or Congregation of St Columbus, a society of regular canons, who formerly had 100 abbeys or monasteries in the British isles.

Christopher, a Genoese, the celebrated navigator, and first discoverer of the islands of America, was a subject of the republic of Genoa. Neither the time nor the place of his birth, however, are known with certainty; only he was descended of an honourable family, who, by various misfortunes, had been reduced to indigence. His parents were seafaring people; and Columbus having discovered, in his early youth, a capacity and inclination for that way of life, was encouraged by them to follow the same profession. He went to sea at the age of 14; his first voyages were to those ports in the Mediterranean frequented by the Genoese, after which he took a voyage to Iceland; and proceeding still further north, advanced several degrees within the polar circle. After this, Columbus entered into the service of a famous sea captain of his own name and family. This man commanded a small squadron, fitted out at his own expense; and by cruising, sometimes against the Mahometans, and sometimes against the Venetians, the rivals of his country in trade, had acquired both wealth and reputation. With him Columbus continued for several years, no less distinguished for his courage than his experience as a sailor. At length, in an obstinate engagement off the coast of Portugal, with some Venetian caravels returning richly laden from the Low Countries, the vessel on board Columbus, which he served took fire, together with one of the enemies ships to which it was fast grappled. Columbus threw himself into the sea, laid hold of a floating oar, and by the support of it, and his dexterity in swimming, he reached the shore, though above two leagues distant.

After this disaster, Columbus repaired to Lisbon, where he married a daughter of Bartholomew Perestrelo, one of the captains employed by Prince Henry in his early navigations, and who had discovered and planted the islands of Porto Santo and Madeira. Having got possession of the journals and charts of this experienced navigator, Columbus was seized with an irresistible desire of visiting unknown countries. In order to indulge it, he made a voyage to Madeira, and continued during several years to trade with that island, the Canaries, Azores, the settlements in Guinea, and all the other places which the Portuguese had discovered on the continent of Africa.

By the experience acquired in such a number of voyages, Columbus now became one of the most skilful navigators in Europe. At this time the great object of discovery was a passage by sea to the East Indies. This was attempted, and at last accomplished, by the Portuguese, by doubling the Cape of Good Hope. The danger and tediousness of the passage, however, supposing it to be really accomplished, which as yet it was not, set Columbus on considering whether a shorter and more direct passage to these regions might not be found out; and, after long consideration, he became thoroughly convinced, that, by sailing across the Atlantic ocean, directly towards the west, new countries, which probably formed a part of the vast continent of India, must infallibly be discovered. His reasons for this were, in the first place, a knowledge he had acquired of the true figure of the earth. The continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa, as far as then known, form but a small part of the globe. It was suitable to our ideas, concerning the wisdom and beneficence of the Author of Nature, to believe, that the vast space, still unexplored, was not entirely covered by a waste and barren ocean, but occupied by countries fit for the habitation of man. It appeared likewise extremely probable, that the continent on this side the globe was balanced by a proportional quantity of land in the other hemisphere. These conjectures were confirmed by the observations of modern navigators. A Portuguese pilot having stretched farther to the west than was usual at that time, took up a piece of timber, artificially carved, floating upon the sea; and as it was driven towards him by a westerly wind, he concluded that it came from some unknown land situated in that quarter. Columbus's brother-in-law had found to the west of the Madeira isles a piece of timber fashioned in the same manner, and brought by the same wind; and had seen also canes of an enormous size floating upon the waves, which resembled those described by Ptolemy as productions peculiar to the East Indies. After a course of westerly winds, trees torn up by the roots were often driven upon the coast of the Azores; and at one time the dead bodies of two men, with singular features, which resembled neither the inhabitants of Europe nor Africa, were cast ashore there. The most Columbus, cogent reason, however, was a mistaken notion of the ancient geographers concerning the immense extent of the continent of India. Though hardly any of them had penetrated beyond the river Ganges, some Greek writers had ventured to describe the provinces beyond that river, which they represented as regions of an immense extent. Ctesias affirmed that India was as large as all the rest of Asia. One Herodotus, whom Pliny the naturalist follows, contended that it was equal to a third part of the habitable earth. Nearchus asserted that it would take four months to march from one extremity of it to the other in a straight line. The journal of Marco Polo, who travelled into Asia in the 13th century, and who had proceeded towards the east far beyond the limits to which any European had ever advanced, seemed also so much to confirm these accounts, that Columbus was persuaded that the distance from the most westerly part of Europe to the most easterly part of Asia was not very considerable; and that the shortest, as well as most direct course to the remote regions of the east, was to be found by failing due west.

