TREATS of time, the method of measuring its parts, and adapting them, when distinguished by proper marks and characters, to past transactions, for the illustration of history. This science therefore consists of two parts. The first treats of the proper measurement of time, and the adjustment of its several divisions; the second, of fixing the dates of the various events recorded in history, and ranging them according to the several divisions of time, in the order in which they happened.

Chronology, comparatively speaking, is but of modern date. The ancient poets appear to have been entirely unacquainted with it; and Homer, the most celebrated of them all, mentions nothing like a formal calendar in any part of his writings. In the most early periods, the only measurement of time was by the seasons, the revolutions of the sun and moon; and many ages must have elapsed before the mode of computation by dating events came into general use. Several centuries intervened between the era of the Olympic games and the first historians; and several more between these and the first authors of chronology. When time first began to be reckoned, we find its measures very indeterminate. The succession of Juno's priestesses at Argos served Hellanicus for the regulation of his narrative; while Ephorus reckoned his matters by generations. Even in the histories of Herodotus and Thucydides, we find no regular dates for the events recorded: nor was there any attempt to establish a fixed era, until the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, who attempted it by comparing and correcting the dates of the Olympiads, the kings of Sparta, and the succession of the priestesses of Juno at Argos. Eratosthenes and Apollodorus digested the events recorded by them, according to the succession of the Olympiads and of the Spartan kings.

The uncertainty of the measures of time in the most early periods renders the histories of those times equally uncertain; and even after the invention of dates and eras, we find the ancient historians very indifferent to them, and inaccurate in their computations. Frequently their eras and years were reckoned differently without their being sensible of it, or at least without giving the reader any information concerning it; a circumstance which has rendered the fragments of their works now remaining of very little use to posterity. The Chaldean and Egyptian writers are generally acknowledged to be fabulous; and Strabo acquaints us, that Diodorus Siculus, and the other early historians of Greece, were ill informed and credulous. Ancient history hence the disagreement among the ancient historians, stories not and the extreme confusion and contradiction we meet to be created with on comparing their works. Hellanicus and Acusilaus disagreed about their genealogies; the latter rejected the traditions of Hesiod. Timaeus accused Euphorus of falsehood, and the rest of the world accused Timaeus. The most fabulous legends were imposed on the world by Herodotus; and even Thucydides and Diodorus, generally accounted able historians, have been convicted of error. The chronology of the Latins is still more uncertain. The records of the Romans were destroyed by the Gauls; and Fabius Pictor, the most ancient of their historians, was obliged to borrow the greatest part of his information from the Greeks. In other European nations the chronology is still more imperfect and of a later date; and even in modern times, a considerable degree of confusion and inaccuracy has arisen from want of attention in the historians to ascertain the dates and epochs with precision.

From these observations it is obvious how necessary utility of a proper system of chronology must be for the right chronology, understanding of history, and likewise how very difficult it must be to establish such a system. In this, &c., however, several learned men have excelled, particularly Julius Africanus, Eusebius of Caesarea, George Cynecelte, John of Antioch, Dennis, Petavius, Cluverius, Usher, Simson, Marsham, Blair, and Playfair. It is founded, 1. On astronomical observations, particularly of the eclipses of the sun and moon, combined with the calculations of the eras and years of different nations. 2. The testimonies of credible authors. 3. Those epochs in history which are so well attested and determined, that they have never been controverted.

4. Ancient medals, coins, monuments, and inscriptions. None of these, however, can be sufficiently intelligible without an explanation of the first part, which, we have already observed, considers the divisions of time, and of which therefore we shall treat in the first place.

The most obvious division of time is derived from the apparent revolutions of the celestial bodies, particularly of the sun, which by the vicissitudes of day and night becomes evident to the most barbarous and ignorant nations. In strict propriety of speech, the word day signifies only that portion of time during which the sun diffuses light on any part of the earth; but in the most comprehensible sense, it includes the night also, and is called by chronologers a civil day; by astronomers a natural, and sometimes an artificial day.

By a civil day is meant the interval betwixt the sun's departure from any given point in the heavens and next return to the same, with as much more as answers to its diurnal motion eastward, which is at the rate of 59 minutes and 8 seconds of a degree, or 3 minutes and 57 seconds of time. It is also called a solar day, and is longer than a sidereal one, inasmuch that, if the former be divided into 24 equal parts or hours, the latter will consist only of 23 hours 56 minutes. The apparent inequality of the sun's motion, likewise, arising from the obliquity of the ecliptic, produces another inequality in the length of the days; and hence the difference betwixt real and apparent time, so that the apparent motion of the sun cannot always be a true measure of duration. Those inequalities, however, are capable of being reduced to a general standard, which furnishes an exact measure throughout the year; whence arises the difference between mean and apparent time, as is explained under the article ASTRONOMY.

There have been very considerable differences among nations with regard to the beginning and ending of their days. The beginning of the day was counted from sunrise by the Babylonians, Syrians, Persians, and Indians. The civil day of the Jews was begun from sunrise, and their sacred one from sunset; the latter mode of computation being followed by the Athenians, Arabs, ancient Gauls and other European nations. According to some, the Egyptians began their day at sunset, while others are of opinion that they computed from noon or from sunrise; and Pliny informs us that they computed their civil day from one midnight to another. It is probable, however, that they had different modes of computation in different provinces or cities. The Aufonians, the most ancient inhabitants of Italy, computed the day from midnight; and the astronomers of Cathay and Oighur in the East Indies reckoned in the same manner. This mode of computation was adopted by Hipparchus, Copernicus, and other astronomers, and is now in common use among ourselves. The astronomical day, however, as it is called, on account of its being used in astronomical calculation, commences at noon, and ends at the same time the following day. The Mahometans reckon from one twilight to another. In Italy, the civil day commences at some indeterminate point after sunset; whence the time of noon varies with the season of the year. At the summer solstice, the clock strikes 16 at noon, and 19 at the time of the winter solstice. Thus also the length of each day differs by several minutes from that immediately preceding or following it. This variation requires a considerable difficulty in adjusting their time by clocks. It is accomplished, however, by a sudden movement which corrects the difference when it amounts to a quarter of an hour; and this it does sometimes at the end of eight days, sometimes at the end of 15, and sometimes at the end of 40. Information of all this is given by a printed calendar, which announces, that from the 16th of February, for instance to the 24th, it will be noon at a quarter past 18; from the 24th of February to the 6th of March, it will be noon at 18 o'clock precisely; from the first of June to the 13th of July, the hour of noon will be at 16 o'clock; on the 13th of July it will be at half an hour after 16; and so on throughout the different months of the year. This absurd method of measuring the day continues, notwithstanding several attempts to suppress it, throughout the whole of Italy, a few provinces only excepted.

The subdivisions of the day have not been less various than the computations of the day itself. The most subdivisions obvious division, and which could at no time, nor in the day, no age, be mistaken, was that of morning and evening. In process of time the two intermediate points of noon and midnight were determined; and this division into quarters was in use long before the invention of hours.

From this subdivision probably arose the method used by the Jews and Romans of dividing the day and night into four vigils or watches. The first began at sunrise, or six in the morning; the second at nine; the third at twelve; and the fourth at three in the afternoon. In like manner the night was divided into four parts; the first beginning at six in the evening, the second at nine, the third at twelve, and the fourth at three in the morning. The first of these division was called by the Jews the third hour of the day; the second the sixth; the third the ninth; and the fourth the twelfth, and sometimes the eleventh. Another division in use, not only among the nations above mentioned, but the Greeks also, was that which reckoned the first quarter from sunset to midnight; the second from midnight to sunrise; the third, or morning watch, from morning to noon; and the fourth from noon to sunset.

It is uncertain at what time the more minute subdivision of the day into hours first commenced. It does not appear from the writings of Moses that he was acquainted with it, as he mentions only the morning, mid-day, evening, and sunset. Hence we may conclude, that the Egyptians at that time knew nothing of it, as Moses was well skilled in their learning. According to Herodotus, the Greeks received the knowledge of the twelve hours of the day from the Babylonians. It is probable, however, that the division was actually known and in use before the name hour was applied to it; as Censorinus informs us that the term was not made use of in Rome for 300 years after its foundation; nor was it known at the time the twelve tables were constructed.

The eastern nations divide the day and night in a very singular manner; the origin of which is not easily discovered. The Chinese have five watches in the night, which are announced by a certain number of strokes on a bell or drum. They begin by giving one stroke, which is answered by another; and this is repeated at the distance of a minute or two, until the second watch begins, which is announced by two strokes; and so on throughout the rest of the watches. By the ancient Tartars, Indians, and Persians, the day was divided into eight parts, each of which contained seven hours and a half. The Indians on the coast of Malabar divide the day into six parts, called najaika; each of these six parts is subdivided into 60 others, called venaiagas; the venaiaga into 60 birpes; the birpe into 10 kenikans; the kenikan into four mattires; the mattire into eight kaunimas or caignodes; which divisions, according to our mode of computation, stand as follow:

Najika, Venaiga, Birpe, Kenikan, Mattire, Caignode.

24 min. 24 sec. 4 sec. 5 sec. 7/8 sec. 3/8 sec.

The day of the Chinese is begun at midnight, and ends with the midnight following. It is divided into twelve hours, each distinguished by a particular name and figure. They also divide the natural day into 100 parts, and each of these into 100 minutes; so that the whole contains 10,000 minutes. In the northern parts of Europe, where only two seasons are reckoned in the year, the divisions of the day and night are considerably larger than with us. In Iceland the 24 hours are divided into eight parts; the first of which commences at three in the morning; the second at five; the third at half an hour after eight; the fourth at eleven; the fifth at three in the afternoon; the sixth at five in the evening; the seventh at eight, and the last at midnight. In the eastern part of Turkestan, the day is divided into twelve equal parts, each of which is distinguished by the name of some animal. These are subdivided into eight keh; so that the whole 24 hours contain 96 keh.

The modern divisions of the hour in use among us are into minutes, seconds, thirds, fourths, &c., each being a sixtieth part of the former subdivision. By the Chaldeans, Jews, and Arabians, the hour is divided into 1080 scruples; so that one hour contains 60 minutes, and one minute, 18 scruples. The ancient Persians and Arabs were likewise acquainted with this division; but the Jews are so fond of it, that they pretend to have received it in a supernatural manner. "Ifachar (say they) ascended into heaven, and brought from thence 1080 parts for the benefit of the nation."

The division of the day being ascertained, it soon became an object to indicate in a public manner the expiration of any particular hour or division; as without some general knowledge of this kind, it would be in a great measure impossible to carry on business. The methods of announcing this have been likewise very different. Among the Egyptians it was customary for the priests to proclaim the hours like watchmen among us. The same method was followed at Rome; nor was there any other method of knowing the hours until the year 293 B.C. when Papirius Curfor first set up a sun-dial in the Capitol. A similar method is practised among the Turks, whose priests proclaim from the top of their mosques, the cock-crow, day-break, mid-day, three o'clock in the afternoon, and twilight, being their appointed times of worship.

As this mode of proclaiming the hour could not but invention be very inconvenient, as well as imperfect, the introduction of an instrument which every one could have in his possession, and which might answer the same purpose, must have been considered as a valuable acquisition. One of the first of these was the clepsydra or water-clock. Various kinds of these were in use among the Egyptians at a very early period. The invention of the instrument is attributed to Thoth or Mercury, and it was afterwards improved by Ctesibius of Alexandria. It was a common measure of time among the Greeks, Indians, and Chaldeans, as well as the Egyptians, but was not introduced into Rome till the time of Scipio Nasica. The Chinese astronomers have long made use of it; and by its means divided the zodiac into twelve parts; but it is a very inaccurate measure of time, varying, not only according to the quantity of water in the vessel, but according to the state of the atmosphere.

The clepsydra was succeeded by the gnomon or sun-dial.—This at first was no more than a stake erected perpendicularly to the horizon; and it was a long time before the principles of it came to be thoroughly understood. The invention is with great probability attributed to the Babylonians, from whom the Jews received it before the time of Ahaz, when we know that a sun-dial was already erected at Jerusalem. The Chinese and Egyptians also were acquainted with the use of the dial at a very early period, and it was considerably improved by Anaximander or Anaximenes; one of whom is for that reason looked upon to be the inventor. Various kinds of dials, however, were invented and made use of in different nations long before their introduction at Rome. The first erected in that city, as has been already mentioned, was that by Papirius Curfor; and 30 years after, Valerius Messala brought one from Sicily, which was used in Rome for no less than 99 years, though constructed for a Sicilian latitude, and consequently incapable of showing the hours exactly in any other place; but at last another was constructed by L. Philippus, capable of measuring time with greater accuracy.

It was long after the invention of dials before mankind began to form any idea of clocks, nor is it well known at what period they were first invented. A clock was sent by Pope Paul I. to Pepin king of France, which at that time was supposed to be the only one in the world. A very curious one was also sent to Charles the Great from the caliph Haroun Alraschid, which the historians of the time speak of with surprize and admiration; but the greatest improvement was that of Mr Huygens, who added the pendulum to it. Still, however, the instruments for dividing time were found to be inaccurate for nice purposes. The expansion of the materials by heat, and their contraction by cold, would cause a very perceptible alteration in the going of an instrument in the same place at different times of the year, and much more if carried from one climate to another. Various methods have been contrived to correct this; which indeed can be done very effectually at land by a certain construction. of the pendulum; but at sea, where a pendulum cannot be used, the inaccuracy is of consequence much greater; nor was it thought possible to correct the errors arising from these causes in any tolerable degree, until the late invention of Mr Harrison's time-piece, which may be considered as making perhaps as near an approach to perfection as possible.

Having thus given an account of the more minute divisions of time, with the methods of measuring them, we must now proceed to the larger; which more properly belong to chronology, and which must be kept on record, as no instrument can be made to point them out. Of these the division into weeks of seven days is one of the most ancient, and probably took place from the creation of the world. Some, indeed, are of opinion, that the week was invented some time after for the more convenient notation of time; but whatever may be in this, we are certain that it is of the highest antiquity, and even the most rude and barbarous nations have made use of it. It is singular indeed that the Greeks, notwithstanding their learning, should have been ignorant of this division; and M. Goguet informs us, that they were almost the only nation who were so. By them the month of 30 days was divided into three times 10, and the days of it named accordingly. Thus the 15th day of the month was called the second fifth, or fifth of the second tenth; the 24th was called the third fourth, or the fourth day of the third tenth. This method was in use in the days of Hefod, and it was not until several ages had elapsed, that the use of weeks was received into Greece from the Egyptians. The inhabitants of Cathay, in the northern part of China, were likewise unacquainted with the week of seven days, but divided the year into six parts of 60 days each. They had also a cycle of 15 days, which they used as a week. The week was likewise unknown to the ancient Persians and to the Mexicans; the former having a different name for every day of the month, and the latter making use of a cycle of 13 days. By almost all other nations the week of seven days was adopted.

It is remarkable, that one day in the week has always been accounted as sacred by every nation. Thus Saturday was consecrated to pious purposes among the Jews, Friday by the Turks, Tuesday by the Africans of Guinea, and Sunday by the Christians. Hence also the origin of Feriae or holidays frequently made use of in systems of Chronology; and which arose from the following circumstance. In the church of Rome the old ecclesiastical year began with Easter week; all the days of which were called Feriae or Feriati, that is, holy or sacred days; and in process of time the days of other weeks came to be distinguished by the same appellation, for the two following reasons, 1. Because every day ought to be holy in the estimation of a Christian. 2. Because all days are holy to ecclesiastics, whose time ought to be entirely devoted to religious worship.—The term week is sometimes used to signify seven years, not only in the prophetic writings, but likewise by profane authors: thus Varro, in his book inscribed Hebdomades, informs us, that he had then entered the 12th week of his years.

The next division of time superior to weeks, is that of months. This appears to have been, if not coeval with the creation, at least in use before the flood. As this division is naturally pointed out by the revolution of the moon, the months of all nations were originally lunar; until after some considerable advances had been made in science, the revolutions of that luminary were compared with the sun, and thus the limits of the month fixed with greater accuracy. The division of the year into 12 months, as being founded on the number of full revolutions of the moon in that time, has also been very general; though Sir John Chardin informs us, that the Persians divided the year into 24 months; and the Mexicans into 18 months of 20 days each. The months generally contained 30 days, or 29 and 30 days alternately; though this rule was far from being without exception. The months of the Latins consisted of 16, 18, 22, or 36 days; and Romulus gave his people a year of 10 months and 304 days. The Kamchatkadales divide the year into 10 months; reckoning the time proper for labour to be nine months, and the winter season, when they are obliged to remain inactive, only as one month.

It has been a very ancient custom to give names to the different months of the year, though this appears to have been more modern than the departure of the Israelites out of Egypt, as they would otherwise undoubtedly have carried it with them; but for a considerable time after their settlement in Canaan, they distinguished the months only by the names of first, second, &c. After their return from the Babylonian captivity, they adopted the names given to the months by the Chaldaeans. Other nations adopted various names, and arranged the months themselves according to their fancy. From this last circumstance arises the variety in the dates of the months; for as the year has been reckoned from different signs in the ecliptic, neither the number nor the quantity of months have been the same, and their situation has likewise been altered by the intercalations necessary to be made.

These intercalations became necessary on account of the excess of the solar above the lunar year; and the months composed of intercalary days are likewise called embolismal. These embolismal months are either natural or civil. By the former the solar and lunar years are adjusted to one another; and the latter arises from the defect of the civil year itself. The adar of the Jews, which always consists of 30 days, is an example of the natural embolismal month.

The Romans had a method of dividing their months into kalends, nones, and ides. The first was derived from an old word calo, "to call;" because, at every new moon, one of the lower class of priests assembled the people, and called over, or announced, as many days as intervened between that and the nones, in order to notify the difference of time and the return of festivals. The 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th of March, May, July, and October, were the nones of these months; but in the other months were the 2d, 3d, 4th, and 5th days only. Thus the 5th of January was its nones; the 4th was pridie nonarum; the 3d, tertio nonarum, &c. The ides contained eight days in every month, and were nine days distant from the nones. Thus the 15th day of the four months already mentioned was the the ides of them; but in the others the 13th was accounted as such; the 12th was pridie iduum, and the 11th tertio iduum. The ides were succeeded by the kalends; the 14th of January, for instance, being the 19th kalend of February; the 15th was the 18th kalend; and so on till the 31st of January, which was pridie kalendarum; and February 1st was the kalends.

