Is that department of natural history which treats of testaceous animals. In the Linnean arrangement it constitutes the third order of the class of Vermes. This is the order Testacea, of which we propose to lay before our readers a pretty full view in the present treatise. The peculiarity and extent of this order of animals have induced us to consider it in a separate treatise, by which means we shall avoid dwelling out to an inconvenient magnitude, the class of Vermes, which will be treated of in its proper place in the course of the work.

The fine polish, splendid colours, and elegant form of shells, have been long admired, and have procured for them a conspicuous place in the cabinets of the curious. Indeed in this respect, mankind have discovered no small degree of folly and extravagance, in the high price which has been given for rare and beautiful shells, and often only on account of their rarity. But the study of conchology acquires a higher degree of importance and utility in another view. In many parts of the world, different kinds of testaceous animals are employed as an excellent and nutritious food; and some tribes supply the table with a delicate luxury. Different shells furnish employment to ingenuity and art, in the manufacture of mother-of-pearl for various purposes; and the pearl itself, so much sought after as an ornament of dress, and often the rival of the richest gems, in the estimation of mankind, is the production of testaceous animals. Its nature and mode of formation, therefore, cannot fail to be objects of curious investigation. But testaceous animals and their productions are not only beneficial and ornamental; some are found to be highly pernicious. The snail ravages the garden and the field, and marks its progress with the destruction of some of the fairest of the vegetable tribes; while the shipworm is justly the dread of the mariner: secure, as it were, in its insignificance, it humbles the glory and pride of man; and labouring in secret, demolishes the noblest efforts of ingenuity. In these views, then, the economy and habits of testaceous animals, which at first sight might appear a barren and useless pursuit, become an important and beneficial subject of investigation. The following chapters, therefore, shall be occupied in the classification and natural history of this tribe of animals.

CHAP. I. HISTORY OF CONCHOLOGY.

THE few scattered fragments concerning the natural history of shells, or testaceous animals, which are to be found in the writings of the ancients, when compared with the more extended and systematic labours of the moderns, are so unimportant and inaccurate, that it would be altogether superfluous to trouble our readers with an account of the information which they contain. It appears, however, from the works of Aristotle and Pliny, the great naturalists of Greece and Rome, that the study of conchology was not entirely neglected in their time. It appears too, that admirers and collectors of shells were not then wanting. Scipio and Laëlius, we are informed, found a relaxation from the toils and cares of war and government, by indulging in this elegant amusement (A).

Nor will it be attended with much advantage, to give a particular account of the works of the earlier writers on this subject, among the moderns. These are Gmelin, Johnston, Rondeletius, Aldrovandus, Bellonius, Wormius, and some other authors, who cultivated this department of natural history, and accompanied their descriptions with figures, illustrative of the objects which they described.

The first author who attempted a systematic division of shells, according to their external form and character, was John Daniel Major, professor of medicine in the university of Kiel in Holstein. His method is published at the end of his curious and interesting remarks on the treatise concerning the purpura of Fabius Columna, printed at Kiel in 1675. The system of the German naturalist was followed by that of our countryman Dr Lister, on a more extended and improved plan, which was published ten years after. Succeeding naturalists turned their attention to the study of conchology, and to the improvement of the classification of the numerous objects of this department of natural history. Such were Buonanni, Rumfius, Langius, Breynius, Tournefort, Guattieri, D'Argenville, Klein, Linnaeus, Adanson, Geoffroy, and Muller.

We shall here exhibit some of the most celebrated systems of conchology which have been proposed by writers on this subject. This, we trust, will not be unacceptable to our readers, and particularly as the works of these authors are in few hands, and therefore become less accessible.

I. The first general arrangement of shells is that system of publication by Dr Lister in a work with the following title. Martini Lister, M.D., Historiae seu Synopsis methodicae Conchyliorum libri quatuor, continentes 1057 figuras ore nitidissime impressas, a Susanna et Anna Lister depictas. Londini, 1685—1688, folio. A second edition of the same work was published at Oxford in 1770, with additional figures.

SYSTEM OF LISTER.

Lib. I. De Cochleis Terrestribus.

Part I. De Buccinis et Turbinibus terrestribus.

Sect. 1. De Buccinis terrestribus a sinistra dextrorsum tortilibus, laevibus, edentulis. Sect. 2. De Buccinis terrestribus a sinistra dextrorsum tortilibus, edentulis, striatis. Sect. 3. De Buccinis terrestribus a sinistra dextrorsum tortilibus, apertura dentata. Sect. 4. De Buccinis terrestribus a dextra sinistrorsum tortilibus, apertura plana. Sect. 5. De Buccinis terrestribus a dextra sinistrorsum tortilibus, apertura dentata. Sect. 6. De Turbinibus terrestribus cochleiformibus, id est compactiore figura.

(A) Laëlium et Scipionem conchas et umbilicos ad Cajetam et ad Laurentum legere consuevere, et ad omnem animi remissionem ludumque descendere. Cic., de Orat. lib. ii. Chap. I.

Hist. Sect. 7. Trochilus, Hist. Sect. 8. De Turbinibus terrestribus, compressis edentulis, tiro ambitu acuto. Hist. Sect. 9. De Turbinibus compressis, ambitu obtusiore, apertura edentula. Hist. Sect. 10. De Turbinibus terrestribus compressis, a sinistra dextrorum tortilibus, apertura dentata. Hist. Sect. 11. De Turbinibus terrestribus compressis, apertura dentata, a dextra sinistrofum tortilibus apice inverso ex ipsa apertura parte.

Pars II. Cochleae nuda terrestris, limaces quibusdam dictae.

Lib. II. De Turbinibus et Bivalvibus aquae dulcis.

Pars I. De Turbinibus.

Sect. 1. De Buccinis fluviatilibus, Sect. 2. De Cochleis fluviatilibus. Sect. 3. De Cochleis fluviatilibus compressis.

Pars II. De Testaceis bivalvibus fluviatilibus.

Sect. 1. De Musculis fluviatilibus, cardine dentato. Sect. 2. De Musculis fluviatilibus, cardine levii. Sect. 3. De Pectunculis fluviatilibus.

Lib. III. De Testaceis bivalvibus marinis.

Pars I. De Testaceis bivalvibus, imparibus testis.

Sect. 1. Cap. 1. De Pectinibus extra parte aequaliter auritis, striatis. Cap. 2. De Pectinibus aequaliter auritis, lavibus. Cap. 3. De Pectinibus inaequaliter auritis, non dentatis. Cap. 4. De Pectinibus inaequaliter auritis dentatis.

Sect. 2. Cap. 1. De Ostreis apophyfi plana longa recurva, angulo acuto definita. Cap. 2. De Ostreis apophyfi brevi, fustier et quasi in occulo positae. Sect. 3. De Spondylis.

Pars II. De Testaceis bivalvibus, paribus testis.

Sect. 1. Cap. 1. De Pectinibus margaritiferis. Cap. 2. De Pectinibus, binis apophyfibus longis conjunctis. Cap. 3. De Pectinibus margaritiferis polyginglymis.

Sect. 2. Cap. 1. De Pectunculis polyleptoginglymis, margine ex altera parte producitore. Cap. 2. De Pectunculis polyleptoginglymis, margine rotunda, striatis. Cap. 3. De Pectunculis polyleptoginglymis, margine rotunda, lavibus.

Sect. 3. Cap. 1. De Pectunculis lavibus, triquetris fere, cervice anguiflore. Cap. 2. De Pectunculis lavibus, triquetris, cervice latiore. Cap. 3. De Pectunculis lavibus, rostro recurvo.

Sect. 4. Cap. 1. De Pectunculis fasciatis, lunula notatis, margine striata. Cap. 2. De Pectunculis fasciatis, lunula quadam notatis, margine levii. Cap. 3. De Pectunculis fasciatis, ad rostro integris.

Sect. 5. Cap. 1. De Pectunculis striatis productioribus, striis a rostro ad medium utque dorso concurrentibus. Cap. 2. De Pectunculis striatis diversimode exaratus, five disimilibus. Cap. 3. De Pectunculis striatis, striis similibus, dorso ad altum latus paululum eminente. Cap. 4. De Pectunculis striatis, dorso in aciem compressio. Cap. 5. De Pectunculis striatis, muricatis asperifive. Cap. 6. De Pectunculis striatis, striis a rostro tantum deductis lavibus. Cap. 7. De Pectunculis cancellatis.

Cap. 8. De Pectunculis striatis, ex lateri multo magis diffusis, latioribus. Cap. 9. De Pectunculis striatis, ex lateri diffusis anguifloribus. Cap. 10. De Pectunculis striatis imbricatis.

Sect. 6. Cap. 1. De Musculis marinis, cardine levii minimeque dentato. Cap. 2. De Musculis marinis polyleptoginglymis.

Sect. 7. Cap. 1. De Pinnis, margine velut praecisa obtufave. Cap. 2. De Pinnis, margine producita et auctore.

Sect. 8. Cap. 1. De Tellinis, id est conchis fere cunei-formibus, ambitu ferrato. Cap. 2. De Tellinis quibus ambitus ex interna parte levius eff.

Sect. 9. De Solenis, id est conchis tenuibus longissimisque ab utraque parte naturaliter hiantibus.

Sect. 10. Cap. 1. De Chamis, ab altero tantum lateri fere naturaliter hiantibus. Cap. 2. De Chamis pholadibus.

Pars II. De Testaceis multivalvibus.

Sect. 1. Cap. 1. De Pholadibus triumve testarum conchis, cardinibus loculis quibusdam quasi perforatis. Cap. 2. De Pholadibus, cardine integro.

Sect. 2. De Conchis quinque testarum anatiferis ple-rifique dictis

Sect. 3. De Balanis, id est, duodecim testarum conchis praeter operculum mitratum.

Sect. 4. Sive appendix ad librum tertium de conchitis ille lapidibus, qui quandoque similitudinem cum conchis marinis habeant.

Lib. IV. De Buccinis marinis, quibus etiam vermiculi dentalia et patellae, numerantur.

Sect. 1. Cap. 1. De Patellis, vertice perforato. Cap. 2. De Patellis, vertice integro, levibus. Cap. 3. De Patellis, vertice integro, striatis, margine quasi radiata. Cap. 4. De Patellis, vertice adunco margine sequali. Cap. 5. De Patellis, vertice adunco, margine obliqua. Cap. 6. De Patellis, vertice adunco, quibus ex interna parte cavitas quadam quasi arcuata, longis compressis. Cap. 7. De Patellis, vertice acuto, filio quodam interno donatis.

Sect. 2. De Dentalibus.

Sect. 3. De Vermiculis.

Sect. 4. Cap. 1. De Nautilis caudatis, five e plurimis tabulatis confectis. Cap. 2. De Nautilis vacuis, five non tabulatis.

Sect. 5. Cap. 1. De Cochleis marinis, apice brevi, umbilicatis, finu aurito. Cap. 2. De Cochleis marinis, apice brevi, umbilico simplici. Cap. 3. De Cochleis marinis, apice brevi, centro minime finuato. Cap. 4. De Cochleis marinis, basi brevi, apice ad oris initium parum elato. Cap. 5. De Cochleis marinis, apice mediocriter producto, ore dentato. Cap. 6. De Cochleis marinis, apice mediocriter producto, ore edentulo, lavibus. Cap. 7. De Cochleis marinis, apice mediocriter producto, striatis. Cap. 8. De Cochleis marinis, clavícula tenui et longissima, striatis. Cap. 9. De Cochleis marinis, clavícula tenui et longissima, lavibus.

Sect. 6. Cap. 1. De Neritis dentatis, clavícula paulum prominente. Cap. 2. De Neritis dentatis, clavícula compressa, striatis. Cap. 3. De Neritis dentatis, clavícula compressa, lavibus. Cap. 4. De Neritis ad columellam dentatis, labio producitore edentulo,

Chap. I.

edentulo. Cap. 5. De Neritis edentulis laevibus. Cap. 6. De Neritis edentulis muricatis. Sect. 7. De Auribus marinis. Sect. 8. Cap. 1. De Trochis pyramidalibus, apertura five basi leviter tumida. Cap. 2. De Trochis pyramidalibus, basi paululum cava five finnata. Cap. 3. De Trochis, apertura five basi plana. Cap. 4. De Trochis brevioribus, umbilicatis, edentulis. Cap. 5. De Trochis cochleaeformibus, umbilicatis, edentulis. Cap. 6. De Trochis claviculari breviore, columella paulo erectiore integra. Cap. 7. De Trochis, basi media leviter tumida, quasi altera clavícula. Cap. 8. De Trochis, unico dente ad columellam acuto. Sect. 9. Cap. 1. De Conchis veneres unicoloribus. Cap. 2. De Conchis veneres, lineis nigris secundum longitudinem depictis. Cap. 3. De Conchis undatim depictis. Cap. 4. De Conchis veneres fasciatis, immaculatis; et de conchis veneres fasciatis et maculatis, aut alias cum fascis variegatis. Cap. 5. De Conchis veneres, punctis nigris distinctis. Cap. 6. De Conchis veneres, maculis albis nigritre interspersis insignitis; et de conchis veneres maculis albis quasi reticulatim depictis. Cap. 7. De Conchis veneres, striis eminentibus conspicuis. Cap. 8. De Conchis veneres, punctis elatis exasperatis, nodifice inaequalibus. Cap. 9. De Conchis veneres, apertura non dentata, basi integra. Cap. 10. De Conchis veneres, basi umbilicata cochleata. Sect. 10. Cap. 1. De Rhombis cylindraceis columella dentata, crassis, unius coloris. Cap. 2. De Rhombis cylindraceis dentatis, maculosis. Cap. 3. De Rhombis cylindraceis dentatis, fasciatis. Cap. 4. De Rhombis cylindraceis dentatis, undatis. Cap. 5. De Rhombis cylindraceis dentatis, dorso gibboso. Cap. 6. De Rhombis cylindraceis edentulis, ore strictiore. Cap. 7. De Rhombis edentulis tenuibus, ore patulo, clavícula paululum exserta. Cap. 8. De Rhombis edentulis, ore patulo, clavícula compressa.

