the largest empire, and one of the most powerful states in the known world, is situated partly in Europe, partly in North America, but chiefly in Asia; where it occupies that immense tract of country which extends from the Uralian mountains and the Caspian on the west, to Bering's straits and the sea of Kamtschatka on the east, comprehending a great variety of tribes and nations, whose very names were, half a century ago, scarcely known to the west of Europe. This vast empire is bounded on the north by the Arctic ocean; on the east by the Northern Pacific or Eastern ocean; on the south by the extensive Chinese territories, the Mogul empire, the Caspian sea, and part of Turkey; and on the west by the Austrian dominions, the kingdoms of Prussia and Sweden, and the Baltic.

If we examine the extent of the Russian empire, we shall find it stretching from the western part of the island of Ozel in the Baltic in 22° E. Long. from Greenwich, to the eastern promontory of the Tchutchki territory in 172° E. from the same meridian; thus including 150° of longitude; while, from its most northern promontory in N. Lat. 78°, to the most southern point of 39° N. it comprehends 30° of latitude. Mr Tooke, computing its extent in British miles, estimates it at 9200 in length, and 2400 in breadth. Its absolute superficial measure in square miles can scarcely be ascertained. That of the European part is estimated at 1,200,000 square miles; and the Asiatic part alone is so extensive as to exceed the whole of Europe.

The whole Russian empire is, by the natural boundary of the Uralian mountains, divided into European and Asiatic Russia; the former comprehending Russia Proper, Russian Lapland, Courland, Livonia, Russian Poland, the Tauric Chersonesus or Crim Tartary, and the country of the Kozaks, bordering on the sea of Azof; the latter including the country of the Semoides, the vast district of Siberia, the country of the Tchutchki, the country of the Mongol Tartars, and some other districts that will be noticed hereafter. The whole empire was, by Catharine II., divided into governments, denominated in general from the names of their capital cities. Of these governments, by far the greater number belong to European Russia, the vast tract of the Asiatic part having been divided into only two governments, viz. that of Tobolsk to the west, and Irkutsk to the east.

In enumerating the governments of European Russia, we shall begin with the north, where lies the extensive government of Archangel, stretching from the confines of Sweden along the shores of the White sea and the Arctic ocean, to the Uralian chain. To the south of this, along the Asiatic frontier, as far as the sea of Azof, are situated the governments of Vologda, Perm, Vyotka, Kazan, Simbirsk, Saratof, and the territory of the Don Kozaks. To the west of these last, along the sea of Azof and the Black sea, lies the government of Catharinodol, including Taurida and the Crimea. On the western side of the empire extend the acquisitions derived from the partition of Poland; and along the southern shores of the Baltic lie the governments of Riga, Reval, St Peterburgh, and Viborg; while that of Olonetz on the frontiers of Sweden completes the circuit. The remaining governments which occupy the centre, are those of Novgorod, Tver, Kolomna, and Yaroslavl, that lie chiefly to the north and east of the Volga; and those of Polotzk, Pskov, Smolensk, Moikva, Vladimir, Nizhney-Novgorod, Mogilev, Kaluga, Toula, Reazan, Tambov, Penza, Orel, Sieverikof, Tcherinigof, Kourik, Kief, Kharkof, and Voronetz, lying principally to the west of the Volga (A).

In the account which we are here to give of this extensive empire, which has of late made so conspicuous a figure among the states of Europe, we shall first consider what may be called the permanent features of the empire, as the face of the country, the soil, the mountains, rivers, lakes, and forests, the climate and seasons, and the most important natural productions; we shall then trace its origin and progress in the history of its transactions, from which we shall deduce its progressive geography; and we shall conclude with describing the more fluctuating circumstances, which constitute its political and civil geography.

In a tract of country so immense, which is calculated to include a seventh part of the known continent, and country, nearly a twenty-fifth part of the whole globe, its surface must present a great variety of appearances; but these are much more remarkable in Asiatic than in European Russia. The latter is distinguished chiefly by extensive plains, called steppes, that rival the deserts of Asia and Africa, presenting to the eye little more than a vast expanse of level land, with very little appearance of vegetation. The chief situation of these steppes is towards the south, especially in the neighbourhood of the sea of Azof, where they extend in length above 400 British miles. In this part of the empire there are but few considerable elevations, and no mountains of importance, except on the eastern frontier, and towards the south, between the Don and the Volga. The whole country is well watered with rivers, and contains numerous

(A) In our orthography of the names of persons and places we have followed Mr Tooke, who has explained the principles of Russian orthography, in his History of Russia, vol. i. p. 132. In the north and east of Asiatic Russia, we see little more than extensive marshy plains, covered with almost perpetual snow, and crossed by broad rivers, which take their course to the Arctic ocean. In this part, and even towards the centre of Siberia, vegetation is so much checked by the severe cold, that few trees are to be seen; but towards the south there are vast forests of pine, fir, larch, and trees of a similar nature. In some parts of this division of the empire, especially about lake Baikal, the scenery is beautiful and picturesque. Here, too, the country abounds in steppes, which are still more extensive than those of the European part.

As these steppes are among the most striking peculiarities of the Russian empire, it may be proper to consider them rather minutely. These steppes resemble, in many respects, the sandy deserts of Africa; but though their soil is composed of the same materials, they are not so barren of vegetation, exhibiting here and there scattered patches of thin grass, and at distant intervals, small stunted thickets. In general they are destitute of wood, though in a few places we find small forests of birch trees. They abound with salt lakes, but streams of fresh water are uncommon. The most remarkable steppes are, as we have said, those of Asiatic Russia, and of these there are four that merit particular notice. One of these extends between the rivers Volga and Ural, and was formerly called the Kalmuk steppe. On the north it skirts the floes mountains that proceed from the Uralian chain, while to the south it borders on the Caspian. This sandy plain contains a few districts that are well adapted to the purposes of agriculture, but in general it is destitute of wood and fresh water. It abounds in salt lakes, and is very thinly inhabited. The second great steppe is that which extends between the Tobol and the Irtysh, and between this latter river and the Alay and the Obi, as far as the influx of the Irtysh into the Obi. This comprehends a most extensive territory, containing numerous forests of birch, pines, and firs, interspersed with salt lakes, and in most places well calculated for pasturage and agriculture. The greater part of this steppe lies in the government of Tobolsk. A third comprehends that large tract that lies beyond the river Tiumen, between the Obi and the Yenisey, as far as the shores of the Arctic ocean. In this steppe there is much wood, especially towards the south, where there are considerable forests. Eastward from this, between the Yenisey, the Tunguska, and the Lena, lies a fourth desert, resembling the last in its appearance, and the nature of its soil, but containing less wood. A great part of this steppe lies in the government of Irkutsk.

The mountains in Asiatic Russia are indeed more numerous, but are not remarkable for their height. The rivers are large and majestic, and are navigable for a considerable extent.

The soil is of course extremely various. That of the northern parts is marshy, and little susceptible of cultivation, but the south abounds in rich and fertile plains. The most fertile part of European Russia is that between the Don and the Volga, from the government of Voronezh to that of Simbirsk. Here the soil consists of a black mould, strongly impregnated with nitre, and is so rich, that the fields are never manured. The harvests are abundant, and the natural pastures render the sowing of artificial grasses unnecessary. Most parts of Siberia are totally incapable of agriculture and improvement.

We have already remarked that Russia is rather a flat than a mountainous country, and this character is particularly applicable to the European part. The most elevated region of this division lies in the road between St Petersburg and Moscow, and is commonly called the mountain of Volday, though denominated by the natives Vifokaya Plofchade, or the elevated ground. This mountain is flat at the top, is surrounded with large sand hills, interspersed with granite rocks, and has in its vicinity several lakes and groves. In this mountain are the sources of the rivers Duna, Volga, and Dniepr.

To the south-west, bounding the steppe of the Dniepr, lie the mountains of Taurida, which are rather romantic, for their adjacent scenery, than remarkable for their height. Between them and the shores of the Black sea lie beautiful valleys, abounding with olives, figs, and pomegranates, while the steep cliffs of the mountain are adorned with the red bark and evergreen foliage of the arbutus. These valleys are very productive in vineyards, and feed numerous flocks of sheep and goats.

The largest mountainous tract of European Russia is that of Olonetz, that lies between the Swedish frontiers and the White sea. This chain occupies a space of nearly 15°, or above 1000 British miles, running almost due north. This chain is of no great height, but its northern part is covered with perpetual snow. These mountains are very rich in mineral products, which will be noticed hereafter.

The Uralian mountains that separate European from Asiatic Russia, have been sufficiently described in the article GEOLOGY, No. 131, 135.

The mountains of Asiatic Russia are more numerous and more important. They include the Altaic chain, the mountains of Savansk, of Yablonoy, and Stanovoy, forming the southern boundary between the Russian and Chinese empires, and the classical range of Caucasus, extending between the Caspian and the Black sea. Of these, the Altaic chain has also been sufficiently described under GEOLOGY, No. 132; and as the other mountains to the south and east may be considered as a continuation of the same chain, they need not occupy our attention in the present article.

