of a head each. The thickness of the body, from the middle of the back to the middle of the belly, should be one head and two parts. The same line continued to the ground, shews the centre of gravity of the horse's body. The distance from the root of the tail to the stifle, should measure one head and four parts. The same measure gives the length from the stifle to the hock. The same measure gives the distance from the hock to the ground. The breadth of the fore-arm, taken from the anterior parts of the elbow, should measure 11 parts of a head. The same measure gives the breadth of one of the hind-legs, taken just under the fold of the buttocks. The breadth of the hock, taken from its anterior part to the top of the os calcis, should measure seven parts of a head. The same measure gives the breadth of the head above the nostrils, measured sideway.

"The breadth of the head, taken from one eye to the other, History of other, should measure seven parts of a head. The same measure should give the distance between the fore legs.

The thickness of the knees should measure five parts of a head. The same measure gives the breadth of the fore legs, just above the knees. The breadth of the hind fetlock joints should measure four parts of a head. The breadth of the fore patterns should measure 2 1/2 parts of a head. The breadth of the coronet should measure 4 1/2 parts of a head. The breadth of the hinder legs or shank bones, should measure three parts of a head. The breadth of the fore legs should measure 2 1/2 parts of a head. The perpendicular line which falls from the articulation of the stifle, should touch the ground at the distance of half a head from the toe. Too far or too near this direction, proves the hock defective. If the hind feet advance too much under the belly, the hocks must be proportionably bent, and the weight of the body overcharging them, will of course increase the deformity. The feet being too much under the belly, will render it impossible for them to cover much ground; therefore their steps will be very much confined. The extension of the hocks terminating almost in an upright direction, will rather serve to raise the body than to push it forward. If, on the contrary, the hind feet stand too far behind this line, the hocks will be too strait, and their flexion too confined. The extension of the hinder parts taking place, only in a perpendicular direction backward, will produce a defect capable of retarding their speed.*

The flesh of the horse is dark and coarse; but it has appeared from the accounts we have of long sieges, that it may be employed for food, and we are assured that it is by no means unpalatable. In fact, in some countries it is employed as food from choice. In the medical dictionary of the Encyclopédie Méthodique, art. Cheval, tom. iv. p. 696, is a curious account of the mode of preparing an extraordinary part of this animal, that forms an ingredient in ragouts, with which some of the Mogul Tartars regale themselves in their most splendid entertainments.

The chief use to which the remains of the horse can be applied, is for collars, traces, and other parts of the harness; and thus, even after death, he preserves some analogy with his former employment. The hair of the mane is sometimes used in making wigs; that of the tail in making the bottoms of chairs, floor cloths, and cords, and to the angler in making lines.

For several other particulars respecting the horse, especially on the use of that animal among the Jews, on the management of horses upon and after a journey, and on the breeding of horses, see the article Horse. On the use of horses in husbandry, with a comparative view of the profits arising from them and oxen, see the article Agriculture, Part III.; for a short account of the anatomical structure of the horse, see Farriery, Part II.; for various methods of tending horses, and several other operations, see the same article, Part III.; for the best method of constructing stables, and the most proper food of horses, see Part IV., and for the description and treatment of the diseases incident to horses, with the remedies employed, see Parts VI. and V. of the same article; and for the art of riding, training, and managing horses, see Horsemanship.

3. E. Afinus, the Afs.—It is unnecessary to describe the appearance of the domestic afs; but as this animal in his native state of wildness differs considerably from him who is the slave of man, we shall give a short description of the wild afs.

Its usual colour is said to be white, or a pale silvery gray, with a slight shade of straw colour on the sides of the neck and body. Along the back runs a deep brown stripe of thickish wavy hair, to the beginning of the tail; this stripe is crossed over the shoulders, as in the tame animal, by another of similar colour; but it is said that this is peculiar to the male. The neck is furnished with a brown mane three or four inches long, consisting of soft woolly hair; the tail is tufted at the end by dusky hairs of about six inches in length; the forehead is arched, and the ears erect, pointed, and lined internally with white curling hairs. It stands higher on its limbs than the domesticated animal, and its legs are more slender in proportion. The hair on the whole body is very fine, bright, soft, and silky; and on some parts is marked by a few obscure undulations of a darker shade than the rest. Those which are found in Africa are said to be of a pale ash colour, rather than of the cast above described.

The food of the wild afs consists chiefly of saline, or bitter and lactescient plants. It is also fond of salt or brackish water. The manners of these animals very much resemble those of the wild horse. They assemble in troops under the conduct of a leader, and are extremely shy and vigilant, and, like the former animals, dart off with the utmost rapidity on the sight of mankind. They have been at all times celebrated for their swiftness. Their voice resembles that of the common afs, but is somewhat shriller.

Wild afses are found in several parts of Asia, especially in the dry and mountainous deserts of Tartary, and in the southern parts of India and Persia. Large herds of them are also found in South America, where they were originally introduced by the Spaniards, and as the climate seems peculiarly favourable to them, they have multiplied to so great a number, as in some places to have become quite a nuisance. In the kingdom of Quito they are hunted for the purpose of domestication, and the hunting is conducted in the following manner.

A number of persons go on horseback, and are attended by Indians on foot. When arrived at the proper places, they form a circle in order to drive them into some valley, where, at full speed they throw the noose and endeavour to halter them. The creatures, finding themselves inclosed, make very furious efforts to escape; and if only one forces his way through, they all follow with an irresistible impetuosity. However, when noosed, the hunters throw them down and secure them with fetters, and thus leave them till the chase is over. Then, in order to bring them away with greater facility, they pair them with tame afses; but this is not easily performed, for they are so remarkably fierce, that they often wound the persons who undertake to manage them.

