a large island in the East Indies, which lies between 5° 40' and 10° 30' north latitude; and between 79° and 82° east longitude. It is situated at the entrance of the bay of Bengal, by which it is bounded on the north. On the north-west it is separated from the Coromandel coast by the gulf of Mannar, a narrow strait full of shoals, and impassable by large ships; and is distant about 60 leagues from Cape Comorin, the southern point of the peninsula of India. Its circumference is computed to be about 900 miles; and its length from Point Pedro at the northern extremity to Dondarhead at the southern is about 300 miles. Its breadth is very unequal, being in some parts only from 40 to 50 miles, while in others it extends to 60, 70, and even 100.
The appearance of the eastern coast is bold and rocky, and a few reefs of rocks run out into the sea on the south-east between Point de Galle and Batocolo. The deep water on the eastern shores admits the approach of the largest vessels in safety; and if that side of the island be the least fertile, its other defects are amply compensated by the harbours of Trincomalee and Batocolo. The north and north-west coast from Point Pedro to Columbo is flat, and everywhere indented with inlets of the sea. The largest of them extends almost quite across the island from Mullipati to Jafnapatam on the north-west point of the island; and forms the peninsula of Jafnapatam. Several of these inlets form small harbours.
The interior of the island abounds with steep and lofty mountains, covered with thick forests, and full of of almost impenetrable jungles. The woods and mountains completely surround the dominions of the king of Candy, and seem destined by nature to defend him against those foreign enemies, whose superior skill and power have deprived him of the open tracts on the sea-coast. The most lofty range of mountains divides the island nearly into two parts, and so completely separates them from each other, that both the climate and seasons on either side are essentially different. These mountains also obstruct completely the effect of the monsoons, which set in periodically from opposite sides of them; so that not only the opposite sea-coast, but the whole country in the interior, suffers very little from these storms.
The monsoons in Ceylon are connected with those on the Coromandel and Malabar coasts; but they set in much sooner on the western than the eastern side of the island. On the west side, where Columbo lies, the rains prevail in the months of May, June, and July, the season when they are felt on the Malabar coast. This monsoon is usually extremely violent, being accompanied with dreadful storms of thunder and lightning, together with vast torrents of rain, and violent south-west winds. During its continuance, the northern parts of the island are very little affected, and are even generally dry. In the months of October and November, when the opposite monsoon sets in on the Coromandel coast, it is the north of Ceylon which is affected, and scarcely any impression of it is felt in the southern parts.
These monsoons pass slightly over the interior, and seldom occasion any considerable inconvenience. But this part of the island is not altogether freed from the dreadful storms which so terribly ravage the tropical climates. During its own periodical season, which happens in March and April, the rain pours down in torrents, and the thunder and lightning are terrible.
From the situation of this island, so near the equator, the days and nights are nearly of equal length; the variation during the two seasons not exceeding 15 minutes. The seasons are more regulated by the monsoons than the course of the sun; for although the island lies to the north of the line, the coolest season is during the summer solstice, while the western monsoon prevails. Their spring commences in October; and the hottest season is from January to the beginning of April. The heat, during the day, is nearly the same throughout the whole year; the rainy season, however, renders the nights much cooler, from the dampness of the earth, and the prevalence of winds during the monsoons. The climate, upon the whole, is much more temperate than on the continent of India. This temperate climate, however, is chiefly confined to the coast where the sea-breezes have room to circulate. In the interior of the country, owing to the thick and close woods, and the hills which crowd upon each other, the heat is many degrees greater than on the sea-coast, and the climate often extremely sultry and unhealthy.
The principal harbours in the island for large ships are Trincomalee and Point de Gallo; they also come to anchor, and at certain seasons of the year moor securely, in the roads of Columbo. There are several other inferior ports round the island, which afford shelter to the smaller coasting vessels.
The two principal rivers are the Malivagonga and the Mulivaddy. The former takes its rise among the hills to the south-east of Candy, and nearly surrounds that city. After a variety of circuitous windings among the mountains, it at last discharges itself into the sea at Trincomalee. This river is so deep as to be fordable only towards the source; but the rocks, which everywhere break its course, prevent it from being navigated. The Mulivaddy rises from the foot of a very high mountain, known to Europeans by the name of Adam's Peak, and situated about sixty miles to the north-east of Columbo. This river falls into the sea by several branches: the largest of these empties itself about three miles from the fort of Columbo, after having nearly surrounded a large tract of the level country, of which it forms a peninsula.
