in commerce, a manufacture made of wool, wove in the loom.

Cloths are of divers qualities, fine or coarse. The goodness of cloth, according to some, consists in the following particulars: 1. That the wool be of a good quality, and well dressed. 2. It must be equally spun, carefully observing that the thread of the warp be finer and better twisted than that of the woof. 3. The cloth must be well wrought, and beaten on the loom, so as to be everywhere equally compact. 4. The wool must not be finer at one end of the piece than in the rest. 5. The lifts must be sufficiently strong, of the same length with the stuff, and must consist of good wool, hair, or ostrich-feathers; or, what is still better, of Danish dog’s hair. 6. The cloth must be free from knots and other imperfections. 7. It must be well scoured with fullers earth, well fulled with the best white soap, and afterwards washed in clear water. 8. The hair or nap must be well drawn out with the teazel, without being too much opened. 9. It must be thrown close without making it threadbare. 10. It must be well-dried. 11. It must not be tenter-stretched, to force it to its just dimensions.

It must be pressed cold, not hot-pressed, the latter being very injurious to woollen cloth.

Manufacturing of white Cloths which are intended for dyeing. The best wool for the manufacturing of cloths are those of England and Spain, especially those of Lincolnshire and Segovia. To use these wools to the best advantage, they must be scoured, by putting them into a liquor somewhat more than luke-warm, composed of three parts of fair water and one of urine. After the wool has continued long enough in the liquor to soak, and dissolve the grease, it is drained and well washed in running water. When it feels dry, and has no smell but the natural one of the sheep, it is said to be duly scoured.

After this, it is hung to dry in the shade; the heat of the sun making it harsh and inflexible; when dry, it is beat with rods upon hurdles of wood, or on cords, to cleanse it from dust and the grossest filth; the more it is thus beat and cleansed, the softer it becomes, and the better for spinning. After beating, it must be well picked, to free it from the rest of the filth that had escaped the rods.

It is now in a proper condition to be oiled, and carded on large iron cards placed flope-wise. Olive oil is esteemed the best for this purpose; one-fifth of which should be used for the wool intended for the woof, and a ninth for that designed for the warp. After the wool has been well oiled, it is given to the spinners, who first card it on the knee, with small fine cards, and then spin it on the wheel, observing to make the thread of the warp smaller by one-third than that of the woof, and much coarser twisted.

The thread thus spun, is reeled, and made into skeins. That designed for the woof is wound on little tubes, pieces of paper, or rushes, to dispose of as that they may be easily put in the eye of the shuttle. That for the warp is wound on a kind of large wooden bobbins, to dispose of it for warping. When warped, it is stiffened with size; the best of which is that made of shreds of parchment; and when dry, is given to the weavers, who mount it on the loom.

The warp thus mounted, the weavers, who are two to each loom, one on each side, tread alternately on the treadle, first on the right step, and then on the left, which raises and lowers the threads of the warp equally; between which they throw transversely the shuttle from the one to the other; and every time that the shuttle is thus thrown, and a thread of the woof inserted within the warp, they strike it conjunctively with the same frame, wherein is fastened the comb or reed, between whose teeth the threads of the warp are passed, repeating the stroke as often as is necessary.

The weavers having continued their work till the whole warp is filled with the woof, the cloth is finished; it is then taken off the loom by unrolling it from the beam whereon it had been rolled in proportion as it was woven; and now given to be cleaned of the knots, ends of threads, straws, and other filth, which is done with iron nippers.

In this condition it is carried to the fullery, to be scoured with urine, or a kind of potters clay, well steeped in water, put along with the cloth in the trough wherein it is fulled. The cloth being again cleared. cleared from the earth or urine, is returned to the former hands to have the lesser filth, small straws, &c., taken off as before; then it is returned to the fuller to be beat and fulled with hot water, wherein a suitable quantity of soap has been dissolved; after fulling, it is taken out to be smoothed or pulled by the lits lengthwise, to take out the wrinkles, crevices, &c.

The smoothing is repeated every two hours, till the fulling be finished, and the cloth brought to its proper breadth; after which it is washed in clear water, to purge it of the soap, and given wet to the carders to raise the hair or nap on the right side with the thistle or weed. After this preparation, the cloth-worker takes the cloth, and gives it its first cut or shearing; then the carders resume it, and after wetting, give it as many more courses with the teazel, as the quality of the stuff requires, always observing to begin against the grain of the hair, and to end with it; as also to begin with a smoother thistle, proceeding still with one sharper and sharper, as far as the sixth degree.