PARS II. Cap. 1. De Rhombis cylindrico-pyramidalibus, unius coloris. Cap. 2. De Rhombis cylindrico-pyramidalibus, quibus lineae maculatae circum injiciuntur. Cap. 3. De Rhombis cylindrico-pyramidalibus, striatis. Cap. 4. De Rhombis cylindrico-pyramidalibus, undatis. Cap. 5. De Rhombis cylindrico-pyramidalibus, fasciatis. Cap. 6. De Rhombis cylindrico-pyramidalibus, reticulatis. Cap. 7. De Rhombis cylindrico-pyramidalibus, dentatis.

Sect. 11. Cap. 1. De Buccinis perficiis dictis. Cap. 2. De Buccinis multifidis dictis. Cap. 3. De Buccinis columella dentata, clavícula longissima et tenuiflamma. Sect. 12. Cap. 1. De Buccinis bilinguibus laevibus. Cap. 2. De Buccinis bilinguibus, striatis. Cap. 3. De Buccinis bilinguibus, aperitis et muricatis. Cap. 4. De Buccinis bilinguibus, digitatis. Sect. 13. Cap. 1. De Buccinis ampullaceis laevibus, aut certe minus aperitis. Cap. 2. De Buccinis ampullaceis, muricatis. Cap. 3. De Buccinis ampullaceis, ad finem stram convolutis. Sect. 14. Cap. 1. De Buccinis utrinque productioribus, laevibus. Cap. 2. De Buccinis utrinque productioribus, striis densis et tenuioribus exasperatis. Cap. 3. De Buccinis utrinque productioribus, striis paucioribus donatis, labro simplici. Cap. 4. De Buccinis utrinque productioribus, striis paucioribus, labro duplicato donatis. Cap. 5. De Buccinis utrinque productioribus, muricatis.

Sect. 15. Cap. 1. De Buccinis brevirostris, nodosis. Cap. 2. De Buccinis brevirostris, striatis. Cap. 3. De Buccinis brevirostris, laevibus, fere clavícula producìiore. Cap. 4. De Buccinis brevirostris, labro repando, tenuibus. Cap. 5. De Buccinis brevirostris, labro repando, crassis. Cap. 6. De Buccinis brevirostris, compresìis. Cap. 7. De Buccinis auritis, five rostro recurvo donatis, ventriculosis. Cap. 8. De Buccinis brevirostris, sinu reflexo, laevibus. Cap. 9. De Buccinis brevirostris, rostro reflexo, clavícula producìiore. Sect. 16. Seu appendix de buccinatis, iìfve lapidibus que buccina omnigena valde referant.

II. In 1722, Langius presented to the world the following work on conchology. Caroli Nicolai Langii Lucernæ, Helvet. Phil. et Med. &c. Methodus nova et facili, testacea marina plearaque, que huc usque nobis nota sint, in suas debitas et distinctas classes, genera, et species, distribuendi, nominibusque suis propriis, structurae potissimum accommodatis nuncupandi, &c. Lucerne, 1722, 4to, p. 102.

SYSTEM OF LANGIUS.

PARS PRIMA. Testacea marina univalvia non turbinate.

CLASSIS PRIMA. Testacea marina univalvia non turbinata, et in se non contorta.

Sect. 1. Testacea marina univalvia non turbinata, et in se non contorta nullo modo, vel foliomundo in summo apice tantillum incurvata. Gen. 1. Patellæ. Gen. 2. Balanii.

Sect. 2. Tubuli marini, seu testacea marina univalvia, non turbinata, et in se non contorta, elongata tubuli instar concava. Gen. 1. Penicilla. Gen. 2. Dentales. Gen. 3. Tubuli radiciformes. Gen. 4. Tubuli vermiculares.

CLASSIS SECUNDA. Testacea marina univalvia, non turbinata, sed ita in se contorta, ut corum spira non promineat.

Sect. 1. Testacea marina univalvia ita in se transversim, vel obliquè secundum longitudinem contorta, ut eorum circumvolutiones vix appareant. Gen. 1. Nauftili. Gen. 2. Nucæ marinæ.

Sect. 2. Porcellaneæ, seu testacea marina univalvia non turbinata. Gen. 1. Porcellaneæ vulgares. Gen. 2. Porcellaneæ fimbriatae. Gen. 3. Porcellaneæ spirales. Gen. 4. Porcellaneæ thoracicae. Gen. 5. Porcellaneæ minores integrae.

Sect. 3. Divis. 1. Cornua ammonis, quæ sunt testacea marina univalvia non turbinata, et ferpentum immodum in se contorta, ut eorum circumvolutiones nulla ex parte promineant, et tamen ex utroque latere omnes appareant. Gen. 1. Cornua ammonis unita. Gen. 2. Cornua ammonis anomala. Divis. 2. Gen. 1. Cornua ammonis simpliciter divisa. Gen. 2. Cornua ammonis integra divisa. Classis Prima. Cochleae marinae longae, seu cochleae marinae ore admodum elongato et superius aperito.

Sect. 1. Cochleae marinae longae ore labii rectis. Gen. 1. Cochleae pyramidales. Gen. 2. Cochleae cylindroides.

Sect. 2. Cochleae longae pyriformes, seu cochleae marinae longae ore labii leviter incurvatis, idoque etiam leviter ventricosis. Div. 1. Cochleae longae pyriformes minores. Gen. 1. Cochleae longae pyriformes minores vulgares. Gen. 2. Cochleae longae pyriformes minores intortae integrae. Gen. 3. Cochleae longae pyriformes minores intortae et infuscatae. Div. 2. Cochleae longae pyriformes majores. Gen. 1. Cochleae longae pyriformes majores vulgares. Gen. 2. Cochleae longae pyriformes majores intortae integrae. Gen. 3. Cochleae longae pyriformes majores intortae cylindroides.

Classis Secunda. Cochleae canaliculatae, seu cochleae marinae ore elongato et superius in canaliculum abeunte.

Sect. 1. Cochleae marinae canalicula recta. Gen. 1. Cochleae canaliculatae rectae tenuiores. Gen. 2. Cochleae canaliculatae rectae crassiores. Gen. 3. Purpure rectirostrae.

Sect. 2. Cochleae marinae canaliculatae incurvatae. Gen. 1. Cochleae canaliculatae introfusum incurvatae. Gen. 2. Cochleae canaliculatae extrofusum incurvatae. Gen. 3. Murices. Gen. 4. Cochleae muriciformes insigniter incrustatae. Gen. 5. Purpure curvirostrae. Gen. 6. Cochleae caudiformes umbilicatae. Gen. 7. Cassidae.

Classis Tertia. Buccina sunt cochleae marinae ore et mucrone simul elongatis, primaque spirae notabiliter ventricosa.

Sect. 2. Buccina parva mucrone mediocriter elongato et tenuiter acuminato. Gen. 1. Buccina parva pruniformia acuminata. Gen. 2. Buccina parva pruniformia canaliculata. Gen. 3. Buccina parva curvilabra. Gen. 4. Buccina parva fulcata. Gen. 5. Buccina parva fulcata et canaliculata. Gen. 6. Buccina parva integra ore perpendiculari. Gen. 7. Buccina parva integra ore obliqua.

Sect. 2. Buccina majora, quae sunt Buccina mucrone admodum elongato et acuminato. Gen. 1. Buccina majora canaliculata rostrata ore simplici. Gen. 2. Buccina majora canaliculata ore labiofo. Gen. 3. Buccina majora canaliculata rostrata, ore labiofo, fimbriata. Gen. 4. Buccina majora canaliculata et fulcata.

Classis Quarta. Strombi, qui sunt cochleae marinae ore et mucrone simul insigniter elongatis, et prima spirae notabiliter angustiore quam in Buccinis.

Sect. 1. Strombi ore superius aperito. Gen. 1. Strombi canaliculati acuminati. Gen. 2. Strombi canaliculati rostrati, ore simplici. Gen. 3. Strombi canaliculati rostrati, ore angulofo. Gen. 4. Strombi canaliculati rostrati, ore labiofo. Gen. 5. Strombi sulcati vulgares. Gen. 6. Strombi sulcati, ore labiofo.

Sect. 2. Strombi integri, ore superius clauso, seu integro. Gen. 1. Strombi integri vulgares, ore simplici. Gen. 2. Strombi integri, ore labiofo. Gen. 3. Strombi integri, ore fimbriato et dentato.

Classis Quinta. Cochleae marinae, ore admodum brevi seu parvo, mucrone vero insigniter elongato.

Sect. 1. Turbines aperti, seu cochleae marinae, ore admodum brevi seu parvo superius aperito, mucrone longissimo. Gen. 1. Turbines aperti lati. Gen. 2. Turbines aperti acuminati. Gen. 3. Turbines aperti canaliculati recte rostri. Gen. 4. Turbines aperti canaliculati oblique incurvati. Gen. 5. Turbines aperti fulcatae.

Sect. 2. Turbines integri, ore superius clauso seu integro. Gen. 1. Turbines integri vulgares. Gen. 2. Turbines integri acuminati. Gen. 3. Turbines integri fimbriati.

Sect. 3. Trochi seu cochleae marinae ore admodum brevi, seu parvo et basi lata et quasi plana in mucronem quasi rectilineam conoideum insigniter elongatum abeuntes. Gen. 1. Trochi ore angusto et horizontaliter compressio. Gen. 2. Trochi ore ampliore et subrotundae.

Classis Sexta. Cochleae marinae breviores, seu cochleae marinae ore et mucrone breviores, magisque contracto.

Sect. 1. Cochleae breviores proportionatae. Gen. 1. Cochleae trochiformes breviores proportionatae et mucronatae. Gen. 2. Cochleae marinae terrestriformes breviores proportionatae. Gen. 3. Cochleae depressae.

Sect. 2. Cochleae marinae breviores perpendiculariter anomala. Gen. 1. Neritae. Gen. 2. Cochleae umbilicatae foraminis spirarum semicircularis. Gen. 3. Cochleae umbilicatae foraminis spirarum rotundo.

Sect. 3. Cochleae marinae breviores horizontaliter anomala. Gen. 1. Cochleae planae. Gen. 2. Aures marinae.

Sect. 4. Varia hucufque enarratarum cochlearum opercula quaest propter usum aut propter singularem structuram, magis nota sunt. Gen. 1. Opercula cochlearum marinorum subrotundae. Gen. 2. Ungues marini, seu opercula cochlearum marinorum oblonga.

Pars Tertia. Conchae marinae, id est testacea marina bivalvia quae duabus constant valvis in cardine, articulatione quadam inter se conjunctis, ut commune claudet et aperiri queant.

Sect. 1. Conchae marinae notabiliter umbonatae et rectae incurvatae. Gen. 1. Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus aequilaterae. Gen. 2. Conchae cordiformes umbone cardinum deducto. Gen. 3. Conchae marinae cordiformes aequilaterae, umbone cardinum unito.

Sect. 2. Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus aequilaterae leviter umbonatae. Gen. 1. Conchae crafiae. Gen. 2. Peletines.

Pectines tenues. Gen. 3. Pectunculi. Gen. 4. Concha pectiniformes æquilateræ subrotundæ. Gen. 5. Conchæ pectiniformes æquilateræ.

Sect. 3. Concha marinae valvis æqualibus æquilateræ, notabiliter umbonatae et obliquè incurvatae. Gen. 1. Concha marinae incurvatae subrotundæ vulgares. Gen. 2. Chamæ æquilateræ.

Sect. 4. Concha marinae, valvis æqualibus æquilateræ levitur umbonatae et obliquè incurvatae. Gen. 1. Concha marinae valvis æqualibus subrotundæ. Gen. 2. Tellinae æquilateræ.

Sect. 5. Pinnae, seu concha marinae valvis æqualibus æquilateræ, cardine umbone destituta. Gen. 1. Pinnae rectæ. Gen. 2. Pinnae incurvatae.

Classis Secunda. Concha inæquilateræ, seu concha marinae valvis æqualibus ex utroque cardinis latere inæquilateræ efflatae.

Sect. 1. Concha marinae valvis æqualibus inæquilateræ notabiliter umbonatae, et rectæ incurvatae. Gen. 1. Concha marinae valvis æqualibus inæquilateræ subrotundæ. Gen. 2. Concha marinae cordiformes inæquilateræ, umbone cardine deducto. Gen. 3. Concha marinae cordiformes inæquilateræ, umbone cardinum unito.

Sect. 2. Concha marinae valvis æqualibus inæquilateræ, leviter umbonatae et rectæ incurvatae. Gen. 1. Concha marinae leviter umbonatae et rectæ incurvatae subrotundæ.

Sect. 3. Concha marinae valvis æqualibus inæquilateræ, notabiliter umbonatae et obliquè incurvatae, subrotundæ vulgares. Gen. 1. Chamæ inæquilateræ. Gen. 2. Concha rhomboidales.