Besides the rivers with which Ceylon abounds, there are many lakes and canals communicating with them, particularly in the neighbourhood of Columbo and Nigumbu. They are often of considerable extent, and of great utility to the inhabitants in their neighbourhood, who have thus an opportunity of readily transporting their several articles of trade; and it is by this means also that the towns on the coast are supplied with the greatest abundance of fresh-water fish.
The internal communications by land through the island have scarcely passed the first stage of improvement. Along the sea-coasts indeed there are roads and stations for travellers: but these roads are in many places rugged and steep.
The soil in general is sandy, with a small mixture of clay. In the south-west parts, particularly about Columbo, there is a great deal of marshy ground very rich and productive. This tract, however, is chiefly occupied with cinnamon plantations, and the rest of the island, in its present state of cultivation, does not produce a sufficient quantity of rice for the consumption of its inhabitants.
Ceylon was originally divided into a number of distinct petty kingdoms, separated by the several rivers and mountains which are dispersed over the face of the island, and subject each to its own independent sovereign. In process of time, however, the whole country was reduced under the dominion of the king of Candy, and divided by him into a few great provinces, from which several of the numerous titles he still retains were derived. These provinces were Candy, Coitu, Matura, Dambadar, and Sittivacca, which included the rich districts on the west coast. The chief of these provinces was Candy, situated in the centre of the island, and honoured with the royal residence. The king holds his court there to this day; and though all the other provinces have been more or less encroached upon, no part of Candy has ever been reduced to permanent subjection under a foreign power. The great divisions of the island now are reduced to two; the one comprehending those parts under the dominion of Europeans, and the other those which still remain to the natives.
Little was known of the island of Ceylon previous to the arrival of the Portuguese in 1505, who were admitted by the king of the country in a friendly manner, and received from him an annual tribute for their protection against external invasion, particularly against the attacks of the Arabs, who had long harried and opprested oppressed the Ceylonese. The inhabitants at that time, as at present, consisted of two distinct races, the Bedahs, who lived in the forests, particularly in the northern parts, and the Cingalese, who inhabited the sea coast. Columbo, now the European capital at Ceylon, was at that time the royal residence. Cinnamon was even then the chief product and staple commodity of the country. Two hundred and fifty thousand pounds weight were annually delivered by the king to the Portuguese in name of tribute. The inhabitants suffered great cruelties and oppression under the Portuguese, and were glad of an opportunity of throwing off the yoke and putting themselves under the protection of the Dutch. In 1632, a strong armament was sent out by the latter to act in concert with the native prince; and, after a bloody struggle, the Portuguese were at last expelled from the island. Columbo surrendered to the Dutch arms in 1656, and this terminated the dominion of the Portuguese in the island. In the year 1795, a body of British troops was sent for the conquest of Ceylon, and after various military operations, this valuable possession was added to the British colonies.
The chief towns in Ceylon are Trincomalee and Columbo. Trincomalee lies in latitude $8^\circ 30'$. It runs in a north-east direction along one branch of the bay. The country around it is mountainous and woody; the soil uncultivated and rather barren, and the whole appearance wild.
Trincomalee, from its situation and construction, is naturally strong. It occupies more ground than Columbo, but contains a much smaller number of houses, and those inferior in size and appearance to those which are to be met with in several towns on the south-west coast. The circumference of Trincomalee, within the walls, is about three miles; within this space is also included a hill or rising point, immediately over the sea, and covered with brushwood.
The fort is strong, and commands the principal bays; and, in particular, the entrance into the grand harbour, or inner bay, which affords at all seasons, and in every variety of weather, a secure shelter to ships of all descriptions, being land-locked on all sides, and sufficiently deep and capacious to receive any number of the largest vessels.