The ridge of Mount Caucasus divides Russia from Turkey to the west, and from Persia to the east, and extends between the Euxine and the Caspian for about 400 British miles. It is not of any considerable breadth, being in no part more than 20 or 30 miles across, and in some places not more than five or six. Its height is considerable, and its summits are covered with eternal ice and snow. The valleys at its foot abound in forest trees; and the bowels of the mountain contain veins of silver, lead, and copper.

Among the mountains of the Russian empire we must volcanoes, not omit the volcanoes of Kamchatka. The whole of this peninsula is divided lengthwise by a chain of lofty, rocky mountains, commonly covered with snow, and shooting into conical summits that very frequently emit smoke, and sometimes burst out into flame. We do not find, however, that they pour out lava, or water, like the European volcanoes. Many of them appear to be extinct. Rus

extinct, but their former volcanic state is evinced by the appearance of craters at their summits. In the neighbourhood of these volcanoes there are hot springs, not inferior in temperature to those of Iceland, and like them throwing up jets of water with a great noise, but to an inconceivable height.

The seas that are connected with Russia are, the Arctic ocean, and that part of the Pacific which has been called the eastern Archipelago, forming its northern and eastern boundaries; the inland seas of the Baltic, the Black sea, the sea of Azof, the Caspian, the sea of Aral, and the sea of Okhotsk. Some account of these, except the sea of Okhotsk, will be found under their respective articles in this work.

The sea of Okhotsk may be considered as a large gulf lying between the peninsula of Kamchatka to the east, and the country of the Tunguski to the west. Its entrance from the Pacific ocean is closed by a chain of small islands, called the Kurilskie islands, and within these are the two large islands of Ezzo and Sachalin. Its principal port is Okhotsk, at the mouth of the small river Okhota, and to the north-east it has a considerable branch called the sea of Pengina.

The shores of Russia are hollowed out into numerous indentations, forming several important bays and gulfs. The most remarkable of these are, the gulf of Finland in the Baltic, that of Archangel in the White sea, the bays of Ozy and of Enify in the Arctic ocean; the bay of Anadhir in the eastern Archipelago; the large gulf of the sea of Okhotsk, called the sea of Pengina, and the harbour of St Peter and St Paul in the southern extremity of Kamchatka.

This extensive empire is watered by numerous and important rivers, which traverse it in every direction. These we shall class, not according to the divisions of the empire through which they pass, but according to the seas or oceans into which they flow.

The rivers which flow into the Baltic are, the Duna and the Neva. Those which fall into the White sea are the Onega and the Dvina to the west, and the Kieloi and the Melen to the east. Into the Arctic ocean flow the Kara, the Petchora or Bolshaya Petchora, the Oby, which receives the Irtysh; the Tobol, the Yenify, the Khatanga, the Lena, the Yana, the Indigirka, and the Kolyma. Those which flow into the eastern Pacific are, the Anadhir and the Kamtschatka. Into the Caspian sea fall the Yemba or Emba, the Ural or Yaik, the Volga, receiving the Kamma, and the Okka and the Terek. Lastly, there flow into the Black sea, the Khuban, the Don, the Dniepr or Nieper, the Bog or Bogue, and the Dniepr or Niefer.

Of these rivers we have already given an account of the Don, the Dvina, the Irtysh, the Lena, the Nieper, the Niefer, the Oby, and the Onega, under their respective titles, and an account of the Volga will be found under that head. We shall here add a brief view of the remaining rivers.

The Duna, sometimes called the western Dvina, rises between the provinces of Pskov and Smolensk, and takes a north-westerly course for about 500 miles, till it falls into the Baltic at Riga. This river has some considerable and dangerous falls; and when the ice breaks up on the approach of warm weather, vast quantities of it are hurled down the stream, so as frequently to do much injury to the port of Riga.

Of those rivers which flow into the Arctic ocean, the Kara is one of the most inconsiderable, were it not that it completes the boundary between Europe and Asia to the north. It runs from the Uralian mountains to the sea of Kavkoye, a distance of about 140 miles.

The Petchora rises in the Uralian mountains, in the government of Vologda, runs across the government of Archangel, and falls into the Arctic ocean at Poostozertik, after a course of about 450 miles.

The Tobol rises in the chain of mountains that separate the government of Ufa from the country of the Kirghiztzi, and empties itself into the Irtysh at Tobolisk, after receiving numerous tributary streams.

The Yenify, or Enify, is formed by the junction of two rivers, viz. the Kamara and the Veikem or Baykema, which belong to China. It first enters the Russian dominions, where alone it has the name of Yenify, at the mouth of the Bon-Kemtilyng, and after running northward, and forming a bay containing several islands, it falls into the Arctic ocean about 2° eastward of the mouth of the Oby.

The Khatanga rises from a lake in the government of Tobolisk, and falls into a large bay of the frozen ocean, called Khatanksaia Guba. Its course is through a low and very marshy country.

The Yana rises from a little lake in about 64° N. lat., and after making some small turns, runs northward to the Arctic ocean, forming five considerable arms that empty themselves into a capacious bay.

The Indigirka rises near the source of the Yana, but on the other side of the mountains. At its efflux into the Arctic ocean after a course of 1200 versts, (B) it forms four great arms.

The Anadhir rises in the country of the Tschutchki. Its bed is sandy, its channel very broad, and its current slow. It is so shallow that it can scarcely be crossed by the common ferry boats of the country, though these draw no more than two feet of water. It takes its course through a flat country, which on the north side of the river is deficient in wood, but overgrown with mosses, affording pasture to innumerable herds of reindeer; but on the south well wooded and abounding with verdure. It falls into a considerable bay a little south of the tropic of Cancer, called the bay of Anadhir.

The Kamtschatka takes a short course from south to north, along the peninsula of that name, till, not far from its mouth it turns to the south-east, and falls into a bay nearly opposite to Bering's island.

The Amoor was formerly reckoned among the rivers of Russia, but was lately ceded entirely to China.

Of the rivers that fall into the Caspian sea we have to notice the Yemba, the Ural, and the Terek. The first of these rises in the most southern part of the Uralian chain, and is the most eastern of all the rivers that fall into the Caspian. It forms part of the boundary between the country of the Kirghishes and the Ufinskoy government. The Ural or Yaik is a river of considerable length.

(B) A Russian verst is about two thirds of an English mile, or about 1174 yards. Rus

Rus. able importance. It rises in the Uralian mountains, in the government of Ufa, and after passing by Orenburg, and receiving several streams, it flows into the Caspian at Gourief. Its name is said to have been changed from Yaak to Ural, on account of a dangerous insurrection of the tribes that inhabited its banks. The Terek originates in Mount Caucasus, on the highest ridges that form the frontiers of Georgia. Its course is rapid, and in the autumn the melted snows rush down from the mountains in such torrents into the plain beneath, as to swell this river eight or ten feet above its usual level, so that it overflows the adjacent country, and not unfrequently shifts its bed. It falls into the Caspian at Kiziljar, after forming two branches, with a considerable island between them.

The Kuban and the Bogue are the only important rivers of those which flow into the Black Sea, that have not been noticed in their places in the general alphabet of this work. Of these the Kuban, anciently denominated Hypanis, rises at the foot of Mount Caucasus, and is formed chiefly by the confluence of several tributary streams. It takes a direction nearly westward, running along the parallel of 43° N. Lat., and falls into the Black Sea, opposite the island of Taman, in the straits of Kafa. Its stream is smooth and gentle, not obstructed by waterfalls, and, though not deep, is well adapted for purposes of inland navigation. Its banks are fertile, and near its source are considerable forests.

The Bogue rises in Poland, and formerly constituted part of the boundary between that kingdom and the Russian empire, as at present towards its mouth it forms part of the frontier between Russia and Turkey. It falls into the Black Sea at Ochakof.

The Russian empire, considering its size, does not abound in lakes. There are proportionally more numerous in European Russia, where we find the lake of Imandra in Russian Lapland; those of Ladoga, Onega, and Peipus, in the neighbourhood of St Petersburg; Bielo-Ozero, or the White Lake, in the government of Novgorod; and those which give rise to the river Volga, the principal of which is Seliger, in the government of Tver.

The Asiatic lakes are not numerous; but one of them, the lake or sea of Baikal, is highly important from its magnitude, and from the commercial intercourse which it promotes between the adjacent provinces. The other lakes of this part of Russia are those of Altyn-Noor, or the Golden lake, and of Altyn or Teltizko.

Most of these lakes have been already noticed under their proper heads in the general alphabet; but as the account there given, excepting that of Baikal, differs in some respects from the description of them by the latest geographers, we shall here add the account of the Russian lakes given by Mr Tooke.