They have all the swiftness of horses, and neither declivities nor precipices can retard their career. When attacked, they defend themselves with their heels and mouth with such address, that without slackening their pace, they often maim their pursuers. But the most remarkable property in these creatures is, that, after carrying their first load, their celery leaves them, their dangerous dangerous ferocity is lost, and they soon contract the stupid look and the dullness peculiar to their species. It is also observable that these creatures will not permit a horse to live among them. They always feed together, and if a horse happens to stray into the place where they graze, they all fall upon him, and without even giving him the choice of flying, bite and kick him till they leave him dead on the spot.

Though the ass is at present naturalized in this country, his introduction into Britain seems to have been very late, as he was entirely lost among us during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, when, as Hollinshed informs us, "our lande did yeeld no asses." There is, however, no reason to suppose that the ass was unknown among us some hundred years before, as we find mention made of him so early as the time of Athelred, and again in the reign of Henry III. So that the loss of them during the reign of Queen Elizabeth must have been owing to some accident. They were probably introduced again under the succeeding reign, when we renewed our intercourse with Spain, in which country this animal is much used, and where it has been brought to great perfection.

The qualities of this animal are so well known as to need no description. His gentleness, patience, and perseverance, are without example. He is temperate with regard to food, and eats contentedly the coarsest and most neglected herbage. If he give the preference to any vegetable, it is to the plantane, for which he will neglect every other herb in the pasture. In his water he is singularly nice, drinking only from the clearest brooks. He is so much afraid of wetting his feet, that, even when laden, he will turn aside to avoid the dirty parts of the road.

He is stronger, in proportion to his size, than the horse, but more sluggish, stubborn, and untractable. He is healthier than the horse, and of all other quadrupeds is least infested with lice or other vermin; probably owing to the extreme hardiness and dryness of his skin. For the same reason, perhaps, he is less sensible of the goads of the whip, or the stinging of flies.

He is three or four years in coming to perfection, and lives to the age of 20, or sometimes 25 years. He sleeps much less than the horse, and never lies down for that purpose but when he is much fatigued. The she-ass goes 11 months with young, and seldom produces more than one at a time.

In pleading the cause of this injured and neglected animal, we cannot do better than copy the eulogy of the abbé la Pluche.

"I confess (says he) that the ass is not master of very shining qualities, but then he enjoys those that are very solid. If we refer to other animals for distinguishing services, this at least furnishes us with such as are most necessary. His voice is not altogether melodious, nor his air majestic, nor his manners very lively; but then a fine voice has very little merit with people of solidity. With him the want of a noble air has its compensation in a mild and modest countenance; and instead of the boisterous and irregular qualities of the horse, which are frequently more inconvenient than agreeable, the behaviour of the ass is entirely simple and unaffected; no supercilious and self-sufficient airs. He marches with a very uniform pace, and though he is not extraordinarily swift, he pursues his journey for a long time, and without intermission. He finishes his history of work in silence, serves you with a steady perseverance, and discovers no ostentation in his proceedings, which is certainly a considerable accomplishment in a domestic. His meat requires no preparation, for he is perfectly well contented with the first thistle that presents itself in his way. He does not pretend that any thing is due to him, and never appears squeamish or dissatisfied: he thankfully accepts whatever is offered to him; he has an elegant relish for the best things, and very civilly contents himself with the most indifferent. If he happens to be forgotten, or is fastened a little too far from his fodder, he entertains his matter, in the most pathetic language he can utter, to be so good as to supply his necessities. It is very just that he should live, and he employs all his rhetoric with that view. When he has finished his expostulations, he patiently waits the arrival of a little bran, or a few withered leaves; and the moment he has dispatched his meal, he returns to his business, and marches on without a murmur or reply. His occupations have a tinge of the meanness of those who let him to work; but the judgments that are formed, both of the ass and his matter, are equally partial. The employments of a judge, a man of consequence, and an officer of the revenue, have an important air, and their habit imposes on the spectators. On the contrary, the labour of the peasant has a mean and contemptible appearance, because his dress is poor and his condition despised. But we really make a false estimation of these particulars. It is the labour of the peasant which is most valuable, and alone truly necessary. Of what importance is it to us when a manager of the revenue glitters from head to foot with gold? We have no advantage from his labours. I confess, judges and advocates are, in some measure necessary, but they are made so by our folly and misbehaviour; for they would no longer be wanted, could we conduct ourselves in a rational manner. But, on the other hand, we could on no account, and in no season or condition of life, be without the peasant and the artizan. These people may be considered as the souls and nerves of the community, and the support of our life. It is from them we are constantly deriving some accommodations for our wants. Our houses, our habits, our furniture, and our sustenance rise from their labours. Now, what would become of your vine-dressers, gardeners, masons, and the generality of country people, that is to say, of two thirds of mankind, if they were destitute of men and horses to convey the commodities and materials which they employ and manufacture? The ass is perpetually at their service; he carries fruit, herbs, coal, wood, bricks, tiles, plaster, lime, and straw. The most abject offices are his ordinary lot, and it is as singular an advantage to this multitude of workmen, as well as to ourselves, to find a gentle, strong, and indefatigable animal, who, without expense or pride, furnishes our cities and villages with all sorts of commodities. A short comparison will complete the illustration of his services, and in some measure raise them from their obscurity. The horse very much resembles those nations who are fond of glitter and hurry; who are perpetually fingering and dancing, and extremely studious to set off their exterior, and mix gaiety in all their actions. They are admirable on some distinguished and decisive occasions, but their fire frequently degenerates into ro-

History of mantic enthusiasm; they fall into wild transports; they exhaust themselves, and lose the most favourable conjunctures for want of management and moderation. The als, on the contrary, resembles those people who are naturally heavy and pacific, whose understanding and capacity are limited to husbandry or commerce, and who proceed in the same track without discomposure, and complete, with a positive air, whatever they have once undertaken."

The skin of this animal is very hard and elastic, and may be used for drums, shoes, and many other purposes. It is, we believe, seldom employed, except for the leaves of pocket memorandum books. The flesh of the wild als is said to be good food, and easy of digestion.