Among the European nations the month is either astronomical or civil. The former is measured by the motion of the heavenly bodies; the civil consists of a certain number of days specified by the laws, or by the civil institutions of any nation or society. The astronomical months, being for the most part regulated by the motions of the sun and moon, are thus divided into solar and lunar, of which the former is sometimes also called civil. The astronomical solar month is the time which the sun takes up in passing through a sign of the ecliptic. The lunar month is periodical, synodical, sidereal, and civil. The synodical lunar month is the time that passes between any conjunction of the moon with the sun and the conjunction following. It includes the motion of the sun eastward during that time; so that a mean lunation consists of 29d. 12h. 44' 2" 8921. The sidereal lunar month is the time of the mean revolution of the moon with regard to the fixed stars. As the equinoctial points go backwards about 4' in the space of a lunar month, the moon must, in consequence of this retrogression, arrive at the equinox sooner than at any fixed star, and consequently the mean sidereal revolution must be longer than the mean periodical one. The latter consists of 27d. 7h. 43' 4" 6840. The civil lunar month is computed from the moon, to answer the ordinary purposes of life; and as it would have been inconvenient, in the computation of lunar months, to have reckoned odd parts of days, they have been composed of 30 days, or of 29 and 30 alternately, as the nearest round numbers. When the month is reckoned from the first appearance of the moon after her conjunction, it is called the month of illumination. The Arabs, Turks, and other nations, who use the era of the Hegira, follow this method of computation. As twelve lunar months, however, are 11 days less than a solar year, Julius Caesar ordained that the month should be reckoned from the course of the sun and not of the moon; and that they should consist of 30 and 31 days alternately, February only excepted, which was to consist of 28 commonly, and of 29 in leap years.

The highest natural division of time is into years. At first, however, it is probable that the course of the sun through the ecliptic would not be observed, but that all nations would measure their time by the revolutions of the moon. We are certain, at least, that the Egyptian year consisted originally of a single lunation; though at length it included two or three months, and was determined by the stated returns of the seasons. As the eastern nations, however, particularly the Egyptians, Chaldeans, and Indians, applied themselves in very early periods to astronomy, they found, by comparing the motions of the sun and moon together, that one revolution of the former included nearly 12 of the latter. Hence a year of 12 lunations was formed, in every one of which were reckoned 30 days; and hence also the division of the ecliptic into 360 degrees. The lunisolar year, consisting of 360 days, was in use long before any regular intercalations were made; and historians inform us, that the year of all ancient nations was lunisolar. Herodotus relates, that the Egyptians first divided the year into 12 parts by the assistance of the stars, and that every part consisted of 30 days. The Thebans corrected this year by adding five intercalary days to it. The old Chaldean year was also reformed by the Medes and Persians; and some of the Chinese missionaries have informed us, that the lunisolar year was also corrected in China; and that the solar year was ascertained in that country to very considerable exactness. The Latin year, before Numa's correction of it, consisted of 360 days, of which 304 were divided into ten months; to which were added two private months not mentioned in the calendar.

The imperfection of this method of comparing time is now very evident. The lunisolar year was about nine of a 5½ days shorter than the true solar year, and as much passage in longer than the lunar. Hence the months could not long correspond with the seasons; and even in so short a time as 34 years, the winter months would have changed places with those of summer. From this rapid variation, Mr Playfair takes notice, that a passage in Herodotus, by which the learned have been exceedingly puzzled, may receive a satisfactory solution, viz., that "in the time of the ancient Egyptian kings, the sun had twice arisen in the place where it had formerly set, and twice set where it had arisen." By this he supposes it is meant, "that the beginning of the year had twice gone through all the signs of the ecliptic; and that the sun had risen and set twice in every day and month in the year." This, which some have taken for a proof of most extravagant antiquity, he further observes, might have happened in 138 years only; as in that period there would be a difference of nearly two years between the solar and lunar year. Such evident imperfections could not but produce a reformation everywhere; and accordingly we find that there was no nation which did not adopt the method of adding a few intercalary days at certain intervals. We are ignorant, however, of the person who was the first inventor of this method. The Theban priests attributed the invention to Mercury or Thoth; and it is certain that they were acquainted with the year of 365 days at a very early period. The length of the solar year was represented by the celebrated golden circle of Olymmandyas of 365 cubits circumference; and on every cubit of which was inscribed a day of the year, together with the heliacal risings and settings of the stars. That monarch is supposed to have reigned in the 11th or 12th century before the Christian era.

The Egyptian solar year being almost six hours shorter than the true one, this inaccuracy, in process of time, produced another revolution; some circumstances attending which serve to fix the date of the discovery of the length of the year, and which, from the above description of the golden circle, we may suppose to have been made during the reign of Olymmandyas. The inundation of the Nile was annually announced by the heliacal rising of Sirius, to which the reformers of the calendar adjusted the beginning of the year, supposing that it would remain immovable. In a number of years, however, it appeared that their suppositions... tions of this were ill founded. By reason of the inequality above mentioned, the heliacal rising of Sirius gradually advanced nearly at the rate of one day in four years; so that in 1461 years it completed a revolution, by arising on every succeeding day of the year, and returning to the point originally fixed for the beginning of the year. This period, equal to 1460 Julian years, was termed the great Egyptian year, or canicular cycle. From the accounts we have of the time that the canicular cycle was renewed, the time of its original commencement may be gathered with tolerable certainty. This happened, according to Censorinus, in the 138th year of the Christian era. Reckoning backward therefore from this time for 1460 years, we come to the year B.C. 1322, when the sun was in Cancer, about 14 or 15 days after the summer solstice, which happened on July 5th. The Egyptians used no intercalation till the time of Augustus, when the corrected Julian year was received at Alexandria by his order; but even this order was obeyed only by the Greeks and Romans who resided in that city; the superstitious natives refusing to make any addition to the length of a year which had been so long established among them.

We are not informed at what precise period the true year was observed to consist of nearly fix hours more than the 365 days. Though the priests of Thebes claim the merit of the discovery, Herodotus makes no mention of it; neither did Thales, who introduced the year of 365 days into Greece, ever use any intercalation. Plato and Eudoxus are said to have obtained it as a secret from the Egyptians about 80 years after Herodotus, and to have carried it into Greece; which showed, that the knowledge of this form of the year was at that time recent, and only known to a few learned men.

The year of the ancient Jews was lunisolar; and we are informed by tradition, that Abraham preferred in his family, and transmitted to posterity, the Chaldean form of the year, consisting of 360 days; which remained the same without any correction until the date of the Era of Nabonassar. The solar year was adopted among them after their return from the Babylonish captivity; but when subjected to the successors of Alexander in Syria, they were obliged to admit the lunar year into their calendar. In order to adjust this year to the course of the sun, they added at certain periods a month to Adar, formerly mentioned, and called it Ve Adar. They composed also a cycle of 19 years, in seven of which they inserted the intercalary month. This correction was intended to regulate the months in such a manner, as to bring the 15th of Nisan to the equinoctial point; and likewise the courses of the seasons and feasts in such a manner, that the corn might be ripe at the passover as the law required.

We shall not take up the reader's time with any further account of the years made use of by different nations, all of which are resolved at last into the lunisolar; it will be sufficient to mention the improvements in the calendar made by the two great reformers of it, Julius Caesar, and Pope Gregory XIII. The institution of the Roman year by Romulus has been already taken notice of; but as this was evidently very imperfect, Numa, on his advancement to the throne, undertook to reform it. With a design to make a complete lunar year of it, he added 50 days to the 304 of Romulus; and from every one of his months, which consisted of 31 and 30 days, he borrowed one day. Of these additional days he composed two months; calling the one January, and the other February. Various other corrections and adjustments were made; but when Julius Caesar obtained the sovereignty of Rome, he found that the months had considerably receded from the seasons to which Numa had adjusted them. To bring them forward to their places, he formed a year of 15 months, or 445 days; which, on account of its length, and the design with which it was formed, has been called the year of confusion. It terminated on the first of January 45 B.C. and from this period the civil year and months were regulated by the course of the sun. The year of Numa being ten days shorter than the solar year, two days were added by Julius to every one of the months of January, August, and December; and one to April, June, September, and November. He ordained likewise, that an intercalary day should be added every fourth year to the month of February, by reckoning the 24th day, or fifth of the kalends of March, twice over. Hence this year was styled bisextile, and also leap year, from its leaping a day more than a common year.

The Julian year has been used by modern chronologers, as being a measure of time extremely simple and sufficiently accurate. It is still, however; somewhat imperfect, for as the true solar year consists of 365¼ days, it appears that in 137 years after the Julian correction, the sun must have arrived one day too soon at the equinoctial point. During Caesar's reign the vernal equinox had been observed by Sofigenes on the 25th of March; but by the time of the Nicene council it had gone backward to the 21st. The cause of the error was not then known; but in 1582, when the equinox happened on the 11th of March, it was thought proper to give the calendar its last correction. Pope Gregory XIII, having invited to Rome a considerable number of mathematicians and astronomers, employed ten years in the examination of their several formulae, and at last gave the preference to that of Aloisio and Antoninus Lelius, who were brothers. Ten days were now cut off in the month of October, and the 4th of that month was reckoned the 15th. To prevent the seasons from receding in time to come, he ordained that one day should be added every fourth or bisextile year as before; and that the 1600th year of the Christian era, and every fourth century thereafter, should be a bisextile or leap year. One day therefore is to be intercalated in the years 2000, 2300, 2600, &c. but in the other centuries, as 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, &c. it is to be suppressed, and these are to be reckoned as common years. Even this correction, however, is not absolutely exact; but the error must be very inconsiderable, and scarce amounting to a day and a half in 5000 years.

The commencement of the year has been determined by the date of some memorable event or occurrence, such as the creation of the world, the universal deluge, a conjunction of planets, the incarnation of our Saviour, &c. and of course has been referred to different points in the ecliptic. The Chaldean and the the Egyptian years were dated from the autumnal equinox. The ecclesiastical year of the Jews began in the spring; but, in civil affairs, they retained the epoch of the Egyptian year. The ancient Chinese reckoned from the new moon nearest the middle of Aquarius; but according to some recent accounts, the beginning of their year was transferred (B.C. 1742) to the new moon nearest to the winter solstice. This likewise is the date of the Japanese year. Diemischid, or Gemischid, king of Persia, observed, on the day of his public entry into Persepolis, that the sun entered into Aries. In commemoration of this fortunate event and coincidence, he ordained the beginning of the year to be removed from the autumnal to the vernal equinox. This epoch was denominated Neuruz, viz. new day; and is still celebrated with great pomp and festivity. (See EPOCHS.) The ancient Swedish year commenced at the winter solstice, or rather at the time of the sun's appearance in the horizon, after an absence of about 40 days. The feast of this epoch was solemnized on the 25th day after the solstice. Some of the Grecian states computed from the vernal, some from the autumnal equinox, and others from the summer tropic. The year of Romulus commenced in March, and that of Numa in January. The Turks and Arabs date the year from the 16th of July; and the American Indians reckon from the first appearance of the new moon of the vernal equinox. The church of Rome has fixed new year's day on the Sunday that corresponds with the full moon of the same season. The Venetians, Florentines, and Pisans in Italy, and the inhabitants of Treves in Germany, begin the year at the vernal equinox. The ancient clergy reckoned from the 25th of March; and this method was observed in Britain, until the introduction of the new style (A.D. 1752); after which our year commenced on the 1st day of January.

Besides these natural divisions of time arising immediately from the revolutions of the heavenly bodies, there are others formed from some of the less obvious consequences of these revolutions, which are called cycles, from the Greek κύκλος, a circle. The most remarkable of these are the following:

1. The cycle of the sun is a revolution of 28 years, in which time the days of the months return again to the same days of the week; the sun's place to the same signs and degrees of the ecliptic on the same months and days, so as not to differ one degree in 100 years; and the leap years begin the same course over again with respect to the days of the week on which the days of the month fell. The cycle of the moon, commonly called the golden number, is a revolution of 19 years; in which time, the conjunctions, oppositions, and other aspects of the moon, are within an hour and a half of being the same as they were on the same days of the months 19 years before. The indiction is a revolution of 15 years, used only by the Romans for indicating the times of certain payments made by the subjects to the republic: It was established by Constantine, A.D. 312.

The year of our Saviour's birth, according to the vulgar era, was the 9th year of the solar cycle, the first year of the lunar cycle; and the 312th year after his birth was the first year of the Roman indiction. Therefore, to find the year of the solar cycle, add 9 to any given year of Christ, and divide the sum by 28, the quotient is the number of cycles elapsed since his birth, and the remainder is the cycle for the given year: If nothing remains, the cycle is 28. To find the lunar cycle, add one to the given year of Christ, and divide the sum by 19; the quotient is the number of cycles elapsed in the interval, and the remainder is the cycle for the given year: If nothing remains, the cycle is 19. Lastly, subtract 312 from the given year of Christ, and divide the remainder by 15; and what remains after this division is the indiction for the given year: If nothing remains, the indiction is 15.

Although the above deficiency in the lunar cycle of variation an hour and a half every 19 years be but small, yet in the golden numbers it becomes so sensible as to make a whole natural day in 310 years. So that, although the cycle be of use, when the golden numbers are rightly placed against the days of the month in the calendar, as in the Common Prayer Books, for finding the days of the mean conjunctions or oppositions of the sun and moon, and consequently the time of Easter; it will only serve for 310 years, old style. For as the new and full moons anticipate a day in that time, the golden numbers ought to be placed one day earlier in the calendar for the next 310 years to come. These numbers were rightly placed against the days of new moon in the calendar by the council of Nice, A.D. 325; but the anticipation, which has been neglected ever since, is now grown almost into five days: And therefore all the golden numbers ought now to be placed five days higher in the calendar for the old style, than they were at the time of the said council; or six days lower for the new style, because at present it differs 11 days from the old.

In the first of the following tables, the golden numbers under the months stand against the days of new moon in golden left hand column, for the new style; adapted chiefly number to the second year after leap-year, as being the nearest mean for all the four; and will serve till the year 1900. Therefore, to find the day of new moon in any month of a given year till that time, look for the golden number of that year under the desired month, and against it you have the day of new moon in the left hand column. Thus, suppose it were required to find the day of new moon in September 1789; the golden number for that year is 4, which I look for under September, and right against it, in the left-hand column, you will find 19, which is the day of new moon in that month. N.B. If all the golden numbers, except 17 and 6, were set one day lower in the table, it would serve from the beginning of the year 1900 till the end of the year 2199. The table at the end of this section shows the golden number for 4000 years after the birth of Christ, by looking for the even hundreds of any given year at the left-hand, and for the rest to make up that year at the head of the table; and where the columns meet, you have the golden number (which is the same both in old and new style) for the given year. Thus, suppose the golden number was wanted for the year 1789, look for 1700 at the left hand of the table, and for 39 at the top of it; then guiding your eye downward from 39 to over again 1700, you will find 4, which is the golden number for that year.

But because the lunar cycle of 19 years sometimes includes five leap-years, and at other times only four, this table will sometimes vary a day from the truth in leap-years after February. And it is impossible to have one more correct, unless we extend it to four times 19 or 76 years; in which there are 19 leap-years without a remainder. But even then to have it of perpetual use, it must be adapted to the old style; because, in every centennial year not divisible by 4, the regular course of leap-years is interrupted in the new; as was the case in the year 1800.

2. The cycle of Easter, also called the Dionysian period, is a revolution of 532 years, found by multiplying the solar cycle 28 by the lunar cycle 19. If the new moons did not anticipate upon this cycle, Easter-day would always be the Sunday next after the first full moon which follows the 21st of March. But, on account of the above anticipation, to which no proper regard was had before the late alteration of the style, the ecclesiastic Easter has several times been a week different from the true Easter within this last century; which inconvenience is now remedied by making the table, which used to find Easter for ever, in the Common Prayer Book, of no longer use than the lunar difference from the new style will admit of.

The earliest Easter possible is the 22d of March, the latest the 25th of April. Within these limits are 35 days, and the number belonging to each of them is called the number of direction; because thereby the time of Easter is found for any given year.

The first seven letters of the alphabet are commonly placed in the annual almanacks, to show on what days of the week the days of the months fall throughout the year. And because one of these seven letters must necessarily stand against Sunday, it is printed in a capital form, and called the dominical letter; the other six being inserted in small characters, to denote the other six days of the week. Now, since a common Julian year contains 365 days, if this number be divided by 7 (the number of days in a week) there will remain one day. If there had been no remainder, it is plain the year would constantly begin on the same day of the week; but since one remains, it is plain that the year must begin and end on the same day of the week; and therefore the next year will begin on the day following. Hence, when January begins on Sunday, A is the dominical or Sunday letter for that year; Then, because the next year begins on Monday, the Sunday will fall on the seventh day, to which is annexed the seventh letter G, which therefore will be the dominical letter for all that year; and as the third year will begin on Tuesday, the Sunday will fall on the sixth day; therefore F will be the Sunday letter for that year. Whence it is evident, that the Sunday letters will go annually in a retrograde order thus, G, F, E, D, C, B, A. And, in the course of seven years, if they were all common ones, the same days of the week and dominical letters would return to the same days of the month. But because there are 366 days in a leap-year, if this number be divided by 7, there will remain two days over and above the 52 weeks of which the year consists. And therefore, if the leap-year begins on Sunday, it will end on Monday; and the next year will begin on Tuesday, the first Sunday whereof must fall on the fifth of January, to which is annexed the letter F, and not G, as in common years. By this means, the leap-year returning every fourth year, the order of the dominical letters is interrupted; and the series cannot return to its first state till after four times seven, or 28 years; and then the same days of the months return in order to the same days of the week as before.