Sect. 4. Concha marinae valvis æqualibus inæquilateræ leviter umbonatae et obliquè incurvatae. Gen. 1. Concha marinae, &c. subrotundæ. Gen. 2. Concha pectiniformes inæquilateræ triangulares. Gen. 3. Tellinae inæquilateræ. Gen. 4. Concha tellinaeformes. Gen. 5. Muculi. Gen. 6. Concha longærugosæ. Gen. 7. Concha soleniformes. Gen. 8. Mytili.

Sect. 5. Concha marinae valvis æqualibus inæquilateræ leviter umbonatae et obliquè incurvatae, structura et striis peculiaribus. Gen. 1. Concha imbricatae. Gen. 2. Pholades. Gen. 3. Dactyli. Gen. 4. Hysteroconcha. Gen. 5. Concha alæformes. Gen. 6. Concha quadratae.

Sect. 6. Concha inæquilateræ non umbonatae, seu concha marinae valvis æqualibus inæquilateræ, cardine umbone destituto. Gen. 1. Solenes. Gen. 2. Concha marinae, &c. structura peculiaris.

Classis Tertia. Conchae anomaloæ, seu conchae marinæ valvis inæqualibus.

Sect. 1. Conchae marinae anomaloæ umbonatoæ et auritæ. Gen. 1. Pectines anomali. Gen. 2. Spondyli.

Sect. 2. Ostreae, seu conchae marinae anomaloæ omnino non vel irregulariter tantum umbonate rugosæ. Gen. 1. Ostrea vulgaris. Gen. 2. Ostrea denticulata. Gen. 3. Ostrea rostrata. Gen. 4. Ostrea peculiaris.

III. A different system was proposed for the classification of testacean animals by Breynius, in the following work, which was published in the year 1732.

Joannis Philippi Breynii dissertatio physica de polythalamis, nova testaceorum classe, cui quaedam praemittuntur de methodo testacea in classem et genera distribuendi: huic adjectis commentationibus de beleminis prouficiens, tandemque schedijsma de Echinis methodice disponendis; Gedani, 1732, 4to.

SYSTEM OF BREYNIUS.

In this system the author has divided shells into the eight following classes, viz. 1. Tubulus. 2. Cochlidium. 3. Polythalamum. 4. Lepas. 5. Concha. 6. Conchoidea. 7. Balanus. 8. Echinus.

1. Tubulus, est testa tubulosa monothalamia, vel in lineam rectam extensa, vel incurva, vel contorta, vel aliquando ad spiram, sed irregulariter, accedens. Huic pertinent dentalia, entalia, folenes univalvis, &c.

2. Cochlidium, est testa tubulosa, monothalamia, conica, inspirans constanter regularem, convoluta aliquando opercula praedita, sepius vero eo destituta. Ad hanc classem spectant nautili tenues five vacui vulgo dicti; aures marinae, neritæ, cochleæ, buccinae, murices, caesides, cylindri, volutæ, porcellaneæ, et omnes testæ turbinatæ, exceptis nautilo et anomia, ad classem tertiam referendis.

3. Polythalamium, est testa tubulosa polythalamia, conica, recta, vel in spiram regularem convoluta, cum syphunculo thalamos transeunte: huic reducendi nautili anomia, litu, et orthocerata.

4. Lepas, est testa vasaculo simplex, referens vaeculum magis minusve cavum, orificio multum patente, ut patellæ similefique.

5. Concha, est testa vasaculo composta bivalvis, id est quae ex duabus componitur valvis, five vaeculis magis minusve concavis in cardine articulatione quadam inter se junctis ut aperiri et claudi queant; ut chamæ, mytili, tellinae, pinneæ, ostreæ, pectines anomiae.

6. Conchoidea, est testa vasaculo composta bivalvis, sed quae praetera et aliquot minoribus portiunculis testaceis composita, ut pholades anatiferæ.

7. Balanus, est testa vasaculo composta, quæ praeter unicam testam majorem alias portiones minores habet ex quibus compositur, ut balanus vulgo dictus.

8. Echinus, est testa vasaculo composta, undique clausa; magis minusve concava, duobus tantum foraminibus seu aperturis pro ore et ano perforata, externe aculeis vel clavicularis mobilibus testaceis armata.

IV. The system of Tournefort appeared for the first time, and was published from the author's manuscript, fort. in the treatise on conchology by Gualtieri. In this system shells are divided into three classes, viz. Monotoma, Ditoma, and Polytoma.

SYSTEM OF TOURNEFORT.

Testacea dicuntur quorundam animalium integumenta, quæ testæ seu lateris duritium habent, et in quibus tantum, in testa animalia vivant.

Testacea autem omnia quæ hucufque in muscis curioforum adversari et congeri solent, ad tres classes facile revocari possunt. Haec enim vel monotoma sunt, vel ditoma, vel polytoma.

Monotoma testacea appellantur ea quorum testa indivisa est; ditoma quæ geminis constant testis ad car- Classis Prima. Quae testacea monotoma complectitur. Testacea monotoma quorum testa individua est, in tres familias abeat: alia enim univalvia sunt, alia spiralia, alia fistulosa.

Familia I. Testaceorum univalvium. Monotoma univalvia dicimus quorum testa simplex est, in os amplius effusa. Gen. 1. Lepas. Gen. 2. Erica.

Familia II. Testaceorum spiraliuim. Monotoma spiralia dicimus testacea quorum pars inferior in spiram contortquet: horum autem spirae seu helices exterius patent, et impliciter spiralia dicuntur, vel eorum spira intus recondituri, et convoluta dicuntur.

Divis. 1. Testacea monotoma simpliciter spiralia, seu quorum spira exterior est. Gen. 1. Murex. Gen. 2. Murex alatus. Gen. 3. Murex aporrhais. Gen. 4. Murex venereus. Gen. 5. Murex pyramidalis. Gen. 6. Buccinum. Gen. 7. Buccino-murex. Gen. 8. Purpura. Gen. 9. Buccino-purpurea. Gen. 10. Peribolus. Gen. 11. Turbo. Gen. 12. Verticillus. Gen. 13. Cochlea. Gen. 14. Cochlea terrestris. Gen. 15. Ceratites. Gen. 16. Cochlea marina. Gen. 17. Nerita. Gen. 18. Auris marina.

Divis. 2. Testacea monotoma spiralia convoluta, quae cochleam interiori habent vix foris conspicuum. Gen. 1. Concha venera. Gen. 2. Concha perifa. Gen. 3. Nautilus. Gen. 4. Conchilium.

Familia III. Testaceorum fistulosorum. Testacea monotoma fistulosa seu tubulosa, ut ex nomine patet, fistulae in medium tenuantur. Gen. 1. Dentale. Gen. 2. Entale. Gen. 3. Tubuli marini.

Classis Secunda, quae testacea ditoma continet. Testacea ditoma semper ex duabus testis ad cardinem articulatis compinguntur, et vel arcè undique clauduntur, vel utrinque hiant; unde in duas familias dividi possunt.

Familia I. Testaceorum ditomorum quae arcè clauduntur. Gen. 1. Concha. Gen. 2. Conchula. Gen. 3. Ostreum. Gen. 4. Mytilus. Gen. 5. Pinna. Gen. 6. Perna. Gen. 7. Pholas. Gen. 8. Peclen. Gen. 9. Peclunculus.

Familia II. Testaceorum ditomorum quae semper hiant. Gen. 1. Chamae. Gen. 2. Solen.

Classis Tertia, quae testacea polytoma continet. Polytoma testacea dicuntur quorum testae ex pluribus partibus vel articulatis, vel per cartilaginem connexis compinguntur; unde in duas familias abeunt.

Familia I. Eorum quorum partes articulantur. Gen. 1. Echinus.

Familia II. Eorum quorum partes per cartilaginem connecuntur. Gen. 1. Balanus.

V. M. D'Argenville in 1742, published at Paris a treatise on Conchology with 33 plates. A second edition of the same work appeared at Paris in 1757. In this edition the number of the plates was increased to 41. A more splendid edition was published after the death of the author, by M. M. de Favanne de Montcerville father and son. This edition is extended to 3 volumes, two of which consist of letter press, and the 3d contains the engravings, which are 80 in number, and are executed with great accuracy and elegance. But the descriptions of the genera and species only reach the 19th plate; so that the work which was published in 1780 is still unfinished.

SYSTEM OF D'ARGENVILLE.

In this system shells are divided into four parts, I. Sea-shells. II. Fresh-water shells. III. Land-shells. IV. Fossil-shells.

Part I. Sea-shells are divided into 3 Classes. 1. Univalves. 2. Bivalves. 3. Multivalves.

Class I. contains 15 families, viz. 1. Lepas. 2. Oreilles de mer. 3. Tuyaux et Vermifugea de mer. 4. Nautiles. 5. Limaçons à bouche ronde. 6. Limaçons à bouche demi-ronde. 7. Limaçons à bouche aplatie. 8. Cornets ou Volutes. 9. Olives ou Cylindres. 10. Rochers ou Murex. 11. Tonnes. 12. Porcelaines. 13. Buccins. 14. Pourpres. 15. Vis.

Class II. contains 7 families, viz. 1. Huitres. 2. Cames. 3. Tellines. 4. Moules. 5. Coeurs. 6. Peignes. 7. Manches de couteaux.

Class III. consists of 7 families, viz. 1. Oscabriens, ou lepas à huit pieces. 2. Ourfins. 3. Glands de mer. 4. Pouffe-pieds. 5. Conques anatériens. 6. Pholades. 7. Tuyaux de mer multivalves.

Part II. Fresh-water shells are divided into 2 Classes. 1. Univalves. 2. Bivalves.

Class I. contains 8 families, viz. 1. Lepas. 2. Nautiles ou cornes d'ammon. 3. Limaçons à bouche ronde. 4. Limaçons à bouche demi-ronde. 5. Limaçons à bouche triangulaire. 6. Tonnes. 7. Buccins. 8. Vis.

Class II. is composed of two families. 1. Cames. 2. Tellines.

Part III. Land shells, constituting a single class, viz. Univalves, which contains 6 families; viz. 1. Lepas. 2. Limaçons à bouche ronde. 3. Limaçons à bouche demi-ronde. 4. Limaçons à bouche aplatie. 5. Buccins. 6. Vis.

Part IV. Fossil shells, which consist of 3 classes. 1. Univalves. 2. Bivalves. 3. Multivalves.

Class I. is composed of 15 families having the same names as the first class of sea-shells.

Class II. contains 7 families similar to the 2d class of sea-shells.

Class III. consists of 5 families, viz. 1. Ourfins. 2. Glands de mer. 3. Pouffe-pieds. 4. Pholades. 5. Tuyaux multivalves.

IV. A system of Conchology was published by Klein Of Klein in 1753, and illustrated with engravings. In the same work the author enters into an investigation concerning the formation, increase, and colours of shells. The following is an abridged view of this arrangement. SYSTEM OF KLEIN.

In this system, shells are divided into 6 parts.

PART I. which is entitled Cochlis, is divided into 2 sections, viz. Cochlis simplex, and Cochlis composita.

Sect. I. consists of 8 classes, viz. Cochlis plana, containing 4 genera. 2. Cochlis convexa, 6 genera. 3. Cochlis fornicate, 5 genera. 4. Cochlis elliptica, 6 genera. 5. Cona cochlis, 16 genera. 6. Cochlea, 8 genera. 7. Buccinum, 5 genera. 8. Turbo, 14 genera.

Sect. II. Consists of five classes, viz. 1. Cochlis rostrata, 7 genera. 2. Voluta longa, 15 genera. 3. Voluta ovata, 8 genera. 4. Alata, 6 genera. 5. Murex, 2 genera.

PART II. Concha, is also divided into two sections, viz. Monoconchae and Diconchae aquatiles.

Sect. I. contains 2 classes, viz. 1. Patella, 2 genera. 2. Anfata, 4 genera.

Sect. II. consists of three subdivisions, viz. 1. Diconchae conniventes. 2. Diconchae interruptae. 3. Diconchae inaequales.

Subdiv. 1. is composed of 6 classes, viz. 1. Diconchae figuratae, 4 genera. 2. Ostreum, 6 genera. 3. Muculus, 3 genera. 4. Cyclas. 5. Diconcha aurita, 9 genera. 6. Diconchae cordiformes, 3 genera.

Subdiv. 2. consists of 5 classes, viz. 1. Diconcha fulcata. 2. Diconchae umbilicatae, 3 genera. 3. Diconchae finu profundo, seu chamae, 3 genera. 4. Diconchae finu prominulo, seu tellinae, 6 genera. 5. Pyloris, 9 genera.

Subdiv. 3. Diconchae inaequales, 7 genera.

PART III. Polyconcha, consists only of one genus.

PART IV. Niduli Testacei, comprehends one class, viz. Balanus, which includes 4 genera.

PART V. Echinus marinus, seu echinodermata, is divided into 3 sections, viz. 1. Anocysti. 2. Catocysti. 3. Pleurocysti.

Sect. I. contains 2 classes, viz. 1. Cidaris, 9 genera. 2. Clipeus, 1 genus.

Sect. II. is composed of four classes, viz. 1. Fibula, 2 genera. 2. Classis, 2 genera. 3. Scutum, 2 genera. 4. Placenta, 3 genera.

Sect. III. consists of 3 classes, viz. 1. Arachnoides, 1 genus. 2. Cor marinum, 2 genera. 3. Ovum marinum, 2 genera.

PART VI. Tubulus marinus is composed of 11 genera.

In the systems of Conchology which we have now exhibited, the characters are taken from the shells. In the three following, the marks of discrimination are derived from the animal as well as from the shell. The first by M. Adanson was published in 1757.