After these operations, the cloth being dried, is returned to the cloth-worker, who shears it a second time, and returns it to the carders, who repeat their operation as before, till the nap be well ranged on the surface of the cloth, from one end of the piece to the other.

The cloth thus wove, scoured, napped, and shorn, is sent to the dyer; when dyed, it is washed in fair water, and the worker takes it again wet as it is, lays the nap with a brush on the table, and hangs it on the tenters, where it is stretched both in length and breadth sufficiently to smooth it, set it square, and bring it to its proper dimensions, without straining it too much; observing to brush it afresh, the way of the nap, while a little moist, on the tenters.

When quite dry, the cloth is taken off the tenters, and brushed again on the table, to finish the laying of the nap; after which it is folded, and laid cold under a press, to make it perfectly smooth and even, and give it a glost.

Lastly, the cloth being taken out of the press, and the papers, &c., for glosting it removed, it is in a condition for sale or use. With regard to the manufacture of mixt cloths, or those wherein the wools are first dyed, and then mixt, spun, and wove of the colours intended, the process, except what relates to the colour, is mostly the same with that just represented.

**CLOTH made from Vegetable Filaments.** See BARK and FILAMENTS.

**Incombustible CLOTH.** See ASBESTOS.

**CLOTHO,** the youngest of the three Parcae, daughters of Jupiter and Themis. She was supposed to preside over the moment that we are born. She held the distaff in her hand, and spun the thread of life, whence her name Κλωθο, to spin. She was represented wearing a crown with seven stars, and covered with a variegated robe.

**CLOUD,** a collection of vapours suspended in the atmosphere.

That the clouds are formed from the aqueous vapours, which before were so closely united with the atmosphere as to be invisible, is universally allowed; but it is no easy matter to account for the long continuance of some very opaque clouds without dissolving; or to give a reason why the vapours, when they have once begun to condense, do not continue to do so till they at last fall to the ground in the form of rain or snow, &c. The general cause of the formation of clouds, it has been supposed, is a separation of the latent heat from the water of which the vapour is composed. The consequence of this separation must be the condensation of that vapour, in some degree at least: in such case, it will first appear as a smoke, mist, or fog; which, if interposed between the sun and earth, will form a cloud; and the same causes continuing to act, the cloud will produce rain or snow. But though the separation of this latent heat in a certain degree is the immediate cause of the formation of clouds, the remote cause, or the changes produced in the atmosphere, whereby such a separation may be induced, are much more difficult to be discovered. In common observation, we see that vapour is most powerfully condensed by cold substances, such as metals, water, &c. But not always cold alone cannot in all cases cause the condensation of owing to the atmospheric vapours, otherwise the nights behoveth to be always foggy or cloudy, owing to the vapours raised throughout the day by the heat of the sun, being condensed by the superior coldness of the night. Great rains may happen in very warm weather, when the union of the vapours with the atmosphere ought rather to be promoted than dissolved, if cold were the only agent in their condensation. The serenity of the atmosphere, also, in the most severe frosts, abundantly shows that some other cause besides mere heat or cold is concerned in the formation of clouds, and condensation of the atmospheric vapours.

The electric fluid is now so generally admitted as Electricity an agent in all the great operations of nature, that it probably is no wonder to find the formation of clouds attributed to it. This hath accordingly been given by S. Beccaria as the cause of the formation of all clouds whatsoever, whether of thunder, rain, hail, or snow. The first, he thinks, are produced by a very great power of electricity, and the others by one more moderate. But though it is certain that all clouds, or even fogs and rain, are electrified in some degree, it still remains a question, whether the clouds are formed in consequence of the vapour whereof they are composed being first electrified, or whether they become electrified in consequence of its being first separated from the atmosphere, and in some measure condensed. This hath not yet, as far as we know, been ascertained by the experiments of Beccaria, or any other person; and indeed, notwithstanding the multitude of electrical discoveries that have lately been made, there seems to be little or no foundation for ascertaining it. Electricity is known to be in many cases a promoter of evaporation; but no experiments have yet been brought to prove that electrified air parts with its moisture more readily than such as is not electrified; so that, till the properties of electrified air are farther investigated, it is impossible to lay down any rational theory of the formation of clouds upon this principle.