TABLE I.

| Days | Jan. | Feb. | March | April | May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | |------|------|------|-------|-------|-----|------|------|------|------|-----|-----|-----| | 1 | 9 | 17 | 17 | 6 | 11 | 19 | 8 | 8 | 16 | 5 | 5 | 13 | | 2 | 17 | 6 | 17 | 6 | 3 | 11 | 19 | 8 | 16 | 5 | 5 | 13 | | 3 | 17 | 6 | 17 | 6 | 3 | 11 | 19 | 8 | 16 | 5 | 5 | 13 | | 4 | 6 | 14 | 14 | 3 | 19 | 8 | 16 | 5 | 13 | 2 | 10 | 18 | | 5 | 14 | 3 | 14 | 3 | 19 | 8 | 16 | 5 | 13 | 2 | 10 | 18 | | 6 | 14 | 3 | 14 | 3 | 19 | 8 | 16 | 5 | 13 | 2 | 10 | 18 | | 7 | 3 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 10 | 8 | 16 | 5 | 13 | 2 | 10 | 18 | | 8 | 11 | 19 | 8 | 8 | 16 | 5 | 13 | 2 | 10 | 18 | 7 | 15 | | 9 | 11 | 19 | 8 | 8 | 16 | 5 | 13 | 2 | 10 | 18 | 7 | 15 | | 10 | 19 | 8 | 8 | 16 | 16 | 5 | 13 | 2 | 10 | 18 | 7 | 15 | | 11 | 19 | 8 | 8 | 16 | 16 | 5 | 13 | 2 | 10 | 18 | 7 | 15 | | 12 | 19 | 8 | 8 | 16 | 16 | 5 | 13 | 2 | 10 | 18 | 7 | 15 | | 13 | 19 | 8 | 8 | 16 | 16 | 5 | 13 | 2 | 10 | 18 | 7 | 15 | | 14 | 19 | 8 | 8 | 16 | 16 | 5 | 13 | 2 | 10 | 18 | 7 | 15 | | 15 | 19 | 8 | 8 | 16 | 16 | 5 | 13 | 2 | 10 | 18 | 7 | 15 | | 16 | 19 | 8 | 8 | 16 | 16 | 5 | 13 | 2 | 10 | 18 | 7 | 15 | | 17 | 19 | 8 | 8 | 16 | 16 | 5 | 13 | 2 | 10 | 18 | 7 | 15 | | 18 | 19 | 8 | 8 | 16 | 16 | 5 | 13 | 2 | 10 | 18 | 7 | 15 | | 19 | 19 | 8 | 8 | 16 | 16 | 5 | 13 | 2 | 10 | 18 | 7 | 15 | | 20 | 19 | 8 | 8 | 16 | 16 | 5 | 13 | 2 | 10 | 18 | 7 | 15 | | 21 | 19 | 8 | 8 | 16 | 16 | 5 | 13 | 2 | 10 | 18 | 7 | 15 | | 22 | 19 | 8 | 8 | 16 | 16 | 5 | 13 | 2 | 10 | 18 | 7 | 15 | | 23 | 19 | 8 | 8 | 16 | 16 | 5 | 13 | 2 | 10 | 18 | 7 | 15 | | 24 | 19 | 8 | 8 | 16 | 16 | 5 | 13 | 2 | 10 | 18 | 7 | 15 | | 25 | 19 | 8 | 8 | 16 | 16 | 5 | 13 | 2 | 10 | 18 | 7 | 15 | | 26 | 19 | 8 | 8 | 16 | 16 | 5 | 13 | 2 | 10 | 18 | 7 | 15 | | 27 | 19 | 8 | 8 | 16 | 16 | 5 | 13 | 2 | 10 | 18 | 7 | 15 | | 28 | 19 | 8 | 8 | 16 | 16 | 5 | 13 | 2 | 10 | 18 | 7 | 15 | | 29 | 19 | 8 | 8 | 16 | 16 | 5 | 13 | 2 | 10 | 18 | 7 | 15 | | 30 | 19 | 8 | 8 | 16 | 16 | 5 | 13 | 2 | 10 | 18 | 7 | 15 | | 31 | 19 | 8 | 8 | 16 | 16 | 5 | 13 | 2 | 10 | 18 | 7 | 15 |

TABLE ### Table II

**Table, showing the Golden Number (which is the same both in the Old and New Style) from the Christian Era, to A.D. 400.**

| Hundreds of Years | Years less than a hundred | |------------------|--------------------------| | | 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 | | 0 | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 | | 100 | 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 | | 200 | 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 | | 300 | 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 | | 400 | 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 | | 500 | 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 | | 600 | 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 | | 700 | 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 | | 800 | 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 | | 900 | 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 | | 1000 | 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 | | 1100 | 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 | | 1200 | 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 | | 1300 | 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 | | 1400 | 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 | | 1500 | 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 | | 1600 | 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 | | 1700 | 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 | | 1800 | 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 |

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From the multiplication of the solar cycle of 28 years into the lunar cycle of 19 years, and the Roman indiction of 15 years, arises the great Julian period, consisting of 7980 years, which had its beginning 764 years before Stratochius's supposed year of the creation (for no later could all the three cycles begin together), and it is not yet completed: And therefore it includes all other cycles, periods, and eras. There is but one year in the whole period that has the same numbers for the three cycles of which it is made up: And therefore, if historians had remarked in their writings the cycles of each year, there had been no dispute about the time of any action recorded by them.

The Dionysian or vulgar era of Christ's birth was about the end of the year of the Julian period 4713; and consequently the first year of his age, according to that account, was the 4714th year of the said period. Therefore, if to the current year of Christ we add 4713, the sum will be found to be the Julian period. So the year 1780 will be found to be the 6522d year of that period. Or, to find the year of the Julian period answering to any given year before the first year of Christ, subtract the number of that given year from 4714, and the remainder will be the year of the Julian period. Thus, the year 585 before the first year of Christ (which was the 384th before his birth) was the 4129th year of the said period. Lastly, to find the cycles of the sun, moon, and indiction for any given year of this period, divide the given year by 28, 19, and 15; the three remainders will be the cycles sought, and the quotients the number of cycles run since the beginning of the period. So in the above 4714th year of the Julian period, the cycle of the sun was 10, the cycle of the moon 2, and the cycle of indiction 4; the solar cycle having run through 168 courses, the lunar 248, and the indiction 314.

The vulgar era of Christ's birth was never settled till Year of the year 527, when Dionysius Exiguus, a Roman abbot, fixed it to the end of the 4713th year of the Julian birth period, which was four years too late; for our Saviour was born before the death of Herod, who sought to kill him as soon as he heard of his birth. And according to the testimony of Josephus (B. xvii. ch. 8.), there was an eclipse of the moon in the time of Herod's last illness; which eclipse appears by our astronomical tables to have been in the year of the Julian period 4710, March 13, at three hours past midnight, at Jerusalem. Now, as our Saviour must have been born some months before Herod's death, since in the interval he was carried into Egypt, the latest time in which we can fix the true era of his birth is about the end of the 479th year of the Julian period.

As there are certain fixed points in the heavens from which astronomers begin their computations, so there are certain points of time from which historians begin to reckon; and these points or roots of time are called eras or epochs. The most remarkable eras are, those of the Creation, the Greek Olympiads, the building of Rome, the era of Nabonassar, the death of Alexander, the birth of Christ, the Arabian Hegira, and the Persian Jafdegird: All which, together with several others of less note, have their beginnings fixed by chronologers to the years of the Julian period, to the age of the world at those times, and to the years before and after the year of Christ’s birth.

Having thus treated as fully as our limits will admit, of the various divisions of time, we must now consider the second part of chronology, viz. that which more immediately relates to history, and which has already been observed to have the four following foundations: 1. Astronomical observations, particularly of eclipses. 2. The testimonies of credible authors. 3. Epochs in history universally allowed to be true. 4. Ancient medals, coins, monuments, and inscriptions. We shall consider these four principal parts in the order they here stand.

I. It is with great reason that the eclipses of the sun and moon, and the aspects of the other planets, have been called public and celestial characters of the times, as their calculations afford chronologers infallible proofs of the precise epochs in which a great number of the most signal events in history have occurred. So that in chronological matters we cannot make any great progress, if we are ignorant of the use of astronomic tables, and the calculation of eclipses. The ancients regarded the latter as prognostics of the fall of empires, of the loss of battles, of the death of monarchs, &c. And it is to this superstition, to this wretched ignorance, that we happily owe the vast labour that historians have taken to record so great a number of them. The most able chronologers have collected them with still greater labour. Calvinius, for example, founds his chronology on 144 eclipses of the sun, and 127 of the moon, that he says he had calculated. The grand conjunction of the two superior planets, Saturn and Jupiter, which, according to Kepler, occurs once in 800 years in the same point of the zodiac, and which has happened only eight times since the creation (the last time in the month of December 1603), may also furnish chronology with incontrovertible proofs. The same may be said of the transit of Venus over the sun, which has been observed in our days, and all the other uncommon positions of the planets. But among these celestial and natural characters of times, there are also some that are named civil or artificial, and which, nevertheless, depend on astronomic calculation.

Such are the solar and lunar cycles; the Roman indiction; the feast of Easter; the bissextile year; the jubilees; the sabbatic years; the combats and Olympic games of the Greeks, and Hegira of the Mahometans, &c. And to these may be added the periods, eras, epochs, and years of different nations, ancient and modern. We shall only remark on this occasion, that the period or era of the Jews commences with the creation of the world; that of the ancient Romans with the foundation of the city of Rome; that of the Greeks at the establishment of the Olympic games; that of Nabonassar, with the advancement of the first king of Babylon to the throne; the Yezdegerdian years, with the last king of the Persians of that name; the Hegira of the Turks, with the flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, &c. The year of the birth of Christ was the 4713th year of the Julian period, according to the common method of reckoning. Astronomical chronology teaches us to calculate the precise year of the Julian period in which each of these epochs happened.

II. The testimony of authors is the second principal part of historic chronology. Though no man whatever has a right to pretend to infallibility, or to be regarded as a sacred oracle, it would, however, be making a very unjust judgment of mankind, to treat them all as dupes or impostors; and it would be an injury offered to public integrity, were we to doubt the veracity of authors universally esteemed, and of facts that are in themselves highly worthy of belief. It would be even a kind of intemperance to doubt that there have been such cities as Athens, Sparta, Rome, Carthage, &c. or that Xerxes reigned in Persia, and Augustus in Rome: whether Hannibal ever was in Italy; or that the emperor Constantine built Constantinople, &c. The unanimous testimony of the most respectable historians will not admit any doubt of these matters. When an historian is allowed to be completely able to judge of an event, and to have no intent of deceiving by his relation, his testimony is unexceptionable. But to avoid the danger of adopting error for truth, and to be satisfied of a fact that appears doubtful in history, we may make use of the four following rules, as they are founded in reason.

1. We ought to pay a particular regard to the testimonies of those who wrote at the same time the events happened, and who have not been contradicted by any contemporary author of known authority. Who can doubt, for example, of the truth of the facts related by Admiral Anson, in the history of his voyage round the world? The admiral saw all the facts there mentioned with his own eyes, and published his book when two hundred companions of his voyage were still living in London, and could have contradicted him immediately, if he had given any false or exaggerated relations.

2. After the contemporary authors, we should give more credit to those who lived near the time the events happened than to those who lived at a distance.

3. Those doubtful histories, which are related by authors that are but little known, can have no weight, if they are at variance with reason, or established tradition.

4. We must distrust the truth of a history that is related by modern authors, when they do not agree among themselves in several circumstances, nor with ancient historians, who are to be regarded as original sources. We should especially doubt the truth of those brilliant portraits, that are drawn at pleasure by such as never knew the persons they are intended for, and even made several centuries after their decease. The most pure and most fruitful source of ancient history is doubtless to be found in the Holy Bible. Let us here for a moment cease to regard it as divine, and let us presume to consider it as a common history. Now, when we regard the writers of the books of the Old Testament, and consider them sometimes as authors, sometimes as ocular witnesses, and sometimes as respectable historians; whether we reflect on the simplicity of the narration, and the air of truth that is there constantly visible; or, when we consider the care that the people, the governments, and the learned men of all ages, have taken to preserve the true text of the Bible; or that we have regard to the happy conformity of the chronology of the holy Scriptures with that of profane history; or, if we observe the admirable harmony that between these books and the most respectable historians, as Josephus and others; and lastly, when we consider that the books of the holy Scripture furnish us alone with an accurate history of the world from the creation, through the line of patriarchs, judges, kings, and princes of the Hebrews; and that we may, by its aid, form an almost entire series of events down to the birth of Christ, or the time of Augustus, which comprehends a space of about 4000 years, some small interruptions excepted, and which are easily supplied by profane history; when all these reflections are justly made, we must constantly allow that the Scriptures form a book which merits the first rank among all the sources of ancient history. It has been objected, that this book contains contradictions; but the most able interpreters have reconciled these seeming contradictions. It has been said, that the chronology of the Hebrew text and the Vulgate do not agree with the chronology of the version of the Septuagint; but the soundest critics have shown that they may be made to agree. It has been observed, moreover, that the Scriptures abound with miracles and prodigies; but they are miracles that have really happened; and what ancient history is there that is not filled with miracles and other marvellous events? And do we for that reject their authority? Cannot the true God be supposed to have performed those miracles which Pagan historians have attributed to their false divinities? Must we pay no regard to the writings of Livy, because his history contains many fabulous relations?

III. The epochs form the third principal part of chronology. There are those fixed points in history that have never been contested, and of which there can, in fact, be no doubt. Chronologists fix on the events that are to serve as epochs, in a manner quite arbitrary; but this is of little consequence, provided the dates of these epochs agree, and that there is no contradiction in the facts themselves. When we come to treat expressly on history, we shall mention, in our progress, all the principal epochs.

IV. Medals, monuments, and inscriptions, form the fourth and last principal part of chronology. It is scarce more than 150 years since close application has been made to the study of these; and we owe to the celebrated Spanheim the greatest obligations, for the progress that is made in this method; his excellent work, De praestantia et usu numismatum antiquorum, has shown the great advantages of it; and it is evident that these monuments are the most authentic witnesses that can be produced. It is by the aid of medals that M. Vaillant has composed his judicious history of the kings of Syria, from the time of Alexander the Great to that of Pompey; they have been, moreover, of the greatest service in elucidating all ancient history, especially that of the Romans; and even sometimes that of the middle age. Their use is more fully spoken of in the article Medals. What we here say of medals, is to be understood equally, in its full force, of ancient inscriptions, and of all other authentic documents that have come down to us.

Every reader, endowed with a just discernment, will readily allow that these four parts of chronology afford clear lights, and are excellent guides to conduct us through the thick darkness of antiquity. That impartiality, however, which directs us to give a faithful relation of that which is true and false, of the certainty and uncertainty of all the sciences, obliges us here freely to confess, that these guides are not infallible, nor the proofs that they afford mathematical demonstrations. In fact, with regard to history in general, and ancient history in particular, something must be always left to conjecture and historic faith. It would be an offence against common probity were we to suffer ourselves to pass over in silence those objections which authors of the greatest reputation have made against the certainty of chronology. We shall extract them from their own works; and we hope that there is no magistrate, theologian, or public professor in Europe, who would be mean enough to accuse us of a crime, for not unworthily disguising the truth.

1. The prodigious difference there is between the Septuagint Bible and the Vulgate, in point of chronology, occasions an embarrassment, which is the more difficult to avoid, as we cannot positively say on which side the error lies. The Greek Bible counts, for example, from the creation of the world to the birth of Abraham, 1500 years more than the Hebrew or Latin Bibles, &c. 2. How difficult is it to ascertain the years of the Judges of the Jewish nation, in the Bible? What darkness is spread over the succession of the kings of Judah and Israel? The calculation of time is there so inaccurate, that the Scripture never marks if they are current or complete years. For we cannot suppose that a patriarch, judge, or king, lived exactly 60, 90, 100, or 969 years, without any odd months or days. 3. The different names that the Assyrians, Egyptians, Persians, and Greeks, have given to the same prince, have contributed not a little to embarrass all ancient chronology. Three or four princes have borne the name of Ashur, though they had also other names. If we did not know that Nabucodonosor, Nabucodonosor, and Nabucodonosor, were the same name, or the name of the same man, we should scarcely believe it. Sargon is Sennacherib; Ozias is Azarias; Sedecias is Mathanias; Joachas is also called Sellum; Assaraddon, which is pronounced indifferently Esharaddon and Asharaddon, is called Ashenaphar by the Cuthaeans; and by an oddity of which we do not know the origin, Sardanapalus is called by the Greeks Tenos Concoleros. 4. There remain to us but few monuments of the first monarchs of the the world. Numberless books have been lost, and those which have come down to us are mutilated or altered by transcribers. The Greeks began to write very late. Herodotus, their first historian, was of a credulous disposition, and believed all the fables that were related by the Egyptian priests. The Greeks were in general vain, partial, and held no nation in esteem but their own. The Romans were still more infatuated with notions of their own merit and grandeur: their historians were altogether as unjust as was their senate, toward other nations that were frequently far more respectable.

5. The eras, the years, the periods, and epochs, were not the same in each nation; and they, moreover, began at different seasons of the year. All this has thrown so much obscurity over chronology, that it appears to be beyond all human capacity totally to dispel it.

Christianity itself had subsisted near 1200 years, before they knew precisely how many years had passed since the birth of our Saviour. They saw clearly that the vulgar era was defective, but it was a long time before they could comprehend that it required four whole years to make up the true period. Abbé Denis the Little, who in the year 532 was the first among the Christians to form the era of that grand epoch, and to count the years from that time, in order to make their chronology altogether Christian, erred in his calculation, and led all Europe into his error. They count 132 contrary opinions of different authors concerning the year in which the Messiah appeared on the earth. M. Vallemont names 64 of them, and all celebrated writers. Among all these authors, however, there is none that reckon more than 7000, nor less than 3700 years. But even this difference is enormous. The most moderate fix the birth of Christ in the 4000th year of the world. The reasons, however, on which they found their opinion, appear to be sufficiently arbitrary.

Be these matters, however, as they may, the wisdom of Providence has so disposed all things, that there remain sufficient lights to enable us nearly to connect the series of events: for in the first 3000 years of the world, where profane history is defective, we have the chronology of the Bible to direct us; and after that period, where we find more obscurity in the chronology of the Holy Scriptures, we have, on the other hand, greater lights from profane authors. It is at this period that begins the time which Varro calls historic; as, since the time of the Olympiads, the truth of such events as have happened shines clear in history. Chronology, therefore, draws its principal lights from history; and, in return, serves it as a guide. Referring the reader, therefore, to the article History, and the Chart thereto annexed, we shall conclude the present article with

A Chronological Table of Remarkable Events, Discoveries, and Inventions, from the Creation to the year 1804.

Before Christ.

4008 The Creation of the world and Adam and Eve. 4007 The birth of Cain, the first who was born of a woman. 3017 Enoch, for his piety, is translated to heaven.