SYSTEM OF ADANSON.

This system consists of 3 classes, viz. 1. Limaçons. 2. Les conques. 3. Les conques multivalves.

CLASS I. Limaçons. Sect. I. Limaçons univalves. Sect. II. Limaçons operculés.

Sect. I. Famille 1. Les limaçons univalves qui n’ont ni yeux ni cornes. Gen. 1. La gondole, cymbium.

Famille 2. Les limaçons univalves qui ont deux cornes, et les yeux placés à leur racine et sur leur côté interne. Gen. 2. Le bulin, bulinus. Gen. 3. Le coret, coretus. Gen. 4. Le pietin, pedipes.

Famille 3. Les limaçons univalves qui ont quatre cornes, dont les deux extérieures portent les yeux sur leur sommet. Gen. 5. Le limacon, cochlea.

Gen. 6. L’ormier, halitius. Famille 4. Les limaçons univalves qui ont deux cornes, et les yeux placés à leurs racines, et sur le côté externe ou par derrière. Gen. 7. Le lepas, lepas. Gen. 8. L’yetetus. Gen. 9. La vis, terebra. Famille 5. Les limaçons univalves qui ont deux cornes et les yeux posés un peu au-dessus de leur racine, et sur leur côté externe. Gen. 10. La porcelaine, porcellana. Gen. 11. Le pucelage, cypraea. Gen. 12. Le manetelet, peribolus.

Sect. II. Famille 1. Limaçons operculés qui ont deux cornes, avec un renflement, et qui portent les yeux ordinairement au-dessus de leur racine, et à leur côté externe. Gen. 1. Le rouleau, strombus. Gen. 2. La pourpre, purpura. Gen. 3. Le buccin, buccinum. Gen. 4. Le cerite, cerithium. Famille 2. Limaçons operculés, qui ont deux cornes sans renflement, et les yeux placés à leur racine, et sur leur côté externe. Gen. 5. Le vermet, vermetus. Gen. 6. La tougie, trochus. Gen. 7. La natice, nativa. Famille 3. Les limaçons operculés, qui ont quatre cornes, dont les deux extérieures portent les yeux sur leur sommet. Gen. 8. Le sabot, turbo. Gen. 9. La nérite, nerita.

CLASS II. Les conques. Sect. I. Les conques bivalves. Famille 1. Les conques bivalves, qui ont les deux lobes du manteau séparés, dans tout leur contour. Gen. 1. L’huitre, oyster. Famille 2. Les conques bivalves dont les deux lobes du manteau forment trois ouvertures sans aucun tuyau. Gen. 2. Le jataron, jataronius. Gen. 3. Le jambonneau, perna. Famille 3. Les conques bivalves dont les deux lobes du manteau forment trois ouvertures dont deux prennent la figure d’un tuyau assez long. Gen. 4. La came, chama. Gen. 5. La telline, tellina. Gen. 6. Le pectionele, pectunculus. Gen. 7. Le solen, solen.

CLASS III. Les conques multivalves. Famille 1. Les conques multivalves, dont aucune des pièces de la coquille ne prend la forme d’un tuyau. Gen. 1. La phalade, phalar. Famille 2. Les conques multivalves, dont une des pièces de la coquille prend la forme d’un tuyau qui enveloppe entièrement toutes les autres. Gen. 2. Le taret, teredo.

VIII. The method of Geoffroy, formed on similar principles with the last, was published at Paris in 1767, in a work entitled “A Summary Treatise on the Tertiary Animals found in the vicinity of Paris.” The following is a view of this method.

SYSTEM OF GEOFFROY.

Sect. I. Coquilles univalves.

Gen. 1. Le limax, cochlea. Quatre tentacles, dont deux plus grands portent des yeux à leur extrémité. Coquille univalve en spirale. Chap. I.

Gen. 2. Le buccin, bucinum. Deux tentacules plats en formes d'oreilles. Les yeux placés à la base des tentacules du côté interieur. Coquille univalve en spirale et conique.

Gen. 3. Planorbis, planorbis. Deux tentacules filiformes. Les yeux placés à la base des tentacules du côté interieur. Coquille univalve en spirale, et ordinairement aplatie.

Gen. 4. La nerite, nerita. Deux tentacules. Les yeux placés à la base des tentacules du côté exterieur. Opercule à la coquille. Coquille univalve en spirale et préfère conique.

Gen. 5. Ancile, ancylus. Deux tentacules. Les yeux placés à la base des tentacules du côté inférieur. Coquille univalve concave et unie.

Sect. II. Coquilles univalves.

Gen. 1. La cène, chama. Deux siphons simples et longs. Charnière de la coquille dentelle. Coquille arrondie.

Gen. 2. La moule, mytilus. Deux siphons courts et frangés. Charnière de la coquille membraneuse et fans dents. Coquille allongée.

IX. The system of Muller first published in 1773, and afterwards extended in a different work which appeared in 1776, arranges terebraceous animals into three families. The following is a view of this arrangement taken from the latter work on the zoology of Denmark and Norway.

SYSTEM OF MULLER.

Familia I. Terebracea Univalvia.

Sect. I. Terebracea univalvia, testa perva.

Gen. 1. Echinus. Testa crustacea, ano verticali, tentaculis simplicibus.

Gen. 2. Spongus. Testa crustacea, ano infero, tentaculis penicillatis.

Gen. 2. Dentalium. Testa calcarea, testa rudi, tentaculis nullis.

Sect. II. Terebracea univalvia, testa patula.

Gen. 4. Akera. Apertura effusa, tentaculis nullis.

Gen. 5. Argonauta. Apertura profunda, tentaculis binis.

Gen. 6. Bulla. Apertura repanda, tentaculis binis setaceis, colliculo extrinfeco oculatis.

Gen. 7. Buccinum. Apertura ovata, tentaculis binis triangularibus, angulo intrinfeco oculatis.

Gen. 8. Carychium. Apertura ovata, tentaculis binis truncatis conficuis, angulo intrinfeco oculatis.

Gen. 9. Vertigo. Apertura subquadrata, tentaculis binis sublinearibus, apice oculatis.

Gen. 10. Turbo. Apertura orbiculari, tentaculis binis setaceis, conficuis, angulo extrinfeco oculatis.

Gen. 11. Helix. Apertura lunar, tentaculis quattuor linearibus, apice oculatis.

Gen. 12. Planorbis. Apertura temilunari, tentaculis binis setaceis, angulo intrinfeco oculatis.

Gen. 13. Anecylus. Apertura totali tentaculis binis truncatis, occultis, angulo extrinfeco oculatis.

Gen. 14. Patella. Apertura totali, tentaculis binis setaceis, occulto angulo, extrinfeco oculatis.

Gen. 15. Haliotis. Apertura repanda, poris pertusa.

Sect. III. Terebracea univalvia, testa operculata.

Gen. 16. Tritonium. Libera, apertura canaliculata, tentaculis duobus linearibus, angulo extrinfeco oculatis.

Gen. 17. Trochus. Libera, apertura sub-tetragona, tentaculis duobus setaceis, colliculo extrinfeco oculatis.

Gen. 18. Nerita. Libera, apertura lunari, tentaculis duobus setaceis, angulo extrinfeco oculatis.

Gen. 19. Valvata. Libera, apertura circinata, tentaculis duobus setaceis, angulo posifco oculatis.

Gen. 20. Serpula. Adnata, apertura orbiculari, tentaculis pinnatis.

Familia II. Terebracea Bivalvia.

Sect. I. Terebracea bivalvia cardine dentata.

Gen. 1. Mya. Testa altera extremitate hiante; cardine dente crasso solitario.

Gen. 2. Solen. Testa utraque extremitate hiante; cardine dente reflexo, sape gemino.

Gen. 3. Tellina. Siphone duplici, murico; cardine dentibus utrinque tribus alternis.

Gen. 4. Cardium. Siphone duplici, cirrato, pedeque falciformi; cardine dentibus meditis alternis, remotis penetratibus.

Gen. 5. Venus. Siphone duplici, cirrata, pedeque laminaformi; cardine dentibus tribus approximatis, lateribus divergentibus.

Gen. 6. Macra. Cardine dente medio complicato, adiacente fossula.

Gen. 7. Donax. Cardine dentibus duobus, lateralique solitario.

Gen. 8. Arcas. Cardine dentibus numerosis, alternis, penetrantibus.

Gen. 9. Terebratula. Branchiis circinnatis; cardine dentibus alterius uncinatis, valvula superiore deorsum perforata.

Sect. II. Terebracea bivalvia cardine edentulo.

Gen. 10. Anomia. Branchiis simplicibus; valvula inferiore perforata.

Gen. 11. Ophrea. Branchiis simplicibus, pede nullo; cardines fossula cava.

Gen. 12. Peten. Branchiis cirratis, pede juxta auriculum cardine fossula ovata, byssum emittens.

Gen. 13. Mytilus. Siphone duplici brevi; fossula lineari, byssum emittens.

Familia III. Terebracea Multivalvia.

Gen. 1. Chiton. Valvulae dorsales, tentacula nulla.

Gen. 2. Lepas. Valvulae erectae, tentacula bipartita.

Gen. 3. Pholas. Valvulae ad cardinem minores.

X. To this account of the different methods of ar-Da Coita, ranging shells, we shall only add the system proposed by Da Costa in his Elements of Conchology. In this system the author adopts the usual general division into Univalves, Bivalves, and Multivalves.

I. Univalves are distributed into 16 families, which are divided into four orders.

Order I. Simple; consists of four families. 1. Patella. 2. Haliotis. 3. Vermiculi. 4. Dentalia. Order II. includes only one family. 5. Polythalamia. Order III. Revolved. Fam. 6. Turbinata involuta. Order IV. Turbinata II. Bivalves composed of 3 orders.

Order I. With unequal valves, and shut close. Fam. 1. Pecten. Fam. 2. Spondylus. Fam. 3. Ostrea. Fam. 4. Anomia. Ord. II. With equal valves, and shut close, is divided into three sections. Sect. 1. Multarticulate. Fam. 5. Pectinoides. Fam. 6. Pectunculi, which inhabit shells. Sect. 2. Articulate. Fam. 8. Pectunculus. Fam. 9. Tellina. Fam. 10. Placenta. Sect. 3. Inarticulate. Fam. 11. Margaritifera. Fam. 12. Mullus. Ord. III. With valves that never shut close. Fam. 13. Chama, Gapers.

III. Multivalves contain one order. Fam. 14. Pholas. Fam. 15. Anatiferæ. Fam. 16. Balani.

CHAP. II. OF THE ANIMALS WHICH INHABIT SHELLS.

BEFORE we proceed to the classification of shells, we shall here give a short description of the animals which inhabit them. Of these, however, a minute and accurate anatomical description is not to be expected; for little more is known of the structure of these animals than what has been given by naturalists concerning their external characters.

Some of the animals, which inhabit shells, are also found in the molluscous state; that is without any testaceous covering. Such, for instance, is the limax, or snail.

The animals which have been found inhabiting shells are the following; viz. Doris, Triton, Afcidia, Tethys, Limax, Spio, Amphitrite, Terebella, Neris.

Doris.—The body is creeping, oblong, and flat beneath; the mouth is placed below on the forepart; vent behind on the back, and surrounded by a fringe. Feelers two or four, situated on the upper part of the body in front, and retractile within the proper receptacles.

The animal which inhabits the chiton belongs to this genus.

Triton.—The body is oblong, and the mouth is furnished with an involute spiral proboscis: tentacula or arms 12, fix on each side, divided nearly to the base. The hind ones cheliforms.

The triton inhabits different species of lepas.

Afcidia.—The body is fixed, roundish, and apparently issuing from a sheath; apertures two, generally placed near the upper end, one beneath the other. The animals are found in the sea, and adhere by their base to rocks, shells, and other submarine substances: they are more or less gelatinous. The only powers of motion which they possess seem to be that of contracting and dilating themselves alternately; by which means they are enabled to throw out the water which they take in with considerable force.

This animal inhabits the pholas, folen, some species of the mya, maëtra, and other bivalves.

Tethys.—The body is detached, rather oblong, fleshy, without peduncles: the mouth is furnished with a terminal cylindrical proboscis, under an expanded membrane or lip: apertures two, on the left side of the neck.

The tethys inhabits a great proportion of bivalve shells, as many species of tellina, cardium, maëtra, venus, ostrea, and others.

Limax.—The body is oblong, creeping, with a fleshy kind of shield above, and a longitudinal flat disc beneath: aperture placed on the right side within the shield: feelers 4, situated above the mouth, with an eye at the tip of each of the larger ones.

The animals belonging to this genus inhabit the turbinated univalve shells; but it appears that all the animals which inhabit these shells do not exactly correspond with the above generic characters.

Spio.—The body projecting from a tube, jointed and furnished with dorsal fibres; peduncles or feet rough with bristles, and placed towards the back; feelers 2; long, simple; eyes 2; long.

This animal inhabits some species of fabella.

Amphitrite.—Body projecting from a tube, and annulate; peduncles or feet small, numerous, with lateral fasciculi, and branchiae; feelers 2, approximate, feathered; no eyes.

The amphitrite inhabits some species of fabella and ferpula.

Terebella.—Body oblong, creeping, naked, furnished with lateral fasciculi or tufts, and branchiae; mouth placed before, furnished with lips, without teeth, and protruding a clavated proboscis; feelers numerous, ciliated, capillary, and placed round the mouth.

This animal is an inhabitant of many species of dentalium, ferpula and fabella.

