a general sense, signifies a mark or figure, drawn on paper, metal, stone, or other matter, with a pen, graver, chisel, or other instrument, to signify or denote any thing. The word is Greek, \(\chiαραγμα\), formed from the verb, \(\chiαραγω\), inficulpero, "to engrave, impress," &c.

The various kinds of characters may be reduced to three heads, viz. Literal Characters, Numerical Characters, and Abbreviations.

I. Literal Character, is a letter of the alphabet, serving to indicate some articulate sound, expressive of some idea or conception of the mind. See Alphabet.

1. These may be divided, with regard to their nature and use, into Nominal Characters, or those we properly call letters; which serve to express the names of things: See Letter. Real Characters; those that instead of names express things and ideas: See Idea, &c. Emblematical or Symbolical Characters; which have this in common with real ones, that they express the things themselves; but have this further, that they in some measure personate them, and exhibit their form: such are the hieroglyphics of the ancient Egyptians. See Hieroglyphic, Symbol, &c.

2. Literal Characters may be again divided, with regard to their invention and use, into particular and general or universal.

Particular Characters, are those peculiar to this or that nation. Such are the Roman, Italic, Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, Gothic, Chinese, &c. characters.—See Hebrew, Gothic, Chinese, &c. Universal Universal characters are also real characters, and make what some authors call a Philosophical Language.

That diversity of characters used by the several nations to express the same idea, is found the chief obstacle to the advancement of learning: to remove this, several authors have taken occasion to propose plans of characters that should be universal, and which each people should read in their own language. The character here is to be real, not nominal: to express things and notions; not, as the common ones, letters or sounds: yet to be mute, like letters, and arbitrary; not emblematical, like hieroglyphics.

Thus, every nation should retain its own language, yet every one understand that of each other, without learning it; only by seeing a real or universal character, which should signify the same things to all people, by what sounds forever each expresses it in their particular idiom. For instance, by seeing the character defined to signify to drink, an Englishman should read to drink; a Frenchman, boire; a Latin, bibere; a Greek, πίνω; a Jew, נא; a German, trinken; and so of the rest; in the same manner as seeing a horse, each people expresses it after their own manner; but all mean the same animal.

This real character is no chimera; the Chinese and Japanese have already something like it. They have a common character, which each of those nations understand alike in their several languages; though they pronounce them with such different sounds, that they do not understand one another in speaking.

The first and most considerable attempts for a real character, or philosophical language, in Europe, are those of Bishop Wilkins and Dalgarno: but these, with how much art forever they were contrived, have yet proved ineffectual.

M. Leibnitz had some thoughts the same way; he thinks those great men did not hit the right method. It was probable, indeed, that by their means, people who do not understand one another might easily have a commerce together; but they have not hit on true real characters.

According to him, the characters should resemble those used in algebra; which, in effect, are very simple, yet very expressive; without any thing superfluous or equivocal; and contain all the varieties required.

The real character of Bishop Wilkins has its just applause: Dr Hook recommends it on his own knowledge and experience, as a most excellent scheme; and to engage the world to the study thereof, publishes some fine inventions of his own therein.

M. Leibnitz tells us, he had under consideration an alphabet of human thoughts; in order to a new philosophical language, on his own scheme: but his death prevented its being brought to maturity.

M. Lodwig, in the Philosophical Transactions, gives us a plan of an universal alphabet or character of another kind: this was to contain an enumeration of all such single sounds, or letters, as are used in any language; by means whereof, people should be enabled to pronounce truly and readily any language; to describe the pronunciation of any language that shall be pronounced in their hearing, so as others accustomed to this language, though they had never heard the language pronounced, shall at first be able truly to pronounce it; and, lastly, this character to serve as a standard to perpetuate the sounds of any language. In the Journal Litteraire, au. 1729, we have a very ingenious project for an universal character. The author, after obviating the objections that might be made against the feasibility of such schemes in the general, proposes his own: his characters are to be the common Arabic, or numeral figures. The combinations of these nine are sufficient to express distinctly an incredible quantity of numbers, much more than we shall need terms to signify our actions, goods, evils, duties, passions, &c. Thus is all the trouble of framing and learning any new character at once saved; the Arabic figures having already all the universality required.