In 1474, Columbus communicated his ideas on this subject to one Paul a physician in Florence, a man eminent for his knowledge in cosmography. He approved of the plan, suggested several facts in confirmation of it, and warmly encouraged Columbus to persevere in an undertaking so laudable, and which must redound so much to the honour of this country and the benefit of Europe. Columbus, fully satisfied of the truth of his system, was impatient to set out on a voyage of discovery. The first step towards this was to secure the patronage of some of the considerable powers of Europe capable of undertaking such an enterprise. He applied first to the republic of Genoa; but his countrymen, strangers to his abilities, considerately rejected his proposal as the dream of a chimerical projector, and thus lost for ever the opportunity of restoring their commonwealth to its ancient lustre. His next application was to the court of Portugal, where King John II. listened to him in the most gracious manner, and referred the consideration of his plan to Diego Ortiz, bishop of Ceuta, and two Jewish physicians, eminent cosmographers, whom he was accustomed to consult in matters of this kind. Unhappily these were the persons who had been the chief directors of the Portuguese navigations, and had advised to search for a passage to India by steering a course directly opposite to that which Columbus had recommended as shorter and more certain. They could not therefore approve of his proposal, without submitting to the double mortification of condemning their own theory, and of acknowledging his superiority. The result of their conferences was, that they advised the king to fit out a vessel privately, in order to attempt the proposed discovery, by following exactly the course which Columbus seemed to point out. John, forgetting on this occasion the sentiments of a monarch, meanly adopted this perfidious counsel. But the pilot chosen to execute Columbus's plan had neither the genius nor fortitude of its author. Contrary winds arose; no sign of approaching land appeared; his courage failed; and he returned to Lisbon, executing the project as equally extravagant and dangerous.

On discovering this dishonourable transaction, Columbus immediately quitted Portugal, and applied to the king of Spain; but lest he should be here again disappointed, he sent his brother Bartholomew into England, to whom he had fully communicated his ideas, in order that he might negotiate at the same time with Henry VII., who was reckoned one of the most sagacious as well as opulent princes of Europe. Bartholomew was very unfortunate in his voyage: he fell into the hands of pirates, who stripped him of everything, and detained him a prisoner for several years. At last he made his escape, and arrived in London, but in such extreme indigence that he was obliged to employ himself, during a considerable time, in drawing and selling maps, in order to pick up as much money as would purchase a decent dress in which he might venture to appear at court. The proposals were received by Henry with more approbation than by any monarch to whom they had hitherto been presented.

Columbus himself made his proposals to the king of Spain, not without many doubts of success, which soon appeared to be well founded. True science had as yet made so little progress in the kingdom of Spain, that most of those to whom the consideration of his plan was referred were utterly ignorant of the first principles on which he founded his hopes. Some, from mistaken notions concerning the dimensions of the globe, contended that a voyage to those remote regions of the east which Columbus expected to discover, could not be performed in less than three years. Others concluded, that either he would find the ocean of infinite extent, according to the opinion of some ancient philosophers; or that if he should persist in steering westwards beyond a certain point, the convex figure of the globe must infallibly prevent his return; and he must perish in the vain attempt to unite the two opposite hemispheres, which nature had for ever disjoined. Even without deigning to enter into any particular discussion, some rejected the scheme in general, upon the credit of a maxim made use of by the ignorant in all ages, "That it is presumptuous in any person to suppose that he alone possesses knowledge superior to all the rest of mankind united." By continual disappointments and delays, he was at last wearied out, and resolved to repair to the court of England in person, in hopes of meeting with a favourable reception there. He had already made preparations for this purpose, and taken measures for the disposal of his children during his absence, when Juan Perez, the prior of the monastery of Rabida near Palos, in which they had been educated, earnestly solicited him to defer his journey for a short time. Perez was a man of considerable learning, and some credit with Queen Isabella. To her therefore he applied; and the consequence of his application was a gracious invitation to Columbus back to court, accompanied with the present of a small sum to equip him for the journey. Ferdinand, however, still regarded the project as chimerical; and had the address to employ, in this new negociation with him, some of the persons who had formerly pronounced his scheme to be impracticable. To their astonishment, Columbus appeared before them with the same confident hopes of success as formerly, and insisted. Columbus insisted on the same high recompense. He proposed that a small fleet should be fitted out, under his command, to attempt the discovery; and demanded to be appointed perpetual and hereditary admiral and viceroy of all the seas and lands which he should discover; and to have the tenth of the profits arising from them settled irrevocably upon him and his descendants for ever. At the same time he offered to advance the eighth part of the sum necessary for accomplishing his design, on condition that he should be entitled to a proportional share in the adventure. If the enterprise should totally miscarry, he made no stipulation for any reward or emolument whatever. These demands were thought unreasonable; Isabella broke off the treaty she had begun, and Columbus was once more disappointed. He now resolved finally to leave Spain; and had actually proceeded some leagues on his journey, when he was overtaken by a messenger from Isabella, who had been prevailed upon by the arguments of Quintanilla and Santangel, two of Columbus's patrons, again to favour his undertakings. The negotiation now went forward with all manner of facility and dispatch; and a treaty with Columbus was signed on the 17th of April 1492. The chief articles of it were, that Columbus should be constituted high admiral in all the seas, islands, and continents he should discover, with the same powers and prerogatives that belonged to the high admiral of Castile within the limits of his jurisdiction. He was also appointed viceroy in all those countries to be discovered; and a tenth of the products accruing from their productions and commerce was granted to him for ever. All controversies or law-suits with respect to mercantile transactions were to be determined by the sole authority of Columbus, or of judges to be appointed by him. He was also permitted to advance one eighth part of the expense of the expedition, and of carrying on commerce with the new countries; and was entitled, in return, to an eighth part of the profit. But though the name of Ferdinand was joined with Isabella in this transaction, his distrust of Columbus was still so violent, that he refused to take any part in the enterprise as king of Arragon; and as the whole expense of the expedition was to be defrayed by the crown of Castile, Isabella reserved for her subjects of that kingdom an exclusive right to all the benefits which might accrue from its success.