2352 The old world is destroyed by a deluge which continued 377 days. 2247 The tower of Babel is built about this time by Noah's posterity, upon which God miraculously confounds their language, and thus disperses them into different nations. 2237 About this time, Noah is, with great probability, supposed to have parted from his rebellious offspring, and to have led a colony of some of the more tractable into the east, and there either he or one of his successors to have founded the Chinele monarchy. 2234 The celestial observations are begun at Babylon, the city which first gave birth to learning and the sciences. 2188 Misraim, the son of Ham, founds the kingdom of Egypt, which lasted 1665 years, down to the conquest of Cambyses, in 525 before Christ. 2059 Ninus, the son of Belus, founds the kingdom of Assyria, which lasted above 1000 years, and out of its ruins were formed the Assyrians of Babylon, those of Nineveh, and the kingdom of the Medes. 1985 The covenant of God made with Abram, when he leaves Haran, to go into Canaan, which begins the 430 years of sojournings. 1961 The cities of Sodom and Gomorrah are destroyed for their wickedness by fire from heaven. 1856 The kingdom of Argos, in Greece, begins under Inachus. 1822 Memnon, the Egyptian, invents the letters. 1715 Prometheus first struck fire from flints. 1635 Joseph dies in Egypt. 1574 Aaron born in Egypt; 1490, appointed by God first high priest of the Israelites. 1571 Moses, brother to Aaron, born in Egypt, and adopted by Pharaoh's daughter, who educates him in all the learning of the Egyptians. 1556 Cecrops brings a colony of Sautes from Egypt into Attica, and begins the kingdom of Athens in Greece. 1555 Moses performs a number of miracles in Egypt, and departs from that kingdom, together with 600,000 Israelites, besides children, which completed the 430 years of sojournings. They miraculously pass through the Red Sea, and come to the desert of Sinai, where Moses receives from God, and delivers to the people, the Ten Commandments, and the other laws, and sets up the Tabernacle, and in it the ark of the covenant. 1546 Scamander comes from Crete into Phrygia, and begins the kingdom of Troy. 1515 The Israelites, after sojournings in the Wilderness forty years, are led under Joshua into the land of Canaan, where they fix themselves, after having subdued the natives; and the period of the sabbatical year commences. 1503 The deluge of Deucalion. 1496 The council of Amphictyons established at Thermopylae. 1493 Cadmus carried the Phenician letters into Greece, and built the citadel of Thebes. 1490 Sparta built by Laedemon.

1485 The first ship that appeared in Greece was brought from Egypt by Danaus, who arrived at Rhodes, and brought with him his fifty daughters.

1480 Troy built by Dardanus.

1452 The Pentateuch, or five first books of Moses, are written in the land of Moab, where he died the year following, aged 110.

1406 Iron is found in Greece, from an accidental burning of the woods.

1344 The kingdom of Mycenae begins.

1325 Ithomian games instituted at Corinth.

The Egyptian canicular year began July 20th.

1307 The Olympic games instituted by Pelops.

1300 The Lupercalia instituted.

1294 The first colony came from Italy to Sicily.

1264 The second colony came from Italy to Sicily.

1252 The city of Tyre built.

1243 A colony of Arcadians conducted by Evander into Italy.

1233 Carthage founded by the Tyrians.

1225 The Argonautic expedition.

1204 The rape of Helen by Paris; which gave rise to the Trojan war, ending with the destruction of the city in 1184.

1176 Salamis in Cyprus built by Teucer.

1152 Akranus builds Alba Longa.

1130 The kingdom of Sicyon ended.

1124 Thebes built by the Boeotians.

1115 The mariner's compass known in China.

1104 The expedition of the Heraclidae into Peloponnesus; the migration of the Dorians thither; and the end of the kingdom of Mycenae.

1102 The kingdom of Sparta commenced.

1070 The kingdom of Athens ended.

1051 David besieged and took Jerusalem.

1044 Migration of the Ionian colonies.

1038 The Temple is solemnly dedicated by Solomon.

996 Solomon prepared a fleet on the Red Sea to send to Ophir.

986 Samos and Utica in Africa built.

979 The kingdom of Israel divided.

974 Jerusalem taken and plundered by Shishak king of Egypt.

911 The prophet Elijah flourished.

894 Money first made of gold and silver at Argos.

884 Olympic games restored by Iphitus and Lycurgus.

873 The art of sculpture in marble found out.

869 Scales and measures invented by Phidias.

864 The city of Carthage, in Africa, enlarged by Queen Dido.

821 Nineveh taken by Arbaces.

814 The kingdom of Macedon begins.

801 The city of Capua in Campania built.

799 The kingdom of Lydia began.

786 The ships called Triremes invented by the Corinthians.

779 The race of kings in Corinth ended.

776 The era of the Olympiads began.

765 The Ephori established at Sparta.

758 Syracuse built by Archias of Corinth.

754 The government of Athens changed.

753 Era of the building of Rome in Italy by Romulus, first king of the Romans.

747 The era of Nabonassar commenced on the 26th of February; the first day of Thoth.

746 The government of Corinth changed into a republic.

743 The first war between the Messenians and Spartans.

742 Mycenae reduced by the Spartans.

724 A colony of the Messenians settled at Rhegium in Italy.

720 Samaria taken, after three years siege, and the kingdom of Israel finished by Salmanazar king of Assyria, who carries the ten tribes into captivity.

The first eclipse of the moon on record.

713 Gela in Sicily built.

703 Coreya, now Corfu, founded by the Corinthians.

702 Ecbatana in Media built by Deioces.

685 The second Messenian war under Arimnomenes.

670 Byzantium (now Constantinople) built by a colony of Athenians.

666 The city of Alba destroyed.

648 Cyrene in Africa founded.

634 Cyaxares besieges Nineveh, but is obliged to raise the siege by an incursion of the Scythians, who remained masters of Asia for 28 years.

624 Draco published his inhuman laws at Athens.

610 Pharaoh Necho attempted to make a canal from the Nile to the Red Sea, but was not able to accomplish it.

607 By order of the same monarch, some Phenicians sailed from the Red Sea round Africa, and returned by the Mediterranean.

606 The first captivity of the Jews by Nebuchadnezzar. Nineveh destroyed by Cyaxares.

600 Thales, of Miletus, travels into Egypt, consults the priests of Memphis, acquires the knowledge of geometry, astronomy, and philosophy; returns to Greece, calculates eclipses, gives general notions of the universe, and maintains that an only Supreme Intelligence regulates all its motions.

Maps, globes, and the signs of the zodiac, invented by Anaximander, the scholar of Thales.

598 Jehoiakim, king of Judah, is carried away captive, by Nebuchadnezzar, to Babylon.

594 Solon made Archon at Athens.

591 The Pythian games instituted in Greece, and tragedy first acted.

588 The first irruption of the Gauls into Italy.

586 The city of Jerusalem taken after a siege of 18 months.

582 The last captivity of the Jews by Nebuchadnezzar.

581 The Ithomian games restored.

580 Money first coined at Rome.

571 Tyre taken by Nebuchadnezzar after a siege of 13 years.

566 The first census at Rome, when the number of citizens was found to be 84,000.

562 The first comedy at Athens acted upon a movable scaffold.

559 Cyrus the first king of Persia.

538 The kingdom of Babylon finished; that city being... ing taken by Cyrus, who, in 536, gives an edict for the return of the Jews.

534 The foundation of the temple laid by the Jews.

526 Learning is greatly encouraged at Athens, and a public library first founded.

520 The second edict to rebuild Jerusalem.

515 The second temple at Jerusalem is finished under Darius.

510 Hippasus banished from Athens.

509 Tarquin, the seventh and last king of the Romans, is expelled, and Rome is governed by two consuls, and other republican magistrates, till the battle of Pharsalia, being a space of 461 years.

508 The first alliance between the Romans and Carthaginians.

507 The second census at Rome, 130,000 citizens.

504 Sardis taken and burnt by the Athenians, which gave occasion to the Persian invasion of Greece.

498 The first dictator appointed at Rome.

497 The Saturnalia instituted at Rome.

The number of citizens 130,700.

493 Tribunes created at Rome; or, in 488.

492 The battle of Marathon, September 28.

486 Æschylus, the Greek poet, first gains the prize of tragedy.

483 Questors created at Rome.

481 Xerxes, king of Persia, begins his expedition against Greece.

480 The defence of Thermopylae by Leonidas, and the sea-fight at Salamis.

476 The number of Roman citizens reduced to 103,000.

469 The third Messenian war.

466 The number of Roman citizens increased to 124,214.

458 Ezra is sent from Babylon to Jerusalem, with the captive Jews and the vessels of gold and silver, &c., being seventy weeks of years, or 490 years, before the crucifixion of our Saviour.

456 The Ludi Seculares first celebrated at Rome.

454 The Romans sent to Athens for Solon's laws.

451 The Decemvirs created at Rome, and the laws of the twelve tables compiled and ratified.

449 The Decemvirs banished.

445 Military tribunes, with consular power, created at Rome.

443 Censors created at Rome.

441 The battering ram invented by Artemon.

437 The Metonic cycle began July 15th.

431 The Peloponnesian war begun, and lasted 27 years.

430 The history of the Old Testament finishes about this time.

A plague over all the known world.

Malachi the last of the prophets.

425 The Athenians entirely defeated by Lygander, which occasions the loss of the city, and ruin of the Athenian power.

401 The retreat of the 10,000 Greeks under Xenophon. The 30 tyrants expelled from Athens, and democratic government restored.

400 Socrates, the founder of moral philosophy among the Greeks, believes the immortality of the soul, a state of rewards and punishments; for which and other sublime doctrines, he is put to death by the Athenians, who soon after repent, and erect to his memory a statue of brass.

399 The feast of Leptisimnium instituted. Catapultæ invented by Dionysius.

394 The Corinthian war begun.

390 Rome burnt by the Gauls.

387 The peace of Antalcidas between the Greeks and Persians.

The number of Roman citizens amounted to 152,583.

384 Dionysius begins the Punic war.

379 The Boeotian war commences.

377 A general conspiracy of the Greek states against the Lacedemonians.

373 A great earthquake in Peloponnesus.

371 The Lacedemonians defeated by Epaminondas at Leuctra.

367 Prators established in Rome. The Licinian law passed.

363 Epaminondas killed at the battle of Mantinea.

359 The obliquity of the ecliptic observed to be 23° 49' 10".

358 The Social war began.

357 Dionysius expelled from Syracuse.

A transit of the moon over Mars observed.

356 The Sacred war begun in Greece.

Birth of Alexander the Great.

345 Dionysius II. expelled from Syracuse.

Commencement of the Syracusan era.

338 Philip of Macedon gains the battle of Chaeronæa, and thus attains to the sovereignty of Greece.

335 Thebes taken and rased by Alexander the Great.

334 The Persians defeated at Granicus, May 22.

333 They are again defeated at Issus in Cilicia, October.

332 Alexander takes Tyre, and marches to Jerusalem.

331 Alexandria built.

Darius entirely defeated at Arbela.

330 Alexander takes Babylon, and the principal cities of the Persian empire.

The Calippic period commences.

328 Alexander passes Mount Caucasus, and marches into India.

327 He defeats Porus, an Indian prince, and founders several cities.

326 The famous sedition of Corcyra.

324 Alexander the Great dies at Babylon.

323 His family exterminated, and his dominions parted by his officers.

315 Rhodes almost destroyed by an inundation.

311 The Appian way, aqueducts, &c., constructed at Rome.

308 The cities of Greece recovered their liberties for a short time.

307 Antioch, Seleucia, Laodicea, and other cities, founded by Seleucus.

301 Antigonus defeated and killed at Ipsus.

299 The first barbers came from Sicily to Rome.

294 The number of effective men in Rome amounts to 270,000.

293 The first sun-dial erected at Rome by Papirius Cursor. 285 Dionysius of Alexandria began his astronomical era on Monday June 26, being the first who found the exact solar year to consist of 365 days, 5 hours, and 49 minutes.

The watch tower of Pharos at Alexandria built. Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt, employs 72 interpreters to translate the Old Testament into the Greek language, which is called the Septuagint.

284 The foundation of the Achæan republic laid.

283 The college and library founded at Alexandria.

282 The Tarentine war begins.

280 Pyrrhus invades Italy.

279 A census at Rome. The number of citizens 278,222.

269 The first coining of silver at Rome.

265 The number of Roman citizens augmented to 292,224.

264 The first Punic war begins, and continues 23 years. The chronology of the Arundelian marbles completed.

262 A transit of Mercury over the bull's horn; the planet being in $23^\circ$ of $\gamma$, and the sun in $29^\circ$ $30' \gamma$.

260 Provincial questors established at Rome.

The Romans first concern themselves in naval affairs, and defeat the Carthaginians at sea.

255 Regulus, the Roman consul, defeated and taken prisoner by the Carthaginians under Xantipus.

252 A census at Rome. The number of citizens 297,897.

247 Another census. The number of citizens 251,212.

246 The records of China destroyed.

241 Conclusion of the first Punic war.

240 Comedies first acted at Rome.

237 Hamilcar, the Carthaginian, causes his son Hannibal, at nine years old, to swear eternal enmity to the Romans.

236 The Tartars expelled from China.

235 Rome at peace with other nations. The temple of Janus shut.

231 Corsica and Sardinia subdued by the Romans.

The first divorce at Rome.

230 The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Eratosthenes to be $23^\circ 51' 20''$.

224 The Colossus at Rhodes overturned by an earthquake.

219 The art of surgery introduced at Rome.

218 Commencement of the second Punic war.

Hannibal passes the Alps, and invades Italy.

216 The Romans defeated at Cannæ, May 21st.

214 Syracuse besieged by Marcellus.

209 A census at Rome. The number of citizens 227,107.

208 Aedrulabal invades Italy; but is defeated and killed.

206 Gold first coined at Rome.

202 Hannibal defeated by Scipio at Zama.

201 Conclusion of the second Punic war.

194 Sparta and Hither Spain subdued by the Romans.

192 A census at Rome. The number of citizens 243,704.

191 Antiochus defeated by the Romans at Thermopylae.

190 The first Roman army enters Asia, and from the spoils of Antiochus brings the Asiatic luxury first to Rome.

188 The Spartans obliged to renounce the institutions of Lycurgus.

179 A census at Rome. The number of citizens 273,244.

173 The Jewish high-priesthood sold by Antiochus Epiphanes.

170 Paper invented in China.

The temple of Jerusalem plundered by Antiochus.

169 A census at Rome. The number of citizens 212,805.

168 Macedon reduced to the form of a Roman province.

The first library erected at Rome.

165 The temple of Jerusalem purified by Judas Maccabeus.

164 A census at Rome. The number of citizens 327,932.

162 Hipparchus began his astronomical observations at Rhodes.

161 Philosophers and rhetoricians banished from Rome.

150 The third Punic war commenced.

146 Corinth destroyed.

Carthage, the rival to Rome, is raised to the ground by the Romans.

A remarkable comet appeared in Greece.

143 Hipparchus began his new cycle of the moon, consisting of 111,035 days.

141 The Numantine war commenced.

135 The history of the Apocrypha ends.

133 Numantia destroyed by Scipio.

124 A census at Rome. The number of citizens 399,736.

105 The Cimbri and Teutones defeated the Romans.

102 The Teutones and Ambrones defeated by Marius.

88 Rome besieged by the chiefs of the Marian faction.

82 Sylla created perpetual dictator at Rome.

69 A census at Rome. The number of citizens 450,000.

66 Catiline's conspiracy.

55 Julius Caesar makes his first expedition into Britain.

Craffus defeated and killed by the Parthians.

51 Gaul reduced to a Roman province.

50 A census at Rome. The number of citizens 320,000.

48 The battle of Pharsalia, between Caesar and Pompey, in which the latter is defeated.

The Alexandrian library, consisting of 400,000 valuable books, burnt by accident.

45 The war of Africa, in which Cato kills himself.

The solar year introduced by Caesar.

44 Caesar, the greatest of the Roman conquerors, after having fought 50 pitched battles, and slain 1,192,000 men, is killed in the senate-house by conspirators.

42 The republicans defeated at Philippi.

31 The battle of Actium fought, in which Mark Antony Antony and Cleopatra are totally defeated by Octavius, nephew to Julius Caesar.

30 Alexandria, in Egypt, is taken by Octavius, upon which Antony and Cleopatra put themselves to death, and Egypt is reduced to a Roman province.

29 A census at Rome. The number of citizens 4,101,017.

27 Octavius, by a decree of the senate, obtains the title of Augustus Caesar, and an absolute exemption from the laws, and is properly the first Roman emperor.

The Pantheon at Rome built.

19 Rome at the height of its glory.

The temple of Jerusalem rebuilt by Herod. Agrippa constructed the magnificent aqueducts at Rome.

8 A census at Rome. The number of citizens 4,233,000.

5 The temple of Janus is shut by Augustus, as an emblem of universal peace; and Jesus Christ is born, on Monday, December 25.

1 The vulgar Christian era commenced from January 1, the Saviour of the world being then five years of age.

8 Jesus Christ disputes with the doctors in the temple.

14 A census at Rome, 4,370,000 citizens.

16 Mathematicians and magicians expelled from Rome.

17 Twelve cities in Asia destroyed by an earthquake.

27 Pilate made governor of Judea.

29 Jesus baptized in Jordan by John.

33 He is crucified at Jerusalem.

35 St Paul converted.

39 St Matthew writes his gospel.

Pontius Pilate kills himself.

A conjunction of Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars.

40 The name of Christians first given at Antioch to the followers of Christ.

43 Claudius Caesar's expedition into Britain.

44 St Mark writes his gospel.

50 London is founded by the Romans; 368, surrounded by dito with a wall, some parts of which are still observable.

51 Caractacus, the British king, is carried in chains to Rome.

52 The council of the Apostles at Jerusalem.

55 St Luke writes his gospel.

56 Rotterdam built.

59 The emperor Nero puts his mother and brothers to death.

——— persecutes the Druids in Britain.

60 Christianity introduced into Britain.

61 Boadicea, the British queen, defeats the Romans; but is conquered soon after by Suetonius, governor of Britain.

62 St Paul is sent in bonds to Rome—writes his epistles between 51 and 66.

63 The Acts of the Apostles written.

A great earthquake in Asia.

64 Rome set on fire, and burned for six days; upon which began (under Nero) the first persecution against the Christians.

65 Many prodigies seen about Jerusalem.

66 St Peter and St Paul put to death.

70 While the factious Jews are destroying one another with mutual fury, Titus the Roman general takes Jerusalem, which is raised to the ground, and the plough made to pass over it.