Neris.—Body long, creeping, with numerous lateral peduncles or feet on each side; feelers simple, rarely none; eyes 2 or 4, rarely none. According to some naturalists, the neris inhabits some species of fabella.

Sepia—Body fleshy, receiving the breast in a sheath, with a tubular aperture at its base; arms 8, beget with numerous warts or suckers, and in most species 2 pedunculated tentacula; head short; eyes large; mouth resembling a parrot's beak.

The animal which inhabits the argonauta is considered by naturalists as belonging to this genus.

Clio.—Body oblong, natant, generally sheathed, and furnished with two dilated membranaceous arms or wing-like processes; tentacula 3, besides 2 in the mouth.

According to some naturalists, it is an animal belonging to this genus which inhabits the argonauta. CHAP. III. OF THE TERMS WHICH ARE EMPLOYED IN DESCRIBING SHELLS.

As it will tend to facilitate our progress in the study of Conchology, clearly to understand the terms which are employed in describing shells, and the names by which the different parts have been distinguished by naturalists; we shall here give a few definitions of the principal terms. And that these definitions may be easily consulted, we shall observe the same order as in the classification which is to be adopted. They may be conveniently arranged, therefore, into the three divisions of multivalves, bivalves, and univalves.

1. Explanation of the Terms of Multivalve Shells.

Multivalve shells are composed of more than two pieces.

Articulated (testæ articulateæ), when the different pieces of which the shell is composed are so strongly united that they seem to form one shell.

Equivalve shells (testæ equivalves), when the valves of the two sides have the same form, size, and position.

A shell is said to adhere (testa adherens), when it is attached to solid bodies by some of the pieces of which it is composed: It is said to be loose (testa liberalis), when it is not attached by any point.

Pedunculated (testa pedunculata), when all the pieces of which it is composed, are supported by a tendinous peduncle which is fixed to solid bodies.

Tubular (testa tubulosa), when the greatest part of the shell is formed of a cylindrical tube.

Base of the shell (basis testæ), that part on which it is supported.

Ligament (ligamentum), is a membranous or tendinous substance which connects the valves together, and sometimes lines the cavity of the shells. Of this there are several varieties.

— scaly (ligamentum squamatum), when the surface is covered with small granular scales.

— prickly (ligamentum aculeatum), when the surface is furnished with small rough points.

— smooth (ligamentum læve), when the surface has neither points, scales, nor tubercles.

— punctated (ligamentum punctatum), when the surface is marked with small cavities.

Lid (operculum), is the name given to four small triangular valves articulated in the form of a cross, which shut up the superior orifice of some species of multivalve shells.

Peduncle (pedunculus) is the tendinous substance which supports some of the multivalve shells. It is flexible while the animal is alive, and is smooth or scaly.

Rays (radii); these are impressions on the external surface of some shells; they are of a conical form, having the vertex turned towards the base of the shell. They are only distinctly seen in adult shells.

— filiform (radii filiformes) are long and narrow.

— smooth (radii leves).

— striated (radii transversim striati).

Valves (valvulae) are the different pieces of which multivalve shells are composed.

2. Explanation of the Terms applied to Bivalve Shells.

A bivalve shell is said to adhere (testa adherens), when it is fixed by any part of one of its valves to a solid body.

It is said to have ears (testa aurita), when it forms at its base, one or two compressed angles.

Gaping (testa hians), when the valves do not shut close.

Bearded (testa barbata), covered externally with an epidermis composed of strong hair or brittle.

Compressed (testa compressa), when the valves are flat, forming a small cavity.

Heart-shaped (testa cordata), having the form of a heart; (subcordata) approaching to that form.

Toothless (edentula), without teeth at the hinge.

Equilateral (testa equilatera), when the anterior and posterior part of the shell is equal in form and figure.

Equivalve (equivalvis), when the two valves are similar in form and convexity.

Irregular (testa irregularis), when the form varies in the individuals of the species.

Lenticular (lenticularis), when the valves are round, and little elevated in the middle, and diminish gradually in thickness towards the edges.

Linear (testa linearis), when the length considerably exceeds the breadth, but without a cylindrical form.

Tongue-shaped (linguiformis), flat and oblong, having the two extremities round and obtuse.

Boat-shaped (navicularis), resembling the figure of a boat.

Pectinated (pectinata), when the valves being furnished with longitudinal ribs, have on their anterior surface ribs nearly transverse, which form by their union with the first acute angles.

Radiated (radiata), when it is marked on the external surface with rays, ribs, or elevated striae, which proceed from the extremity of the summits, and terminate in the circumference of the valves.

Beaked (rostrata), when one of its surfaces, either anterior or posterior, being contracted and elongated, terminates in form of a beak.

Base (basis). The situation in which Linnæus has described and considered bivalve shells, consists in placing the beaks of the shell turned downwards, in such a way that the ligaments of the valves may be seen, so that the base of the shell is the region of its beaks.

Margin of the shell (margo testæ) signifies the whole circumference of the shell, parallel to the edge of the valves. It is divided into anterior, posterior, and superior.

— anterior (margo anterior), when the shell is placed on the beak of the valves, commences at the side of the ligament, on the fore-part of the beaks, and extends to one-third of the whole circumference of the valves.

Margin posterior (margo posterior), extends to one-third of the circumference from the beaks of the valves behind.

Superior (margo superior), includes the upper part of the circumference of the valves comprehended between the superior extremity of the anterior margin, and the superior extremity of the posterior margin. Hence the whole circumference of the shell is divided into three equal parts.

Margins of the valves (margines valvarum), signify the whole interior circumference of the valves, including about the breadth of a line of the outer edge. They are divided into:

- furrowed (margines canaliculati), having on some part of the anterior circumference, a small gutter parallel to it. - notched (margines crenulati), furnished internally with rounded notches. - toothed (margines dentati), provided with pointed teeth. - folded (margines plicati), furnished with folds which reciprocally correspond with those of the opposite valve. - simple (margines simplices) having neither folds, teeth, nor notches. - striated (margines striati), having longitudinal lines.

Hinge. The hinge of a shell is the most solid and thickest part of the circumference of the valves, constituting their base. It is almost always furnished with teeth of different proportions, which serve to fix the valves together. The hinge is:

- compressed (cardo depressus), formed of one compressed tooth. - lateral (cardo laterali), when it is placed at one of the sides of the shell. - oblong (cardo oblongus), when it occupies the whole base of the shell. - reflected (cardo reflexus), when its edges are folded back externally towards the convexity of the valves. - terminal (cardo terminalis), situated at the inferior extremity of the shell. - truncated (cardo truncatus), when the base of the shell terminates transversely and suddenly, and the teeth of the hinge are fixed in this part.

Teeth (dentes), are solid protuberances, commonly pointed, with which the hinge of shells is usually furnished, and which are destined to fix the two valves together. They are divided into:

- alternate (dentes alternati), when they are placed in a line parallel to the edges of the hinge; and when the teeth of one valve are received into the interstices of the teeth of the other valve. - articulated (dens infertus), when it is received in a corresponding cavity at the opposite valve. - forked (dens duplicatus seu bifidus), having the point divided into two. - cardinal (dens primarius seu cardinalis), is the tooth which is placed immediately opposite. - compressed (dens depressus), which is very much flattened.

Teeth erect (dens erectus), when the valve is laid on the convex side, the tooth rises perpendicularly.

Longitudinal (dens longitudinales), when it extends like a rib on the base of the valves.

The dish (discus), signifies the convex centre of the valves, which is usually situated between the belly of the shell and its limb.

Limb (limbus), is the circumference of the valves from the dish to their edges.

Belly of the shell (tellus umbo), is the most inflated part of the valves.

It is vaulted (umbo forniciatus) when in the interior of the valves it exhibits a cavity separated from the hinge by a vertical membrane.

Nates are two protuberances of a conical figure, somewhat spiral, which accompany the external base of most bivalve shells. They are:

- flattened (nates depressae), when the surface is sensibly compressed. - approximate (nates approximatae), meeting together when the shell is shut. - horned (nates corniformes), when the angles being considerable, and their direction waved or spiral, they resemble a horn. - bent (nates incurvatae), when the curvature of the one is directed towards that of the other. - separated (nates distantes), when they are separated from each other, at least the distance of a line. - distant (nates remotissimae), when the interval is very great. - reflected (nates recurvatae), when the curvature is directed towards the posterior surface of the shell. - wrinkled (nates rugosae), when the surface is marked with unequal lines. - spiral (nates spirales), when the curvature exhibits more than one circumvolution.

Valva, is situated at the lower part of the anterior margin of the valves. It is divided into:

- hollowed (excisa, seu canaliculata), when it is marked with a groove during its whole length. - distinct (distincta), marked by a perceptible difference of colour. - lettered (scripta seu literata), when the surface is marked with lines resembling written characters. - inflected (inflexa), when the edge of the lips is bent towards the inner surface of the valves.

Annus, is an impression usually hollow, placed at the lower part of the posterior surface. It is divided into:

- bordered (marginatus), when it is circumscribed by a distinct elevation. - heart-shaped (cordatus), exhibiting the form of a heart. - toothed (dentatus), furnished with teeth or notches. - lanceolated (lanceolatus), when the length is greater than the breadth, and the extremities are pointed. - open (patulus seu hians), forming by the separation of its edges, a considerable opening, which penetrates into the interior of the shell. - oval (ovatus), of an elliptical figure. Valves, of bivalve shells, are divided into right and left, equal and unequal, equilateral and inequilateral, superior and inferior.

— right valve (dextra), is distinguished from the left, by placing the shell on its base, having the cardinal ligament before, and the anus behind. In this position the right valve of the shell corresponds to the left of the observer, and the left valve (sinistra) to the right of the observer.

— equal (eques), when the right valve corresponds with the left in form, size, and other external characters.

— superior (valvula superior). In an irregular shell, such as the oyster, one of the valves is attached to solid bodies; the other in this case is superior. This valve is sometimes called by Linnaeus, the lid (operculum): in some species it is flat and small, and in others more convex than the inferior valve.

— keel shaped (valvula carinata), when one part of their convexity presents a sharp edge.

— chambered (concavemate), when they exhibit in their cavity tectaceous plates, detached and raised.

— spinous (spinosae), when the whole surface is furnished with spines.

— banded (fasciata), exhibiting large coloured transverse stripes or bands.

— lamellated (lamellofae), when the surface is furnished with plates more or less separated.

— radiated (radiatae), exhibiting divergent or coloured rays.

— sinuated (lacunofae), when one of the valves has a sensible depression at the middle of its margin, and a corresponding elevation of the opposite valve.

— striated (striae) when the surface is marked with striae.

— transverse, when the striae are parallel to the margin of the valves.

— longitudinal, when they run from the base to the circumference.

Muscular impressions (impressiones), are marks on the interior surface of the valves, where the muscles of the animal are attached.

— solitary (solitariae), when the inner surface of each valve has only one.

— double (duplicatae), two on the inner surface of each valve.

— triple or ternate (ternatae), three in each valve.

Ligament (ligamentum), is a horny substance, of little flexibility, which unites the two valves near their base, and which in almost all bivalve shells is placed at the lower part of their anterior surface. It is divided into:

— gaping (hians), when its upper extremity is divided into two.

— double (duplex), when under the external ligament there appears a second, in a particular hollow of the hinge, which does not appear externally.

— internal (internum), when it unites the valves without appearing externally.

— profound (retractum seu intractum), when it is so deep in the future as scarcely to be seen when the valves are shut.

— truncated (truncatum), when shorter than its future.

Furrows (furci), are those impressions or interfaces between the ribs or rays on the surface of the valves.

— square (quadrati), when the bottom is flat.

— lamellated (lamellata), when the bottom is marked with small transverse scales.

— punctated (excavato punctati), when the whole surface is marked with small cavities or dots.

3. Explanation of Terms applied to Univalve Shells.

The base (basis), is the most elevated part of the Univalves shell, opposite to the spire. It is divided into:

— notched (emarginata), when it is accompanied with a deep notch.

— tubular (tubulosa seu cordata), when it is formed by a tube.

— simple or entire (simplex aut integra), without notch or tube.

Summit (vertex) signifies the top of some patella, and from its position is central, marginal, or submarginal.

The shell (testa) is divided with regard to its position into superior and inferior.

The anterior part (pars antica), is that which forms the spire of the shell; and it is also the superior part.

The form of shells is:

— bordered (marginata), when the two sides of the opening are broader and thicker than the rest of the diameter.

— chambered (polythalamia), when it is internally divided by different partitions parallel to the opening.

— convoluted (convoluta), when the spires turn round a lengthened cone, nearly vertical to each other.

— rooted (radicata), when it is attached to a solid body by a ligament proceeding from its base.

— interrupted (interrupta), when the successive additions to the shell are marked with distinct rings.

— umbilicated (umbilicata), when the axis round which the sphere turns, being empty, forms a cavity at the base of the shell, whose diameter is at least a sixth part of that of the shell.

— imperforated (imperforata seu exumbilicata), when its inferior axis has neither hole nor umbilicus.

— oval or elliptic (ovales), the longitudinal diameter exceeding the transverse, and the two extremities equal and a little contracted.

— egg-shaped (ovata), the longitudinal diameter exceeding the transverse, and the extremities terminated by the segment of a circle.

— beaked (rostrata), when the two extremities, sometimes tubular, form a projection in form of a beak.

— imbricated (imbricata), when the surface is covered with parallel scales, so arranged as to cover each other.

— turbinated (turbinata), when the belly of the shell is large in proportion to the spires, which seem to proceed from its centre.