The advantages are immense. For, 1mo, We have here a stable, faithful interpreter; never to be corrupted or changed, as the popular languages continually are. 2do, Whereas the difficulty of pronouncing a foreign language is such as usually gives the learner the greatest trouble, and there are even some sounds which foreigners never attain to, in the character here proposed this difficulty has no place: every nation is to pronounce them according to the particular pronunciation that already obtains among them. All the difficulty is, the accustoming the pen and the eye to affix certain notions to characters that do not, at first sight, exhibit them. But this trouble is no more than we find in the study of any language whatever.

The inflections of words are here to be expressed by the common letters. For instance, the same character shall express a filly or a colt, a horse or a mare, an old horse or an old mare, as accompanied with this or that distinctive letter, which shall show the sex, youth, maturity, or old age; a letter also to express the bigness or size of things; thus v.g. a man with this or that letter, to signify a great man, or a little man, &c.

The use of those letters belongs to the grammar; which, once well understood, would abridge the vocabulary exceedingly. An advantage of this grammar is, that it would only have one declension and one conjugation: those numerous anomalies of grammarians are exceeding troublesome; and arise hence, that the common languages are governed by the populace, who never reason on what is best: but in the character here proposed, men of sense having the introduction of it, would have a new ground, whereon to build regularly.

A new universal character has been proposed by Mr Northmore of London, by which different nations may communicate their sentiments to each other. His original plan was, to make the same numerical figure represent the same word in all languages. But he found afterwards that it might be improved, by using a figure not for every word, but every useful word. And even these he thinks might be abbreviated by adopting certain uniform fixed signs, the number of which would not exceed 20, for the various parts of speech. Words of negation, he proposed, to be expressed by a prefixed sign. A few instances will explain the author's meaning.

Suppose the number 5 to represent the word see,

| Number | Meaning | |--------|---------| | 6 | a man | | 7 | happy | | 8 | never | | 9 | I |

"I" Characters. "I would then (says he) express the tenses, genders, cases, &c., in all languages, in some such uniform manner as the following:

(1) $5 = \text{present tense},$ (2) $5 = \text{perfect tense},$ (3) $5 = \text{perfect participle},$ (4) $5 = \text{present participle},$ (5) $5 = \text{future},$ (6) $5 = \text{substantive},$ (7) $5 = \text{personal substantive},$ (8) $6 = \text{nominative case},$ (9) $6 = \text{genitive},$ (10) $6 = \text{dative},$ (11) $6 = \text{feminine},$ (12) $+6 = \text{plural},$ (13) $7 = \text{positive},$ (14) $7 = \text{comparative},$ (15) $7 = \text{superlative},$ $7 = \text{as above, No. 6}.$

"From the above specimen, I should find no difficulty in comprehending the following sentence, though it were written in the language of the Hottentots: 9, 8, .5, — 7, 6. I never saw a more unhappy woman.

"Those languages which do not use the pronoun prefixed to the verb, as the Greek and Roman, &c., may apply it, in a small character, simply to denote the person; thus, instead of 9, 8, .5, I never saw; they may write, 8, .5, which will signify that the verb is in the first person, and will still have the same meaning."

Our author thinks, that according to this scheme of an universal character, about 20 signs, and less than 10,000 chosen words (synonyms being set aside), would answer all the ends proposed; and that foreigners, by referring to their numerical dictionary, would easily comprehend each other. He proceeds next to show how appropriate sounds may be given to his signs, and an universal living language formed from the universal characters.