This harbour, from its nature and situation, is that which stamps Ceylon one of our most valuable acquisitions in the East Indies. As soon as the violent monsoons commence, every vessel which is caught by them in any other part of the bay of Bengal, is obliged immediately to put to sea to prevent inevitable destruction. At these seasons Trincomalee and Bombay alone, of all the ports on the different coasts of the peninsula of India, are capable of affording a safe retreat. The incalculable advantages to be derived from such a harbour, are increased by its proximity and easy access to our settlements in the bay of Bengal.
Columbo is the capital of Ceylon and the seat of government. Although Trincomalee, on account of its situation and harbour, be of more consequence to this nation to retain, yet Columbo in every other respect is greatly superior. The number of its inhabitants is much greater; its fort and black town are much larger; the country where it is situated is far more fertile, and the rich district depending upon it much wider, being not less than 20 leagues in length, and 10 in breadth. It is situated in the west, or rather towards the south-west part of the island, in about $7^\circ$ north latitude and $78^\circ$ east longitude from London.
The plan of Columbo is regular. It is nearly divided into four equal quarters by two principal streets, which cross each other, and extend the whole length of the town. To these, smaller ones run parallel, with connecting lanes between them. At the foot of the ramparts on the inside is a broad street or way, which goes round the whole fort, and communicates with the barracks and soldiers' barracks; and also affords, at the different angles, open spaces for their private parading.
Beside the European inhabitants of Ceylon, the natives are quite distinct from each other in manners and civilization. The Cingalese, who inhabit the low lands and parts contiguous to the coasts, live entirely under the dominion of whatever European nation has been able to acquire possession of that part of the island. The nature of the country they inhabit indeed leaves them hardly any alternative but unconditional submission, unless they could either meet the Europeans in open battle, or consent to quit their plentiful fields for the barren mountains of the interior.
They are a quiet, inoffensive people; exceedingly grave, temperate, and frugal. Their bodies partake of the indolence of their minds, and it is with reluctance they are roused to any active exertion. When, however, they are obliged to apply themselves to any work, such as agriculture, they are capable of undergoing a great deal of labour.
The milder virtues form the most prominent features of the Cingalese character. They are gentle, charitable, and friendly, and have scarcely any of the false, treacherous, and designing arts which are often found among the Canarians. With much less smoothness and courtlyness of face and manner than the latter, they have much finerer hearts. On examining the countenances and carriage of these two classes of Ceylonese, it is easy to perceive the difference arising from the respective circumstances in which they are placed. The countenance of the Canarian is erect, his look haughty, his mein lofty, and his whole carriage marked by the pride of independence.
The looks of the Cingalese even denote a degree of effeminacy and cowardice, which excites the contempt of the Canarians; although the latter, with all their boasted spirit, can never venture to attack an European but by the tame method as the Cingalese, and are equally cautious in waiting the convenient moment of assaulting him from the bushes, in which they have concealed themselves.
The most singular part of the inhabitants of Ceylon are the Bedahs or Vaddahs. The origin of the Bedahs or Vaddahs, who inhabit the deep forest recesses of the Ceylonese forests, has never been traced, as no other race can be found in the eastern world which corresponds with them. Conjecture has, indeed, been busy on the occasion, as it usually is where real information is wanting. The Bedahs are generally supposed to have been the aboriginal inhabitants of the island, who, upon being overwhelmed by their Cingalese invaders, preferred the independence of savage to a tame submission. A current tradition, how- ever, assigns them a different origin. It is related that they were cast away on the island, and chose to settle there; but refusing, upon a certain occasion, to assist the king in his wars against some foreign enemies, they were driven out from the society of the natives, and forced to take up their abode in the most unfrequented forests. Some imagine that the Bedahs are merely a part of the native Candians, who chose to retain their ancient savage freedom, when their brethren of the plains and valleys submitted to the cultivation of the earth, and the restraints of society. This opinion rests entirely on those Bedahs, who are most known, speaking a broken dialect of the Cingalese. It is, however, by no means ascertained that this is the universal language of the Bedahs; nor is any account of their origin supported by the slightest shadow of proof.