The lake of Ladoga is situated in the government of Vyborg, between the gulf of Finland and the lake of Onega, which in ancient times is said to have been denominated Nebo. It is reckoned one of the largest lakes in Europe, the length of it being about 175, and its breadth 105 versts. It produces a vast number of fish. On account of the perilous storms to which it is liable, and the several sand banks that are ever shifting their position, Peter the Great caused the famous Ladoga canal to be dug along its shore, from the Volkhof into the Neva, which canal is 104 versts long, 10 fajénes broad, 1½ fajénes deep, and has 25 sluices. By the Neva the Ladoga is connected with the Baltic; by the Svir with the Onega; and by the Volkhof with the Ilmen. Into the canal flow the rivers Lipke, Englif, Nafla, Sheldika, Lava, and Kabona; into the lake, the rivers Palka, Sizz, Oset, &c.; whereas the Neva alone runs out of it. Both shores of the lake belong to Russia, and there are everywhere flat coasts and sandy beaches. On this shore it has also a few low fishery islands, and a sandy bottom. That part of the northern side which lies in the government of Olonetz has marble on its coast, whence some of those beautiful and durable kinds of Finnish marble are brought to St Petersburg. As the bed of this lake, for a great extent, is in the lowest part of the country, it receives besides the above-mentioned rivers, the waters that come from the slum hills; all of which have no other outlet than the Neva.

The lake Onega is situated in the government of Olonetz, between the Ladoga and the White Sea. Its length is between 180 and 200 versts, and its breadth from 60 to 80. Like the Ladoga, it contains a few islands consisting of marble, and in all other properties is much the same. With other rivers, the Vitegra falls into it on the south-east side, which river takes its rise not far from the Kofsha, and this river falls into the Bielo-ozero. On the Kofsha is the old Ladoga, and on the Vitegra, the old Vitegraklaia, which are only about 40 versts asunder. Now, as from the Onega the navigable river Svir runs into the Ladoga, and from the Bielo-ozero the Sheksna flows into the Volga, there needs only a canal to cut the said distance of 40 versts, for connecting the Neva with the Volga, which would be much more convenient for the navigation here than the passage by Vifinoi-Volotlokh, because there are no waterfalls, and therefore all the danger and trouble attending them in the present passage would be obviated.

The lake Peipus, called by the Russians Tihudkoe-Peipus-ozero, lies between the governments of Picove, Reval, Riga, and St Petersburg; is in length about 80, and in breadth about 60 versts. It is connected with the Picove lake by a very broad channel, about 50 versts in length. From this lake proceeds the river Narova, communicating through the Embach with the Vertzerb, and from this latter runs the Fellin to the gulf of Riga, so that an inland navigation might easily be formed between lake Peipus and the Baltic, though at present the commodities conveyed along the Narova to Narva, must be carried a considerable way by land, owing to the numerous falls in that river. In this lake there are a few small islands, one of which has three villages upon it, and is well furnished with wood.

The Bielo-ozero, or White lake, is in the same government with the foregoing; is about 50 versts long, and ozero. 30 broad, and receives into it several smaller streams. The only one that flows out of it is the Sheksna, which falls into the Volga. The water of this lake is clear, having a bottom partly clay and partly flinty. The clay is generally of a white colour, and in stormy weather causes a strong white foam upon the surface of the water. It is doubtedless from this circumstance that the lake first obtained the name Bielo, or white. It abounds with fish and crabs.

The lake Tihany is situated partly in the government of of Tobolik and partly in that of Kolhyvan. It communicates with the lakes Mollik and Abilhikan, is of very considerable circuit, and abounds in fish.

The lake Ilmen, formerly Moisk, lies in the government of Novgorod, being about 40 verts long and 30 broad. It receives the rivers Mita, Lovat, Skelton, &c. and gives birth to the Volkhof alone.

The Altyn-Noor, or Teletzkoe-ozero, lies in the government of Kolhyvan, on a very considerable elevation of the Altai mountains, by which it is also entirely surrounded. Its length is computed at 126, and its greatest breadth at 84 verts. From this lake arises the famous river By, which, at its junction with the Katunia, takes the name of Oby.

European Russia abounds in wood; and numerous extensive forests are seen in various districts, especially between St Peterburgh and Moisco, and between Vladimir and Arzonas. It is supposed that the Rhiphan forest, so celebrated in antiquity, occupied the southern part of European Russia, where now extends a plain covered with a thick and fertile coat of black mould. The forests in some part of Asiatic Russia are also immensely large, especially towards the south. On the west of the government of Irkutsk, an enormous, dark and marshy forest of reinous trees, extends to the river Kan; but the northern and eastern parts of Siberia are bare of wood.

When we consider that the Russian empire occupies an extent from north to south of nearly 48°, we may rationally conclude that the climate and seasons of so vast a tract must be extremely diversified. Accordingly we find that while the northern regions are exposed to almost perpetual frosts, some of the southern districts enjoy the purest atmosphere, and the mildest sky. While the former is doomed to the utmost sterility, the latter is so fertile as to produce in the most lavish abundance all the vegetable riches of the most favoured climates.

One of the latest writers on the climate of Russia, M. Hermann, has divided the empire into four regions, which are thus distinguished.

1. The very cold region, extending from 78° to 65° of north latitude. This region comprehends the governments of Vyborg, Olonetz, Archangel, Tobolik, the greater part of Irkutsk, Vologda, a part of Perme, Novgorod and St Peterburgh.

2. The cold region, extending from 60° to 55°, and including the governments of Reval, Riga, Polotik, Plov, Tver, Moisco, Yaroslavl, Vladimir, Koftroma, Viatka, the greater part of Perme and Kazan, a part of Irkutsk, Kolhyvan, Ufa, Simbirsk, Nifshney-Novgorod, Kaluga, and Smolensk.

3. The moderate region, extending from 55° to 50°, including the governments of Moghilief, Tchernigof, Orel, Kurfk, Tula, Tambof, Penza, the greater part of Kief, Kharkof, Voronetik, Riazan, Saratof, Kaluga, Sinbirsk, Ufa, Kolhyvan, and a part of Irkutsk, Kazan, Nifshney-Novgorod, and Smolensk.

4. The hot region, extending from 50° to the most southern part of Russia, including Taurida, Ekatarinof, the greater part of Caucasus, and a part of Kief, Kharkof, Voronetik, Saratof, Ufa, Kolhyvan, and Irkutsk.

From the above enumeration we find that one of the Russian governments possesses all the varieties of climate and season, and that many of them are so divided as to enjoy the advantages of two climates. We shall describe the nature of the climate and changes of the season, as they occur in each of these divisions, confining ourselves chiefly to the extremes of St Peterburgh and Taurida, as being most interesting.

In many districts of the first region there is scarcely any summer; for the three or four months in which it does not snow, scarcely deserve that name. As in most parts of the globe, however, the eastern districts of this region are much colder and more barren than those on the western side; the fruits that come to maturity round St Peterburgh, and in the government of Vyborg, are not found under the same latitude in Siberia. Even the weather of St Peterburgh, however, is sufficiently rude, and the climate here is unsettled and unfriendly. In the winter of 1798 and 1799, the coldest ever known in that country, the mercury in Fahrenheit's thermometer stood at St Peterburgh at 39° below zero, and even at Moisco, the same thermometer fluctuated during five successive days between -30° and -40°. The spring in this region (i.e. about St Peterburgh), has in general much frost, snow, and rain; but the short summer is for the most part fair and fine. The longest day is here about 18½ hours, and the evening twilights are uncommonly luminous, as readily to enable persons to read and write. The very fultry days are in general but few, and these are amply compensated by the cool evenings, nights and mornings. The autumn has seldom many bright days, but is for the most part cloudy, wet, and boisterous. The winter is always severe; and as the atmosphere is generally dry, even in snowy weather, this season is so healthy, that the smallest number of deaths is found to happen during winter. The shortest day is only five hours and a half, and though considerable light is reflected from the snow, yet when the atmosphere is cloudy, candles can be dispensed with but for a very short time. During this season the river Neva, the lakes in the vicinity of St Peterburgh, and even the gulf of Finland, as far as the islands of the Baltic, are covered with ice, nearly a yard in thickness. On an average, there are annually from 150 to 190 days of frost, during which the ground is frozen to the depth of nearly three feet.

This severity of climate, apparently so inimical to health and comfort, is considered by the inhabitants as one of their greatest blessings. By the extent of ice and snow, distances are shortened, or at least travelling is facilitated, so that people, horses, and carriages with the heaviest burdens, cross the Neva, and the other rivers, lakes and canals in all directions. Ice cellars here form a necessary of life, for by their means provisions of all kinds are preserved during summer. Hence every house is provided with one of them; and in the beginning of February they are filled with large blocks cut from the river. The ice also promotes the amusements of the inhabitants, as we shall show in the sequel of this article. Indeed, so essential is this severity of season to the comfort of the inhabitants, that when the winter is unusually mild, the roads are nearly impassable, and the provisions, which are always preserved in a frozen state, can scarcely be kept from putrefaction.