To attain this end, he proposes to distinguish the ten numerals by ten monosyllabic names of easy pronunciation, and such as may run without difficulty into one another. To illustrate his scheme, however, he calls them, for the present, by their common English names; but would pronounce each number made up of by uttering separately its component parts, after the manner of accountants. Thus, let the number 6943 represent the word horse, he would not, in the universal language, call a horse six thousand nine hundred and forty-three, but six, nine, four, three, and so on for all the words of a sentence, making the proper stop at the end of each.

In the same manner, a distinct appellation must be appropriated to each of the prefixed signs, to be pronounced immediately after the numeral to which it is an appendage. Thus, if plu be the appellation or the sign of the plural number, six, nine, four, three, plu will be horses.

"Thus (says our author), I hope, it is evident that about 30 or 40 distinct syllables are sufficient for the above purpose; but I am much mistaken if eleven only will not answer the same end. This is to be done by substituting the first 20 or 30 numerals for the signs, and saying, as in algebra, that a term is in the power of such a number, which may be expressed by the simple word under. Ex. gr. Let 6943 represent the word horse; and suppose 4 to be the sign of the plural number, I would write the word thus $\frac{6}{943}$; and pronounce it, fix, nine, four, three, in the power of or under four. By these means eleven distinct appellations would be sufficient, and time and use would much abbreviate the pronunciation."

But the difficulty is not in inventing the most simple, easy, and commodious character, but in engaging the several nations to use it; there being nothing they agree less in, than the understanding and pursuing their common interest.

3. Literal characters may again be divided, with respect to the nations among whom they have been invented, into Greek characters, Roman characters, Hebrew characters, &c. The Latin character now used through all Europe, was formed from the Greek, as the Greek was from the Phoenician; and the Phoenician, as well as the Chaldee, Syriac, and Arabic characters, were formed from the ancient Hebrew, which subsisted till the Babylonish captivity; for after that event the character of the Assyrians, which is the square Hebrew now in use, prevailed, the ancient being only found on some Hebrew medals, commonly called Samaritan medals. It was in 1091 that the Gothic characters, invented by Ulphilas, were abolished, and the Latin ones established in their room.

Medallists observe, that the Greek character, consisting only of majuscule letters, has preserved its uniformity on all medals, as low as the time of Gallienus, from which time it appears somewhat weaker and rounder: from the time of Constantine to Michael we find only Latin characters: after Michael, the Greek characters recommence; but from that time they began to alter with the language, which was a mixture of Greek and Latin. The Latin medals preserved both their characters and language as low as the translation of the seat of the empire to Constantinople: towards the time of Decius the character began to lose its roundness and beauty; some time after, it retrieved and subsisted tolerably till the time of Justin, when it degenerated gradually into the Gothic. The rounder, then, and better formed a character is upon a medal, the fairer pretence it has to antiquity.

II. Numerical Characters, or characters used to express numbers, are either letters or figures.

The Arabic character, called also the common one, because it is used almost throughout Europe in all sorts of calculations, consists of these ten digits, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0.

The Roman numeral character consists of seven majuscule letters of the Roman alphabet, viz. I, V, X, L, C, D, M. The I denotes one, V five, X ten, L fifty, C a hundred, D five hundred, and M a thousand. The I repeated twice makes two, II; thrice, three, Four is expressed thus, IV. as I before V or X takes an unit from the number expressed by these letters. To express five, an I is added to a V, VI.; for seven, two, VII.; and for eight, three, VIII. Nine is expressed by an I before X, thus, IX. The same remark may be made of the X before L or C, except that the diminution is by tens; thus, XL denotes forty, XC ninety, and LX sixty. The C before D or M diminishes each by a hundred. The number five hundred is sometimes expressed by an I before a C inverted, thus, IO; and instead of M, which signifies a thousand, an I is sometimes used between two C's the one direct, and the other inverted, thus, CIO. The addition of C and O before or after raises CIO by tens; thus, CCICIO expresses ten thousand, CCCICIO a hundred thousand. The Romans also expressed any number of thousands by a line drawn over any numeral less than a thousand; thus, V denotes five thousand, LX sixty thousand; so likewise MM is one million, MMM is two millions, &c.