73 The philosophers banished from Rome by Vespasian.

79 The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius.

80 The Capitol and Pantheon at Rome destroyed by fire.

83 The philosophers expelled Rome by Domitian.

85 Julius Agricola, governor of South Britain, to protect the civilized Britons from the incursions of the Caledonians, builds a line of forts between the rivers Forth and Clyde; defeats the Caledonians under Galgacus on the Grampian hills; and first sails round Britain, which he discovers to be an island.

86 The Capitoline games instituted by Domitian.

88 The Secular games celebrated at Rome.

93 The empire of the Huns in Tartary destroyed by the Chinese.

The Evangelist John banished to Patmos.

94 The second persecution of the Christians, under Domitian.

96 St John the Evangelist wrote his Revelation—his Gospel in 97.

103 Dacia reduced to a Roman province.

105 A great earthquake in Asia and Greece.

107 The third persecution of the Christians, under Trajan.

114 Armenia reduced to a Roman province.

A great earthquake in China.

115 Assyria subdued by Trajan.

An insurrection of the Jews, who murder 200,000 Greeks and Romans.

A violent earthquake at Antioch.

120 Nicomedia and other cities swallowed up by an earthquake.

121 The Caledonians reconquer from the Romans all the southern parts of Scotland; upon which the emperor Adrian builds a wall between Newcastle and Carlisle; but this, also proving ineffective, Pollius Urbicus, the Roman general, about the year 134, repairs Agricola's forts, which he joins by a wall four yards thick.

130 Jerusalem rebuilt by Adrian.

132 The second Jewish war commenced.

133 The second Jewish war ends, when they were all banished Judea.

139 Justin writes his first apology for the Christians.

141 A number of heresies appear about this time.

146 The worship of Serapis introduced at Rome.

152 The emperor Antoninus Pius stops the persecution against the Christians.

An inundation of the Tiber, and an earthquake at Rhodes.

163 The fourth persecution of the Christians, under Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.

166 The Romans sent ambassadors to China.

168 A plague over the whole world. 188 The Capitol at Rome destroyed by lightning. 191 A great part of Rome destroyed by fire. 203 The fifth persecution of the Christians, under Severus. 205 An earthquake in Wales. 209 Severus's wall in Britain built. 218 Two comets appeared at Rome. The course of the most remarkable from east to west. 222 About this time the Roman empire begins to decline. The barbarians begin their irruptions, and the Goths have annual tribute not to molest the empire. 225 Mathematicians allowed to teach publicly at Rome. 236 The sixth persecution of the Christians under Maximin. 241 The Franks first mentioned in history. 250 The seventh persecution, under Decius. 252 A dreadful pestilence broke out in Ethiopia, and spread over the whole world. 253 Europe ravaged by the Scythians and Goths. 258 The ninth persecution, under Valerian. 260 Valerian is taken prisoner by Sapor king of Persia, and flayed alive. The Scythians ravaged the Roman empire. The temple of Diana at Ephesus burnt. 261 A great plague throughout the Roman empire. 262 Earthquakes in Europe, Asia, and Africa, and three days of darkness. 273 The Romans took Palmyra. 274 Silk first brought from India; the manufactory of it introduced into Europe by some monks, first worn by the clergy in England, 1534. 276 Wine first made in Britain. 277 The Franks settled in Gaul. 284 The Diocletian era commenced August 29th, or September 17th. 287 Carausius proclaimed emperor of Britain. 289 A great comet visible in Mesopotamia for 29 days. 291 Two emperors and two Caesars march to defend the four quarters of the empire. 297 Alexandria destroyed by Diocletian. 303 The tenth persecution under Diocletian. 306 Constantine the Great begins his reign. 308 Cardinals first appointed. 312 Pestilence all over the East. Cycle of indiction began. 313 The tenth persecution ends by an edict of Constantine, who favours the Christians, and gives full liberty to their religion. 314 Three bishops, or fathers, are sent from Britain to assist at the council of Arles. 315 Crucifixion abolished. 321 Observation of Sunday enjoined. 323 The first general council at Nice, when 318 fathers attended, against Arius, the founder of Arianism, where was composed the famous Nicaene Creed, which we attribute to them. 328 Constantine removes the seat of empire from Rome to Byzantium, which is thereafter called Constantinople. 330 A dreadful persecution of the Christians in Persia, which lasts 40 years. 333 Constantine orders all the heathen temples to be destroyed. 334 Three hundred thousand Sarmatians revolted from their masters. 341 The gospel propagated in Ethiopia by Frumentius. 344 Neocaesarea ruined by an earthquake. 351 The heathens first called Pagans. 358 A hundred and fifty cities in Asia and Greece overturned by an earthquake. 360 The first monastery founded near Poitiers in France, by Martin. 363 The Roman emperor Julian, surnamed the Apostate, endeavours in vain to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem. 364 The Roman empire is divided into the Eastern (Constantinople the capital) and Western (of which Rome continued to be the capital), each being now under the government of different emperors. 373 The Bible translated into the Gothic language. 376 The Goths settled in Thrace. 379 The cycle of Theophilus commenced. 390 A fiery column seen in the air for 30 days. 400 Bells invented by Bishop Paulinus of Campania. 401 Europe overrun by the Goths, under Alaric. 404 Another irruption of the Goths. The kingdom of Caledonia, or Scotland, revives under Fergus. 406 Third irruption of the Goths. The Vandals, Alans, and Suevi, spread into France and Spain, by a concession of Honorius, emperor of the West. 408 The Christian religion propagated in Persia. 409 Rome taken and plundered by the Goths, August 24. 412 The Vandals begin their kingdom in Spain. 413 The kingdom of Burgundy begun in Alsace. 415 The kingdom of Thoulouse founded by the Visigoths. 417 The Alans extirpated by the Goths. 419 Many cities in Palestine destroyed by an earthquake. 420 The kingdom of France begins upon the Lower Rhine, under Pharamond. 421 The Salique law promulgated. 426 The Romans, reduced to extremities at home, withdraw their troops from Britain, and never return: advising the Britons to arm in their own defence, and trust to their own valour. 432 The gospel preached in Ireland by St Patrick. 444 All Europe ravaged by the Huns. 446 The Britons, now left to themselves, are greatly haraffled by the Scots and Picts, upon which they once more make their complaint to the Romans (which they entitle, The Groans of the Britons), but receive no assistance from that quarter. 447 Attila (surnamed the Scourge of God) with his Huns ravage the Roman empire. 449 Vortigern, king of the Britons, invites the Saxons into Britain, against the Scots and Picts.

452 The city of Venice founded. The Saxons having repulsed the Scots and Picts, invite over more of their countrymen, and begin to establish themselves in Kent, under Hengist.

476 The western empire is finished, 523 years after the battle of Pharsalia; upon the ruins of which several new states arise in Italy and other parts, consisting of Goths, Vandals, Huns, and other barbarians, under whom literature is extinguished, and the works of the learned are destroyed.

480 A great earthquake at Constantinople, which lasted 40 days.

493 Italy reduced by Theodoric king of the Goths.

496 Clovis, king of France, baptized, and Christianity begins in that kingdom.

506 The Jews talmud published.

508 Prince Arthur begins to reign over the Britons.

510 Paris made the capital of the French dominions.

514 Constantinople besieged by Vitalianus, whose fleet is burnt by a speculum of bras made by Proclus.

516 The computing of time by the Christian era is introduced by Dionysius the monk.

517 Five years drought and famine in Palestine.

519 A bearded comet appears.

529 The codex of Justinian, the eastern emperor, is published.

534 The kingdom of the Vandals in Africa comes to an end, after having continued 105 years.

536 The manufacture of silk introduced at Constantinople by two Indian monks.

540 Antioch destroyed by the Persians.

541 Basilus the last consul elected at Rome.

542 Antioch rebuilt.

An earthquake all over the world.

550 An earthquake in Palestine and Syria.

The kingdom of Poland founded.

551 An earthquake in Greece, attended with a great commotion in the sea.

553 The empire of the Goths in Italy destroyed by Narles.

A great earthquake at Constantinople.

557 Another violent earthquake at Constantinople, Rome, &c.

A terrible plague all over Europe, Asia, and Africa, which continues near 50 years.

568 The Lombards founded a kingdom in Italy.

569 The Turks first mentioned in history.

The exarchate of Ravenna begins.

575 The first monarchy founded in Bavaria.

580 Antioch destroyed by an earthquake.

581 Latin ceased to be spoken about this time in Italy.

584 The origin of fiefs in France.

588 The city of Paris destroyed by fire.

589 Rome overflowed by the Tiber.

593 The Gaesatae establish themselves in the country called by their name.

596 John of Constantinople assumes the title of universal bishop.

597 Augustine the monk comes into England with forty monks.

599 A dreadful pestilence in Africa.

604 St Paul's church in London founded.

605 The use of bells introduced into churches.

606 Here begins the power of the popes, by the concessions of Phocas, emperor of the East.

622 Mahomet, the false prophet, flies from Mecca to Medina in Arabia, in the 44th year of his age, and 10th of his ministry, when he laid the foundation of the Saracen empire, and from whom the Mahometan princes to this day claim their descent. His followers compute their time from this era, which in Arabic is called hegira, i.e. "the Flight."

628 An academy founded at Canterbury.

632 The era of Jefdegird commenced June 16th.

637 Jerusalem is taken by the Saracens, or followers of Mahomet.

641 Alexandria in Egypt is taken by ditto, and the grand library there burnt by order of Omar, their caliph or prince.

643 The temple of Jerusalem converted into a Mahometan mosque.

653 The Saracens now extend their conquests on every side, and retaliate the barbarities of the Goths and Vandals upon their posterity.

They take Rhodes, and destroy the famous Colossus.

England invaded by the Danes.

660 Organs first used in churches.

663 Glafs invented by a bishop, and brought into England by a Benedictine monk.

669 Sicily invaded, and Syracuse destroyed by the Saracens.

685 The Britons, after a brave struggle of near 150 years, are totally expelled by the Saxons, and drove into Wales and Cornwall.

698 The Saracens take Carthage, and expel the Romans from Africa.

700 Cracow built, and first prince of Poland elected.

704 The first province given to the Pope.

713 The Saracens conquer Spain.

714 France governed by Charles Martel.

718 The kingdom of the Asturias in Spain founded by Pelagio.

719 Christianity promulgated in Germany.

726 The controversy about images begins, and occasions many insurrections in the eastern empire.

727 Tax of Peter's pence begun by Ina king of Wefex.

732 Charles Martel defeats the Saracens near Tours.

735 Institution of the office of Pope's nuncio.

746 Three years pestilence in Europe and Asia.

748 The computing of years from the birth of Christ began to be used in history.

749 The race of Abbas become caliphs of the Saracens, and encourage learning.

The empire of the Saracens divided into three.

752 The exarchate of Ravenna abolished by Astolhus king of the Lombards.

755 Commencement of the Pope's temporal dominion.

762 The city of Bagdad upon the Tigris is made the capital for the caliphs of the house of Abbas.

762 Burials, which formerly used to be in highways, permitted in towns.

792 An academy founded in Paris.

794 The Huns extirpated by Charlemagne.

797 Seventeen days of unusual darkness.

800 Charlemagne, king of France, begins the empire of Germany, afterwards called the Western empire; gives the present names to the winds and months; endeavours to restore learning in Europe; but mankind are not yet disposed for it, being solely engrossed in military enterprises.

801 A great earthquake in France, Germany, and Italy.

807 Jan. 31. Jupiter eclipsed by the moon. March 17. A large spot seen on the sun for eight days.

828 The first descent of the Normans on France.

825 The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Beni-mula to be $23^\circ 55'$.

826 Harold, king of Denmark, dethroned by his subjects for being a Christian.

The kingdoms of Navarre and Arragon founded.

832 Painters banished out of the eastern empire.

836 The Flemings trade to Scotland for fish.

840 The Scots and Picts have a decisive battle, in which the former prevail, and both kingdoms are united by Kenneth, which begins the second period of the Scottish history.

842 Germany separated from the empire of the Franks.

856 An earthquake over the greatest part of the known world.

861 Ruric the first prince of Russia began to reign.

864 The Danes begin their ravages in England.

867 Christianity propagated in Bulgaria.

868 Egypt becomes independent on the caliphs of Bagdad.

872 Bells and clocks first used in Constantinople.

873 France distressed by locusts and pestilence.

874 Iceland peopled by the Norwegians.

Scotland invaded by the Danes.

875 A bearded comet appears in France.

878 Alfred the Great, after subduing the Danish invaders (against whom he fought 56 battles by sea and land), compoises his body of laws; divides England into counties, hundreds, tythings; in 890 erects county-courts, having founded the university of Oxford in 886.

880 The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Albategni to be $23^\circ 35'$.

889 The Hungarians settled near the Danube.

891 The first land-tax in England.

895 The monastery of Cluny founded.

905 A very remarkable comet appeared in China.

Rome taken by the Normans.

911 The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Thebit to be $23^\circ 33' 30''$.

912 The Normans establish themselves in Normandy.

913 The Danes become masters of England.

915 The university of Cambridge founded.

923 Fiefs established in France.

925 Sigefroi elected first marquis of Brandenburg.

928 The marquisate of Misnia established.

937 The Saracen empire is divided by usurpation into seven kingdoms.

941 Arithmetic brought into Europe.

961 Candia recovered from the Saracens.

967 Antioch recovered from the Saracens.

969 The race of Abbas extinguished in Egypt.

975 Pope Boniface VII. is deposed and banished for his crimes.

977 Greece, Macedon, and Thrace, ravaged by the Bulgarians for ten years.

The Bohemians subdued by Otho.

979 Coronation oath first used in England.

Juries first instituted in ditto.

985 The Danes under Sueno invade England and Scotland.

987 The Carlovingian race in France ended.

991 The figures in arithmetic are brought into Europe by the Saracens from Arabia; letters of the alphabet were hitherto used.

993 A great eruption of Mount Vesuvius.

995 England invaded by the Danes and Norwegians.

996 Otho III. makes the empire of Germany elective.

999 Boleslaus the first king of Poland.

The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Aboul Wash and Abu Hamed to be $23^\circ 35'$.

1000 Paper made of cotton rags was in use; that of linen rags in 1170; the manufactory introduced into England at Deptford, 1388.

1002 The emperor Henry assumed the title of king of the Romans.

1005 All the old churches are rebuilt about this time in a new manner of architecture.

1006 A plague in Egypt for three years.

1007 A great eruption of Vesuvius.

The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Albatranius to be $23^\circ 35'$.

1014 Sueno the Dane becomes master of England.

Sept. 28. Almost all Flanders laid under water by a storm.

1015 Children forbidden by law to be sold by their parents in England.

1017 Rain of the colour of blood for three days in Aquitain.

1022 A new species of music invented by Arein.

1035 Togrul-Beg, or Tangrolipix, the Turkish sultan, establishes himself in Korafan.

The kingdoms of Castile and Arragon began.

1040 The Danes, after several engagements with various success, are about this time driven out of Scotland, and never again return in a hostile manner.

Smyrna destroyed by an earthquake.

1041 The Saxon line restored under Edward the Confessor.

1043 The Turks become formidable and take possession of Persia.

The Russians come from Scythia, and land in Thrace.

1054 Leo IX. the first pope that kept up an army.

1055 The Turks take Bagdad, and overturn the empire of the Saracens.

1057 Malcolm III. king of Scotland, kills the tyrant Macbeth at Dunfinnan, and marries the princess Margaret, sister to Edgar Atheling. 1061 Surnames appointed to be taken in Scotland by a parliament held in Forfar.

1065 The Turks take Jerusalem from the Saracens.

1066 The conquest of England by William (furnished the bastard) duke of Normandy, in the battle of Hastings, where Harold is slain.

1070 The feudal law introduced into England.

1075 Henry IV., emperor of Germany, and the pope, quarrel about the nomination of the German bishops. Henry, in penance, walks barefooted to the pope towards the end of January.

1076 Justices of the peace first appointed in England. An earthquake in England.

Asia Minor, having been two years under the power of Soliman, is from this time called Turkey.

1080 Doomsday-book began to be compiled by order of William, from a survey of all the estates in England, and finished in 1086.

The tower of London built by ditto, to curb his English subjects; numbers of whom fly to Scotland, where they introduce the Saxon or English language, are protected by Malcolm, and have lands given them.

1086 The order of Carthusians established by Bruno.

1090 The dynasty of Bathineens or Assafins begins in Irak, and continues for 117 years.

1091 The Saracens in Spain, being hard pressed by the Spaniards, call to their assistance Joseph king of Morocco; by which the Moors get possession of all the Saracen dominions in Spain.

1096 The first crusade to the Holy Land is begun under several Christian princes, to drive the infidels from Jerusalem.

1098 The order of St Benedict instituted.

1099 Jerusalem taken by the crusaders; Godfrey elected king of it; and the order of knights of St John instituted.

1110 Edgar Atheling, the last of the Saxon princes, dies in England, where he had been permitted to reside as a subject.

Learning revived at Cambridge.

Writing on paper made of cotton common about this time.

1118 The order of the Knights Templars instituted, to defend the Sepulchre at Jerusalem, and to protect Christian strangers.

1119 Bohemia erected into a kingdom.

1132 The kingdom of Portugal began.

1137 The pandect of Justinian found in the ruins of Amalphi.

1141 The factions of the Guelphs and Gibellines prevailed about this time.

1143 The Koran translated into Latin.

1144 The Peripatetic philosophy introduced into Germany.

1151 The canon law collected by Gratian, a monk of Bologna.

1154 Christianity introduced into Finland.

1156 The city of Moscow in Russia founded.

The order of the Carmelites instituted.

1163 London bridge, consisting of 19 small arches, first built of stone.

1164 The Teutonic order of religious knights begins in Germany.

1171 The dynasty of the Fatemites ended in Egypt; the sovereigns of the country henceforth called Sultans.

1172 Henry II., king of England (and first of the Plantagenets), takes possession of Ireland; which from that period has been governed by an English viceroy or lord-lieutenant.

1176 England is divided by Henry into six circuits, and justice is dispensed by itinerant judges.

1179 The university of Padua founded.

1180 Glass windows began to be used in private houses in England.

1181 The laws of England are digested about this time by Glanville.

1182 Pope Alexander III. compelled the kings of England and France to hold the stirrups of his saddle when he mounted his horse.