In this region the aurora borealis is very frequent, and its corollations peculiarly vivid; storms of thunder and lightning are neither numerous, violent, nor lasting; high winds are not predominant, and it seldom hails, though hoar-frosts are very common.

In the second region the summer is indeed short in many parts; but in most of them it is so warm, and the days are so long, that the fruits of the earth usually come to maturity in a shorter time than in other places. The winter in this region, especially in the governments of Irkutsk, Perme, Viatka, &c., is in general very severe.

In the third region the winter is also long and cold, especially in the governments of Irkutsk, Kolyvan, and Ufa. This, however, is owing rather to the lofty mountains with which these districts abound, than from their high degree of latitude. The governments belonging to this region in European Russia, however, usually enjoy a short and mild winter, and a fine warm summer.

In the fourth region the winters are short, and, except in some parts of Irkutsk and Kolyvan, not very cold; and the summer is warm, and in many parts very dry. One of the most delightful districts in this region is that of Taurida, of which M. Pallas has given the following animated description.

"One of the mildest and most fertile regions of the empire is the beautiful semicircular and amphitheatral vale formed by the Tauridan mountains along the shores of the Euxine. These valleys, which are blest with the climate of Anatolia and the lesser Asia, where the winter is scarcely sensible, where the primroses and spring-saffron bloom in February and often in January, and where the oak frequently retains its foliage through the whole winter, are, in regard to botany and rural economy, the noblest tract in Taurida, and perhaps in the whole extent of the empire. Here, on all sides, thrive and flourish in open air the ever-verdant laurel, the olive tree, the fig, the lotus, the pomegranate, and the celtis, which perhaps are the remains of Grecian cultivation; with the manna-bearing ash, the turpentine tree, the tan-bark tree, the strawberry tree from Asia Minor, and many others. This last particularly covers the steep cliffs of the shore, and beautifies them in winter by its perpetual foliage, and the red rind of its thick stem. In these happy vales the forests consist of fruit trees of every kind, or rather they form only a large orchard left entirely to itself. On the shores of the sea the caper-bushes propagate themselves spontaneously; without the assistance of art the wild or planted vine stems climb the loftiest trees, and, twining with the flowery five-leaved ivy, form festoons and hedges. The contrast of the orchards, and the rich verdure, with the beautiful wildness presented by the adjacent mountains and rocks, which in some places rise among the clouds, and in others are fallen in ruins; the natural fountains and cascades that agreeably present their rushing waters; lastly, the near view of the sea, where the sight is lost in the unbounded prospect; all these beauties together form so picturesque and delightful a whole, that even the enraptured muse of the poet or the painter would be unable to conceive a more captivating scene.

"In these enchanting valleys, to the benefit of the empire, which nowhere possesses so fine a climate, might the useful products of Asia Minor, and of the southern parts of Europe, be made indigenous. The superior kinds of fruits may be produced here without trouble, and are for the most part so already. The best kinds of olive and fig trees may be cultivated here; and even the feafum plant never decays. Orange, lemon, and citron trees, and particularly the cedrat, the most excellent species of them, would bear the winter extremely well with a little care. The vine would be constantly improving, if a judicious selection were but made of the stocks for planting, if greater attention were paid to the various effects of the soil and situation of the vineyards, and if more care were taken in working the must and keeping the wine. For the use of the apothecaries and manufacturers a number of excellent drugs and dyes might be produced, which are at present brought from the isles of the Archipelago, from Greece, from Asia Minor, and Persia; several of them are now seen here growing wild. Likewise many hard and useful kinds of wood, especially coloured, fit for inlaid work, might here be propagated; perhaps in some tracts even the sugar cane would thrive."

The productions of Russia would afford an ample field for the investigation of the naturalist; and this part of Russia's natural history has been fully illustrated by the enlightened travellers who were lately employed in the examination of the empire. We can here give only a brief sketch of the result of their inquiries.

In the central parts of European Russia are found animals most of the animals which are common to it with the rest of Europe. The finest horses here are those of Lithuania and Livonia, the former possessing great strength, the latter excelling in speed. The spirit and beauty of the Tartarian horses have been long celebrated; and in the Taurida, where this breed is much cultivated, these qualities have been improved by the introduction of Turkish and Arabian stallions. Near Archangel, the horses are small, and resemble those in the north of Britain. The country near Archangel is remarkable for fine pasturage, and an excellent breed of cattle; but indeed cattle abound in most parts of the empire. The sheep in the northern provinces are of a middle size, with short tails and coarse wool; but those in the south are long-tailed, and their wool is of a superior texture; but the best wool is procured from the district of Kazan. We have seen that the province of Taurida abounds in sheep, which constitute the chief riches of the inhabitants. Some opulent farmers in this district possess 50,000 sheep; and 1000 is by no means an uncommon flock. Goats and swine also abound throughout European Russia; and the rein-deer is not unknown in the most northern governments. In the north, too, are found the elk, the wolf, the lynx, and the sea bear; and in the most southern districts the camel is sometimes met with.

Asiatic Russia is remarkable for the rein-deer, which there performs the office of the horse, the cow, and the sheep. In the south are found the wild horse, and the wild ass; while the argali, or wild sheep, is often hunted in Siberia, and the regions of Mount Caucasus present the furious bison. Here, too, are seen the ibex, and the chamois. Near Lake Baikal are found the stag, the musk animal, and the wild boar; and on the banks of the Yenisei is seen the beaver. Walruses haunt the shores of the Arctic ocean, and seals are found in most of its bays and inlets. In Siberia, in the provinces of Yakutsk and Nerchinsk, and in Kamchatka, Rusia, schatka, the hunting of fables forms, during part of the year, the chief occupation of the inhabitants; and their skins, when procured perfectly entire, are said to be worth 10l. each. The skins of the black fox are also highly esteemed, as, according to Mr Tooke, one of them is sometimes sufficient to pay the tribute of a village. The bear is found in the neighbourhood of the Uralian mountains, and the civet cat in the Altai chain.

The wild boar grows here to such a size, that its tusks are said sometimes to weigh 600 pounds *. The horses of the Mongul Tartars are of singular beauty, some of them being striped like the tiger, others spotted like the leopard. The skin of a noble Mongul sometimes contains 3000 or 4000 of these animals. The principal Nomadic hordes of Asiatic Rusia, viz. the Tartars, Monguls, and Mandilhurs, not unfrequently regale on horse-flesh; but they do not, as is commonly reported, eat it raw. The cattle of this division of Rusia are of a middling size, and are commonly employed for draught, and even sometimes for carriage.

The whole empire abounds with wild fowl and game of all sorts; and in the more solitary regions of Mount Caucasus, and on the Uralian and Altaian chains, there are numerous birds of prey. The external parts and provinces of the empire are well supplied with sea fish from the northern ocean, the Baltic, the White sea, the Black sea and the Caspian; and the numerous lakes and rivers yield immense quantities of salmon, trout, pike, flurgeon, and bellinga (a large fish from whose roe is made the best caviare). Innumerable swarms of insects are hatched by the summer's heat in the sands, morasses, and forests; and are said to be so troublesome as to render great part of these regions almost uninhabitable.

Vegetables. Merely to enumerate the chief vegetable productions of the Rusian empire, would far exceed the limits of our plan. We shall therefore only mention the most important. In the forests are found the fir, the Scotch pine, the larch, the elm, the birch, the alder, the greater maple, the sycamore, the oak of various species, the black and white poplar, the ash, the hornbeam, the beech, the nettle-tree, the cedar, and the cypresses. Of fruit trees and shrubs, the most remarkable are, the almond, the peach, the apricot, the medlar, the walnut, the mulberry, the olive, the fig, the vine, and the pomegranate. In some parts of Asiatic Rusia are found, besides, the quince, the date, the jujube, and the willow-leaved pear; and many other shrubs and plants, which in our climate require the aid of artificial heat, are, in the southern provinces of Rusia, produced spontaneously.

Minerals. Rusia is not less rich in mineral productions, of which Siberia in particular contains a great variety. In the brief sketch of Rusian mineralogy, which we can here offer, we shall confine ourselves chiefly to the metallic mines. Of these there are few in European Rusia, and those principally of iron. It appears that there was formerly a gold mine near the river Vigg in the north-western corner of the empire; and in the year 1739, gold was discovered in the same region, in the mountains of O'oneitz; but the product was scarcely sufficient to indemnify the government for the expense of working the mine, not more than 57 pounds of gold having been procured within the year. The richest iron mines in European Rusia, are about 60 miles from Mosco; and in the government of Perne are worked Rusian mines, both of iron and copper.