The Greeks had three ways of expressing numbers:

1. Every letter, according to its place in the alphabet, denoted a number, from α, one, to ω, twenty-four. 2. The alphabet was divided into eight units, α one, β two, γ three, &c.; into eight tens, ι ten, κ twenty, λ thirty, &c.; and eight hundreds, ε one hundred, σ two hundred, τ three hundred, &c. 3. I stood for one, II five, Δ ten, Η a hundred, Χ a thousand M ten thousand; and when the latter Π enclosed any of these, except I, it showed the enclosed letter to be five times its value; as, [α] fifty, [ι] five hundred, [ξ] five thousand, [μ] fifty thousand.

The French CHARACTERS used in the chamber of accounts, and by persons concerned in the management of there venue, is, properly speaking, nothing else than the Roman numerals, in letters that are not majuscule: thus, instead of expressing fifty-five by LVII, they denote it by smaller characters, lvj.

III. CHARACTERS of Abbreviations, &c., in several of the arts, are symbols contrived for the more concise and immediate conveyance of the knowledge of things.

For the

CHARACTERS used in Algebra, see ALGEBRA, Introduction.

Of the Aspects.

δ or S Conjunction ∆ Trine SS Semifextile Bq Biquintle * Sextile Vc Quincunx Q Quintile o Opposition □ Quartile Ω Dragon’s head Td Tredecile υ Dragon’s tail

Of Time.

A. M. ante meridiem, before the sun comes upon the meridian. O. or N. noon. P.M. post meridiem, when the sun is past the meridian.

CHARACTERS in Commerce.

D° ditto, the same S or s shillings N° numero, or number d pence or deniers F° folio, or page lb pound weight C or ⊕ hundred weight, R° reflo folio or 112 pounds V° vero folio qts quarters

CHARACTERS in Geometry and Trigonometry.

∥ the character of parallelism △ triangle □ square □ rectangle ○ circle V equiangular or similar △ equilateral Σ an angle ∟ right angle ⊥ perpendicular

° denotes a degree; thus, 45° implies 45 degrees. ′ denotes a minute; thus, 50′ is 50 minutes. ″″″ denote seconds, thirds, and fourths: and the same characters are used when the proportions are by tens, as it is here by fifties.

CHARACTERS in Grammar, Rhetoric, Poetry, &c.

() parenthesis [ ] crotchet - hyphen ´ apostrophe ` emphasis or accent ´ breve ´ dialyfs ^ caret and circumflex † and * references § section or division ¶ paragraph “ quotation

D. D. doctor in divinity V. D. M. minister of the word of God L. L. D. doctor of laws J. V. D. doctor of civil and common law M. D. doctor in physic A. M. master of arts A. B. bachelor of arts F. R. S. fellow of the royal society.

For the other characters used in Grammar, see COMMA, COLON, SEMICOLON.

CHARACTERS among the ancient Lawyers, and in ancient Inscriptions.

§ paragraph ff digests Scto. senatus consulto E. extra S. P. Q. R. senatus populiique Romanus P. P. pater patriae

C. Code C. C. consules T. titulus P. P. D. D. propria pecunia dedicavit D. D. M. dono dedit monumentum.

CHARACTERS in Medicine and Pharmacy.

R° recipe a, aa, or ana, of each alike lb a pound, or a pint z an ounce z a drachm a a scruple gr. grains ½ or ½ half of any thing cong. congius, a gallon coch. cochlearia, a spoonful

M. manipulus, a handful P. a pugil P. A. equal quantities S. A. according to art q. s. a sufficient quantity q. pl. as much as you please P. P. pulvis patrum, the Jesuits bark.

CHARACTERS upon Tomb-stones.

S. V. Sitte viator, i.e. Stop traveller. M. S. Memoriae sacrum, i.e. Sacred to the memory. D. M. Diis manibus. J. H. S. Jesu.