The he-als and the mare readily breed together, but the commerce between the stallion and the she-als is said to be difficult. The produce of either connexion is the common mule, an animal superior both to the horse and als for travelling over wild and mountainous tracts of country.

The common mule is very healthy, and will live above 30 years. It is found very serviceable in carrying burdens, particularly in mountainous places, where horses are not so sure-footed. The size and strength of our breed have lately been much improved by the importation of Spanish male als; and it were much to be wished, that the useful qualities of this animal were more attended to; for, by proper care in its breaking, its natural obstinacy would in a great measure be corrected; and it might be formed with success, for the saddle, the draught, or the burden.

People of the first quality in Spain are drawn by mules, where 50 or 62 guineas is no uncommon price for one of them; nor is it surprising, when we consider how far they excel the horse in travelling in a mountainous country, the mule being able to tread securely where the former can hardly stand. Their manner of going down the Alps, Andes, &c. is very extraordinary. In these passages, on one side, are steep eminences, and on the other frightful abysses; and as they generally follow the direction of the mountain, the road, instead of lying in a level, forms at every little distance steep declivities of several hundred yards downward. These can only be defended by mules, and the animal itself seems sensible of the danger, and the caution to be used in such descents. When they come to the edge of one of these precipices, they stop without being checked by the rider, and if he inadvertently attempt to spur them on, they continue immovable. They seem all this time rummaging on the danger that lies before them, and preparing themselves for the encounter. They not only attentively view the road, but tremble and shiver at the danger. Having prepared for the descent, they place their fore feet in a posture as if they were stopping themselves; they then also put their hind feet together, but a little forward, as if they were going to lie down. In this attitude, having as it were, taken a survey of the road, they slide down with the swiftness of a meteor. At this time, all the rider has to do is to keep himself fast on the saddle without checking the reins, for the least motion is sufficient to destroy the equilibrium of the mule, in which case both he and his rider would perish. The address of these animals in this rapid descent is truly wonderful, for in their swiftest motion, when they seem to have lost all government of themselves, they follow exactly the different windings of the road, as if they had previously settled in their minds the route they were to follow, and had taken every precaution for their safety. On these occasions the natives place themselves along the sides of the mountains, and holding by the roots of trees, they animate the beasts with shouts, and encourage them to persevere. Some mules after having been used in such journeys, acquire a sort of reputation for their safety and skill, and their value rises in proportion to their celebrity.*

Mules very rarely breed among each other, or with Quadrupeds, but a few instances of this kind have occurred.

4. E. Zebra, the Zebra.—This may be considered as Zebra, the most beautiful animal of the horse tribe, but it is that species with which we are least acquainted. It is wild in its nature, and so swift in its motions, that it can seldom be taken.

In size the zebra commonly equals the als, and it is often considerably larger. Its form is much more elegant than that of the als; its head and ears being well shaped, and of a moderate size. What, however, chiefly distinguishes this animal, is the beauty and symmetry of its colours. The ground of the skin is either a pure white, or cream colour, sometimes with a slight shade of buff, or a pale rusty tinge, and the skin is ornamented on every part with numerous stripes of a black or blackish brown colour, disposed with the greatest regularity, so as to produce an appearance as if the animal were decorated with dark ribbands. These stripes run transversely on the body and limbs, and in a longitudinal direction down the face. The tail is moderately long, round, rather slender, marked with small blackish bars, and terminated by a pretty thick tuft of a blackish or brown colour.

The zebra is chiefly confined to the hotter parts of Africa, from Ethiopia to the Cape of Good Hope, where there are large herds. In manners they resemble the wild horse and als, and are excessively swift and vigilant.

All attempts to tame this animal, so as to render it serviceable, have been hitherto fruitless. Wild and independent by nature, it seems ill adapted to servitude and restraint. If, however, it were taken young, and much care was bestowed on its education, it might very probably be in a great measure domesticated. A beautiful male zebra, at Exeter change, London, which was afterwards burnt to death by the mischievous act of a monkey setting fire to the straw on which he lay, appeared to have entirely lost his native wildness, and was so gentle as to suffer a child of five years old to sit quietly on his back, without exhibiting the least sign of displeasure. He was familiar even with strangers, and received those kind of cares that are usually given to the horse with evident satisfaction.

One that was, some years ago, kept at Kew, seemed of a savage and fierce nature; no one dared venture to approach it, except the person who was accustomed to feed it, and who alone could mount on its back. Mr Edwards saw this animal eat a large paper of tobacco, paper and all; and was told it would eat flesh, and any kind of food whatever that was given it. This, however, might proceed from habit or necessity in its long voyage to this country; for in a native state these these animals all feed, like horses and asses, on vegetables.

In some parts about the Cape, where there are many zebras, there is a penalty of fifty rix-dollars inflicted on any person who shoots one of them; and wherever any of them happen to be caught alive, they are ordered to be sent to the governor.

It has been found that the zebra and the ass will breed together. For the purpose of ascertaining this, an experiment was made in the year 1773 with a zebra that belonged to Lord Clive. No account of this experiment appeared till Mr Nicholson published the substance of some answers made by Mr Parker to a set of questions proposed by Sir Joseph Banks.

The zebra was first covered by an Arabian horse. For this purpose it was found necessary to bind her, and she showed great disgust. As she did not conceive, an English ass was procured, to which she showed a degree of affection, scarcely if at all less than to the horse, and was subjected to him by the same means.

The result of this trial not being more favourable than the other, recourse was had to the extraordinary expedient of painting another ass so as to resemble the zebra. Complete success attended this deception. When the animals were put together, the zebra at first appeared shy, but she received the embraces of the painted ass, and conceived. The offspring was a fine large male foal, which was just turned of six months old at the time of inquiry, namely, December 1773. It resembled both parents; the father as to make, and the mother as to colour; but the colour was not so strong, and the stripes on the shoulders were more conspicuous than on any other part. In answer to a question directed to that object, the relater states it as his opinion, that it would very probably propagate its species, as it did not appear at all to be like a mule.