At last our adventurer set sail with three small ships, the whole expense of which did not exceed 4000l. During his voyage he met with many difficulties from the mutinous and timid disposition of his men. He was the first who observed the variation of the compass, which threw the sailors into the utmost terror. For this phenomenon Columbus was obliged to invent a reason, which, though it did not satisfy himself, yet served to dispel their fears, or silence their murmurs. At last, however, the sailors lost all patience; and the admiral was obliged to promise solemnly, that in case land was not discovered in three days he should return to Europe. That very night, however, the island of San Salvador was discovered, which quickly put an end to all their fears. The sailors were then as extravagant in the praise of Columbus as they had before been insolent in reviling and threatening him. They threw themselves at his feet, implored his pardon, and pronounced him to be a person inspired by heaven Columbus, with more than human sagacity and fortitude, in order to accomplish a design so far beyond the ideas and conception of all former ages. Having visited several of the West India islands, and settled a colony in Hispaniola*, he again set sail for Spain; and after escaping* See His great dangers from violent tempests, arrived at the port of Palos on the 15th of March 1493.

As soon as Columbus's ship was discovered approaching, all the inhabitants of Palos ran eagerly to the shore, where they received the admiral with royal honours. The court was then at Barcelona, and Columbus took care immediately to acquaint the king and queen of his arrival. They were no less delighted than astonished with this unexpected event. They gave orders for conducting him into the city with all imaginable pomp. They received him clad in their royal robes, and seated on a throne under a magnificent canopy. When he approached, they stood up; and, raising him as he kneeled to kiss their hands, commanded him to take his seat upon a chair prepared for him, and give a circumstantial account of his voyage. When he had finished his oration, which he delivered with much modesty and simplicity, the king and queen, kneeling down, offered up solemn thanks to God for the discovery. Every possible mark of honour that could be suggested by gratitude or admiration was conferred on Columbus; the former capitulation was confirmed, his family was ennobled, and a fleet was ordered to be equipped, to enable him to go in quest of those more opulent countries which he still confidently expected to find.

Notwithstanding all this respect, however, Columbus was no longer regarded than he was successful. The colonists he carried over with him were to the last degree unreasonable and unmanageable; so that he was obliged to use some severities with them; and complaints were made to the court of Spain against him for cruelty. On this, Francis de Bovadilla, a knight of Calatrava, was appointed to inquire into the conduct of Columbus; with orders, in case he found the charge of maladministration proved, to supersede him, and assume the office of governor of Hispaniola. The consequence of this was, that Columbus was sent to Spain in chains. From these, however, he was freed immediately on his arrival, and had an opportunity granted him of vindicating his innocence. He was, however, deprived of all power; and notwithstanding his great services, and the solemnity of the agreement between him and Ferdinand, Columbus never could obtain the fulfilment of any part of that treaty. At last, disgusted with the ingratitude of a monarch whom he had served with such fidelity and success, and exhausted with fatigues, he ended his life on the 29th of May 1506.

Bartholomew, brother to Christopher, famous for his marine charts and spheres, which he presented to Henry VII. of England. He died in 1514.

Don Ferdinand, son of Christopher, and writer of his life. He entered into the ecclesiastical state; and founded a library, which he bequeathed to the church of Seville, to this day called the Columbine library. He died in 1560.