In Siberia there are valuable gold mines, especially those of Catharineburg, on the east of the Uralian mountains, in the latitude of about 57°, where an office for the management of the mines was established by Peter I. in 1719. Several mines of different metals extend to a considerable distance on the north and south of Catharineburg; and there are in this district above 100 foundries, chiefly for copper and iron. The principal gold mines in this district are those of Bereof, a few miles north-east of Catharineburg, near the river Pyshma, that falls into the Tobol. The gold is sometimes found native, but is generally mixed with various substances, especially silver. There are other mines in Kolhyvan and Nerthinsk, chiefly of lead and silver, with a small proportion of gold. The former of these were discovered in 1724, and the latter in 1748. In the mines of Bereof is found the red lead of Siberia; and in the copper mines, about 30 miles south of Catharineburg, that particular ore called malachite, or halactite copper, is found in great perfection. There are also copper mines in the Altai mountains, where dendritic copper is met with. The richest iron mines in this part of Rusia are in the neighbourhood of the Uralian chain. The large mass of native iron which we have mentioned under Geology, No. 165, was found by Professor Pallas in Siberia, near Mount Emor or Nemir, not far from the river Yenify.

Rock salt is found in several parts of Siberia, especially near the Ilek, not far from Orenburgh. Coal is a rare production in Rusia; but it is found near Lake Baikal, and in the steppes between the Don and the Volga. Sulphur, alum, sal ammoniac, nitre, and natron, are found in great abundance.

There are also found in Siberia various gems, which we must not omit to notice. These are discovered chiefly in the mountain Adumfiillow, in the province of Nerthinsk or Ussuri, not far from the Chinese river Argoon. Here are found common topazes, the hyacinth, the Siberian emerald, the beryl, the onyx, and beautiful red and green jaspers. Near Catharineburg are the gem mines of Moutinisky, where are found the beryl and the chrysolite. Near Lake Baikal red garnets are very common; and there are also found lapis lazuli and the baikalite of Kirwan. The opal is said to be found in the Altai mountains.

The mineral springs of Rusia are found principally in the Asiatic part, especially in Kamtschatka. The waters only European mineral waters that merit particular notice are, a hot spring near Selo Khunichy, in the government of Perne; a noted chalybeate spring in the village of Vingova, in the district of Olonetz, distinguished by Peter the Great, and called by him St Peter's Well, and another chalybeate spring, or rather assemblage of springs strongly impregnated with iron, discovered in 1775, near Sarepta on the Volga. In the district of Perekop and the island of Taman, belonging to the government of Taurida, there are springs of naphtha. Springs impregnated with naphtha and petroleum are also found near Lake Baikal. At Sarepta there is a sulphurous spring, and there are several others in Siberia. On the Terek, towards Mount Caucasus, are warm springs that serve as baths; and similar baths occur. Rus occur in the province of Nerchinsk, in the territory of the Kalmuks, to the south of the Altai mountains, and in the neighbourhood of Baikal. Chalybeate waters are found among the iron mines near Catharineburg, and a few occur in the province of Dauria.

The principal hot baths of Asiatic Russia are in Kamtschatka, and are formed by the hot springs noticed in No. 7. The chief bath of this kind is in the southern part of the peninsula near Natchikin. The hot waters here fall in a rapid cascade, about 300 feet below which they are collected into a basin six or seven feet broad, and 18 inches deep. The water is extremely hot, and is said to contain vitriolic and nitrous salts.

Before we conclude what may be called the permanent geography of Russia, we must enumerate the islands that belong to this extensive empire, and particularly notice such of them as have not been described in other parts of this Encyclopaedia.

In Europe the Russians possess the islands of Oesel and Dago in the Baltic, and the little island of Cretefladt at the entrance of the gulf of Finland, the islands of Novaya Zemlia, and several smaller islands in the Arctic ocean; and though the dreary island of Spitzbergen is generally considered as belonging to Denmark, it is at least equally shared by the Russians, some of whom regularly winter here, on account of the whale fishery.

In Asiatic Russia we may enumerate the Aleutian (Aleutskie or Fox) islands, of which Bering's island is the only one deserving particular notice; the Andreanov islands, about 500 miles to the south-east of Bering's island, and the Kurile or Kurilian islands, extending from the southern promontory of Kamtschatka towards Japan.

The island of Dago, but briefly noticed in our general alphabet, is for the most part rocky, and its western shore is sandy; but the southern and eastern parts consist of a bluish clay, and are very fertile. They produce considerable quantities of barley, especially in rainy seasons; but it is found necessary to sow the seed very early in the spring. There are here several forests, especially one of alders, which is seen at a great distance, and serves as a landmark. This island is extremely populous, and very healthy. It is inhabited chiefly by Ethnians. The sea round Dago abounds with shallows, rocks, and sand banks, that render the navigation dangerous; but to prevent ships from being stranded on the coast, a lighthouse has been erected on the western promontory, about three miles from the sea.

Oesel is much more considerable than Dago, being nearly 80 miles long, and about 60 at its greatest breadth. Its soil is naturally more barren than that of Dago, being chiefly sand, or loam and clay; but as it is well manured, the crops are pretty considerable. These consist of wheat, rye, and barley, and in favourable seasons, oats and peas. Oesel abounds in quarries, from which are procured excellent limestone, black and gray flagstone, and grindstones. Marble is also found, but is not much esteemed.

The islands of Novaya Zemlia, or the New Land, consist chiefly of two very large infested tracts, nearly alike in size and figure, extending between 49° and 65° of east longitude, and between 75° and 77° of north latitude. They are separated from the main land by the strait of Walgats. They may be estimated at 600 miles in length, by a medium breadth of nearly 400. Yet this large tract of country is desert and uninhabited, except by reindeer, polar bears, white and blue foxes; and on the coasts seals and walrusses. The islands are well supplied with water, but are rocky and destitute of wood except a few hunted bushes. On the northern side they are encompassed with mountains of ice. In these dreary regions the sun is not seen for nearly four months, viz. from the middle of October to February.

Bering's island is situated in the sea of Kamtschatka, about 3° to the east of that peninsula, extending from island, 55° to 56° of N. Lat. It was discovered by Bering in 1740. It consists of a range of bald cliffs and hills, running north and south, the highest of which are nearly 1000 fathoms above the level of the sea. These rocks consist of granite in the middle ridge, and a sandstone on each side; but some of the lower appear to be covered with clay. This island is entirely destitute of wood, but is otherwise not bare of vegetation. It contains springs of excellent water, and has several fine cataracts. The cold is moderate, and thunder has never been observed, though it is said some shocks of earthquakes have been felt. There are no human inhabitants; but the island affords a dwelling to sea-bears, arctic foxes, seals, and walrusses. The Aleutian and Kurilian islands have already been described under their respective heads; and an account of Spitzbergen will be found under that article.

Russia was scarcely known as an independent state before the latter end of the 9th century. We know, indeed, the Russian that long before that period, namely about the 5th cent.-empire, a horde of those nations that roved at large on the banks of the Dnieper and the Volkhov, established themselves in that part of the region bordering on the Dnieper, where is now situated the government of Kiev or Kiow. These people were called Slavi, or Slavonians, and had advanced eastward from the shores of the Danube. They appear to have laid the first foundation of the Russian monarchy, and to have built Kiev, where they fixed their capital. It is probable that about the same time another tribe of Slavi had settled still farther to the east, in the province of Novgorod, where they built the city still known by that name, as their metropolis. Of the government and transactions of these people we have no regular accounts till the conclusion of the 9th century. It appears, however, from a work of the emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus on the administration of the empire, that in his time the city of Novgorod was a place of great importance, and carried on an extensive commerce, both with Constantinople and the countries bordering on the Baltic. The government of the Novgorodians appears to have been republican, but the people were probably rather merchants than warriors. We find them involved in frequent disputes with the neighbouring nations, from whose ravages they suffered considerable losses.

If we may credit the Russian historians, the Slavi settlement that had fêted about Kiev and Novgorod, must have of the Varagians extended the boundaries of their territory northwards as far as the shores of the Baltic. We find that they were much harassed by a piratical nation who dwelt on the coasts of that sea, and were denominated Varages or Varagians, and who made frequent descents on the Russian coasts, and ravaged the country. It is not improbable that these Varagians formed a part of the Scandinavian nations, who, under the names of Danes and Saxons, Saxons, successively made themselves masters of England. They were occasionally employed by the weaker neighbouring states as mercenary auxiliaries, and in this capacity they were once called to the assistance of the Novgorodians. As is usual, where a weak people requires the assistance of a warlike and powerful nation, the auxiliaries, after having overcome the enemies whom they were invited to combat, began to think of availing themselves of the advantages which their bravery had given them over their employers. From allies and servants they soon became the masters of the Slavi; and finding the country about Novgorod superior to that which they had left, they began to think of taking up their residence in their new quarters.