But whether the clouds are produced, i.e. the invisible vapours floating in the atmosphere condensed ten prodigiously so as to become visible, by means of electricity or not, electrified, it is certain that they do contain the electric fluid in prodigious and inconceivable quantities, and many very terrible and destructive phenomena have been occasioned by clouds very highly electrified. The most extraordinary instance of this kind, perhaps on record happened in the island of Java, in the East Indies, in August 1772. On the 11th of that month, at midnight, a bright cloud was observed covering a mountain in the district called Cheribon, at the same time several reports were heard like those of a gun. The people who dwelt upon the upper parts of the mountain not being able to fly fast enough, a great part of the cloud, almost three leagues in circumference, detached itself under them, and was seen at a distance rising and falling like the waves of the sea, and emitting globes of fire so luminous, that the night became as clear as day. The effects of it were astonishing; every thing was destroyed for seven leagues round; the houses were demolished; plantations were buried in the earth; and 2140 people lost their lives, besides 1500 head of cattle, and a vast number of horses, goats, &c.

Another instance of a very destructive cloud, the electric quality of which will at present scarcely be doubted, is related by Mr Brydone, in his Tour through Malta. It appeared on the 29th of October 1757. About three quarters of an hour after midnight, there was seen to the south-west of the city of Malta, a great black cloud, which, as it approached, changed its colour, till at last it became like a flame of fire mixed with black smoke. A dreadful noise was heard on its approach, which alarmed the whole city. It passed over the port, and came first on an English ship, which in an instant was torn in pieces, and nothing left but the hull; part of the masts, sails, and cordage, were carried to a considerable distance along with the cloud. The small boats and seagoing vessels that fell in its way were all broken to pieces and sunk. The noise increased, and became more frightful. A sentinel, terrified at its approach, ran into his box; but both he and it were lifted up and carried into the sea, where he perished. It then traversed a considerable part of the city, and laid in ruins almost everything that stood in its way. Several houses were laid level with the ground, and it did not leave one steeple in its passage. The bells of some of them, together with the spires, were carried to a considerable distance; the roofs of the churches demolished and beat down, &c. It went off at the north-east point of the city, and demolishing the light-house, is said to have mounted up into the air with a frightful noise; and passed over the sea to Sicily, where it tore up some trees, and did other damage; but nothing considerable, as its fury had been mostly spent at Malta. The number of killed and wounded amounted to near 200; and the loss of shipping, &c., was very considerable.

The effects of thunder-storms, and the vast quantity of electricity collected in the clouds which produce these storms, are so well known, that it is superfluous to mention them. It appears, however, that even the clouds are not so highly electrified as to produce their fatal effects on those who are immersed in them. It is only the discharge of part of their electricity upon such bodies as are either not electrified at all, or not so highly electrified as the cloud, that does all the mischief. We have, however, only the following instance on record, of any persons being immersed in the body of a thunder-cloud. Professor Saussure and young Mr Jalbert, when travelling over one of the high Alps, were caught among clouds of this kind; and, to their astonishment, found their bodies full of electrical fire, that spontaneous flashes darted from their fingers with a crackling noise, and the same kind of sensation as when strongly electrified by art.

The height of clouds in general is not great; the height of summits of very high mountains being commonly quite the clouds, free from them, as Mr Brydone experienced in his journey up Mount Etna; but those which are most highly electrified descend lowest, their height being often not above seven or eight hundred yards above the ground; nay, sometimes thunder-clouds appear actually to touch the ground with one of their edges; but the generality of clouds are suspended at the height of a mile, or little more, above the earth. Some, however, have imagined them to arise to a most incredible and extravagant height. Maignan de Thouloffe, in his Treatise of Perspective, p. 93, gives an account of an exceeding bright little cloud that appeared at midnight in the month of August, which spread itself almost as far as the zenith. He says that the same thing was also observed at Rome; and from thence concludes that the cloud was a collection of vapours raised beyond the projection of the earth's shadow, and of consequence illuminated by means of the sun. This, however, can by no means be credited; and it is much more probable that this cloud owed its splendor to electricity, than to the reflection of the solar beams.