In the course of the year after this information was received, his lordship died suddenly, and the collection of animals was disposed of. Sir Joseph Banks was then absent from town; and upon his return he was prevented by this circumstance, either from purchasing the animals, or acquiring any further information respecting the foal.

Genus 46. Hippopotamus.

Four front teeth in each jaw, the upper standing distant in pairs, lower prominent, the two middle longest; canine teeth foliary, lower extremity large, long, curved, and obliquely truncated; feet armed at the margin with four hoofs.

There is only one species, viz. H. Amphibius, the Hippopotamus, Hippopotame, or River-Horse.—The head of this animal is of an enormous size, and the mouth extremely wide. The ears are small and pointed, and very thickly lined within with short fine hairs. The eyes and nostrils are small in proportion to the bulk of the animal; on the lips are some strong hairs scattered in patches here and there. The hair on the body is very thin, of a whitish colour, and scarcely discernible at first sight. There is no mane on the neck, as some writers affirm, but the hairs on that part are rather thicker. The skin is very thick and strong, and of a dusky colour. The tail is about a foot long, tapering, compressed, and naked; the hoofs are divided into four parts. The legs are short and History of thick. In bulk it is second only to the elephant, and the Species by some writers, is said even to be superior to him. The length of a male has been found to be 17 feet, the circumference of the body 15, the height nearly seven, the legs nearly three, the head three and a half, and the girth nearly nine. The mouth, when open, is above two feet wide, and furnished with 44 teeth of different figures. The cutting, and particularly the canine teeth of the lower jaw, are very long, and exceedingly hard and strong. The substance of the canine teeth is so white, fine, and hard, that it is preferred to ivory for making artificial teeth. The cutting teeth, especially those of the under jaw, are very long, cylindrical, and chamfered. The canine teeth are also long, crooked, prismatic, and sharp, like the tusks of the wild boar. The grinders are square, or oblong, like those of man, and so large that one of these teeth sometimes weighs three pounds. The tusks according to Dr Sparman, are 27 inches long. With such powerful arms, and such a prodigious strength of body, the hippopotamus might render himself formidable to every animal. But he is naturally of a mild disposition, and is formidable only when provoked. His bulk is so great that 12 oxen have been found necessary to draw before one that had been shot; and it is said that the hide is a load for a camel. Though he delights in the water, and appears to live in it as easily as on land, he has not, like the beaver, or otter, membranes between his toes. The great size of his belly renders his specific gravity nearly equal to that of water, and enables him to swim with ease.

These animals inhabit the rivers of Africa, from the Niger to Berg river, many miles north of the Cape of Good Hope. They formerly abounded in the rivers nearer the Cape, but are now almost extinct; and to preserve the few which are left in Berg river, the governor absolutely prohibited the shooting of them without particular permission. They are not found in any of the African rivers that run into the Mediterranean, except in the Nile, and even there only in Upper Egypt, and in the fens and lakes of Ethiopia, through which the Nile passes. From the unwieldiness of his body and the shortness of his legs, the hippopotamus is not able to move fast upon land, and is therefore extremely timid. When pursued, he takes to the water, plunges in, sinks to the bottom, and is seen walking there at ease; he cannot, however, continue there long, without rising towards the surface; and in the day-time is too fearful of being discovered, that when he takes in fresh air the place is hardly perceptible, as he scarcely ventures to put his nose out of the water. In rivers not frequented by mankind, he is, however, less cautious, and there puts his whole head out of the water. If wounded, he will rise and attack boats or canoes with great fury; and is said frequently to sink them by biting large pieces out of the sides; for he is as bold in the water as he is timid on the land. In shallow rivers the hippopotamus makes deep holes in the bottom for the purpose of concealing his great bulk. When he quits the water, he usually puts out half his body at once, sniffs and looks around, but sometimes he rushes out with great impetuosity, and tramples down every thing in his way. During the night he leaves the rivers to graze upon the land, where he eats sugar canes, History of rushes, millet, rice, &c., consume great quantities, and doing much damage in the cultivated fields. As he is so timid on land, it is, however, not difficult to drive him off. The Egyptians (as Mr. Haffelsquilt informs us) have a curious method of freeing themselves from some measure from this destructive animal. They remark the places he frequents most, and there lay a large quantity of pease; when the animal comes on shore hungry and voracious, he falls to eating what is nearest him, and, filling his belly with pease, they occasion an insupportable thirst; he then returns immediately into the river, and drinks large draughts of water, which by swelling the pease, cause his sudden death; for not long after the Egyptians find him dead on the shore, blown up as if killed with strong poison. He also feeds on the roots of trees, which he loosens with his great tusks; but he never feeds on fish. These animals sleep on the reedy islands in the middle of the stream, and here they bring forth their young. There is but one male to a herd of females; these bring forth one young at a time on the land, but they fuckle them in the water.

They are generally taken in pit-falls, and the poor people eat their flesh. Indeed the flesh of the young animals or calves, as they are called, is esteemed a dainty by the natives. In some parts they place in their corn grounds boards full of sharp irons, which these beasts strike into their feet, and thus become an easy prey. Sometimes they are taken in the water by striking them with harpoons fastened to cords, and 10 or 12 canoes are employed in the chase. The hippopotamus was known to the Romans. Scærus treated the people with the sight of five crocodiles and one hippopotamus during his edileship, and exhibited them in a temporary lake. Augustus produced one at his triumph over Cleopatra.

This animal is the behemoth of Job, who admirably describes its manners, food, and haunts. Vad. chap. xl. ver. 15.

For an anatomical account of the skeleton of the hippopotamus by Cuvier, see Ann. de Mus. Nat. tom. iv. p. 299.

Genus 47. TAPIR. TAPIR.

Front teeth in both jaws 10. Canine teeth in both jaws single, incavated. Grinders in both jaws five on each side, very broad. Feet with three hoofs and a false hoof on the fore feet.

There is only one species, viz.