Their leader Ruric built a town near the Volkhof, and surrounded it with a rampart of earth. This town is now called Old Ladoga. Here Ruric established the seat of his government. This event appears to have taken place about the year 860; and from this period we may date the commencement of the Russian monarchy. Ruric was assisted by two other chiefs of the Varages, Sineus and Truvor, who are supposed to have been his brothers, and with whom he divided the territory of which he had possessed himself. Of these, Sineus took up his residence at Bielo Ozero, or the white lake, while Truvor kept his court at Izborsk, or according to some, at Tvertzog, in the district of Pleskow. The three chiefs having thus divided among them the territories of the Novgorodians, continued to reign in amity with each other for several years.

The Slavi, however, did not submit to the dominion of their new masters, without an effort to regain their independence. At first, astonishment at the unexpected proceedings of their auxiliaries overcame the spirit of liberty which had hitherto actuated their minds; but they soon awakened from their lethargy, and determined to repel by force those whom they now considered as the invaders of their country. They flew to arms, and chose for their leader, Vadim, who by his feats in war had acquired the honourable appellation of the valiant. A fierce engagement took place between the Novgorodians under Vadim, and the Varages headed by Ruric and his brothers. The contest ended in favour of the latter, and the brave Vadim, with several other chiefs of the Novgorodians, lost their lives in the attempt to free their country from its ambitious guests. This new success emboldened Ruric to extend his territories, and to change the seat of government from the insignificant town of Ladoga, to the spacious and opulent city of Novgorod. Soon after, by the death of his partners in the government, Ruric became sole monarch of the conquered territory, where he reigned without farther molestation for 17 years, and became the primogenitor of a long line of descendants, who held the sovereignty without interruption for several centuries. Ruric appears to have been zealous for the strict administration of justice in his dominions, and issued his command to all the boyars who held territories under him, to see it exercised in an exact and uniform manner. We are not informed of the nature of his institutions; nor is it known whether the laws then existing in his territories were merely oral, or were committed to writing.

Ruric assumed the title of grand prince. His dominions extended over the present governments of Rig, Reval, Polotsk, Plov, Vyborg, St Petersburg, Novgorod, Smolensk, Olonetz, Archangel, Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, and Vologda.

As Ruric left only one son, Igor, who was still a minor at his father's death, Oleg, a kinsman of the deceased monarch, took on him the administration of affairs. Either from the natural restlessness of the Varages, or from the spirit of rebellion manifested by the Novgorodians, which indicated the necessity of employing his people in some active enterprise, the new monarch did not long remain idle. He appears very early to have projected the extension of his territories, by annexing to them the settlement which the Slavi had formed about Kief, against which he soon undertook a formidable expedition. He collected a numerous army, composed of Slavi, Varages, and Tchudes, carried with him the young prince Igor, and opened the campaign with the capture of Lubitch, and of Smolensk the capital of the Krivitsches. (c)

Having reduced several other towns of less consequence, he advanced towards Kief, the possession of which formed the chief object of his ambition, as through the Kievan territory he would have an easy passage to the Grecian empire, by inroads into which he could gratify the predatory disposition of his followers. Having advanced near the walls of Kief, he did not think it advisable to hazard an open attack, and thus leave to the precarious decision of a battle the ultimate success of his favourite project. He therefore had recourse to artifice, and leaving behind him the greater part of his troops, he concealed the remainder in the barks that had brought them down the Dnieper from Smolensk. Oleg himself, disguising his name and quality, passed for a merchant sent by Oleg and his ward Igor on business of importance to Constantinople; and he dispatched officers to Olkhod and Dir, the two chieftains of the Kievians, requesting permission to pass through their territory into Greece, and inviting them to visit him as friends and fellow-citizens, pretending that indisposition prevented him from paying his respects to them in person. The princes, free from mistrust, and relying on these appearances of friendship, accepted Oleg's invitation, and scarcely thought it necessary to take with them their ordinary attendants. They were soon undeceived; for when they arrived at the regent's encampment, they were quickly surrounded by the Varagian soldiers, who sprung from their place of concealment in the barks. Oleg taking Igor in his arms, and casting on the sovereigns of Kief a fierce and threatening look, exclaimed, "You are neither princes nor of the race of princes; behold the son of Ruric." These words, which formed the signal that had been agreed on

(c) The Krivitsches were a Slavonian tribe who inhabited the regions bordering on the upper parts of the rivers Volga, Dvina, Oka, and Dniepr, where are now the governments of Polotzk, Smolensk and Minsk. The Tchudes whom we have mentioned as forming part of Oleg's army, were a nation of Finnish extraction, and inhabited those districts which form part of the present governments of Plov and Reval. on between Oleg and his soldiers, were no sooner uttered, than the latter rushed on the two princes, and laid them prostrate at the feet of their master.

The inhabitants of Kief, thrown into consternation by this bold and treacherous act, made no resistance, but opened the gates of their city to the invaders; and thus the two Slavonian states were united under one head.

Having thus made himself master of the key to the eastern empire, Oleg prepared to carry into effect his ambitious designs against Constantinople. Leaving Igor at Kief, he himself embarked on the Dniepr with 80,000 warriors, on board of not fewer than 2000 vessels. Their passage down the river met with no obstruction, till they came to that part where its course is embarrassed for nearly 15 leagues by seven rocks; and here began a series of perils, labours, and fatigues, which none but barbarians could have overcome. They were obliged to unload their barks, and convey them over the rocks; and in particular at the fourth rock, they carried their baggage for above 6000 paces, exposed to the perpetual risk of attack from the neighbouring nations with whom they were at war, while thus hampered and encumbered. Having at length passed all the rocks, and reached the mouth of the Dniepr, Oleg drew together his scattered vessels at a small island that lies between the points of Olchakof and Kinburn, where he caused them to be refitted, and waited for a favourable wind to carry him across the Black Sea to the mouth of the Dnieper. Here the vessels were again refitted, and hence the expedition coasting along the shores of the Euxine, soon arrived at the strait of Constantinople.

The inhabitants of the imperial city, on discovering the approach of the barbarians, had drawn a mighty chain across the harbour, thus hoping to prevent their landing. In this hope, however, they were deceived. The invaders drew ashore their barks, fitted wheels to their flat bottoms, and converted them into carriages, which by the help of sails they forced along the roads that led to the city, and thus arrived under the walls of Constantinople. In their route they ravaged the whole country, and pillaged and demolished the houses, loaded the inhabitants with irons, and committed other enormities which generally attend the incursions of a barbarous enemy. The earth that had been fertilized by the sweat of the husbandman, was now drenched with his blood, and the sea received, as in one vast grave, both the carcases of the dead, and the bodies of the living. The weak Leo, who then swayed the sceptre of the Grecian empire, instead of making a manly resistance, is said to have attempted carrying off his enemy by poison; but this not succeeding, he was obliged to purchase from the conqueror an ignominious peace. Thus, even at that early period, the sovereign of Russia triumphed over the emperor of Constantinople, and Oleg acquired the full completion of his wishes, by the rich booty which he carried off. He made his entrance into Kief on his return, laden with the wealth acquired by his victory; and the people, dazzled with such splendid objects, imagined their prince to be endowed with supernatural powers, and looked up to him with a reverence approaching to adoration.

Soon after his return to his own dominions, the Russian monarch dispatched deputies to Constantinople, with the articles of a treaty which he required the Greek emperor to sign*. This treaty, which is preserved in the Chronicles of Nestor, is extremely curious; and we learn from it many important particulars respecting the internal policy of the Russians at the beginning of the tenth century. Several articles of this treaty shew, that the Russian laws laid great stress on oaths; that they pronounced the sentence of death against the murderer, instead of inflicting on him only a pecuniary fine, and thus allowing the rich to commit assassination with impunity; that wives were allowed a part of the estates of their husbands; that the punishment of offences did not extend to the entire confiscation of goods, and hence the widow and orphan did not suffer for a crime of which they were innocent; that robbery, which attacks only property, was punished by the privation of property, so that the Russian laws maintained a just proportion between the crime and the penalty; that the citizens, secure in their possessions, were under no apprehension that the sovereign would seize on their heritage, and might even dispose of their effects in favour of friends.

Oleg maintained the sovereign power for 33 years, nor does it appear that Igor, even after he obtained the age of majority, had any share in the government, till the death of his guardian, in 913, left him in full possession of the throne.

Igor had reached his 40th year before he entered on the government. He soon discovered marks of the same warlike spirit which had actuated his predecessor. Among the nations that had been subjugated by Oleg, several, on the accession of a new sovereign, attempted to regain their independence; in particular the Drevlians, who dwelt on the banks of the Uscha, in the present district of Vrutch, were the first to rise in revolt. They were, however, soon quelled, and punished by the imposition of an increased tribute. The Ugliches, who inhabited the southern bank of the Dniepr, maintained a longer contest for their liberty. One of their principal towns sustained a siege of three years, and at last submitted on condition of the trifling tribute of a marten's skin blackened by fire; as these furs were valued in proportion to the darkness of their colour.