Opening Opening or mouth (apertura), is that part of the cavity of the shell which is visible. It is angular (angulata), when its circumference has several angles.

gaping (deficientes), when one of the extremities is wider than the other.

bimarginated (bimarginata), when the right lip forms a double margin.

comprellied (coarctata), when it is distinctly flattened.

semicircular (semiorbiculata), when it forms half a circle.

linear (linearis), when it is narrow, and the length considerably exceeds the breadth.

longitudinal (longitudinalis), when the length is greater than the breadth, and the greatest dimension is parallel to the axis of the shell.

orbicular (orbicularis), forming an entire circle.

striated (stria), when the cavity is marked with striae, parallel to the direction of the convolutions.

transverse (transversa), when the breadth is greater than the length.

Pillar (columella), is that part of the shell situated within the opening, near its axis, round which the spires turn. It is brought into view by dividing the shell its whole length. It is flattened (plana), when the surface is flat and smooth.

caudated (caudata), when it is lengthened beyond the base of the shell.

folded (plicata), marked with transverse and distinct folds.

spiral (spiralis), proceeding from the base, and forming a small twisted elongation.

truncated (truncata), cut transversely at the base.

Convolutions (anfractus), are the turnings of the spire round the pillar, from the opening to the base of the shell. They are

bifid (bifidi), when each is divided into two equal parts by a furrow or spiral line.

grooved (canaliculati), when the superior edge is marked with a groove.

keel-shaped (carinata), when the outer turn of the shell is marked with an angle more or less acute.

crowned (coronata), when the upper surface is bordered at a little distance from the sutures, with a single row of tubercles or spinous scales.

dextral (dextri), turning from the left to the right.

sinistral (sinistri), turning from the right to the left.

lettered (scripti), marked with characters.

spinous (spinosi), having short spines on the surface.

entire (simplices), without furrows or tubercles.

banded (fasciati), when the surface is marked with broad coloured stripes.

lamellated (lamellati), the surface marked with longitudinal or transverse excrescences, and laminated like membranes.

lined (lineati), marked with coloured lines.

radiated (spino-radiati), having the circumference bordered with straight spines, separating and divergent.

separated (disjuncti), having an interval between each convolution.

furrowed (fulcati), having the surface marked with furrows, which are always broader than striae.

decultated (decultati), when the striae cross each other at right angles.

Spire (spira), signifies all the convolutions taken together. It is

pointed (acuta), when the convolutions joined together form an acute angle.

flattened (depressa), forming a flat surface.

convex (convexa), when it is rounded, and the point of the base has little elevation.

convex (convexo-acuta), rounded at the outer edge, but elevated into an acute angle.

convex and elevated (convexo-exerta), rounded at the outer edge, and elevated without forming an acute angle.

convex and pointed (convexo-mucronata), obtuse and almost rounded at the outer edge, and terminated at the centre with a pointed elevation.

crowned (coronata), when the outer edges of each convolution are accompanied with a row of spines or tubercles.

capitate (capitata), the convolutions united, forming a swelling resembling a head.

obtuse (obtusa), the convolutions united, forming an obtuse angle.

plano-concave (plano-concava), the convolutions forming no elevation, but are slightly grooved.

pyramidal (pyramidata), of a conical form.

Sutures (futurae), signify the place of junction of the different convolutions, forming a spiral line. They are

grooved (canaliculatae), when they are so deep as to form a small canal.

notched (crenulatae), when the points of contact are marked with notches.

double (duplicatae), accompanied with two striae, which run parallel.

effaced (obsoletae), when the place of junction is not perceptible.

Siphon (siphon), is a small canal situated in the internal part of the shell of the nautili, which penetrates into the divisions of which it is composed. It is central (centralis), when it is situated in the middle of the divisions.

lateral (lateralis), situated at one side.

oblique (obliquus), cutting the axis of the divisions obliquely.

Veins (varices), are elevations or ribs, running in the direction of the length of the shell, formed by the junction of the different additions which the shell has received. They cut the convolutions of the spire transversely. They are

continued (continuatae), proceeding from the base of the spire to the convolution at the opening, without interruption.

spinous (spinoce), furnished with strong spines.

interrupted (decultate), not corresponding with the different convolutions. CHAP. IV. CLASSIFICATION OF SHELLS.

SHELLS are divided by Linnaeus into multivalve, bivalve, and univalve. In the following classification the same arrangement will be adopted; and we shall first exhibit in one view the characters of each genus, in the original language of Linnaeus, with a translation opposite for the sake of the English reader; so that the genus of any shell may be easily determined. In describing the species, we shall observe the utmost brevity, giving such characters only as are necessary to afford precise marks of distinction. In arranging the species under each genus, the British species will be distinguished with an asterisk; so that, with the advantage of a general classification, this will answer the purpose of a British conchology.

GENERIC CHARACTERS.

I. MULTIVALVE SHELLS.

1. Chiton. Animal doris. Testae plures, secundum longitudinem fibi appositae dorso incumbentes.

2. Lepas. Animal triton. Testa basi affixa multivalvis: valvis inaequalibus erectis.

3. Puholas. Animal acidia. Testa bivalvis divaricata, cum minoribus accessorius differimibus: cardo recurvatus cartilagine connexus.

II. BIVALVE SHELLS.

4. Mya. Animal acidia. Testa bivalvis hians, ut plurimum, altera extremitate: cardo dente (plerique uno) folido, crasto, patulo, vacuo; nec inferto testae appositae.

5. Solen. Animal acidia. Testa bivalvis oblonga, utroque latere hians. Cardo dens subulatus reflexus, faece duplex, non infertos testae appositae; margo lateralis magis obscuratus.

6. Tellina. Animal tethys. Testa bivalvis, anterius hinc ad alterum latus flexa. Cardinis dentes ut plurimum tres: laterales plani anterius testae.

7. Cardium. Animal tethys. Testa bivalvis subaequilatera, equivalvis plerumque convexa, longitudinaliter costata, striata aut sulcata, margine dentata. Cardo dentibus mediis binis alternatis: altero ut plurimum incurvo; lateralibus remotis infertis.

8. Mactra. Animal tethys. Testa bivalvis, inequilatera, equivalvis. Cardo dente medio complicato cum adjecta foveola, lateralibus remotis infertis.

9. Donax. Animal tethys. Testa bivalvis, margine faece crenulato antico obtusissimo. Cardo dentibus duobus; marginalique solitario (rarius duplici, triplice, aut nullo) tubremoto sub ano.

10. Venus. Animal tethys. Testa bivalvis; labii margine antico incumbentibus. Cardo dentibus tribus, omnibus approximatis lateralibus apice divergentibus.

11. Spondylus. II. SPONDEYLUS. Animal tethys. Testa inaequivalvis rigida. Cardo dentibus duobus recurvis, cum foveola intermedia.

12. CHAMA. Animal tethys. Testa bivalvis crassior, cardo callo gibbo, obliquè inserìo fossula obliquè.

13. ARCA. Animal tethys? Testa bivalvis equivalvis. Cardo dentibus numerofis, acutis alternis infertis.

14. OSTREA. Animal tethys. Testa bivalvis, plurimis inaequivalvis subaurita. Cardo edentulus, fossula cava, ovata, sulcifque (in plurimis) lateralibus transversis.

15. ANOMIA. Animal corpus ligula emarginata ciliata: ciliae valvae superiori affixis; brachiis duobus linearibus corpore longioribus conniventibus porrectis, valvae alternis utrinque ciliatis: ciliae affixi, valvae utri-que: testa inaequivalvis, valva altera planifucula, altera basi magis gibba: parum altera basi sepe perforata. Cardo cicatricula lineari prominente introrsum dente lateralì; valvae vero planioris in ipso margine. Radii duo offici pro basi animalis.

16. MYTILUS. Animal ascidia? Testa bivalvis, rudis, sepium affixa bysio, ut plurimum, crassiori. Cardo in plurimis edentulus, distinctus, paucis exceptis, linea subulata, excavata longitudinali.

17. PINNA. Animal limax. Testa sub-bivalvis fragilis, cresta bianca, emittens barbam bysfinam. Cardo edentulus, coalitis in unam valvis.

III. UNIVALVE SHELLS.

18. ARGONAUTA. Animal sepia aut clia. Testa univalvis, spiralis, involuta, membranacea, unilocularis.

19. NAUTILUS. Animal? Testa univalvis, ifthmis perforatis concamerata, polythalamia.

20. CONUS. Animal limax. Testa univalvis convoluta, turbinata; apertura effusa, longitudinalis, linearis, edentula, basi integra; columella levis.

21. CYPREA. Animal limax. Testa univalvis, involuta, sub-ovata, obtusa, laevis. Apertura utrinque effusa, linearis utrinque dentata longitudinalis.

22. BULLA. Animal limax. Testa univalvis convoluta, incrissa. Apertura sub-coarctata, oblonga, longitudinalis, basi integerrima. Columella obliqua, laevis.

23. VOLUTA. Animal limax. Testa unilocularis spiralis. Apertura ecaudata, sub-effusa. Columella plicata: labio umbilicovo (ut plurimum) nullo.

24. BUCINUM. Animal limax. Testa univalvis, spiralis, gibbosa. Apertura ovata definiens in canaliculum (retusum lacunam) dextrum, cauda retusa. Labium interius explanatum.

25. STROMBUS. Animal limax. Testa univalvis, spiralis, latere ampliata. Apertura labro saepius dilata-tato, definiens in canalem finitrum.

26. MUREX. Animal limax. Testa univalvis, spiralis, exasperata suturis membranaceis. Apertura defi-

11. S. Animal a tethys. Shell hard, solid, with unequal valves. Hinge with two recurved teeth, separated by a small cavity.

12. C. Animal a tethys. Shell bivalve, rather coarse. Hinge with a callous protuberance, obliquely inserted in an oblique hollow.

13. A. Animal a tethys? Shell bivalve equivalve. Hinge with numerous sharp teeth, alternately inserted between each other.

14. O. Animal a tethys. Shell bivalve, generally with unequal valves, and slightly eared. Hinge without teeth, but furnished with an ovate cavity, and in most with lateral, transverse furrows.

15. A. Animal an emarginate, ciliated, strap-shaped body, with bristles attached to the upper valve; arms two, linear, longer than the body, projecting and approaching together, alternate on the valve, and ciliated on each side, with bristles affixed to each valve. Shell inequivalve, one of the valves flatthick, the other protuberant at the base; one of the valves often perforated near the base. Hinge with a linear prominent cicatrix, and a lateral tooth placed within; but on the very margin of the flat valve there are two bony rays for the base of the animal.

16. M. Animal an ascidia? Shell bivalve, rough, generally affixed by a byssus or beard of silky filaments. Hinge mostly without teeth, and in most cases with a subulate, hollow, longitudinal line.

17. P. Animal a limax. Shell bivalve, brittle, gaping at one end, and having a byssus or beard. Hinge without teeth, the valves being united into one.

18. A. Animal a sepia or clia. Shell univalve, spiral, involute, membranaceous, one cell.

19. N. Animal? Shell univalve, divided into several chambers communicating with each other.

20. C. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, convolute, turbinated; aperture effuse, longitudinal, linear, without teeth; entire at the base. Pillar smooth.

21. C. Animal a flug. Shell univalve, involute, subovate, smooth, obtuse. Aperture effuse at each end, linear, extending the whole length of the shell, and toothed on each side.

22. B. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, convolute, without teeth. Aperture a little narrowed, oblong, longitudinal, quite entire at the base. Pillar oblique and smooth.

23. V. Animal a limax. Shell one cell, spiral. Aperture without a beak, and somewhat effuse. Pillar twisted or plaited: generally without lips or perforation.

24. B. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, spiral, gibbous. Aperture ovate, ending in a short canal, leaning to the right, with a retuse beak. Internal or pillar lip expanded.

25. S. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, spiral, enlarged at the side. Aperture dilated with the lip expanding, and ending in a groove towards the left.

26. M. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, spiral, rough, with membranaceous sutures. Aperture oval, terminating nens in canalem integrum rectum five subascenden- tem.

27. Trochus. Animal limax. Testa univalvis spiralis, subconica. Apertura subtetragon-angulata seu rotundata, superior transverse coarctata; columella obliquata.

28. Turbo. Animal limax. Testa univalvis, spiralis, folida. Apertura coarctata, orbicularis, inte- gra.

29. Helix. Animal limax. Testa univalvis, spi- ralis, subdiaphana, fragilis. Apertura coarctata, intus lunata seu subrotunda; segmento circuli dempto.

30. Nerita. Animal limax. Testa univalvis, spi- ralis, gibba, subtus planiuscula. Apertura semiorbi- cularis, vel semilunaris; labio columellae tranverse, truncato, planiusculo.

31. Haliotis. Animal limax. Testa auriformis, patens: spira occultata laterali disco, longitudinaliter poris pertuta.

32. Patella. Animal limax. Testa univalvis subconica, abque spira.

33. Dentalium. Animal terebella. Testa tubu- lofa, recta, monothalamia, utraque extremitate pervia.

34. Serpula. Animal terebella. Testa unival- vis, tubulofa, adherens (sepe isthmis integris passim intercuta).

35. Teredo. Animal terebella. Valvis duabus calcaris hemiphericis, anterior excife, et duabus lan- ceolatis. Testa teres, flexiofa, lignum penetrans.

36. Sabella. Animal nereis. Ore ringente, ten- taculis duobus crafioribus pone caput. Testa tubulosa, contexta ex arenulis confertim membranae vaginali in- fertis.