T. Americanus, American Tapir, which is thus described by M. Bajon.

The figure of the tapir bears some general resemblance to that of a hog; but he is of the height of a small mule, having an extremely thick body and short legs. He is covered with hair of a longer kind than the horse or ass; but not so long nor thick as that of a hog. His mane, which is straight, is but little longer than the rest of the hair, and reaches from the top of the head to the shoulders; the head is large and long, the eyes very small and black; the ears black, and somewhat like those of a hog. He is provided with a trunk on the upper lip of nearly a foot long, the movements of which are extremely supple, and in which resides the organ of smell, as in the elephant, and which he extends in order to grasp fruits, &c. The two nostrils part the end of the trunk. The tail is only two inches long, and is nearly naked. The hair of the body is of a somewhat deep brown; the limbs short and thick; the feet very large, and rather rounded; the fore feet have four toes, and the hind three; all the toes are covered with a hard thick hoof or horn. Though the head is very large, it contains but a very small brain; the jaws are much elongated, and furnished, in general, with 40 teeth; but sometimes there are more, and sometimes fewer. The cutting teeth are sharp-edged, and are the teeth which vary as to number. After the cutting teeth, we find a canine tooth on each side, both above and below, which have a good deal of resemblance to those of a boar; we then find a small space or interval without teeth, and then follow the grinders, which are very large, with very broad surfaces.

M. Bajon imagined, that, on dissection, he discovered three stomachs within this animal, and therefore he considered it to be a ruminating animal; but this was afterwards found to be a mistake. It appeared, on dissecting a tapir brought alive to Paris, that the stomach was very large, and was contracted in two places, but was still a single uniform stomach.

The female tapir is larger than the male, and has a weaker voice.

The tapir was once considered as an amphibious animal; but this opinion seems to be erroneous.

For an anatomical account of the skeleton of the tapir, by Cuvier, see Annales de Mus. Nat. tom. iii. p. 132.

Genus 48. SUS. HOG.

Front teeth in the upper jaw four, converging. In the lower jaw six, projecting. Canine teeth or tusks, in Sus. the upper jaw two, long, exerted. Snout truncated, prominent, moveable. Feet cloven.

In their manners the whole of this tribe nearly resemble each other, being in general filthy and disagreeing, and very fond of wallowing in the mire. They feed indifferently on animal and vegetable food, but seem to prefer the latter when they can obtain it. They are particularly fond of acorns, beech mast, and similar fruits, and with their strong tendinous snout they dig up the earth in search of roots. They are exceedingly prolific.

There are about five species, viz.

1. * S. Serota, Common H. Body bristled in front; tail hairy.—2. S. Ethiopicus, Ethiopian H. Wattles beneath the eyes.—3. S. Africanus, Cape Verd H. Only two front teeth.—4. S. Babirusa, Babirusa, or Horned H. The two upper tusks growing from the upper part of the front.—5. S. Taïa, Pacary. Tail-lefs, with a glandular orifice on the back.

1. S. Serota, Common H.—The common hog is found either in a wild or domestic state, in almost all the temperate parts of Europe and Asia; but it is not met with in the most northern parts of these continents. It is common also found in the upper parts of Africa. Dr. Shaw remarks, that it is not indigenous to the British isles; but Mr. Pennant affirms, that the wild boar was formerly a native of this country, as appears from the laws of Hoel dda, who permitted his grand huntman to chase that animal from the middle of November to the beginning of December. William the Conqueror punished, with the loss of their eyes, any that were convicted of killing... Belluz killing the wild boar, the stag, or the roe-buck; and Fitz-Stephens tells us, that the vast forest that in his time grew on the north side of London, was the retreat of hogs, fallow-deer, wild boars, and bulls.

The wild boar inhabits woods, living on various kinds of vegetables, viz. roots, malt, acorns, &c., &c. It also occasionally devours animal food. It is, in general, considerably smaller than the domestic hog, and is of a dark brindled gray color, sometimes blackish; but, when only a year or two old, is of a pale red or dull yellowish brown cast; and, when quite young, is marked by alternate dusky and pale stripes disposed longitudinally on each side the body. Between the bristles, next the skin, is a finer or softer hair, of a woolly or curling nature. The snout is somewhat longer in proportion than that of the domestic animal; but the principal difference is in the superior length and size of the tusks, which are often several inches long, and capable of inflicting the most severe and fatal wounds.

The hunting of the wild boar forms one of the amusements of the great in some parts of Germany, Poland, &c. and is a chase of some difficulty and danger, not on account of the swiftness, but the ferocity of the animal.

Wild boars, says Buffon, which have not passed their third year, are called by the hunters beasts of company, because previous to this age they do not separate, but follow their common parent. They never wander alone till they have acquired sufficient strength to resist the attacks of the wolf. These animals, when they have young, form a kind of flocks; and it is upon this alone that their safety depends. When attacked, the largest and strongest front the enemy, and by pressing all round against the weaker, force them into the centre. Domestic hogs are also observed to defend themselves in a similar manner. The wild boar is hunted with dogs, or killed by surplice, during the night, when the moon shines. As he flies slowly, leaves a strong odor behind him, and defends himself against the dogs, and often wounds them dangerously, fine hunting dogs are unnecessary, and would have their nose spoiled, and acquire a habit of moving slowly by hunting him. Mastiffs, with very little training, are sufficient. The oldest boars, which are known by the track of their feet, should alone be hunted; a young boar of three years old is difficult to be attacked, because he runs very fast without stopping; but the old boars do not run far, allow the dogs to come near, and often stop to repel them. During the day the boar commonly keeps in his hole, which is in the most sequestered parts of the woods, and comes out by night in quest of food; and in summer, when the grain is ripe, it is easy to surprise him among the cultivated fields, which he frequents every night.

As the wild boar advances in age, after the period of three or four years, he becomes less dangerous, on account of the growth of his tusks, which turn up, or make so large a curve, as often rather to impede than assist his intentions of wounding with them.