Igor soon had to contend with more formidable enemies. The Petchenegans, a nation hitherto unknown, quitted their settlements on the Yaik and the Volga, and made incursions into the Russian territory. These people appear to have been at least as powerful and warlike as the Varages; and Igor finding himself unable to cope with them in arms, concluded a treaty of alliance. About five years after, disputes arose between the new allies, and both had recourse to arms. It appears that the Russians were finally victorious, and the Petchenegans were, for some time, disabled from giving Igor any farther molestation.

The Russian monarch, in imitation of his guardian, soon turned his attention towards the Grecian empire, where depredations might apparently be made with impunity. He equipped an immense armament, consisting, as we are assured by the Russian annals, of 10,000 vessels, each carrying 40 men, thus forming an army of 400,000 warriors. With this immense force he set sail for Constantinople, without any previous declaration of war, and without any offensive motive for thus infringing the treaty that had been concluded some years before between Oleg and Leo. In his route he overran and ravaged the provinces of Paphlagonia, Pontus, and Bithynia. thynia, plundering the towns, and butchering the inhabitants. For some time the barbarians met with no opposition, as the imperial troops were engaged in distant provinces; but the government of the empire was now in very different hands from those which held it during the former invasion. The Grecian forces were well appointed, and commanded by two generals of approved ability and courage. These were Theophanes and Phocas, of whom the former commanded the fleet, and the latter the army. The Ruffians had soon cause to repent their temerity. Theophanes attacked them on board their ships, within sight of the Pharos, and throwing among them the unquenchable Grecian fire, with the effects of which they were wholly unacquainted, threw them into such confusion, that many plunged into the sea to avoid the fires that threatened and pursued them. Their vessels were dispersed, shattered, or consumed by flames, and great numbers of their crews perished. The remainder reached the shores of Bithynia; but before they could recover from their consternation, they were met by Phocas, who fell upon them with his troops, and made prodigious slaughter. So great were the losses sustained by Igor in this unfortunate expedition, that he carried back with him scarcely a third of his army. This second naval expedition of the Ruffians against Constantinople took place in 941.

Though discouraged by the ill success which had attended his first invasion of the Grecian empire, Igor was too much stimulated by the desire of plunder, not to risk a second attempt. Three years after, he collected new forces, took into pay many of the Petchenegs, and again set out for Greece; but before he had advanced beyond the Tauric Cheroneus, the emperor Romanus, informed of his approach, and not choosing to hazard the result of an engagement, sent deputies to the Ruffian leader, offering to pay him the same tribute which had been given to his predecessor. With this offer Igor complied, and once more retired with his army.

Igor was now far advanced in years; but the insatiable rapacity of his officers, ever craving fresh spoils from vanquished nations, impelled him to turn his arms against the Drevlians, for the purpose of obtaining from them an increase of their yearly tribute. In this unjust attack he was at first successful, and returned loaded with the contributions which he had levied from that people; but having dismissed great part of his troops with the spoils of the vanquished, and marching with the remainder too far into the country, he fell into an ambuscade, which the Drevlians, now grown desperate, had formed on his approach in the neighbourhood of Korosten. The Ruffians were soon overpowered, and Igor being made prisoner, was put to death.

Before the death of Oleg, Igor had married a princess of a bold and daring spirit, named Olga, by whom he had one son, Sviatoslav; but as he was very young at the death of his father, the queen mother Olga assumed the reins of government. Her first care was to take signal vengeance on the unhappy Drevlians, for having bravely defended themselves against the encroachments of tyranny and oppression. These people, satisfied with the death of their oppressor, appeared desirous of renewing their amicable intercourse with the Ruffians, and their chief, Male, is even said to have made an offer of his hand to Igor's widow. Olga, with that deep cunning and concealed malice that so often mark the character of the despotic leader of a barbarous people, pretended to listen to their overtures, received the deputies of Male, but immediately ordered them to be privately put to death. In the mean time she invited a larger deputation from the Drevlian chief, which she treated in the same inhuman manner, taking care that no tidings of either murder should be carried to the Drevlians. She then set out, as if on an amicable visit, to conclude the new alliance, and having proclaimed a solemn entertainment, to which she invited some hundreds of the principal inhabitants of the Drevlian towns, she caused them to be treacherously assassinated. This was but the first step to the more dreadful vengeance which she had resolved to inflict on this deluded people. She laid waste the whole country of the Drevlians, and in particular the town of Korosten, near which Igor had lost his life. For a long time she could not master the place, as the inhabitants, dreading the horrible fate that awaited them, from the revengeful spirit of Olga, defended themselves with the utmost valour and success. At length, being assured of clemency, on condition of feeding to Olga all the pigeons of the town, they submitted; but Olga causing lighted matches to be fastened to the tails of the pigeons, let them at liberty. The birds flew to their usual places of residence in the town, which were speedily in a conflagration. The wretched inhabitants endeavouring to escape the flames, fell into the hands of the Ruffian soldiers, planted round the town for that purpose, by whom they were put to the sword.

This was the only warlike transaction, if it deserves that name, which took place during the regency of Olga. Though not uncommon in the annals of a barbarous people, it would have been sufficient to hand down her name with detestation to posterity, had she not, in the opinion of her panegyrists, atoned for the enormity, by attempting to introduce into her dominions the Christian religion.

Hitherto the Slavi, and the Scandinavian nations who had taken possession of their territories, were Pagans; the Slavs and their religious ceremonies, like those of all the surrounding nations, were marked by an absurd and cruel superstition, which, under pretence of worshipping the Supreme Being, insulted his attributes, and increased instead of lessening the miseries of human nature. Their deities seem to have been borrowed, partly from the Greeks and Romans, and partly from the Scythians; but were characterized by peculiar names, and represented by idols of complex workmanship and grotesque appearance. Thus, the god Perune, or Perkune, who was the chief among the Slavonian deities, analogous to the Zeus of the Grecian, and the Jupiter of the Roman mythology, was perforated by an idol whose head was of silver, his ears and mustachios of maffy gold, his legs of iron, and his trunk of hard incorruptible wood. It was decorated with rubies and carbuncles, and held in its hand a stone carved, to represent the symbol of lightning. The sacred fire burnt continually before it; and if the priests suffered this to be extinguished, they were doomed to perish in the flames, as enemies of the god. Sacrifices of their flocks to this supreme deity were regarded as trifling; his altar smoked with the blood of captives, and even the children of his worshippers were sometimes immolated to appease his wrath or propitiate his favour. Superstition has, in all ages, tinged the hands hands of its pontiffs with blood, and has everywhere represented the deity as a cruel and malignant being, delighting in the spectacle of suffering humanity.

It is uncertain at what time the light of Christianity began to beam on the nations that occupied the banks of the Dniepr, nor are we acquainted with the circumstances that led to the conversion of the queen regent. We find, however, that about the middle of the 10th century, she undertook a journey to Constantinople for the express purpose of being initiated into the religion of Jesus. Constantine Porphyrogenitus, who then sat on the imperial throne, received the royal convert with the greatest honour and respect; himself conducted her to the baptismal font, and, in the character of her sponsor, gave her the name of Helen. He dismissed her loaded with rich presents, consisting chiefly of those fine stuffs which were then fabricated only in the east, and several costly vases. In return for the honour she had received at Constantinople, Olga promised to send the emperor a quantity of furs and wax, and to furnish him with troops; but as she delayed the performance of her promise, Constantine despatched an embassy to remind her of her engagements. We are told that he treated the ambassadors with disrespectful levity, and dismissed them with frigid compliments; so little change had baptism effected on the infidel disposition of the Ruffian princess! It is no wonder, therefore, if her example had little influence on her son, or the nation at large. The Ruffians do not seem to have been very ardent in their religious observations, or peculiarly attached to the opinions of their forefathers; but the nature of Christianity, and the character of its disciples, were not in their eyes sufficiently striking or alluring to produce any change in their religious system. Olga endeavoured to persuade her son Sviatoslav to embrace her new religion; but either from his contempt for the unwarlike character of the Greek Christians, or through fear of the ridicule to which his conversion might subject him from his young companions, he disregarded her solicitations. He did not, however, prevent the people over whom he seems by this time to have assumed the chief dominion, from receiving baptism, and a few professedes were made. Though the character of Olga, even after her conversion to Christianity, was by no means such as to entitle her to the rank which she afterwards attained among the Ruffian saints, it appears that she had given her son many wise and prudent instructions respecting the government of his future empire. She travelled with him round the country; superintended the erection of bridges and the making of roads, for the benefit of trade and commerce; built several towns and villages, and founded such laudable institutions, as sufficiently evince her talents for governing a nation. She died about the year 965, at a very advanced age.