In the evenings after sunset, and mornings before sunrise, we often observe the clouds tinged with beautiful colours. They are mostly red; sometimes accounted range, yellow, or purple; more rarely bluish; and for seldom or never green. The reason of this variety of colours, according to Sir Isaac Newton, is the different size of the globules into which the vapours are condensed. This is controverted by Mr Melville, who thinks that the clouds reflect the sun's light precisely as it is transmitted to them through the atmosphere. This reflects the most refrangible rays in the greatest quantity; and therefore ought to transmit the least refrangible ones, red, orange, and yellow to the clouds, which accordingly appear most usually of those colours. In this opinion he was greatly confirmed by observing, when he was in Switzerland, that the snowy summits of the Alps turned more and more reddish after sunset, in the same manner as the clouds; and he imagines that the semitransparency of the clouds, and the obliquity of their situation, tend to make the colours in them much more rich and copious than those on the tops of snowy mountains.

The motions of the clouds, though sometimes directed by the wind, are not always so, especially when the thunder is about to ensue. In this case they seem to move very slowly, and often to be absolutely stationary for some time. The reason of this most probably is, that they are impelled by two opposite streams of air nearly of equal strength; by which means their velocity is greatly retarded. In such cases both the aerial currents seem to ascend to a very considerable height; for Messrs. Charles and Roberts, when endeavouring to avoid a thunder-cloud in one of their aerial voyages, could... Clouds could find no alteration in the course of the current, though they ascended to the height of 4000 feet from the surface of the earth. In some cases the motions of the clouds evidently depend on their electricity, independent of any current of air whatever. Thus, in a calm and warm day, we often see small clouds meeting each other in opposite directions, and setting out from such short distances, that we cannot suppose any opposite winds to be the cause. These clouds, when they meet, instead of forming a larger one, become much less, and sometimes vanish altogether; a circumstance undoubtedly owing to the discharge of opposite electricities into each other. This serves also to throw some light on the true cause of the formation of clouds; for if two clouds electrified, the one positively and the other negatively, destroy each other in contact; it follows, that any quantity of vapour suspended in the atmosphere, while it retains its natural quantity of electricity, remains invisible, but becomes a cloud when electrified either plus or minus. A difficulty, however, still occurs; viz. in what manner a small quantity of vapour surrounded by an immense ocean of the same kind of matter, can acquire either more or less electricity than that which surrounds it; and this indeed we seem not as yet to have any data to solve in a satisfactory manner.

The shapes of the clouds are likewise undoubtedly owing to their electricity; for in those cases in which a great commotion has been excited in the atmospheric electricity, we shall perceive the clouds assuming strange and whimsical shapes, which vary almost every moment. This, as well as the meeting of small clouds in the air, and vanishing upon contact, is an almost infallible sign of thunder.

Besides the phenomena of thunder, rain, &c., the clouds are intimately connected with those of wind, and always assume a particular shape, when a strong continued wind is about to ensue; though it is remarkable, that in the strongest winds we shall often observe them stationary. Sometimes also, on the approach of a cloud, we shall find a sudden and violent gust of wind arise; and at others, the wind, though violent before, shall cease on the approach of a cloud, and recover its strength as soon as the cloud is past. This connection of the clouds with wind is most remarkable in mountainous countries, when the peaks are sufficiently high to have their tops involved in clouds. A very remarkable mountain of this kind is met with at the Cape of Good Hope, from the clouds on whose top, according to the relations of travellers, the winds issue forth as if they had been confined in a bag; and something similar has been observed of mountains in other parts of the world.

The uses of the clouds are evident; as from them proceeds the rain which refreshes the earth; and without which, according to the present system of nature, the whole surface of the earth must be a mere desert. They are likewise of great use as a screen interposed between the earth and the scorching rays of the sun which are often so powerful as to destroy the grass and other tender vegetables. In the more secret operations of nature also, where the electrical fluid is concerned, the clouds bear a principal share; and serve especially as a medium for conveying that fluid from the atmosphere into the earth, and from the earth into the atmosphere; in doing which, when electrified to a great degree, they sometimes produce very terrible effects; of which instances have been already given.

CLOVE-TREE. See Caryophyllus, Botany Index.