According to the French newspapers for the year 1787, a wild bear, of most extraordinary size, was killed in the neighborhood of Cognac in Angoumois, which had often escaped from the hunters, had received many gun-shot wounds, and had cost the lives of several dogs and men each time of attacking him. When this animal was at length slain, several bullets were said to have been found between his skin and flesh. M. Sonnini, who details this anecdote from the public papers, observes, that if the relation had not been given by hunters of distinguished order, and too well acquainted with these animals to have made any mistake, we might imagine that this formidable creature, which had long committed its ravages in the park of Cognac, belonged to a totally different species. It was of enormous size, with a very long head, a very sharp or pointed snout; and its mouth was armed with teeth of a very singular form. The hairs of the body were white, those of the head yellowish, the neck marked with a black band in form of a cravat, and the ears large and straight; and what appears surprising, considering its size, it was of uncommon swiftness.

In a domestic state the sow brings forth twice a year, and produces from 10 to 20 at a litter. She goes rather more than four months with young. At the time of bringing forth she must be carefully watched, as the sometimes devours her young, and it is still more necessary to keep off the boar, who may destroy the whole litter.

There are several varieties of the hog bred in this country; but those in greatest request are generally known by the name of Berkshire pigs. They are usually of a reddish-brown color, with black spots; they have large ears hanging over their eyes, are short-legged, small-boned, and very easily fattened. Mr Culley mentions one of these that was killed at Congleton in Cheshire, which measured from the nose to the end of the tail nine feet eight inches, was four feet and a half high, and weighed, when killed, 86 stones 11 lbs. avoidupois.

The Chinese, or black breed, are now very common in England. They are smaller, have shorter legs, and their flesh is whiter and sweeter than the common kind. Of this sort were those found in New Guinea, which proved so seasonable a relief to our circumnavigators, when that country was first visited by them. There are likewise great numbers of them in the Friendly and Society islands, the Marquesas, and many other of the lately discovered islands in the South seas. They are fed with plantains, bread-fruit, and yams; and are exceedingly fat. They are frequently seen by the natives in their canoes, swimming from one island to another, and killed by them with lances and arrows.

The hog species, though very numerous and diffused over Europe, Asia, and Africa, did not exist in America, till transported thither by the Spaniards. In many places they have multiplied exceedingly, and become wild. They resemble the domestic hog, but their bodies are shorter, and their snout and skin thicker.

This animal has been compared to a miser, who is useless and rapacious in his life; but on his death becomes of public use, by the very effects of his sordid manners. The hog, during life, does not render the least service to mankind, except in removing that filth which other animals reject. His more than common brutality urges him to devour even his own offspring. All other domestic quadrupeds shew some degree of respect to mankind, and even a sort of tenderness for us in our helpless years; but this animal will devour infants, whenever it has opportunity.

The parts of this animal are finely adapted to its way of life. As its method of feeding is by turning up the earth. History of earth for roots of different kinds; so nature has given it a more prone form than other animals; a strong brawny neck, eyes small, and placed high in the head, a long snout, nose callous and tough, and a quick sense of smelling to trace out its food. Its intellects have a strong resemblance to those of the human species; a circumstance that should mortify our pride. The external form of its body is very unwieldy, yet, by the strength of its tendons, the wild boar is enabled to fly from the hunters with amazing agility. The back toe on the feet of this animal prevents it from slipping while it descends declivities, and must be of singular use when pursued; yet, notwithstanding its powers of motion, it is by nature stupid, inactive, and drowsy; much inclined to increase in fat, which is disposed in a different manner from other animals, and forms a regular coat over the whole body. It is restless at a change of weather, and in certain high winds is so agitated as to run violently, screaming horribly at the same time: it is fond of wallowing in the dirt, either to cool its furseated body, or to destroy the lice, ticks, and other insects with which it is infested. Its diseases generally arise from intemperance: measles, impolitumes, and scrophulous complaints, are reckoned among them.

Linnaeus observes that its flesh is a wholesome food for athletic constitutions, or those that use much exercise, but bad for such as lead a sedentary life. It is of most universal use, and furnishes numberless materials for epicurism, among which brown is a kind peculiar to England. The flesh of the hog is an article of the first importance to a naval and commercial nation, for it takes salt better than any other kind, and consequently is capable of being preserved longer. The lard is of great use in medicine, being an ingredient in several sorts of plasters, either pure, or in the form of pomatum; and the bristles are formed into brushes of several kinds.

4. S. Babirufa, the Babirufa.—This animal nearly resembles the common hog in size; but his body is rather longer, his limbs more slender, and, instead of bristles, he is covered with fine short, rather woolly hair, of a deep brown or blackish colour, with only a few bristles on the upper and hinder parts of the back. It is principally distinguished from other species by the very extraordinary position and form of the upper tusks. These, instead of being situated internally on the edge of the jaw, as in other animals, are placed without, through the skin of the snout, turning upwards towards the forehead. As the animal advances in age, these tusks become extremely long and curved, as to touch the forehead, and then bend downwards, when they must lose their power as offensive weapons, for which they were probably intended in the younger animal. These upper tusks are of a fine hard grain, and may be used as ivory. The tusks of the lower jaw resemble those of the other species, and are very long, sharp, and curved; but not nearly so large as those of the upper jaw. The eyes are small; the ears erect and pointed; the tail pretty long, slender, and terminated by a tuft of long hairs.

This species is gregarious, and found in large herds in several parts of Java, Amboyna, and other Indian islands. It feeds entirely on vegetables, and often eats the leaves of trees. When sleeping or resting itself in a standing posture, it is said to hook its tusks across the lower branches of the trees by way of support. When pursued, these animals will often plunge into a river, or even into the sea, and they can swim with great ease, and to a vast distance. Their voice is said to resemble that of the common hog; but it is sometimes a strong, loud, growling note. It is occasionally domesticated by the natives of the Indian islands, and its flesh is considered as wholesome food.

This order contains four genera and 13 species.