1183 Seven thousand Albigenes massacred by the inhabitants of Berry.

1186 A conjunction of all the planets at sunrise September 16. The sun in 30° m; Jupiter in 2° 3' ±; Venus in 3° 49'; Saturn in 8° 6'; Mercury in 4° 10'; Mars, 9° 8'; tail of the Dragon, 18° 23' ±.

1187 Jerusalem taken by Saladin.

1192 The battle of Ascalon, in Judea, in which Richard, king of England, defeats Saladin's army, consisting of 300,000 combatants.

1194 Dieu et mon Droit, first used as a motto by Richard, on a victory over the French.

1195 Denmark and Norway laid waste by a dreadful tempest.

1198 Institution of the order of the Holy Trinity.

1200 Chimneys were not known in England.

Surnames now began to be used; first among the nobility.

University of Salamanca in Spain founded.

1204 Constantinople taken by the French and Venetians.

The inquisition established.

The empire of Trebizond established.

1208 London incorporated, and obtained their first charter, for electing their lord mayor and other magistrates, from King John.

The order of Fratres Minores established.

The pope excommunicates King John.

1209 The works of Aristotle imported from Constantinople into Europe.

The silk manufacture imported from Greece into Venice.

1210 The works of Aristotle condemned to be burnt at Paris.

The emperor Otho excommunicated by the pope.

Violent persecution of the Albigenes.

1215 Magna Charta is signed by King John and the barons of England.

Court of common pleas established.

Orders of the Dominicans and Knights Hospitallers founded.

The doctrine of transubstantiation introduced.

1216 King Alexander and the whole kingdom of Scotland excommunicated by the pope's legate.

After Christ.

1220 Astronomy and geography brought into Europe by the Moors.

1222 A great earthquake in Germany.

1223 A comet of extraordinary magnitude appeared in Denmark.

1226 A league formed against the Albigenes by the French king and many prelates and lords.

1227 The Tartars under Jenghiz Khan emerge from the northern parts of Asia, overrun all the Saracen empire, and carry death and desolation wherever they march.

1228 The university of Thoulouse founded.

1230 The kingdom of Denmark distressed by pestilence.

The kingdoms of Leon and Castile united.

Prussia subdued by the Teutonic knights.

University of Naples founded.

1231 The Almagest of Ptolemy translated into Latin.

1233 The Inquisition, begun in 1204, is now trusted to the Dominicans.

The houses of London, and other cities in England, France, and Germany, still thatched with straw.

1238 The university of Vienna founded.

1239 A writing of this year's date on paper made of rags still extant.

1241 The Hanseatic league formed.

Tin mines discovered in Germany.

1245 A clear red star, like Mars, appears in Capricorn.

1250 Painting revived in Florence by Cimabue.

1251 Wales subdued, and Magna Charta confirmed.

1253 The famous astronomical tables are composed by Alonso king of Castile.

1256 The order of the Augustines established.

1258 The Tartars take Bagdad, which finishes the empire of the Saracens.

1260 The feet of Flagellantes appeared in Italy.

1263 Acho king of Norway invades Scotland with 160 sail, and lands 20,000 men at the mouth of the Clyde; but they are cut to pieces by Alexander III., who recovers the western isles.

1264 The commons of England first summoned to parliament about this time.

1268 The Tartars invade China.

1269 The Hamburg company incorporated in England.

The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Cozah Nafrodi to be $23^\circ 30'$.

Westminster abbey rebuilt, and consecrated in the presence of Henry III.

1272 The academy of Florence founded.

1273 The empire of the present Austrian family begins in Germany.

The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Cheouking in China to be $23^\circ 33' 39''$.

1274 The first commercial treaty betwixt England and Flanders.

1279 King Edward renounced his right to Normandy. The mortmain act passed in England.

1282 Llewellyn, prince of Wales, defeated and killed by Edward I., who unites that principality to England.

A great pestilence in Denmark.

8000 French murdered at the Sicilian vespers.

Academy de la Crusca founded.

1284 Edward II., born at Caernarvon, is the first prince of Wales.

1285 Alexander III., king of Scotland, dies, and that kingdom is disputed by twelve candidates, who submit their claims to the arbitration of Edward king of England; which lays the foundation of a long and devastating war between both nations.

1290 The university of Lisbon founded.

1291 Ptolemais taken by the Turks. End of the crusades.

1293 There is a regular succession of English parliaments from this year, being the 22d of Edward I.

1294 Parliament established in Paris.

1298 The present Turkish empire begins in Bithynia under Ottoman.

Silver-hafted knives, spoons, and cups, a great luxury.

Tallow-candles so great a luxury, that splinters of wood were used for lights.

Wine sold by apothecaries as a cordial.

The Scots defeated by the English at Falkirk.

1299 An earthquake in Germany.

Spectacles invented by a monk of Pisa.

The year of jubilee instituted by Boniface VIII.

1302 The mariner's compass invented, or improved, by Giovia of Naples.

The university of Avignon founded.

1307 The beginning of the Swiss cantons.

Coal first used in England.

1308 The popes removed to Avignon in France for 70 years.

1310 Lincoln's Inn society established.

The knights of St John take possession of the isle of Rhodes.

1314 The battle of Bannockburn between Edward II. and Robert Bruce, which establishes the latter on the throne of Scotland.

The cardinals set fire to the conclave and separate.

A vacancy in the papal chair for two years.

1315 Germany afflicted with famine and pestilence.

1319 The university of Dublin founded.

1320 Gold first coined in Christendom; 1344 ditto in England.

An earthquake in England.

1323 A great eruption of Mount Etna.

1325 The first treaty of commerce betwixt England and Venice.

1330 Gunpowder invented by a monk of Cologne.

1332 The pope accused of heresy.

1336 Two Brabant weavers settled at York, which, says Edward III., may prove of great benefit to us and our subjects.

1337 The first comet whose course is described with an astronomical exactness.

Europe infested by locusts.

1340 Heralds college instituted in England.

Copper money first used in Scotland and Ireland.

1344 The first creation to titles by patents used by Edward III.

1345 Edward III. had four pieces of cannon, which gained him the battle of Creully.

1347 The battle of Durham, in which David, king of Scots, is taken prisoner. 1349 The order of the Garter instituted in England by Edward III., altered in 1557, and consists of 26 knights.

1352 The Turks first enter Europe.

1353 Asia and Africa defoliated by locusts.

1354 The money in Scotland till now the same as in England.

1356 The battle of Poitiers, in which King John of France and his son are taken prisoners by Edward the Black Prince.

1357 Coals first brought to London.

1358 Arms of England and France first quartered by Edward III.

University of Cologne founded.

Tamerlane began to reign in Persia.

1362 The law pleadings in England changed from French to English in favour of Edward III. to his people.

The military order of Janizaries established among the Turks.

1365 The universities of Vienna and Geneva founded.

1369 John Wickliffe an Englishman begins to call into question the doctrines of the church of Rome about this time, whose followers are called Lollards.

1370 The office of grand vizier established.

1377 Inundation of the sea in Flanders.

1378 Greenland discovered by a Venetian.

1381 Bills of exchange first used in England.

1384 The first act of navigation in England; no goods to be exported or imported by Englishmen in foreign bottoms.

1383 A company of linen weavers from the Netherlands established in London.

Windor castle built by Edward III.

1387 The first lord high admiral of England instituted.

1388 The battle of Otterburn between Hotspur and the earl of Douglas.

Bombs invented at Venloo.

1391 Cards invented in France for the king's amusement.

1399 Westminster abbey rebuilt and enlarged.—Westminster hall ditto.

Order of the Bath instituted at the coronation of Henry IV., renewed in 1725, consisting of 84 knights.

1402 Tamerlane defeats and takes prisoner Bajazet the Turkish sultan.

1405 The Canary islands discovered by Bathencourt a Norman.

1410 Guildhall, London, built.

Painting in oil-colours invented at Bruges by John Van-eyck.

1411 The university of St Andrew's in Scotland founded.

1412 Algebra brought from Arabia into Europe.

1415 The battle of Agincourt gained over the French by Henry V. of England.

1420 The island of Madeira discovered by the Portuguese.

1421 The revenue of England amounted to £5,754.

1428 The siege of Orleans, the first blow to the English power in France.

1431 A great earthquake at Lisbon.

1432 Great inundations in Germany.

1427 The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Ulug Beg to be $23^\circ 30' 17''$.

1440 Printing invented by L. Koster at Haarlem in Holland; brought into England by W. Caxton, a mercer of London, 1471.

1446 The Vatican library founded at Rome.

The sea breaks in at Dort in Holland and drowns 100,000 people.

1453 Constantinople taken by the Turks, which ends the eastern empire, 1123 years from its dedication by Constantine the Great, and 2206 years from the foundation of Rome.

1454 The university of Glasgow in Scotland founded.

1457 Glass first manufactured in England.

1460 Engraving and etching on copper invented.

The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Purbachius and Regiomontanus to be $23^\circ 29'$.

1473 The study of the Greek language introduced into France.

1477 The university of Aberdeen in Scotland founded.

1479 Union of the kingdoms of Arragon and Castile.

1482 The coast of Guinea discovered by the Portuguese.

A court of inquisition erected in Seville.

1485 Richard III., king of England, and last of the Plantagenets, is defeated and killed at the battle of Bosworth, by Henry (Tudor) VII., which put an end to the civil wars between the houses of York and Lancaster, after a contest of 30 years, and the loss of 100,000 men.

1487 Henry establishes fifty yeomen of the guards, the first standing army.

1489 Maps and sea charts first brought to England by Barth. Columbus.

1490 William Groceyn introduces the study of the Greek language into England.

The Moors, hitherto a formidable enemy to the native Spaniards, are entirely subdued by Ferdinand, and become subjects to that prince on certain conditions, which are ill observed by the Spaniards, whose clergy use the inquisition in all its tortures; and in 1609, near one million of the Moors were driven from Spain to the opposite coast of Africa, from whence they originally came.

1492 America first discovered by Columbus, a Genoese in the service of Spain.

The Moors expelled from Granada, which they had possessed upwards of 800 years.

1495 The venereal disease introduced into Europe.

1496 The Jews and Moors banished out of Portugal.

1497 The Portuguese first sail to the East Indies by the Cape of Good Hope.

South America discovered by Americus Vespuccio, from whom unjustly it has its name.

1499 North America discovered, for Henry VII. by Cabot, a Venetian.

1508 Maximilian divides the empire of Germany into six circles, and adds four more in 1512.

Brazil discovered by the Portuguese. Florida discovered by John Cabot an Englishman.

Painting in chiaro-obscuro discovered.

A great plague in England.

1505 Shillings first coined in England.

1507 The island of Madagascar discovered by the Portuguese.

1509 Gardening introduced into England from the Netherlands, from whence vegetables were imported hitherto.

1510 The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Wernerus to be $23^\circ 28' 30''$.

1513 The battle of Flodden, in which James IV., king of Scotland, is killed, with the flower of his nobility.

1514 Cannon bullets of stone still in use.

1515 The first Polyglot Bible printed at Alcala.

The kingdom of Navarre annexed to that of Castile by Ferdinand.

1516 The kingdom of Algiers seized by Barbarossa.

1517 Martin Luther began the reformation.

Egypt is conquered by the Turks.

The kingdom of the Mamelukes in Egypt overthrown by the Turks.

1518 Discovery of New Spain, and the Straits of Magellan.

1521 Henry VIII., for his writings in favour of popery, receives the title of Defender of the Faith from his Holiness.

1522 Rhodes taken by the Turks.

The first voyage round the world performed by a ship of Magellan's squadron.

1526 The inquisition established in Portugal.

Lutheranism established in Germany.

1527 Rome taken and plundered by the Imperial army.

1528 Popery abolished in Sweden.

1529 The name of Protestant takes its rise from the reformers protesting against the church of Rome, at the diet of Spires in Germany.

1530 Union of the Protestants at Smallcalde, December 22d.

Secretary of State's office established in England.

1531 A great earthquake at Lisbon.

1532 The Court of Session instituted in Scotland.

1533 Insurrection of the Anabaptists in Westphalia.

1534 The reformation takes place in England, under Henry VIII.

Barbarossa seized on the kingdom of Tunis.

1535 The reformation introduced into Ireland.

The society of Jesuits formed.

1539 The first English edition of the Bible authorised; the present translation finished in 1611.

About this time cannon began to be used in ships.

Six hundred and forty-five religious houses suppressed in England and Wales.

1540 The variation of the compass discovered by Sebastian Cabot.

The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Copernicus to be $23^\circ 28' 8''$.

Society of Jesuits established, September 27.

1543 Silk stockings first worn by the French king; first worn in England by Queen Elizabeth; the steel frame for weaving invented by the Rev. Mr Lee, of St John's College, Cambridge, 1589.

Pins first used in England, before which time the ladies used skewers.

Iron cannon and mortars made in England.

1544 Good lands, let in England at one shilling per acre.

1545 The famous council of Trent begins, and continues 18 years.

1547 First law in England establishing the interest of money at 10 per cent.

1548 The reformation gained ground in Poland.

1549 Lords lieutenant of counties instituted in England.

1550 Horse guards instituted in England.

The bank of Venice established about this time.

1552 Books of geography and astronomy destroyed in England, as being infected with magic.

The book of Common Prayer established in England by act of parliament.

1554 The kingdom of Africca conquered by the Russians.

1555 The Russian company established in England.

1558 Queen Elizabeth begins her reign.

1560 The reformation in Scotland completed by John Knox.

1561 Livonia ceded to Poland.

1563 Knives first made in England.

1565 Revolt of the Low Countries.

Malta attacked by the Turks.

1566 The 39 articles of the church of England established.

1568 Queen Mary imprisoned in England.

Liberty of professing the reformed religion granted to the Low Countries.

1569 Royal exchange first built.

1571 The island of Cyprus taken by the Turks.

They are defeated at Lepanto.

1572 The great massacre of Protestants at Paris.

A new star in Cassiopeia observed by Cornelius Gemma. It appeared in November, and disappeared in March.

1576 The profession of the Protestant religion authorised in France. This toleration followed by a civil war.

1578 The first treaty of alliance betwixt England and the States General, January 7.

1579 The Dutch shake off the Spanish yoke, and the republic of Holland begins.

English East India company incorporated—established 1600.

Turkey company incorporated.

1580 Sir Francis Drake returns from his voyage round the world, being the first English circumnavigator.

Parochial register first appointed in England.

The kingdom of Portugal seized by Philip of Spain.

1581 Copper first used in France.

1582 Pope Gregory introduces the New Style in Italy; the 5th of October being counted the 15th.

1583 Tobacco first brought from Virginia into England.

The first proposal of settling a colony in America.

1587 Mary Queen of Scots is beheaded by order of Elizabeth, after 18 years imprisonment.

1588 The Spanish Armada destroyed by Drake and other English admirals.

Henry IV. passes the edict of Nantes, tolerating the Protestants.

1588 Duelling with small swords introduced into England. 1589 Coaches first introduced into England; hackney act 1663; increased to 1000 in 1770. 1590 Band of pensioners instituted in England. Telescopes invented by Jansen, a spectacle-maker in Germany. 1591 Trinity College, Dublin, founded. 1593 A great plague in London. 1594 The Jesuits expelled from France. The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Byrgius to be $23^\circ 30'$. 1595 The same observed by Tycho-Brahe to be $23^\circ 29' 25''$. 1596 A great earthquake at Japan. 1597 Watches first brought into England from Germany. 1598 The edict of Nantes by Henry IV. of France. 1602 Decimal arithmetic invented at Bruges. 1603 Queen Elizabeth (the last of the Tudors) dies, and nominates James VI. of Scotland as her successor; which unites both kingdoms under the name of Great Britain. 1605 The Gunpowder plot discovered at Westminster; being a project to blow up the king and both houses of parliament. 1606 Oaths of allegiance first administered in Britain. 1608 Colonies sent from Britain to Virginia. 1609 The independency of the United States acknowledged by Spain. 1610 Galileo, of Florence, first discovers the satellites about the planet Jupiter, by the telescope, lately invented in Germany. 1611 Baronets first created in Britain by James I. May 22. An earthquake in Constantinople; 200,000 persons died there of the plague. 1612 The north-west passage to China attempted in vain by the British. 1614 Napier of Merchiston, in Scotland, invents the logarithms. Sir Hugh Middleton brings the new river to London from Ware. 1616 The first permanent settlement in Virginia. 1619 W. Harvey, an Englishman, confirms the doctrine of the circulation of the blood, which had been first broached by Servetus, a French physician, in 1553. 1620 The broad silk manufacture from raw silk, introduced into England. Barbadoes discovered by Sir William Courteen. Navarre united to France. Copper-money first introduced in England. 1621 New England planted by the Puritans. The two parties of Whigs and Tories formed in Britain. 1622 The Palatinate reduced by the Imperialists. 1623 The Knights of Nova Scotia instituted. 1624 Massacre of the English at Amboyna. 1625 King James dies, and is succeeded by his son, Charles I. 1625 The island of Barbadoes, the first British settlement in the West Indies, is planted. 1631 The transit of Mercury over the sun's disk, first observed by Gassendi. A great eruption of Vesuvius. 1632 The battle of Lutzen, in which Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, and head of the Protestants in Germany, is killed. 1633 Galileo condemned by the inquisition at Rome. Louisiana discovered by the French. 1635 Province of Maryland planted by Lord Baltimore. Regular posts established from London to Scotland, Ireland, &c. 1636 A transit of Mercury over the sun's disk observed by Cassini. 1639 A transit of Venus over the sun's disk, first observed by Mr Horrox, November 24. O. S. 3 h. 15' P. M. 1640 King Charles disobeys his Scottish subjects; on which their army, under General Leslie, enters England, and takes Newcastle, being encouraged by the malecontents in England. The massacre in Ireland, when 40,000 English Protestants were killed. The independency of Portugal recovered by John duke of Braganza. 1642 King Charles impeaches five refractory members, which begins the civil wars in England. 1643 Excise on beer, ale, &c. first imposed by parliament. Barometers invented by Torricelli. 1648 A new star observed in the tail of the Whale by Fabricius. 1649 Charles I. beheaded by Cromwell at Whitehall, January 30. aged 49. Pendulums first applied to clocks by Huygens. 1651 The sect called Quakers appeared in England. 1652 The Dutch colony at the Cape of Good Hope established. 1653 Cromwell assumes the protectorship. The air-pump is invented by Otto Guericke of Magdeburg. 1655 The English under Admiral Penn, take Jamaica from the Spaniards. One of Saturn's satellites observed by Huygens. 1658 Cromwell dies, and is succeeded in the protectorship by his son Richard. 1660 King Charles II. is restored by Monk, commander of the army, after an exile of twelve years in France and Holland. The people of Denmark, being oppressed by the nobles, surrendered their privileges to Frederic III., who becomes absolute. 1661 The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Hevelius to be $23^\circ 29' 7''$. 1662 The royal society established at London by Charles II. 1663 Carolina planted: 1728, divided into two separate governments. Prussia declared independent of Poland. 1664 The New Netherlands in North America conquered from the Swedes and Dutch by the English. 1665 The plague rages in London, and carries off 68,000 persons.