Among the animals of Ceylon, and at the head of the class of quadrupeds, is the elephant, which is considered as superior to those found in any other part of the world. The oxen are of very small size, scarcely exceeding that of calves of a year old. They are of that species which have the hump on the shoulder; but are inferior in quality, as well as in size, to any found on the Indian continent. The beef is sometimes of a good quality, and forms the chief food of the European soldiers. Buffaloes are found in great numbers in the island, both in a wild and tame state. They are wild and untractable; and even when tamed and trained to the draught, for which, being stronger and larger than the oxen, they are well adapted, they retain a good deal of their original manners. A variety of deer and elks are found in Ceylon; especially the gazelle, a very small species, about the size of our hare, which is caught by the natives and brought to market in cages, where they are sold for about 1s. piece. Hares, similar to the European, abound in every part of the island; a small species of tyger, the tyger cat, the leopard, the jackal, porcupines, racoons, squirrels, and sometimes, but rarely, the hyena and the bear, are found in Ceylon. Birds, insects, serpents, and other reptiles, such as are usually to be met with in the larger islands of the Indian ocean, or on the neighbouring continent, are common on this island.
Ceylon abounds in all the vegetables and fruits which are found within the tropical regions. But among the vegetable productions of Ceylon, the most valuable, and what may be reckoned the staple commodity of the island, is the cinnamon.
The principal woods, or gardens, as they are called, where the cinnamon is procured, lie in the neighbourhood of Columbo. The grand garden near the town is so extensive as to occupy a tract of country from 10 to 15 miles in length, and stretching along from the north-east to the south of the district. Nature has here concentrated both the beauty and the riches of the island. Nothing can be more delightful to the eye than the prospect which stretches around Columbo. The low cinnamon trees which cover the plain allow the view to reach the groves of evergreens, interspersed with tall clumps, and bounded everywhere with extensive ranges of cocoa-nut and other large trees. The whole is diversified with small lakes and green marshes, skirted all around with rice and pasture fields. In one part the intertwining cinnamon trees appear completely to clothe the face of the plain; in another, the openings made by the intersecting footpaths just serve to show that the thick underwood has been penetrated.
The soil best adapted for the growth of the cinnamon is a loose white land. Such is the soil of the cinnamon gardens around Columbo, as well as in many parts around Nigumbo and Cultura, where this spice is found of the same superior quality. Of late years little is procured from the interior; and what is brought thence is coarser and thicker in the appearance, and of a hot pungent taste.
As this spice constitutes the wealth of Ceylon, great pains are taken to ascertain its quality, and to propagate the choicest kinds. The prime sort, and that which grows in the gardens around Columbo, is procured from the *Laurus cinnamomum*. This is a tree of a small size, from four to ten feet in height: the trunk is slender, and like several of our shrubs, a number of branches and twigs shoot out from it on every side. The wood is soft, light, and porous, in appearance much resembling that of our oifer; and when barked it is chiefly fit for fuel, to which use it is commonly converted. It is, however, sometimes sawed into planks, and manufactured into caddies and other pieces of furniture; but its scent does not secure it from the attacks of the worms.
The cinnamon tree produces a species of fruit resembling an acorn, but not so large, which ripens about the latter end of autumn, and is gathered by the natives for the purpose of extracting the oil. The process they employ is to bruise the fruit, boil it, and skim off the oil: this they use for their hair and body on great occasions, and also for burning in their lamps. When mixed with cocoa-nut oil, it gives extremely good light. The kings of Candy use it for this purpose, and formerly commanded their subjects to bring them a certain quantity as a yearly tribute. When any ambassadors are sent to these princes, they always burn this oil during the time of audience.
The pearl-fishery in the bay of Condatchy, during the season, exhibits one of the most interesting scenes in Ceylon. The banks, where it is carried on, extend several miles along the coast from Manar southward, off Arippo, Condatchy, and Poo-pario. The principal bank is opposite to Condatchy, and lies out at sea about 20 miles. The first step, previous to the commencement of the fishery, is to have the different oyster banks surveyed, the state of the oysters ascertained, and a report made on the subject to government. If it has been found that the quantity is sufficient, and that they are arrived at a proper degree of maturity, the particular banks to be fished that year are put up for sale to the highest bidder, and are usually purchased by a black merchant. Government sometimes judges it more advantageous to fish the banks on its own account, and to dispose of the pearls afterwards to the merchants. When this plan is adopted, boats are hired for the season on account of government, from different quarters; the price varies considerably, according to circumstances; but is usually from 500 to 800 pagodas for each boat.