1. MULTIVALVES.

Gen. 1. Chitos.

Gen. Char.—The animal inhabiting this shell is a doris. The shell consists of several segments or valves, ar- ranged along the back.

SPECIES.

1. C. shell with six plates or valves striated. Ame- rica.

2. C. shell six-valved, glabrous, oval, a little con- vex, sea-green. America.

3. C. shell seven-valved, body tuberculated. Ame- rica.

* 4. C. shell seven-valved, thick set with short hairs, ½ inch long. Sandwich, Aberdeen.

5. C. shell eight-valved, striated; body prickly. Asia.

* 6. C. shell eight-valved, apparently smooth, but when examined with a glass, is found to be rough like flagnen. Coast of Barbary, Salcomb bay, Devon- shire, Sandwich.

7. C. eight valves, semiflattened; margin covered with minute scales. America.

8. C. with eight valves, smooth body with excavated dots. Europe, America.

Vol. VI. Part II.

9. C. eight valves, subflattened; inside covered, body rule. red. North seas.

* 10. C. eight valves, smooth, with transverse lines albus, at the margin of the valves; body white, oval; first valve notched on the hinder edge. Northern seas; on oyster shells from Poole.

11. C. eight valves, smooth, carinated, oval, com-cinerous. pressed. Northern seas, Salcomb bay.

12. C. seven carinated valves strongly heaked; septemval- beaks frequently rufous, ½ inch long. Salcomb bay, vis. but rare. Montagu, Teyl. Brit. p. 3.

13. C. eight-valved, thick ridged; the outside sea-bicolor. green, inside snowy, edged with black;

14. C. eight-valved, cherry colour, smooth, with ceratinus. snowy marginal teeth.

15. C. eight-valved, thick, black brown. Straits megellani- cus of Magellan.

16. C. eight-valved, brown, smooth; inside teeth of fuscus. the margin snowy. India.

17. C. eight-valved, smooth, within sea-green, mar-maculatus. gin covered with gray white scales.

18. C. eight-valved, smooth, varied with white and merma- black. Var. seven-valved. America.

19. C. flat above, with numerous raised dots in granular rows; border broad, spinous. America.

20. C. eight-valved, smooth above, piceous and varied picent. with white and black. America; Red sea.

3 E

21. C.

21. C. eight-valved, whitish ash colour, with a fcaly border; middle valves finely punctured. America.

22. C. eight-valved, smooth, black, very small. Norway seas.

23. C. eight-valved, carinated, diaphanous, banded; extreme valves finely punctured; small. Norway.

24. C. eight-valved, deep black, convex above, with a yellowish spot on each valve. North seas.

25. C. eight-valved, thick, convex, white; first valve notched, last toothed, middle ones emarginate, four inches long. Cape of Good Hope.

26. C. eight-valved, fuselylindrical, finely punctured; very minute and narrow at each end.

* 27. C. eight-valved, carinated along the back; the valves projecting over each other in a point. Salcombe bay, Sandwich.

* 28. C. eight-valved, smooth, with an elevated band down the back; the length \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch. Loch Broom, Ross-shire, Salcombe bay.

amiculatus

29. C. eight-valved, kidney-shaped, fragile; valves imbricated. Kurile islands.

Gen. 2. LEPAS, Acorn-shell.

Gen. Char.—Animal a triton; shell affixed at the base, and composed of many unequal erect valves.

SPECIES.

balanus. * 1. L. conic, grooved, lid sharp-pointed. European seas, Britain.

balaenoides. * 2. L. conic, truncated, smooth; lip obtuse. American and Indian seas; abundant on the coasts of Britain.

intertexta. * 3. L. somewhat depressed; valves imbricated and obliquely striated. Weymouth.

cornubien- fis.

* 4. L. base dilated, aperture rather narrow; valves grooved near the lower edges. Cornwall.

tintinabu- lum.

* 5. L. conic, obtuse, bell-shaped, rugged and fixed. Indian and American seas.

diadema.

* 6. L. roundish, five-lobed; valves grooved longitudinally. European and Indian seas, Scotland.

balanaris.

7. L. subconic, with fix elevated, wrinkled, 4-parted lobes; lid membranaceous, and two-toothed; found adhering to the pectoral wrinkles of the balena boops.

* 8. L. somewhat conic, with equidistant ribs, divergent from the aperture; lid pointed. On rocks on the Pembrokeshire coast.

sonoides.

* 9. L. conic, smooth, valves pointed, aperture very small; shell small, reddish; valves finely telescopically. Weymouth.

tefludina- ria.

10. L. plano-convex, with fix excavated striated rays; lid composed of four triangular pieces inserted on a membrane.

galeata.

11. L. helmet-form, with a lateral aperture; shell boat-shaped, smooth. Adheres to the gorgonia verrucosa, and ventilabrum.

palmipes.

12. L. erect, conic; valves palmated at the base; shell white.

tulipa.

13. L. fuscular, smooth; lid acute, transversely striated. Northern ocean.

nitella.

14. L. compressed, erect, irregularly striated. Indian ocean.

* 15. L. compressed, 13-valved, smooth, seated on a fcalpellus fcaly peduncle, which is large, and composed of rings, covered with short hairs. North seas, Plymouth.

* 16. L. compressed, five-valved, striated, pedunculated. American and Atlantic seas, coast of Devonshire; is sometimes found in a fossil state.

* 17. L. compressed, 5-valved, pedunculated; adanatifer adheres to the bottom of ships, when it is well known by the name of bernacle.—It was from this species of shell that the bernacle goose was supposed to have had its origin. Gerard's account of this transformation, as it affords a remarkable instance of the credulity of the times, is too curious to be omitted. "There are found in the north parts of Scotland, and the islands adjacent called Orchades, certain trees whereon do grow certain shells tending to ruffet, wherein are contained little living creatures: which shells in time of maturitie do open, and out of them grow those little living things, which falling into the water do become fowles, which we call barnacles; in the north of England brant geese; and in Lancashire, tree geese; but the other that do fall upon the land perith, and come to nothing. Thus much from the writings of others, and also from the mouths of people of those parts, which may very well accord with truth."

"But what our eyes have seene, and hands have touched, we shall declare. There is a small island in Lancashire, called the Pile of Foulders, wherein are found the broken pieces of old and bruised ships, some whereof have been cast thither by shipwracke, and also the trunks and bodies with the branches of old and rotten trees, cast up there likewise: wherein is found a certain spume or froth that in time breedeth into certain shells, in shape like those of the muckle, but sharper pointed, and of a whitish colour: wherein is contained a thing in forme like a lace of filke, finely woven, as it were, together, of a whitish colour, one end whereof is fastened unto the inside of the shell, even as the fifth of oysters, and mussels are; the other end is made fast unto the belly of a rude ma's or lumpe, which in time commeth to the shape and forme of a bird: when it is perfectly formed the shell gapeth open, and the first thing that appeareth is the foreaid lace or string; next come the legs of the bird hanging out, and as it growth greater it openeth the shell by degrees, till at length it is all come forth and hangeth only by the bill: in short space after it cometh to full maturitie, and falleth into the sea, where it gathereth feathers, and growtheth to a fowl bigger than a mallard, and lesser than a goose, having blacke legs, bill or beake, and feathers blacke and white, spotted in such manner as is our magpie, called in some places a pie-anne, which the people of Lancashire call by no other name than a tree-goose: which place afore-said, and those parts adjoining do so much abound therewith, that one of the best is bought for three-pence. For the truth hereof, if any doubt, let them repaire unto me, and I shall satisfie them by the testimoniage of good witnesse." Herball, p. 1588.

18. L. membranaceus, ventricole, seated on a tube aurilus and cored, 8-valved. North seas.

19. L. hooked behind, 6-valved, wrinkled, not an phitacum. Inch long. Chili.

20. L. 20. L. reddish, 6-valved, unequal; lid pointed. India.

21. L. hemispherical, ferrated, 6-valved; 4 outer valves and lid plaited. North seas.

22. L. elongated, smooth, 6-valved; aperture narrow, lid minute.

23. L. granulated and striated, conic, tubular; lid obtuse. India.

* 24. L. cylindric, snowy, pellucid, 6-valved; lid obtuse, grooved and transversely striated. Three inches long. Iceland, Weymouth, Balanus Clavatus, Monogata, p. 10.

25. L. 6-valved; outwardly violet mixed with white, and marked with fine longitudinal striae; valves denticulate at the margin. Coromandel, very rare.

26. L. conic with 12 triangular valves, 6 more depressed, whitish and transversely striated, and 6 purple and longitudinally striated; all armed with tubular recurved spines. India.

27. L. 6-valved, thick, glabrous, white, with violet rays. India.

28. L. many-valved, compressed, erect, smooth; seated on a short, hard, scaly peduncle. Mediterranean.

29. L. slightly curved, with a large oblique orifice; lip horned. Africa.

30. L. oval-truncated, conic, with 6 bluish valves shaded with white, and 6 reddish, elevated, spinous, and perpendicularly striated; an inch high; is frequently perforated by the teredo.

31. L. folioid, white, depressed with carious grooves, unequally smooth internally. Kurile islands.

32. L. conico-convex, 4 valves ferrate-striated; lid 2-valved. North seas.

* 33. L. 5-valved, smooth, dorsal valve dilated at the base. St George's Channel.

Gen. 3. Pholas.

Gen. Char.—The animal is an ascidia. Shell bivalve, divaricate, with several lesser differently accessory ones at the hinge. Hinges recurved, united by a cartilage. Beneath the hinge internally is an incurved tooth.

SPECIES.

* 1. P. oblong, with reticulated, subspinous striae, on the upper part. Europe. Salcomb bay, Devonshire. Five inches long; is found in hard clay, marl, and wood; has a phosphorescent property.

2. P. ovate; striated with elevated ribs; 6 inches long. American seas.

3. P. ovate, multifariouly striated. Europe, India.

—This species seems to be nearly equally destructive with the teredo navalis. The pholas perforates the wood across the grain or fibre; the teredo infiluates itself along the fibres, or in the same direction.

* 4. P. oblong, muricated on all sides, with decussated striae. Europe, America, Salcomb bay.

5. P. oblong, rounded; striae arched. America, India. This animal penetrates the bottom of ships.

* 6. P. oval; part next the hinge more obtuse, waved, striated; tooth of the hinge curved, large and strong. Two inches long. Europe. West of England.

7. P. oblong, with a straight margin: one half quite smooth, the other reticulated with striae. Siam and Tranquebar.

8. P. narrow, white, finely striated. Bay of Cam-campechi-peachy.

9. P. short, turgid, furrowed, with fine elevated cordata, transverse striae; aperture heart-shaped.

10. P. oblong, depressed, with distant longitudinal chilenis striae; five inches long. Chili.

11. P. oblong, white, with a longitudinal brown teredula, granular future; penetrates timber. Belgic shores.

12. P. bivalve, white, with transverse arched striae; hians convex in the middle; aperture large, oval; perforates calcareous rocks. American islands.

II. BIVALVE SHELLS.

Gen. 4. Mya.

Gen. Char.—The animal is an ascidia. The shell is bivalve, generally gaping at one end. The hinge has broad, thick, strong teeth, seldom more than one, and not inflected into the opposite valve.

SPECIES.

* 1. M. ovate, truncated, gaping greatly behind; truncata, tooth projecting, obtuse; 2½ inches long. Europe.

* 2. M. brittle, semitransparent, sloping downwards declivis, near the open end. Hebrides.—A fish much esteemed as food by the inhabitants.

* 3. M. ovate, rounded behind; 2½ inches long. Eu-arenaria, roean seas, Portmouth.

* 4. M. ovate; a single, longitudinal, notched tooth, pitiflorum, in one hinge, and two in the other; near 2 inches long, and 3½ broad. Europe, Barbary, River Kennet, Berkshire.—This shell is employed by painters for holding water colours.

* 5. M. ovate, a little contracted in the middle of the margarit-thinner margin; primary tooth of the hinge conic; tifera, length 2½ inches, breadth 5 inches; inhabits most parts of the arctic circle, and is most frequently found in mountainous rivers, and about cataracts.—This shell yields mother-of-pearl and pearl. The river Conway in Wales, was formerly famous for producing pearls of great size and value. They have also been found in the river Irt, in Cumberland. Sir John Hawkins obtained a patent for fishing them in that river.

6. M. oblong, dilated; the narrower base com-perna, prefixed. Straits of Magellan, Barbary.

7. M. tongue-shaped; hinge terminal, semiorbicular; vulfella, 4 inches long, and 1½ broad. Indies.

8. M. striated, valves with two subspinosus ridges; articula, hinge without teeth. North seas.

9. M. oval, equivalve, widely gaping, and striated; edentula, 1 inch long. Shores of the Caspian sea.

10. M. equivalve, pellucid, finely striated. Rivers radiata, of Malabar.

11. M. ovate, oblong; 3 inches broad, 1½ long. oblonga.

12. M. globular, snowy, pellucid. Guinea. anatina.

13. M. equivalve, snowy, ovate, oblong; striae de-nicobarica, cuffed. Nicobar islands.

14. M. ovate, compressed, closed. New Zealand. australis.

15. M. rounded, flattish, transversely striated. Ca-gadiana, diz.

16. M. rhombic, green, protuberant parts wrinkled, corrugata. Rivers of Coromandel.

17. M.,

17. M. oval; wrinkled, outwardly greenish, within pearly. Rivers of Coromandel.

18. M. oval, greenish; protuberant parts knotty.

19. M. oval, longitudinally and thickly striated; one end rounded, the other truncated.

20. M. rhombic; protuberant part glabrous. Rivers of Tranquebar.

21. M. gaping at both ends, thick, lamellous, oblong, oval; 5 inches long, 10 broad. Mediterranean seas.

22. M. ovate, depressed; margin of the hinge with a tubulate projection near the primary tooth; that of the other valve dilated. Rivers of Guinea.