X. P. a character found in the catacombs, about the meaning of which authors are not agreed.

CHARACTERS used in Music, and of Musical Notes with their proportions, are as follows:

| Character | Proportion | |-----------|------------| | a large | 8 | | a long | 4 | | a breve | 2 | | a semibreve | 1 | | a minim | ½ |

* character of a sharp note; this character, at the beginning of a line or space, denotes that all the notes in that line are to be taken a semitone higher than in the natural series; and the same affects all the octaves above and below, though not marked: but when prefixed to any particular note, it shows that note alone to be taken a semitone higher than it would be without such a character.

b or b, character of a flat note: this is the contrary to the other above; that is, a semitone lower.

h character of a natural note: when in a line or series of artificial notes, marked at the beginning b or *, the natural note happens to be required, it is denoted by this character.

& character of the treble cliff.

H character of the mean cliff.

B bass cliff.

⅔ or ⅔, characters of common duplce time, signifying the measure of two crotchets to be equal to two notes, of which four make a semibreve.

C C D characters that distinguish the movements of common time, the first implying slow, the second quick, and the third very quick.

⅓, ⅓, ⅓, ⅓, ⅓, ⅓, characters of simple triple time, the measure of which is equal to three semibreves, or to three minims.

⅔, ⅔, or ⅔, characters of a mixed triple time, where the measure is equal to fix crotchets, or fix quavers.

⅔, or ⅔, or ⅔, or ⅔, or ⅔, characters of compound triple time.

⅔, ⅔, or ⅔, or ⅔, or ⅔, characters of that species of triple time called the measure of twelve times.

human life, that which is peculiar in the manners of any person, and distinguishes him from all others.

Good Character, is particularly applied to that conduct which is regulated by virtue and religion; in an inferior but very common sense, it is understood of mere honesty of dealing between man and man. The importance of a good character in the commerce of life seems to be universally acknowledged.—To those who are to make their own way either to wealth or honours, a good character is usually no less necessary than address and abilities. To transcribe the observation of an elegant moralist: though human nature is degenerate, and corrupts itself still more by its own inventions; yet it usually retains to the last an esteem for excellence. But even if we are arrived at such an extreme degree of depravity as to have lost our native reverence for virtue; yet a regard to our own interest and safety, which we seldom lose, will lead us to apply for aid, in all important transactions, to men whose character integrity is unimpeached. When we choose an assistant, a partner, a servant, our first inquiry is concerning his character. When we have occasion for a counselor or attorney, a physician or apothecary, whatever we may be ourselves, we always choose to trust our property and persons to men of the best character. When we fix on the tradesmen who are to supply us with necessaries, we are not determined by the sign of the lamb, or the wolf, or the fox, nor by a shop fitted up in the most elegant taste; but by the fairest reputation. Look into a daily newspaper, and you will see, from the highest to the lowest rank, how important the characters of the employed appear to the employers. After the advertisement has enumerated the qualities required in the person wanted, there constantly follows, that none need apply who cannot bring an undeniable character. Offer yourself as a candidate for a seat in parliament, be promoted to honour and emolument, or in any respect attract the attention of mankind upon yourself, and if you are vulnerable in your character, you will be deeply wounded. This is a general testimony in favour of honesty, which no writings and no practices can possibly refute.

Young men, therefore, whose characters are yet unfixed, and who consequently may render them just such as they wish, ought to pay great attention to the first steps which they take on entrance into life. They are usually careless and inattentive to this object. They pursue their own plans with ardour, and neglect the opinions which others entertain of them. By some thoughtless action or expression, they suffer a mark to be impressed upon them, which scarcely any subsequent merit can entirely erase. Every man will find some persons, who, though they are not professed enemies, yet view him with an envious or jealous eye, and who will gladly revive any tale to which truth has given the slightest foundation.