As neither the season, nor the convenience of the persons attending, would permit the whole of the banks to be fished in one year, they are divided into three or four different portions, which are fished one portion annually in succession. The different portions are completely distinct, and are set up separately to sale, each in the year in which it is to be fished. By this means a sufficient interval is given to the oysters to attain their proper growth; and as the portion first used has generally recovered its maturity by the time the last portion has been fished, the fishery becomes almost regularly annual, and may thus be considered as yielding a yearly revenue. The oysters are supposed to attain their completest state of maturity in seven years; for, if left too long, it is said that the pearl becomes so large and inconvenient to the fish, that it throws it out of the shell.
The fishing season commences in February, and ends about the beginning of April. The period allowed to the merchant to fish the banks is six weeks, or two months at the utmost; but there are several interruptions, which prevent the fishing days from exceeding more than about thirty. If it happens to be a very bad season, and many stormy days intervene during the period allotted, the purchaser of the fishery is often allowed a few days more as a favour.
During the season, all the boats regularly sail and return together. A signal gun is fired at Arippo, about ten o'clock at night, when the whole fleet sets sail with the land breeze. They reach the banks before daybreak; and at sunrise commence fishing. In this they continue busily occupied till the sea breeze, which arises about noon, warns them to return to the bay. As soon as they appear within sight, another gun is fired, and the colours hoisted, to inform the anxious owners of their return. When the boats come to land, their cargoes are immediately taken out, as it is necessary to have them completely unloaded before night. Whatever may have been the success of their boats, the owners seldom wear the looks of disappointment; for, although they may have been unsuccessful one day, they look with the most complete assurance of better fortune to the next; as the Brahmins and conjurers, whom they implicitly trust in defiance of all experience, understand too well the liberality of a man in hopes of good fortune, not to promise them all they can desire.
Each of the boats carries 20 men, with a tidal or chief boatman, who acts as pilot. Ten of the men row and assist the divers in reascending. The other ten are divers; they go down into the sea by five at a time; when the first five come up the other five go down, and by this method of alternately diving, they give each other time to recruit themselves for a fresh plunge.
In order to accelerate the descent of the divers, large stones are employed; five of these are brought in each boat for the purpose; they are of a reddish granite, common in this country, and of a pyramidal shape, round at top and bottom, with a hole perforated through the smaller end sufficient to admit a rope. Some of the divers use a stone shaped like a half-moon, which they fasten round the belly when they mean to descend, and thus keep their feet free.
The people are accustomed to dive from their very infancy, and fearlessly descend to the bottom in from four to ten fathom water, in search of the oysters. The diver, when he is about to plunge, seizes the rope, to which one of the stones we have described is attached, with the toes of his right foot, while he takes hold of a bag of net-work with those of his left; it being customary among all the Indians to use their toes in working or holding as well as their fingers, and such is the power of habit that they can pick up even the smallest thing from the ground with their toes as nimbly as an European could do with his fingers. The divers thus prepared, seizes another rope with his right hand, and holding his nostrils shut with the left, plunges into the water, and by the assistance of the stone speedily reaches the bottom. He then hangs the net round his neck, and with much dexterity, and all possible dispatch, collects as many oysters as he can while he is able to remain under water, which is usually about two minutes. He then resumes his former position, makes a signal to those above by pulling the rope in his right hand, and is immediately by this means drawn up and brought into the boat, leaving the stone to be pulled up afterwards by the rope attached to it.
The exertion undergone during this process is so violent, that upon being brought into the boat, the divers discharge water from their mouth, ears, and nostrils, and frequently even blood. But this does not hinder them from going down again in their turn. They will often make from 40 to 50 plunges in one day; and at each plunge bring up about 100 oysters. Some rub their bodies over with oil, and stuff their ears and noses to prevent the water from entering; while others use no precautions whatever. Although the usual time of remaining under water does not much exceed two minutes, yet there are instances known of divers who could remain four and even five minutes. The longest instance ever known was that of a diver who came from Anjango in 1797, and who absolutely remained under water full six minutes.