In the class Mammalia, we have enumerated or described about 537 species; of which the following table shows the number in each genus.

| Genus | Species | |------------------------|---------| | Simia | 62 | | Lemur | 13 | | Galeopithecus | 1 | | Vespertilio | 24 | | Bradypus | 3 | | Myrmecophaga | about | | Manis | 3 | | Dasyurus | about | | Rhinoceros | perhaps | | Elephas | 1 | | Platypus | 1 | | Trichagus | about | | Phoca | 19 | | Canis | about | | Felis | about | | Viverra | about | | Lutra | 8 | | Ursus | about | | Didelphis | about | | Dasyurus | 6 | | Peramelus | 2 | | Wombat | 1 | | Macropus | 2 | | Talpa | 7 | | Sorex | 16 | | Erinaceus | 5 | | Hystrix | 6 | | Cavia | 7 | | Castor | 2 | | Mus | about | | Hydromys | 3 | | Arctomys | 8 | | Sciurus | 26 | | Myoxus | 7 | | Dipus | 6 | | Lepus | 12 | | Hyrax | 3 | | Camelus | 7 | | Moschus | 7 | | Cervus | 12 | | Camelopardalis | 1 | | Antilope | 32 | | Capra | 8 | | Ovis | 8 | | Bos | 6 | | Equus | 6 | | Hippopotamus | 1 | | Tapir | 1 | | Sus | 5 |

Total 537

Of these about 36 are found in Britain. The compiler of this article is conscious that it labours under many deficiencies; that many animals, which ought to have been described, are merely enumerated; and that the accounts of several, which are usually considered as important objects of natural history, are much less complete than might have been expected. For many of these defects he does not hold himself accountable. From the very limited space within which he was obliged to confine the article, it was necessary, either that he should treat of every species in a very concise manner, so as to make the treatise merely a tabular sketch, or that he should content himself with a systematic arrangement of all the mammalia at present known, and enlarge only on a few of the more important species. He has chosen the latter alternative, which, by making the article more interesting to the generality of readers, seems best adapted to the nature of this work; while the systematic arrangement, with the specific characters, will assist the naturalist who knows where to refer for a particular account of the individuals.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Plate CCCI. Fig. 1. Simia Satyrus, Oran Otan. Fig. 2. Simia Inuus, Magot or Barbary Ape. Fig. 3. Simia Sylvanus, Pygmy. Fig. 4. Simia Sphinx, Great Baboon. Fig. 5. Simia Beelzebul, Alouatte or Preacher Monkey. Fig. 6. Simia Argentata, Mico or Fair Monkey.

Plate CCCII. Fig. 7. Lemur Tardigradus, Slow Lemur. Fig. 8. Galeopithecus Volans, Flying Calugo. Fig. 9. Vulpertilio Auritus, Long-eared Bat. Fig. 10. Vulpertilio Vampyrus, Vampire Bat. Fig. 11. Bradypus Tridactylus, Three-toed Sloth. Fig. 12. Myrmecophaga Jubata, Great Ant-Eater.

Plate CCCIII. Fig. 13. Manis Pentadactyla, Pangolin, or Short-tailed Manis. Fig. 14. Manis Tetradactyla, Long-tailed Manis. Fig. 15. Dasypus Sexcinctus, Six-banded Armadillo. Fig. 16. Rhinoceros Unicornis, Single-horned Rhinoceros.

Plate CCCIV. Fig. 17. Elephas Maximus, Elephant. Fig. 18. Subtyro. Fig. 19. Platypus Anatinus, Duck-billed Platypus. Fig. 20. Trichecus Rosmarus, Arctic Walrus.

Plate CCCV. Fig. 21. Phoca Vitulina, Common Seal, or Seal-calf. Fig. 22. Canis Domesticus, Common Dog. Var. Shepherd's Dog. Fig. 23. Mastiff. Fig. 24. Foxhound. Fig. 25. Terrier. Fig. 26. Greyhound. Fig. 27. Irish Greyhound.

Plate CCCVI. Fig. 28. Canis Lupus, Wolf. Fig. 29. Canis Hyena, Hyena. Fig. 30. Canis Aureus, Jackal. Fig. 31. Canis Zerda, Fennec.

Plate CCCVII. Fig. 32. Felis Leo, Lion. Fig. 33. Felis Tigris, Tiger.

Plate CCCVIII. Fig. 40. Ursus Arctos, Brown Bear. Fig. 41. Ursus Maritimus, White or Polar Bear. Fig. 42. Ursus Melet, Badger. Fig. 43. Didelphis Virginiana, Virginian Opossum. Fig. 44. Didelphis Dorfigera, Merian Opossum. Fig. 45. Dasyurus Viverrinus, Viverrine Dasyurus.

Plate CCCIX. Fig. 46. The Wombat. Fig. 47. Macropus Major, Kangaroo. Fig. 48. Talpa Radiata, Radiated Mole. Fig. 49. Sorex Araneus, Common Shrew. Fig. 50. Erinaceus Europaeus, Common Hedgehog. Fig. 51. Hystrix Grifata, Porcupine. Fig. 52. Captor Fiber, Common Beaver.

Plate CCCX. Fig. 53. Cavia Cobaya, Reflefs Cavy, or Guinea-Pig. Fig. 54. Mus Cricetus, Hamster Rat. Fig. 55. Hydromys Coypus, Coypou Rat. Fig. 56. Arctomys Marmota, Alpine Marmot. Fig. 57. Sciurus Vulgaris, Common Squirrel. Fig. 58. Myoxus Mulcardinus, Common Dormouse. Fig. 59. Dipus Jaculus, Common Jerboa.