The magic lantern invented by Kircher.

1666 The great fire of London began Sept. 2, and continued three days, in which were destroyed 13,000 houses and 400 streets.

Tea first used in England.

1667 The peace of Breda, which confirms to the English the New Netherland, now known by the names of Pennsylvania, New York, and New Jersey.

1668 ditto, Aix la Chapelle.

St James's Park planted and made a thoroughfare for public use by Charles II.

1669 The island of Candia taken by the Turks.

1670 The English Hudson's Bay company incorporated.

The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Mongoli to be $23^\circ 28' 24''$.

1672 Louis XIV. overruns great part of Holland, when the Dutch open their sluices, being determined to drown their country, and retire to their settlements in the East Indies.

African company established.

The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Richer to be $23^\circ 28' 54''$.

1677 The micrometer invented by Kircher.

1678 The peace of Nimuegen.

The habeas corpus act passed.

A strange darkness at noonday, Jan. 12.

1680 A great comet appeared, and from its nearness to our earth alarmed the inhabitants. It continued visible from Nov. 3 to March 9.

William Penn, a Quaker, receives a charter for planting Pennsylvania.

1683 India stock fell from 360 to 500 per cent.

1685 Charles II. dies, aged 55, and is succeeded by his brother James II.

The duke of Monmouth, natural son to Charles II., raises a rebellion, but is defeated at the battle of Sedgmore, and beheaded.

The edict of Nantes is revoked by Louis XIV. and the Protestants are greatly distressed.

1686 The Newtonian philosophy published.

1687 The palace of Versailles, near Paris, finished by Louis XIV.

1688 The revolution in Great Britain begins Nov. 5.

King James abdicates, and retires to France, December 23.

King William and Queen Mary, daughter and son-in-law to James, are proclaimed February 13.

Viscount Dundee stands out for James in Scotland, but is killed by General Mackay at the battle of Killycramkie; upon which the Highlanders, wearied with repeated misfortunes, disperse.

Smyrna destroyed by an earthquake.

1689 The land-tax passed in England.

The toleration act passed in ditto.

William Fuller, who pretended to prove the prince of Wales spurious, was voted by the commons to be a notorious cheat, impostor, and false accuser.

Several bishops are deprived for not taking the oaths to William.

1689 Episcopacy abolished in Scotland.

1690 The battle of the Boyne gained by William against James, in Ireland.

1691 The war in Ireland finished by the surrender of Limerick to William.

The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Flamsteed to be $23^\circ 28' 32''$.

1692 The English and Dutch fleets, commanded by Admiral Ruffel, defeat the French fleet off La Hogue.

The massacre of Glencoe in Scotland, Jan. 31.

O.S.

Earthquakes in England and Jamaica, September 8.

Hanover made an electorate of the empire.

Bayonets at the end of loaded muskets first used by the French against the confederates in the battle of Turin.

Bank of England established by King William.

The first public lottery was drawn this year.

1694 Queen Mary dies at the age of 33, and William reigns alone.

Stamp-duties instituted in England.

1697 The peace of Ryswick.

1699 The Scots settled a colony at the isthmus of Darien in America, and called it Caledonia.

1700 Charles XII. of Sweden begins his reign.

1701 King James II. dies at St Germain, in the 68th year of his age.

Prussia erected into a kingdom.

Society for the propagation of the gospel in foreign parts established.

1702 King William dies, aged 50, and is succeeded by Queen Anne, daughter to James II., who, with the emperor and allies general, renewes the war against France and Spain.

The French sent colonies to the Mississippi.

1703 The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Bianchini to be $23^\circ 28' 25''$.

1704 Gibraltar taken from the Spaniards by Admiral Rooke.

The battle of Blenheim won by the duke of Marlborough and allies against the French.

The Court of Exchequer instituted in England.

1706 The treaty of union betwixt England and Scotland, signed July 22.

The battle of Ramillies won by Marlborough and the allies.

1707 The first British parliament.

The allies defeated at Almanza.

1708 Minorca taken from the Spaniards by General Stanhope.

The battle of Oudenarde won by Marlborough and the allies.

1709 Peter the Great, czar of Moscovy, defeats Charles XII. at Poltowa, who flies to Turkey.

The battle of Malplaquet won by Marlborough and the allies.

1710 Queen Anne changes the Whig ministry for others more favourable to the interest of her brother the late pretender.

The cathedral church of St Paul, London, rebuilt by Sir Christopher Wren in 37 years, at one million expense, by a duty on coals.

The English South-sea company began.

1712 Duke of Hamilton and Lord Mohun killed in a duel in Hyde-park.

1713 The peace of Utrecht, whereby Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, New Britain, and Hudson's Bay in North America, were yielded to Great Britain; Gibraltar and Minorca in Europe were also confirmed to the said crown by this treaty.

1714 Queen Anne dies at the age of 50, and is succeeded by George I.

Interest reduced to five per cent.

1715 Louis XIV. dies, and is succeeded by his great-grandson Louis XV.

The rebellion in Scotland begins in September, under the earl of Mar, in favour of the Pretender. The action of Sheriffmuir, and the surrender of Preston, both in November, when the rebels disperse.

The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Louville to be $23^\circ 28' 24''$.

1716 The Pretender married the princess of Sobieska, grand-daughter of John Sobieski, late king of Poland.

An act passed for septennial parliaments.

1718 Sardinia erected into a kingdom, and given to the duke of Savoy.

1719 The Mississippi scheme at its height in France. Lomb's silk throwing machine, containing 26,586 wheels, erected at Derby: takes up one-eighth of a mile; one water-wheel moves the rest; and in twenty-four-hours it works 3,185,049,960 yards of organzine silk thread.

1720 The South-sea scheme in England begun April 7, was at its height at the end of June, and quite sunk about September 29.

A great earthquake in China.

1724 An earthquake in Denmark.

1727 King George dies, in the 68th year of his age; and is succeeded by his only son, George II.

Inoculation first tried on criminals with success. Ruffia, formerly a dukedom, is now established as an empire.

The aberration of the fixed stars discovered and accounted for by Dr Bradley.

1732 Kouli Khan usurps the Persian throne, conquers the Mogul empire, and returns with two hundred and thirty-one millions sterling.

Several public-spirited gentlemen begin the settlement of Georgia in North America.

1733 The Jesuits expelled from Paraguay.

1739 Captain Porteous having ordered his soldiers to fire upon the populace at the execution of a smuggler, is himself hanged by the mob at Edinburgh.

A transit of Mercury observed by Cassini.

1737 A dreadful hurricane at the mouth of the Ganges, October 15.

1738 Westminster bridge, consisting of 15 arches, begun; finished in 1750 at the expense of 389,000l. defrayed by parliament.

The order of St Januarius established at Naples.

1739 Letters of marque issued out in Britain against Spain, July 21, and war declared, Oct. 23.

The empire of Indostan ruined by Kouli Khan.

An intense frost in Britain.

1743 The battle of Dettingen won by the English and allies in favour of the queen of Hungary.

1744 A dreadful plague in Sicily.

1744 War declared against France.—Commodore Anson returns from his voyage round the world.

1745 The allies lose the battle of Fontenoy.

The rebellion breaks out in Scotland, and the Pretender's army defeated by the duke of Cumberland at Culloden, April 16. 1746.

1746 British Linen Company erected.

Lima destroyed by an earthquake.

1747 Kouli Khan murdered.

1748 The peace of Aix la-Chapelle, by which a restitution of all places taken during the war was to be made on all sides.

1749 The interest on the British funds reduced to three p.r cent.

British herring-fishery incorporated.

The colony of Nova Scotia founded.

1750 Earthquake in England.

1751 Frederic prince of Wales, father to his present majesty, died.

Antiquarian Society at London incorporated.

1752 The new title introduced into Great Britain; the 3d of September being counted the 14th.

1753 The British Museum erected at Montague-house. Society of arts, manufactures, and commerce, instituted in London.

1754 A dreadful eruption of Mount Etna.

A great earthquake at Constantinople, Cairo, &c. Sept. 2.

1755 Quito in Peru destroyed by an earthquake, April 28.

Lisbon destroyed by an earthquake, Nov. 1.

1756 146 Englishmen are confined in the Black Hole at Calcutta in the East Indies by order of the Nabob, and 123 found dead next morning.

Marine society established at London.

The king of Prussia commenced hostilities in the month of August in Saxony. Defeats the Austrians at Lo.

1757 Damien attempted to assassinate the French king.

The king of Prussia invades Bohemia. Defeats the Austrians at Reichenberg, April 21, and at Prague, May 6. Repulsed by Count Daun at Kolin, June 18.

The allies defeated by the French at Hastenbeck, July 26.

Convention of Closter-Seven, Sept. 8.

The king of Prussia defeats the French and Austrians at Roßbach, Nov. 5. The Prussians defeated near Breslau, Nov. 22. The Austrians defeated at Lissa, Dec. 5.

1758 Senegal taken by the British, May 1. They take Louisbourg, July 27.

The king of Prussia defeats the Russians at Zorndorf, Aug. 25. Is defeated by Count Daun at Hoch-kirchen, Oct. 14.

Gorée taken by Commodore Keppel, Dec. 29.

Attempt to assassinate the king of Portugal, Dec. 3.

1759 General Wolfe is killed in the battle of Quebec, which is gained by the British.

The French defeated by Prince Ferdinand at Bergen, April 13.

Guadeloupe taken by the British, May 1.

King of Prussia defeated by the Russians at Cunerndorf, Aug. 12. 1759 The French fleet defeated by Admiral Hawke, Nov. 20. Ballice and Tripoli destroyed by an earthquake, Dec. 5.

1760 King George II. dies, Oct. 25, in the 77th year of his age, and is succeeded by his present majesty, who, on the 22d September 1761, married the princess Charlotte of Mecklenburgh Strelitz.

Blackfriars bridge, consisting of 9 arches, begun; finished 1770, at the expense of £12,840l. to be discharged by a toll.

1761 A transit of Venus over the sun, June 6. Earthquakes in Syria, Oct. 13. The king of Prussia defeats the Austrians at Torgau, Nov. 3. Pondicherry taken by Col. Coote, Jan. 15. Belleisle surrendered to the British, Feb. 4.

1762 War declared against Spain. Peter III., emperor of Russia, is deposed, imprisoned, and murdered. American philosophical society established in Philadelphia. George Augustus Frederic, prince of Wales, born, Aug. 12. Martinico surrendered to the British, Feb. 4. Havana surrendered to ditto, Aug. 12. Manilla taken by ditto, Oct. 6.

1763 The definitive treaty of peace between Great Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal, concluded at Paris, February 10th; which confirms to Great Britain the extensive province of Canada, East and West Florida, and part of Louisiana, in North America; also the islands of Grenada, St Vincent, Dominica, and Tobago, in the West Indies. The Jesuits expelled from France.

1764 The parliament granted 10,000l. to Mr Harrison for his discovery of the longitude by his time-piece. Famine and pestilence in Italy. An earthquake at Lisbon.

1765 His majesty's royal charter passed for incorporating the society of artists. An act passed annexing the sovereignty of the island of Man to the crown of Great Britain.

1766 April 21st, a spot or macula of the sun, more than thrice the bigness of our earth, passed the sun's centre. The American stamp-act repealed, March 18. A great earthquake at Constantinople. The Jesuits expelled from Bohemia and Denmark.

1767 The Jesuits expelled from Spain, Venice, and Genoa, April 2d. Martinico almost destroyed by an earthquake. The Protestants tolerated in Poland, Nov. 2d.

1768 Academy of painting established in London. The Turks imprison the Russian ambassador, and declare war against that empire. The Jesuits expelled from Naples, Malta, and Parma.

1769 Paoli fled from Corsica, June 13. The island then reduced by the French.

1770 An earthquake at St Domingo.

1771 Dr Solander and Mr Banks, in his majesty's ship the Endeavour, Lieut. Cook, return from a voyage round the world, having made several important discoveries in the South Seas. An emigration of 500,000 Tartarouts from the coasts of the Caspian sea to the frontiers of China.

1772 The king of Sweden changes the constitution from aristocracy to a limited monarchy. The Pretender marries a princess of Germany, grand-daughter of Thomas late earl of Aylesbury. The emperor of Germany, empress of Russia, and the king of Prussia, stip the king of Poland of a great part of his dominions, which they divide among themselves, in violation of the most solemn treaties.

1773 Captain Phipps is sent to explore the North Pole; but having made 81 degrees, is in danger of being locked up by the ice, and his attempt to discover a passage in that quarter proves fruitless.

The English East India Company having, by conquest or treaty, acquired the extensive provinces of Bengal, Orissa, and Bahar, containing 15 millions of inhabitants, great irregularities are committed by their servants abroad; upon which government interferes, and sends out judges, &c. for the better administration of justice.

The war between the Russians and the Turks proves disgraceful to the latter, who lose the islands in the Archipelago, and by sea are everywhere unsuccessful. The society of Jesuits suppressed by the pope's bull, Aug. 25.

1774 Peace is proclaimed between the Russians and the Turks. The British parliament having passed an act laying a duty of 3d. per pound upon all teas imported into America, the colonists, considering this as a grievance, deny the right of the British parliament to tax them. The American colonies send deputies to Philadelphia, who assume the title of The Congress of the Thirteen United Provinces, and all the powers of government.

1775 The American war commences. Action at Bunker's Hill, June 7. The Spaniards land near Algiers, and are defeated, July 8.

1776 The congress declare the United States of America independent of the crown and parliament of Great Britain. The Americans receive a dreadful defeat at Long Island, Aug. 27.

1777 Philadelphia taken by the British, Oct. 3. General Burgoyne with his army surrenders to the Americans.

1778 A most extraordinary eruption of Vesuvius, Aug. 8. The siege of Gibraltar begun by the Spaniards, July 8.

1780 Jan. 14th, 6h. A. M. the thermometer suspended in the open air at Glasgow, stood at 46° below 0. The Spanish fleet defeated by Admiral Rodney, Jan. 16th. Charlton surrendered to the British, May 12th. A dreadful insurrection in London, and riots in many other places of the kingdom. A great number of British ships taken by the combined fleets of France and Spain. Lord Cornwallis defeats the Americans at Camden. A dreadful hurricane in the Leeward islands, Oct. 9th. An extraordinary storm of wind in England. War declared against the Dutch, Dec. 20th. 1781 A terrible engagement between the Dutch and British fleets near the Dogger bank, August 5th. Lord Cornwallis with his army surrenders to the united forces of France and America, Oct. 18th. 1782 Minorca surrendered to the Spaniards, February 4th. The French fleet under De Grasse defeated and almost destroyed by Admiral Rodney, April 12th. The Spanish floating batteries before Gibraltar entirely destroyed, Sept. 12. 1783 Preliminaries of a general peace signed. America declared independent, Jan. 20th. A dreadful earthquake, attended with many extraordinary circumstances, in Italy and Sicily. The sun obscured by a kind of fog during the whole summer. A volcanic eruption in Iceland surpassing anything recorded in history. The lava spouted up in three places to a great height in the air, and continued flowing for two months; during which time it covered a tract of ground to a great extent, and in some places more than 100 feet deep. A large meteor appears to the northward of Shetland, and takes its direction southward, with a velocity little inferior to that of the earth in its annual course round the sun. Its track observed for more than 1000 miles. Algiers bombarded by the Spaniards. A great tumult at Philadelphia between the inhabitants and French soldiery. An extraordinary aurora borealis seen at London. Bedmore taken by the English. Magazine at Benecoolen blown up. Bottles made of the lava of volcanoes. Byrne, the Irish giant, eight feet four inches, dies by intemperance. Famine in the Carnatic. Charles Gustavus prince of Sweden dies. A father kills three of his children with the thigh-bone of a horse, after hearing a sermon on the happiness of those who die young. Sir Eyre Coote defeats Hyder Ally. Cremnitz in Hungary destroyed by lightning. Dartmouth East Indiaman lost.

1783 Definitive treaties between Britain and France, Spain and America, concluded. The East India house robbed. Thanks to General Elliot voted by the house of commons. Embargo on salt in Ireland taken off. A forest in Poland suddenly disappears. Island of Formosa destroyed by an earthquake. Gold and silver lace prohibited in Denmark. A conspiracy against the Grand Signor discovered. Grovenor Indiaman lost. Mangalore surrenders to the British. Five meteors or fire-balls seen at different places in England. Serious mutinies at Portsmouth, Jersey, Guernsey, Dublin, &c. A plague breaks out at Constantinople. Powder mills at Ewell blown up. A man in Moscow has 84 children alive out of 87 by three wives. Queen Charlotte delivered of a princess. 1784 General Cornwallis made constable of the Tower. Sluices at Lillo opened by the Dutch. Great earthquakes in Iceland, Grenoble, &c. Fort Frederick at Grenada blown up. Commodore Lindsay visited by the king and queen of Naples. Pennsylvania in extreme distress. A general thanksgiving for peace with America, &c. Allan Ramsay, Esq., son of the celebrated poet of the same name, dies at Dover. St Augustine in Florida declared a free port. A gang of desperate robbers apprehended at Glasgow. A volcano discovered in the moon. 1785 Melancholy fate of two aeronauts. A singular calamity at Barbadoes, by the sinking of the surface in different places. A new comet discovered. The queen of France is delivered of a son. A remarkable accident happens at the court of king's bench. A dreadful inundation happens at Vienna in Germany. 1786 The Halfewell East Indiaman struck on the rocks of Purbeck, and about 100 of the crew perished, Jan. 6th. Joiner's works performed by a blind man in such a masterly manner as to astonish the ablest judges, at Hermannstadt in Transylvania. The king of Prussia makes a handsome provision during life for the widow and children of Colonel Vantrocks, a deserving officer. April. The west tower of Hereford church, 125 feet high, built in the 12th century, fell down on the evening of 17th April, but none of the people then in the church-yard received any injury. M. Blanchard ascends in a balloon 96 miles in as many minutes. Writes a letter in the air, dated April 18th, to the editors of the Paris Journal. 1786 To the number of 6398 boys and girls clothed, educated, and supported by voluntary contributions, assemble under the dome of St Paul's cathedral.