The boat-owners and merchants are very apt to lose many of the best pearls while the boats are on their return to the bay from the banks, as the oysters when alive and left for some time undisturbed frequently open their shells of their own accord; a pearl may then be easily discovered, and the oyster prevented by means of a bit of grass or soft wood from again closing its shell, till an opportunity offers of picking out the pearl. Those fellows who are employed to search among the fish also commit many depredations, and even swallow the pearls to conceal them; when this is suspected, the plan followed by the merchants is to lock the fellows up, and give them strong emetics and purgatives, which have frequently the effect of discovering the stolen goods.
As soon as the oysters are taken out of the boats, they are carried by the different people to whom they belong, and placed in holes or pits dug in the ground to the depth of about two feet, or in small square places cleared and fenced round for the purpose; each person having his own separate division. Mats are spread below them to prevent the oysters from touching the earth; and here they are left to die and rot. As soon as they have passed through a state of putrefaction, and have become dry, they are easily opened without any danger of injuring the pearls, which might be the case if they were opened fresh, as at that time to do so requires great force. On the shell being opened, the oyster is minutely examined for the pearls: it is usual even to boil the oyster, as the pearl, though commonly found in the shell, is not unfrequently contained in the body of the fish itself.
The pearls found at this fishery are of a whiter colour than those got in the gulf of Ormus on the Arabian... bian coast, but in other respects are not accounted so pure or of such an excellent quality; for though the white pearls are most esteemed in Europe, the natives prefer those of a yellowish or golden cast. Off Tutucoreen, which lies on the Coromandel coast, nearly opposite to Condatchy, there is another fishery; but the pearls found there are much inferior to the two species now mentioned, being tainted with a blue or grayish tinge.
In preparing the pearls, particularly in drilling and stringing them, the black people are wonderfully expert. The instrument they employ in drilling, is a machine made of wood, and of a shape resembling an obtuse inverted cone, about six inches in length, and four inches in breadth, which is supported upon three feet, each twelve inches long. In the upper flat surface of this machine, holes or pits are formed to receive the larger pearls, the smaller ones being beaten in with a little wooden hammer. The drilling instruments are spindles of various sizes according to that of the pearls; they are turned round in a wooden head by means of a bow-handle to which they are attached. The pearls being placed in the pits which we have already mentioned, and the point of the spindle adjusted to them, the workman presses on the wooden head of the machine with his left hand, while his right is employed in turning round the bow-handle. During the process of drilling, he occasionally moistens the pearl by dipping the little finger of his right hand in a cocoa-nut filled with water, which is placed by him for that purpose; this he does with a dexterity and quickness which scarcely impedes the operation, and can only be acquired by much practice.
They have also a variety of other instruments, both for cutting and drilling the pearls. To clean, round, and polish them to that state in which we see them, a powder made of the pearls themselves is employed. These different operations in preparing the pearls occupy a great number of the black men in various parts of the island. In the black town of Columbo, in particular, many of them may every day be seen at this work.
Putallom is remarkable for its salt-pans. This place, before the arrival of Europeans on the island, supplied the natives with salt; and on account of its convenient situation, was pitched upon by the Dutch for manufacturing the salt with which they supplied the king of Candy's dominions, according to the articles of their treaty with him. The salt-pans are formed by an arm of the sea which overflows part of the country between Putallom and Calpenteen. A very large quantity of salt was manufactured here by the Dutch; they looked upon it as of the highest importance to their interests in the island, and the most formidable weapon which it was in their power to employ against the native king, as it was impossible for him to procure any but through their means. The Dutch enacted severe laws to prevent individuals from manufacturing or trading in this article, the government taking upon itself the management of the works and the care of supplying both its own subjects and the Candians. In order to keep a constant check on the latter, the Dutch were careful not to allow them too great a quantity at once; and whatever remained at Putallom after supplying the demands of each year they destroyed, that it might not be seized upon by surprize. But this manufacture has been greatly neglected, it is said, since the island came into the possession of the British.
CHACE. See Chase.