Plate CCCXI. Fig. 60. Lepus Timidus, Hare fitting. Fig. 61. Hyrax Syriacus, Syrian Hyrax. Fig. 62. Camelus Dromedarius, Arabian Camel or Dromedary. Fig. 63. Moschus Moschiferus, Tibetan Musk. Fig. 64. Cervus Alces, Elk. Fig. 65. Camelopardalis Giraffa, Camelopardalis or Giraffe. ### Index

**A**

ALDROVANDUS'S writings on quadrupeds, No 6

Antelope tribe, p. 453, No 143

Antelope tribe, pica, 144

Ant-eater tribe, No 44

Ape tribe, 24

taillefs, 28

Barbary, 29

Pygmy, 30

Apes, 25

Arctic walrus, 56

Arctomys tribe, marmota, 124

Armadillo tribe, 46

Aristotle's writings on quadrupeds, 5

Af's, 154

**B**

Baboon, great or mottled, pig-tailed, 31

Baboons, 32

Babyroussa, 162

Badger, 96

Barbary ape, 29

Baf's account of the wombat, 103

Bat tribe, long-eared, 38

vampyre, 39

Bear tribe, common, white, 92

Beaver tribe, common, 116

Behemoth, 157

Bellua, p. 450.

Revick's work on quadrupeds, 9

Bingley's Animal Biography, 11

Bloodhound, 67

Bos tribe, taurus, grunniens, tridactylus, urfinus, p. 453, No 149

Buffon's natural history of quadrupeds, account of the beaver, 117

**C**

Calugo tribe, flying, 37

Camel tribe, Arabian, Camelopardalis, Giraffa, Camelis tribe, dromedarius, Canis tribe, familiaris, lupus, hyæna, aureus, vulpes, zarda, Capra tribe, ibex, Caflor tribe, fiber, Cat tribe, wild, domestic, Cavy tribe, reflefs, Cavia tribe, cobaya, Cervus tribe, alces, tarandus, Chimpanzee, Civet cat, Corfe. See Scot.

Coupy rat, 122

Cuvier's classification of quadrupeds, 16

**D**

Daman, Dalfypus tribe, Dafyurus, Deer tribe, moofe, rein, Didelphis tribe, virginiana, dorfigera, obelula, Dipus tribe, fagitta, Dog tribe, domestic, varieties of, shepherd's, Siberian, bull, mastiff, fox-hound, blood-hound, grey-hound, terrier, speaking, Dormouf's tribe, common, Dromedary,

**E**

Elephant, some remarks on by Mr Corfe, Scot, Elephas tribe, Elk, Equus tribe, caballus, afinus, zebra, Erinaceus tribe, europæus,

**F**

Felis tribe, leo, tigris, pardus, leopardus, catus, Fennec, Feræ, Ferret, Fitchet, Foumart, Fox, Foxhound,

**G**

Galeopithecus tribe, volans, Gefner's **Index**

**MAMMALIA**

| Gaffier's work on quadrupeds | № 6 | |----------------------------|-----| | Giraffe | 142 | | Glissi, p. 450, and № 21 | | | Goat tribe | 145 | | Grey-hound | 68 | | Irlh | 69 | | Guinea pig | 115 |

H.

| Hamster | 120 | | Hare tribe | | | common | 137 | | Hedgehog tribe | | | common | 111 | | Hippopotamus | | | Hog tribe | | | common | 161 | | babyroufla | 162 | | Home's account of the camel's stomachs | p. 511, Note (G) | | Homo, character of | | | Hope's anecdote of the terrier | | | Hope's account of the lion | | | Horse tribe | | | common | 152 | | sea | 153 | | river | 157 | | Hyena, striped | 73 | | Hydromys tribe | | | coypou | 122 | | Hyrax tribe | | | Hystrix tribe | | | criftata | 113 |

I.

| Jackal | 74 | | Iber | 146 | | Ichneumon, Egyptian | 83 | | Jerboa tribe | | | common | 129 | | Jocko | 28 | | Johnston's work on quadrupeds | |

K.

| Kangaroo tribe | | | great | 104 | | | 105 |

L.

| Lemur tribe | | | tardigradus, or slow-moving | | | flying | 35 | | Leopard | | | Lepus tribe | | | timidus | | | cuniculus | 132 | | Linnaeus's classification of mammalia | | | objections to | | | answered | 14 | | Lion | | | Lizard, scaly | | | Lutra, tribe | | | vulgaris | |

M.

| Macauco tribe | | | Macropus tribe | | | major | | | Magot | 29 |

N.

| Nyl-ghou | | | | 144 |

O.

| Opossum tribe | | | Virginian | | | Merian | | | Oran otan | | | Ornithorynchus paradoxus | | | Otter tribe | | | common | | | Ovis tribe | | | aries | | | Ox tribe | | | common | |

P.

| Pangolin | | | Panther | | | Peale's account of the mammoth | | | Pecora | | | Pennant's works on quadrupeds | | | classification of | | | Perameles tribe | | | obefula | |

Q.

| Phoca tribe | | | vitulina | | | Platypus tribe | | | duck-billed | | | Pliny's Natural History | | | Pole cat | | | Pongo | | | Porcupine tribe | | | common | | | Preacher monkey | | | Primates | | | Pygmy | |

R.

| Rabbit | | | Rat tribe | | | Norway | | | hamster | | | coypou | | | Rein deer | | | Rhinoceros tribe | | | unicornis | | | bicornis | |

S.

| Sable | | | Saphen | | | Sciurus tribe | | | vulgaris | | | Scot's (J. Corfe, Esq.) remarks on the elephant | | | Sea calf | | | Seal tribe | | | common | | | Shaw's general zoology | | | Sheep tribe | | | common | | | Shepherd's dog | | | Shrew tribe | | | common | | | Simia tribe | | | satyrus | | | inuus | | | fylvanus | | | sphinx | | | nemefrina | | | beelzebul | | | Sloth tribe | | | three-toed | | | urfine | | | Sorex tribe | | | araneus | | | Squirrel tribe | | | common | | | Sukotyro | | | Sus tribe | |

T.

| Talpa tribe | | | Europæa | | | Tapir tribe | | | Americanus | | | Terrier | | | Tiger | | | Trichecus tribe | | | rofmarus | |

U.

| Vol. XII. Part II. | |