It is probable that Olga retired from the administration of affairs soon after her conversion to Christianity; for we find Sviatoslav in full possession of the government long before his mother's death. This prince has been considered one of the Ruffian heroes; and if a thirst for blood, a contempt of danger, and disregard of the luxuries and conveniences of life, be admitted as the characteristics of a hero, he deserves the appellation. His private life was such as to render him the favourite of his army. Regarding the narrow inclosure of a palace as little better than a splendid prison, he took up his habitation in a camp, where he indulged himself in nothing more delicate or costly than what could be procured by the meanest soldier in his army. Without a utensil for preparing his food, he contented himself with cutting up the meat which was to form his meals, and broiling it upon the coals; and this meat often consisted of horse flesh. If he kept to poor table, he was not more delicately lodged. He had no tent, but slept in the open field, with a saddle for his pillow, a horse-cloth for his covering, and lying on the bare ground, or at most on a piece of the coarsest felt. How much influence such a mode of life must have had on the minds of the barbarous soldiers whom he commanded, is sufficiently proved by the experience of times far posterior to that of which we are now writing. The Swedish hero who, in the beginning of the 18th century, astonished the whole of Europe with his mad exploits, fared in a similar manner, and, like Sviatoslav, became the darling of his troops. Soldiers willingly share dangers and death with a leader who submits himself to every hardship, and denies himself every accommodation, except what he can enjoy in common with themselves.

When Sviatoslav had thus ingratiated himself with his troops, he prepared to employ them in those ambitious projects which he had long been forming. His first expedition was against the Kozares, a people who had come from the shores of the Caspian, and the sides of Mount Caucasus, and had established themselves along the eastern coast of the Black sea. These people had rendered tributary both the Kievanians and the Viatches, a Slavonian nation that dwelt on the banks of the Oka and the Volga. Sviatoslav, furious of transferring to himself the tribute which the Kozares derived from the latter people, marched against them, and appears to have succeeded in his design. He defeated them in a pitched battle, and took by storm their capital city Sarkel, or Belgorod. It is said by some historians, that he even annihilated the nation; and certain it is, that from that time no mention is made of the Kozares.

The martial fame of Sviatoslav had extended to Constantinople; and the emperor Nicephorus Phocas, who was then harassed by the Hungarians, assisted by his treacherous allies, the Bulgarians, applied for succours to the Ruffian chieftain. A subsidiary treaty was entered into between them, and Sviatoslav hastened with a numerous army to the assistance of his new ally. He quickly made himself master of most of the Bulgarian towns along the Danube, and was so elated with his success, that he determined to remove the seat of government from Kief to the city of Pereshlavatze, now Yamboly, seated on the shores of that river. He was soon obliged, however, to postpone the completion of this design, on receiving intelligence that his old enemies the Petchenegans had assembled in great numbers, ravaged the Kievan territory, and laid siege to the capital, within the walls of which were shut up his mother and his sons. Sviatoslav hastened to the relief of his family, but before he reached home, the Petchenegans had been induced to raise the siege by an artifice of the Kievan general. Sviatoslav on his arrival pursued the enemy, defeated them, and obliged them to sue for peace.

He now resumed his design of establishing himself on the banks of the Danube, and divided his hereditary possessions among his children. He gave Kief to Yaropolk, Rus

ropolk, the Drevlian territory to Oleg, and on Vladimir, a natural son, born to him by one of the attendants of Olga, he bestowed the government of Novgorod. On his return to Bulgaria, however, he found that his affairs had assumed a very different aspect. The Bulgarians taking advantage of his absence with his troops, had recovered most of their towns, and seemed well prepared to resist the encroachments of a foreign power. They fell on Sviatolaf as he approached the walls of Perekopatz, and began the attack with so much fury, that at first the Ruffians were defeated with great slaughter. They, however, soon rallied, and taking courage from despair, renewed the battle with so much success, that they in their turn became masters of the field. Sviatolaf took possession of the town, and soon recovered all that he had lost.

During these transactions the emperor Nicephorus had been assassinated, and John Zemifesc, his murderer, had succeeded to the imperial diadem. The new emperor sent ambassadors to the Russian monarch, requiring him to comply with the stipulations of his treaty with Nicephorus, and evacuate Bulgaria, which he had agreed to occupy as an ally, but not as a master. Sviatolaf refused to give up his newly acquired possessions, and prepared to decide the contest by force of arms. The particulars of this campaign, and the numbers of the contending armies, are very differently related by the Russian annalists, and the historians of the Grecian empire; the former stating that Sviatolaf had not more than 10,000 men, and yet was victorious over the troops of Zemifesc; while the Grecian historians affirm that the Ruffians amounted to 300,000, but were defeated, and compelled to abandon Bulgaria by the superior skill and discipline of the imperial troops. As far as respects the issue of the war, the Grecian writers are probably correct, for it is certain that Sviatolaf retreated towards Russia with the shattered remains of his army. He did not, however, live to reach the capital, for having, contrary to the advice of his most experienced officers, attempted to return to Kief, up the dangerous navigation of the Dnieper, he was intercepted by the Petchenegs near the rocks that form the cataracts of that river. After remaining on the defensive during winter, exposed to all the horrors of famine and disease, he on the return of spring attempted to force his way through the ranks of the enemy; but his troops were defeated, and himself killed in the battle.

It is said that Sviatolaf extended the boundaries of the Russian dominions by his conquests in Bulgaria; but if his expeditions in that quarter terminated in the manner which we have related, this extension must have been merely temporary, and seems to have had little effect in increasing the power and resources of his successors.

Yaropolk the sovereign of Kief may be considered as the successor of Sviatolaf on the Russian throne; but his reign was short and turbulent. A war took place between him and his brother Oleg, on account of a base assassination committed by the latter on the son of his father's friend and privy counsellor Svenaid. Oleg was defeated and slain, and the other brother, Vladimir, dreading the increased power and ambitious disposition of Yaropolk, abandoned his dominions, which were quickly seized on by the Kievan prince. Vladimir had retired among the Varagians, from whom he soon procured such succours as enabled him to make effectual head against the usurper. While his natural courage was thus increased, his enmity against Yaropolk received an additional spur from an affront put on him by a lady whom he had fought in marriage, but who despising the meanness of his birth, as being the son of a slave, had rejected his proposals, and offered her hand to Yaropolk. The vindictive Vladimir, on being informed of this insult, attacked the possessions of the lady's father, put both him and his two sons to the sword, and obliged the princes to accept his hand, yet reeking with the blood of her father. He now advanced towards Kief, where Yaropolk was by no means prepared to oppose him. The Kievan prince had indeed been lulled into security by the treacherous reports of one of his voevodes, who was in the interest of Vladimir, and who not only prevented Yaropolk from taking effectual measures for his safety, but found means to raise suspicions in his breast against the inhabitants of his capital, which he thus induced him to abandon. The Kievians, left without a leader, opened their gates to Vladimir; and the wretched Yaropolk, still misled by the treachery of his adviser, determined to throw himself on the mercy of his brother. It is probable that this would have availed him little, as Vladimir seems to have determined on his death; but before he could reach the arms of his revengeful brother, Yaropolk was assassinated by some of his Varagian followers.

By this murder, which had probably been planned by Vladimir, the conqueror acquired the undivided possession of all his father's territories, and maintained the sovereignty during a long reign, respected at home, and feared abroad. Indeed, had not the commencement of his reign been stained with the blood of his father-in-law and his brother, we might place him among the most distinguished monarchs of the age in which he lived, as he not only extended and enriched his empire, but was the means of establishing in his dominions on a firm and lasting basis, the Christian religion, which though introduced by Olga, appears hitherto to have made but a very trifling progress.

The commencement of Vladimir's reign formed but a continuation of those enormities which had conducted Vladimir him to the throne. He began with removing Blude, the treacherous voevode, by whom his brother had been betrayed into his power, and to whom he had promised the highest honours and dignities. Accordingly for three days he suffered Blude to live in all the splendour of a prince. At the end of that period he thus addressed him. "I have fulfilled my promise; I have treated thee as my friend; the honours thou hast received exceed thy most languish wishes. To-day, as the judge of crimes, and the executor of justice, I condemn the traitor, and punish the assassin of his prince." Having uttered these words, he caused Blude to be put to death.

He displayed still more the perfidiousness of his character in his behaviour towards the Varagians, who had assisted in reinstating him on the throne of his ancestors; for on their requesting permission to go and seek their fortune in Greece, he granted their request, but privately advertised the emperor of their approach, and caused them to be arrested and secured.

Vladimir engaged in numerous wars, and subjected several of the neighbouring states to his dominion. He feized on part of the Polish territories, and compelled the Bulgarians who dwelt in the districts that now form the government of Kazan, to do him homage. He sub- dued the Petchenegans and Khazares, who lay in the immediate neighbourhood of the Kievan state; he re- duced to his authority Halitch and Vladimir, countries which are now called Gallicia and Lubomiria; he con- quered Lithuania as far as to Memel, and took posse-