A small prayer-book composed by Queen Elizabeth, and in her own hand-writing, sold in London for 100 guineas, June 7th.

The prince of Wales orders his whole stud to be disposed of by auction, to enable him to liquidate his debts.

1787 The king of Prussia establishes a court of honour for the purpose of suppressing duelling.

A meeting of notables convened by the king of France for reforming abuses relating to the subject of finance, January 10th.

Two ships sailed from Gravesend with black people on board, for a new settlement at Sierra Leone, January 9th.

The king of Poland has an interview with her imperial majesty at Kiow, March 7th.

Nine ships sailed for Botany Bay from Spithead with convicts, 21st.

A motion in parliament for repealing the test and corporation acts, 28th.

M. de Calonne dismissed from office, April 10th.

Mr Hastings impeached at the bar of the house of lords, May 10th.

Petitions to be admitted to bail, 22d.

The sum of £1,000 voted for the liquidation of the prince of Wales's debts, 24th.

The Hartwell Earl Indiaman lost off the island of Bona Vista, 24th.

Two satellites belonging to Georgium Sidus discovered by Dr Herschel, June 7th.

The Russian ambassador at Constantinople imprisoned, August 16th.

The Prussian troops under the duke of Brunswick take possession of Utrecht, Sept. 17th.

Twenty-three sail of the line put into commission, and seventeen new admirals appointed, Sept. 24th.

The Prussians gain possession of Amsterdam, October 11th.

A most remarkable aurora borealis appears, 13th.

Lord George Gordon apprehended and committed to Newgate, December 7th.

1788 Died at Bryngwyn in Radnorshire six persons during the month of January, whose united ages made up 644 years.

A new copper coinage of halfpence begins to circulate in Britain, July 19th.

William Brodie and George Smith tried for breaking into the general excise office for Scotland, and sentenced to be executed, September 1st.

A dreadful hurricane at Martinique laid many parishes waste, and deprived multitudes of their existence, August 14th.

The king of France abolished the torture, and ordained that every accused person shall have counsel immediately assigned him, October 18th. He ordered also, that a majority of one may acquit the accused, while three are required to condemn.

An iron barge built by John Wilkison, Esq., at Wilby wharf Shrewsbury, was launched, drawing only eight inches water, and moving very easily on that element, November 7th.

His Britannic majesty is seized with a severe indisposition, October 17th.

A new comet in the constellation of Ursa Major, discovered by M. Messier astronomer at Paris, November 26th.

1789 Coins bearing date 1757 were found beneath the foundation of the old market-house at Farnham.

Another satellite discovered by Dr Herschel belonging to Saturn.

Earthquake at Comrie, November 3rd.

Foundation stone of that magnificent structure, the university of Edinburgh, laid by the Right Honourable Francis Lord Napier, grand master-mason of Scotland, November 16th.

Phipps (father and son) hanged for forgery, September 5th.

Revolution of France is begun and gradually advanced.

General Washington makes a splendid entrance into the city of Philadelphia, where a sumptuous entertainment is provided for him by the joyful citizens, April 22nd.

An excellent and cheap dye invented in Germany.

Dr Withers sentenced to 12 months imprisonment, to pay a fine of £50l. and to find security for five years, himself in £50l. and two others in £25l. each, for defaming the character of Mrs Fitzherbert, November 21st.

The sum of £61l. 3s. voted to Brook Watson, Esq. to defray the expenses of a new invented method of cultivating hemp, December 14th.

1790 Exile of the duke de Orleans.

Bed of justice instituted in France.

Calamitous state of affairs in that country.

The archbishop of Toulouse dismissed from office.

A convention signed at the Escorial between his Britannic majesty and the king of Spain, October 28th.

A memorial of the court of Spain delivered to Mr Fitzherbert, June 13th.

M. Montmorin's letter to the national assembly of France.

Louis XVI. delivers a speech to the national assembly.

A blackbird's nest with four eggs found December 23rd, near Nuneham in Oxfordshire.

Serious riots at Paris.

The Tiers Etat constitute themselves a national assembly.

Paris is surrounded by the military at the desire of the king.

Prisons set open by the mob, and a great famine in Paris, whether real or artificial is involved in obscurity.

M. Necker is dismissed from office, and the Batiste demolished.

M. La Fayette appointed commander in chief of the national guard.

M. Necker is recalled with every demonstration of joy.

1791 1791 A most horrid insurrection takes place on the 5th of October.

The royal family comes from Versailles to Paris. The abolition of orders decreed by the assembly. The island of Corsica united to France. The unpopular and oppressive tax on salt abolished. M. Necker again resigns, about which time a riot breaks out at Paris, and a serious mutiny in the harbour of Brest. Foreign powers combine against France. The king of France flies, is apprehended, and returns. The city of Paris put under martial law. The Netherlands revolt from Germany. Peace is concluded between Austria and Prussia, and between Prussia and Sweden. The grand vizier is disgraced, and dies. A peace concluded between Russia and Constantinople. A convention is entered into with Spain relative to Nootka Sound. War carried on in India with Tippoo Saib. The British parliament is dissolved, and the new parliament is soon after opened by a speech from the throne. A bill is presented in the British parliament for the relief of Protestant Catholics. The French constitution settled by the assembly, and presented to the king, September 3d. Accepted of by the king, 13th.

1792 Washington's speech to both houses of congress, October 25th. A treaty between Britain and Prussia relative to the marriage of the duke of York with Frederica Charlotte. Gustavus III. of Sweden is assassinated by Ankarstrom. General Dillon is inhumanly murdered by his own soldiers. M. Rochambeau resigns the command of the French army in the north, and is succeeded by M. Luckner. Horrible outrages are committed in Paris on the 20th June. The French arms are victorious in the Netherlands. A petition is presented to the assembly, praying for the deposition of Louis XVI. The palace is abandoned by the royal family of France, and attacked by the federates, at which time the Swiss guards are massacred. Louis is deposed, and he and his family imprisoned. War proclaimed by the assembly of France against the king of Hungary and Bohemia, April 20th. The king of the French writes a confidential letter to the king of Great Britain. A manifesto against the French revolution by the emperor of Germany and the king of Prussia. The French national assembly proceeds to the trial of the king. He is condemned and executed, Jan. 21st, after which M. Chauvelin is dismissed from London. Dumourier arrests the commissioners sent to bring him to the bar of the convention, and sends them as prisoners to the Austrians. He finally abandons the cause of France as hopeless and desperate. He is succeeded by General Dampier. The Brissotine party is denounced by the people of Paris. Marat is committed to the Abbey, but soon released, and assassinated at last by a female from Normandy. An expedition is undertaken against Dunkirk, which is rendered abortive. General Cuffine, the queen, the deputies of the Gironde, Manuel, Houchard, Bailly, Barnave, Rabaut, the duke of Orleans and Madame Roland, are condemned and executed. Earl Moira makes an unsuccessful descent on the coast of France. Toulon surrenders to the British, but is retaken by the French.

1794 Earl Stanhope moves that the French republic be acknowledged by Britain. Mr Adam proposes to amend the criminal law of Scotland, which gives rise to interesting debates. The first reading of a bill for suspending the Habeas Corpus act is protested against, May 22. Protest against the vote of thanks to Lord Hood, June 17. The king of Prussia withdraws from the coalition. A bill is brought into parliament for the abolition of the slave-trade, and rejected by the lords. General Fitzpatrick moves for an inquiry into the reasons of M. la Fayette's imprisonment. A motion for peace with France is made by the duke of Bedford and Mr Fox. Thanks are voted by both houses to Lord Howe, Sir Charles Grey, and Sir John Jervis. That valuable instrument the telegraph is invented by the French. The bold eloquence of Billaud Varennes, and Tallien, opens the eyes of France reflecting the ambitious views of that sanguinary monster Maximilian Robespierre, who is condemned and executed (28th June), with about 20 of his diabolical coadjutors. General Clairfait is defeated, and Louvain and Namur are taken by the French. A treaty is entered into between Sweden and Denmark, and neutral powers oblige Britain to indemnify them for their losses.

1795 La Pique of 38 guns captured by Vice-admiral Caldwell, Jan. 4. Admiral Hothman captures two French ships, Ca-ira of 80, and the Centeur of 74 guns, March 16. Warren Hastings acquitted of the serious charges preferred against him, by a majority of the house of peers, April 25. The Boyne of 98 guns is blown up at Spithead, but but not so much damage done to adjacent vessels as there was reason to dread, all her guns being loaded, May 4.

Captain Anthony James Pye Molloy dismissed from the command of the Caesar of 74 guns, for neglect of duty.

Some ships of war belonging to the French taken by the fleet under the command of Admiral Bridport, 23rd June.

Leopold brother to the emperor of Germany died August 10.

La Minerve of 42 guns captured by Captain Towry, June 24.

The beautiful church of St Paul's, Covent-garden, totally consumed by fire, Sept. 19.

A flock of an earthquake felt through most of the town of Birmingham, Nov. 23.

A stone was thrown at his Britannic majesty's carriage on his way from Pall-mall to Buckingham-house, which broke a window and greatly alarmed Lady Harrington, Feb. 1.

A reward of 1000l. was offered for the apprehension of the criminal, but without effect.

Admiral Cornwallis is tried on board the Orion, for acting contrary to orders received from the admiralty, and acquitted, April 17.

Sir Sidney Smith taken by the French at Havre, April.

L'Unité, a French frigate of 38 guns, taken by Captain Cole, and La Virginie of 44 by Sir Edward Pellew, April 13. and 20.

Crossfield, for attempting to assassinate his majesty, was tried and acquitted, May 20.

Les Trois Couleurs of 10, and La Blonde of 16 guns, captured by Sir Edward Pellew, May 18.; and La Tribune of 44 guns by Captain Martin, same month.

Two houses fell down in Clare-market, in the ruins of which 17 persons were unfortunately buried, June 27.

The Amphion frigate of 32 guns blown up at Plymouth, when about 200 lives were lost, Sept. 22.

The empress Catharine II. of Russia died at her palace of an apoplectic fit, Nov. 17.

Part of a French fleet came to anchor in Bantry bay, having on board an army of 25,000 men, under the command of General Hoche; but afterwards weighed and stood out to sea, January 2.

The steeple of a church near Norwich fell down while the bell was ringing for public worship, Jan. 8.

La Mufette of 22, and Deux Amis of 14 guns, captured by the British and sent into Cork, Jan. 14.

The city of Savannah nearly consumed to ashes by fire.

Sir John Jervis, with a fleet of 15 sail, engages a Spanish fleet of 27 sail of the line, which he defeats, taking the Salvador del Mundo and San Jose of 112 guns each; the San Nicolas of 80 and San Ysidro of 74 guns, February 14.

The island of Trinidad surrenders to the British forces under the command of Sir Ralph Abercrombie.

Alarming symptoms of a mutiny appear among the seamen of the British fleet, May 7.

The nuptial ceremonies are solemnized between the prince of Wirtemberg Stuttgart and Charlotte Augusta Matilda, eldest daughter of his Britannic majesty George III. May 18.

Lord Malmbury appointed minister plenipotentiary from the court of Britain to France for negotiating a treaty of peace, July 1.

About 30 French war vessels of different dimensions taken or destroyed by the squadron under Sir J. B. Warren, between 17th July and 6th of September.

A desperate engagement off Camperdown between Admirals Duncan and De Winter, when the latter is totally defeated by the former, with the loss of 11 ships.

Le Duguay Trouin, a French privateer, captured by Captain Frazer of his majesty's ship Shannon, Feb. 3.

A powder-mill belonging to Mr Harvey is blown up, which demolishes several adjacent buildings, and kills three of the workmen, April 25.

L'Hercule a French ship of 74 guns, captured by the Mars, April 21.

Rebels in the Curragh of Kildare, Ireland, lay down their arms, May 29.

Wexford rebels defeated with great loss and slaughter, June 10.

Proposals of the Irish rebels rejected by General Lake, June 22.

The Princess Amelia East Indiaman accidentally burnt on the coast of Malabar, and 40 of her crew perished, April 5.

An engagement at Castlebar between General Lake and a party of French landed in Ireland, August 27.

A dreadful engagement between the British fleet under the command of Sir Horatio Nelson, and the French fleet commanded by Admiral Bruys, off the mouth of the Nile, when nine sail of the line belonging to the French were taken, three burnt, one sunk, and four escaped, Aug. 1.

The yellow-fever, which carried off 3000 people in New-York, in a few months, happily ceased to rage, Nov. 15.

A dreadful shock of an earthquake was felt at Guernsey on the night of the 6th.

A desperate battle fought between the Archduke Charles and General Jourdan at Stockalp, March 25.

La Vigie of 14, and Anacreon privateer of 16 guns, taken by his Britannic majesty's ship Champion, Captain Graham commander, July 2.

Three frigates captured by the Centaur, J. Wood commander, June 19.

Mantua surrenders to the Austrians, June 30.

The British forces destined to invade Holland begin to disembark, 27th August. Seven ships of war, and 13 Indiamen and transports, taken in the Nieuwe Diep by Admiral Mitchell, August 27.

Seringapatam surrenders to the British forces, when Tippoo Sultan is slain, 4th May.

A Spanish frigate called Thetis, with a valuable cargo on board, surrenders to Captain Young of the Ethalion, 16th October.

British and Russian forces obliged to evacuate Holland, November.

La Furet of 14 guns strikes to the Viper cutter, Lieutenant Pengelly commander, 26th December.

1800 Three French privateers and one Spanish captured by the Arifocerat, Lieutenant Wray, January.

A French letter of marque with 12 four pounders and 30 men taken by a British long boat.

His Britannic majesty's ship Repulse of 64 guns lost, and a number of the crew perished, 9th March.

A convention between the ambassadors of the Ottoman Porte and General Deaix, signed at El Arifch, 24th January, by which the French troops were permitted to return to their own country.

His Britannic majesty's ship Danae carried into Brest by the mutineers on board, 27th March.

Generaux of 74 guns captured by the Northumberland and Foudroyant, February 18.

A French privateer of 22 guns captured by the Amethyst, Captain Cook commander, 31st March.

His Britannic majesty shot at in the theatre, May 16th, by a maniac of the name of Hadfield.

The Queen Charlotte of 100 guns is burnt off Leghorn, and the gallant crew perish, 17th March.

The French ship of war Guillaume Tell of 86 guns and 1000 men surrenders to the Lion, Penelope, and Foudroyant, March 30.

Le Cerbere of seven guns and 87 men taken by a boat's crew of 20 men, commanded by Lieutenant Coghlan.

A number of vessels with valuable cargoes captured by La Girone French privateer, August.

Unsuccessful expedition against Ferrol, August.

The French garrison of La Valette surrendered to the allied forces at Malta, 4th September.

His Britannic majesty's ship Marlborough of 74 guns, was completely wrecked off Belleisle, 4th November.

La Venus of 32 guns captured by the Indefatigable and Fisgard, October 24.

A most dreadful storm at London, which unroofed many houses, blew down others, tore up numbers of trees by the roots, and by the effects of which some lives were lost, 9th November.

1801 An embargo laid on all Russian, Danish, and Swedish vessels in the ports of Great Britain, 14th January.

The united parliament of Great Britain and Ireland met for the first time, January 22.

The Invincible of 74 guns ran aground on the coast of Norfolk, and was totally lost, when about 400 souls perished, March.

A dreadful engagement off Copenhagen, between the Danish line and the British fleet under Admiral Parker; in which 943 of the British were killed and wounded, April 2.

Aboukir surrenders to the British under the command of Sir Ralph Abercrombie, who received a mortal wound on the 21st March, of which that great officer died on the 28th.

The French attacked at Rahmanieh, compelled to retreat towards Cairo, and pursued by General Hutchinson, March 9.

General Hutchinson takes 550 camels, and 600 French prisoners.

In an engagement between a French and British squadron in the bay of Algiers, the Hannibal unfortunately fell into the hands of the enemy by taking the ground. The British squadron rendered useless two of 84, one of 74 guns, and a large frigate, July 5.

A cessation of arms by sea and land between Britain and the French republic, resulting from the signing of preliminaries of peace by Lord Hawkesbury, and M. Otto, October 1.

Alexandria surrenders to General Hutchinson on the 2d September.

The Swiftsure captured by Admiral Ganteaume, who treated the crew with the utmost humanity and tenderness.

1802 Joseph Wall, governor of the island of Goree in 1782, was executed for ordering a sergeant to receive 800 lashes, of which he died, January 28.

Mr Moore arrived with the definitive treaty of peace signed at Amiens on the 27th March, at four in the afternoon.

The flour mills at Bromley, the property of Messrs Metcalfe and company, were burnt to the ground, April 8.

A dreadful fire broke out (May 13.) in the town of Bedford, which destroyed 72 houses, and deprived about 700 persons of their all.

Intercourse forbidden at Wilmington, Delaware, September 5, with Philadelphia and New York, on account of the yellow fever.

A decision obliging bookellers to publish no books without the name of the printer at the beginning and end of them, was ratified, 20th October.

General Andreo, as ambassador from France, arrived at Calais 3d of November, where he was received with discharges of artillery. Has an audience of his Britannic majesty, 17th.

Lord Whitworth presented to Bonaparte his letters of credence as minister plenipotentiary from his Britannic majesty, December 5.

1803 A serious rebellion suppressed in China, occasioned by the efforts of Ong Fong, a daring chief, at the head of 50,000 men. One of the queens of the Rajah at Tanjore burns herself on the funeral pile of her deceased husband, in spite of the tears and intreacies of all her relations.

1804 Active measures taken in Dublin to secure the country against invasion. A ship of 1200 tons cast adrift. Admiral Story with two captains declared disgraced, perjured, and infamous, degraded from their posts, and banished the republic, not to return on the pain of death, January 16.

A splendid meteor seen at Perth, February 7. Duke D'Enghien and other emigrants seized, sent to France, and executed, March 15. The French fleet under Admiral Linois engaged and pursued by a fleet of East Indiamen, commanded by Captain Dance.