In this turbulent and confused scene, where our words and actions are often misunderstood, and often misrepresentated, it is indeed difficult even for innocence and integrity to avoid reproach, abuse, contempt, and hatred. These not only hurt our interest and impede our advancement in life, but forcibly afflict the feelings of a delicate and tender mind. It is then the part of wisdom first to do every thing in our power to preserve an irreproachable character, and then to let our happiness depend chiefly on the approbation of our own consciences, and on the advancement of our interest in a world where liars shall not be believed, and where flatterers shall receive countenance from none but him who, in Greek, is called by way of eminence, Diabolus, or the calumniator.

Poetry, particularly the epopee and drama, is the result of the manners or peculiarities by which each person is distinguished from others.

The poetical character, says M. Boiflu, is not properly any particular virtue or quality, but a composition of several which are mixed together, in a different degree, according to the necessity of the fable and the unity of the action: there must be one, however, to reign over all the rest; and this must be found, in some degree, in every part. The first quality in Achilles, is wrath; in Ulysses, dissimulation; and in Aeneas, Character, Æneas, mildness; but as these characters cannot be alone, they must be accompanied with others to embellish them, as far as they are capable, either by hiding their defects, as in the anger of Achilles, which is palliated by extraordinary valour; or by making them centre in some solid virtue, as in Ulysses, whose diffimulation makes a part of his prudence; and in Æneas, whose mildness is employed in a submission to the will of the gods. In the making up of which union, it is to be observed, the poets have joined together such qualities as are by nature the most compatible; valour with anger, piety with mildness, and prudence with diffimulation. The fable required prudence in Ulysses, and piety in Æneas; in this, therefore, the poets were not left to their choice: but Homer might have made Achilles a coward without abating any thing from the justness of his fable; so that it was the necessity of adorning his character, that obliged him to make him valiant: the character, then, of a hero in the epic poem, is compounded of three sorts of qualities: the first essential to the fable; the second, embellishments of the first; and valour, which fulfils the other two, makes the third.

Unity of character is as necessary as the unity of the fable. For this purpose a person should be the same from the beginning to the end: not that he is always to betray the same sentiments, or one passion; but that he should never speak nor act inconsistently with his fundamental character. For instance, the weak may sometimes fall into a warmth, and the breath of the passionate be calm, a change which often introduces in the drama a very affecting variety: but if the natural disposition of the former was to be represented as boisterous, and that of the latter mild and soft, they would both act out of character, and contradict their persons.

True characters are such as we truly and really see in men, or may exist without any contradiction to nature: no man questions but there have been men as generous and as good as Æneas, as passionate and as violent as Achilles, as prudent and wise as Ulysses, as impious and atheistical as Mezentius, and as amorous and passionate as Dido; all these characters, therefore, are true, and nothing but just imitations of nature. On the contrary, a character is false when an author so feigns it, that one can see nothing like it in the order of nature wherein he feigns it shall stand: these characters should be wholly excluded from a poem, because transgressing the bounds of probability and reason, they meet with no belief from the readers; they are fictions of the poet's brain, not imitations of nature; and yet all poetry confits of an imitation of nature.

Character is also used for certain visible qualities, which claim respect or reverence to those veiled therewith.—The majesty of kings gives them a character which procures respect from the people. A bishop should sustain his character by learning and solid piety, rather than by worldly lucre, &c. The law of nations secures the character of an ambassador from all insults.

Character, among naturalists, is synonymous with the definition of the genera of animals, plants, &c.

Characteristic, in general, is that which characterizes a thing or person, i.e., constitutes its character, whereby it is distinguished. See Characteristic.

Characteristic, is peculiarly used in grammar, for the principal letter of a word: which is preferred in most of its tenses and moods, its derivatives and compounds.

Characteristic of a Logarithm, is its index or exponent. See Logarithm.

Characteristic Triangle of a Curve, in the higher geometry, is a rectilinear right-angled triangle, whose hypotenuse makes a part of the curve, not sensibly different from a right line. It is so called, because curve lines are used to be distinguished hereby. See Curve.