23. M. oval, smooth; an obtuse tooth in each hinge. Norway.

24. M. ovate, membranaceous, with a protracted reflected margin at the proboscid. Greenland coast.

25. M. coarse, thick, oblong, striated, convex; hinge without a tooth. Greenland coast.

26. M. with an oval and large hiatus opposite to the hinge; length of a horse bean. Weymouth.

27. M. subtriangular, opaque, white; under valve deep; upper valve not half the size of the other. Cornwall, Devonshire. Montagu, Teyl. Brit. p. 38.

28. M. subpellucid, faintly striated transversely; fides nearly equal, rounded; hinge central, ½ of an inch; found in hard limestone at Plymouth. Montagu, Teyl. Brit. p. 39.

29. M. oval, thin, brittle, flat; striae fine, concentric. Falmouth harbour.

30. M. subpellucid, thin, fragile, distorted into various shapes. Falmouth. Montagu, Teyl. Brit. p. 42.

31. M. suboval, compressed; hinge with two broad, erect, laminated teeth in one valve; none in the other. Salcombe bay.

Gen. 5. SOLEN, Razor-shell.

Gen. Char.—The animal inhabiting this shell is an acclidium: shell bivalve, oblong, open at both ends; hinge with a tubulate reflected tooth, often double, and not inserted in the opposite valve.

SPECIES.

* 1. S. linear, straight, roundish; one end margined; hinge with a single opposite tooth in each valve. European and Indian seas, Caermarthenshire, Weymouth.

* 2. S. linear, straight, one hinge 2-toothed. European and Indian seas. Length 1 inch, breadth 8 inches. Common on the shores of Britain, where it is employed as food.—This species lurks in the sand, near low-water mark, in a perpendicular direction, and when in want of food, they raise one end above the surface, and protrude the body a considerable way out of the shell. At the approach of danger they dart deep into the sand, as far even as to the depth of two feet; and the place is known by a small hollow on the surface. They are sometimes taken by digging them out of the sand, or by striking a barbed dart into their bodies.

* 3. S. linear, in form of a scyometer; one hinge 2-toothed; ¼ of an inch long, 5 inches broad. European seas; not uncommon on the British shores.

* 4. S. subarched, suboval, pellucid; one hinge 2-toothed; length ¾ inch, breadth above one inch. Anglesea, Cornwall.

* 5. S. linear, oval, straight; hinge in the middle 2-toothed, one of them bind; 2½ inches broad. European and Atlantic seas, Anglesea, Hampshire.

* 6. S. kidney-shaped, a single tooth in one valve, two cutellas in the other. Europe and India, Cornwall.

7. S. oval, straight, smooth, with a transverse, de-radiatus, pressed rib on one side. India.

8. S. oval, obliquely striated. Atlantic and Indian frigidae seas.

9. S. ovate, membranaceous, hairy, with a falcated anatinus rib at the hinge. Indian ocean.

10. S. oval, oblong, truncated before. Pacific ocean. macha.

—This species produces pearl.

11. S. roundish, inflated, substriated. Indian and American seas.

* 12. S. oval; angles of the valves serrated; size of a minute cucumber seed. Coral rocks in Norway and Greenland; in hard limestone at Plymouth.

13. S. ovate, oblong, with tumid bosses. Java.

14. S. oval, straight, smooth, with prominent mem-diplos. branes; 2½ inches long, 5 broad. Indian ocean.

15. S. linear, oval, straight. Tranquebar.

16. S. linear, oval, straight, with arched striae. Ni-maximus cobar. A very rare species.

17. S. transversely wrinkled, contracted in the mid-coardleddle, rounded at both ends; ¼ of an inch long, 2½ broad. Nicobar islands.

18. S. equivale, rofy, tooth of the hinge subfissid.roeus. Red Sea.

19. S. oval, quite smooth; hinge callous, two-tooth-sanguine ed. Jamaica.

20. S. equivale, transversely striated; hinge with striature, a single tooth. Nicobar islands.

21. S. transversely striated, hinges 2-toothed, with a occident hollow in the middle; 4 inches broad, and 2 long.

* 22. S. partly smooth, partly rough, with undulated, crispus, crimped lines. River Tees in England.

23. S. protuberances or beaks of the shell 2-parted, spengleri an inch long, 2½ broad; rounded at the ends.

* 24. S. pellucid, fragile, depressed; suboval, concentrically wrinkled; a blunt tooth in each valve; ¾ of an inch long, and ¾ broad. Torcross. Montagu, Teyl. Brit. p. 566.

Gen. 6. TELLINA.

Gen. Char.—The animal is a tethys: the shell is bivalve, generally sloping on one side; in the fore part of one valve there is a convex, and in that of the other, a concave fold; the hinge has usually three teeth, the lateral ones flat or nearly obsolete, in one valve.

SPECIES.

A. Ovate and thickish.

1. T. roundish, compressed, wrinkled on the fore-gargadin part. Indian ocean, very rare.

2. T. subovate, rough, with lunated scales, disposed lingua in a quincunx. Indian ocean.

3. T. angular, with transverse, recurved striae; 2 virgata. inches long, and 2½ broad. Indian and Atlantic oceans.

4. T. subovate, angular before, with transverse, re-angulata, curved striae; no lateral teeth; 1½ inch long, and 2 broad. Indian ocean.

5. T. 5. T. striae recurved, transverse; lateral teeth obsolete. Indian ocean.

6. T. ovate, white, gibbous, with transverse, recurved striae; beaks yellowish. European seas, Britain.

7. T. very thick, depressed, oblong, with transverse, concentric striae. Europe, Britain.

8. T. very thick, broad, depressed; concentric striae numerous, 1½ inch broad, and 1½ long. Europe, Britain.

9. T. wrinkles transversely undulated, hinged with two lateral teeth. Indian and American seas.

10. T. rounded, thick, gibbous; striae longitudinal, fine.

11. T. ovate, ventricose, inequivalve, with decussated striae. Tranquebar.

12. T. thin, ovate, ventricose, and transversely striated; wrinkles on the fore part, plaited; 3 lines long, and an inch and a half broad. Guinea.

13. T. angular, ventricose; and finely striated transversely.

14. T. equivalve, roundish, white, with a few transverse striae round the edges.

15. T. rich red colour, with a violet margin; 2½ inches broad, and 1½ long.

16. T. transversely striated; one side bent and reddish, with red rays; ¼ inch long, and 2 inches broad.

17. T. ovate, ventricose, thin, transversely striated, very minute. Rivers of Europe.

18. T. subovate, thickish, with decussated striae, and irregular spots; figure of the spots different in different shells, but exactly similar in both valves of the same shell. Denbigh in England.

19. T. obliquely subovate, transversely grooved; size of a pea. River Avon near Salisbury.

B. Ovate, compressed.

20. T. oval, smooth, with prominent membranes; size of an egg. European ocean.

21. T. oval, with rough pubes, flattened sides, ferated; 1½ inch long, and 3 broad. Indian ocean.

22. T. ovate, compressed, transversely subfriated, smooth, with acute margins. European and Mediterranean seas; common on the shores of Britain.

23. T. ovate, oblong, with pale purple eyes. European and Atlantic seas, Britain.

24. T. ovate, smooth, lateral teeth, margined. European and Indian seas.

25. T. oblong; striae faint, longitudinal. European and American seas, Britain.

26. T. oblong, the fore-part produced into an angular beak. Indian ocean.

27. T. oblong, produced into a beak, upper valve flat, lower convex; length ¼ inch, breadth 1 inch. European and North seas.

28. T. ovate, smoothish, triradiate, with red and slightly striated transversely. European seas, Britain.

29. T. ovate, a little produced on the fore-part, flattish; 2 inches broad. European and Mediterranean seas, Britain.

30. T. ovate, flattish, very obtuse on the fore-part. Mediterranean, Sandwich, Weymouth.

31. T. oval, compressed, subfriated; fore-part truncated. Java.

32. T. flat, fore-part truncated, yellow; 1½ inch trilatera long, and 2 broad.

33. T. oblong, brittle, yellowish; rounded on one oblonga side. Europe.

34. T. white, transversely striated, and bifariously spengleri, hooked on each side. Nicobar islands.

35. T. with rugged, concentric striae; the size of a rugosa filbert. Weymouth.

36. T. oval, oblong, deeply striated, parallel to the cornubi-margin. Cornwall.

37. T. oblong, ovate, compressed, with fine, transversely, verte striae; 1 inch long, and 2 broad. North seas, Weymouth, Yorkshire.

38. T. purple, with white bands, and decussated operculata striae; one valve convex, the other flat; 2½ inches broad and 1½ long.

39. T. oval, inequivalve, flat, pellucid, with fine hyalina decussated striae; 1½ inch long, 3 broad. Guinea.

40. T. yellowish, very thin, perpendicularly striate vitrea, North and Baltic seas.

41. T. oval, very thin, transversely striated; 10 lanceolata, lines long, 1½ inch broad. India.

42. T. oval, pellucid, with a rib in each valve, apelina, reaching from the hinge to the outer margin; very thin. Nicobar.

43. T. oval, pellucid, scarlet, transversely striated, coccinea, very thin. Sea round Iceland.

44. T. striae fine, transverse, lengthened forwards virginica, into a beak, very small and rounded. Rivers of Virginia.

45. T. nearly triangular, margin dilated; 2 inches alata, broad, and 1½ long.

46. T. rounded, flat, thin, with longitudinal striae, pellicula.

47. T. flattish, red, with white rays; one end point-augulataed, the other rounded.

48. T. oval, rounded at one end; variegated, with variegata, a whitish ray at the crown.

49. T. oval, a little pointed at one end; 2½ inches madagascariensis, long, and 3½ broad. Madagascar.

50. T. purplish at each end; 1½ inch long, and something broader.

51. T. pointed at one end, yellowish within, radia-asperata, and rough with transverse striae without; 1½ inch long, and 3 inches broad.

52. T. slightly wedged, whitish, and transversely triangulata-frustrated; 1½ inch broad, and 1 long.

53. T. white, with unequal sides, pointed at one end; lata.

54. T. thick, beak purplish without. Jamaica, jamaicensis.

55. T. outwardly white and rough, with transverse rhombic striae; within bluish; 2 inches broad, 1 long. River border, Tees, England.

56. T. purplish, tawny, with white rays; 1 inch vinacea, long, and 1½ broad. British and Baltic seas.

57. T. rofy, with a white band. Shores of Tuszonata, cany.

58. T. whitish, with a paler band; within yellow, albicans.

59. T. reddish, with pale yellow spots, and decussata-rufescens, striae; ¼ inch long, 1½ broad.

60. T. unequal sided, depressed, minutely striated, plana.

61. T. unequal sided, round at both ends, rofy white, striata, pellucid; 2 inches broad, 1½ long.

62. T. rofy, with thin ribs running from the hinge rosea, to the margin; 1 inch long, 1½ broad.

63. T. punicea. 63. T. oval, flat, equal sided, transversely striated; 1 inch long, 2 broad.

complana. 64. T. obovate, flattened; obsoletely striated, red-dish, with a dilated margin; 2 inches long, 3 broad.

fabula. * 65. T. ovate, comprressed, inflated, lengthened before; one valve smooth, the other with oblique, reflected striae. Mediterranean, American and North seas, Wales.

adansonii. 66. T. whitish, with a violet hinge. Africa.

cancellata. 67. T. thin, with numerous longitudinal grooves crossing the transverse wrinkles. Atlantic.

arizofa. 68. T. with whitish bands, glabrous and wrinkled at the margin. African shores.

C. Suborbicular.

batalina. 69. T. dilated, orbicular, lateral teeth in one valve. Mediterranean.

remies. 70. T. comprressed and transversely wrinkled; 3 inches long, 3½ broad. Indian and American oceans.

reticulata. 71. T. lentiform, comprressed, reticulate. India.

scobitina. 72. T. lentiform, rough, with lunated scales disposed in a quincunx; 2½ inches long, 2½ broad. Indian ocean.

lactea. 73. T. lentiform, gibbous, white, pellucid, smooth. Mediterranean.

carnaria. * 74. T. white, with a rosy tinge within and without; fine striae, disposed obliquely. Europe and American islands, Britain.

bimaculata. * 75. T. triangularly rounded, smooth, whitish, with two oblong red spots on the inside; scarcely an inch broad. Europe and American seas, Britain.

balhica. 76. T. roundish, smooth, outside bloom colour; size of a horse bean. Baltic.

pifformis. 77. T. subglobular, smooth, obliquely substriated; size of a pea; mouths of rivers in Europe.

divaricata. 78. T. subglobular, white, with oblique bifarious striae. American seas.

digitaria. 79. T. subglobular, pale, surrounded with oblique uniform striae; size of a pea, nearly an inch long. American and Indian seas.

cornea. * 80. T. globular, glabrous, horn-colour, with a transverse groove; size of a pea. Ponds and fresh waters of Europe, Britain.

lacustris. 81. T. rhombic, flattish, glabrous, with an acute protuberance. Pools and marshes of Europe.

amnea. 82. T. heart-shaped, transversely grooved. Pools and ditches of Europe.

fluminalis. 83. T. triangular, gibbous, transversely striated. River Euphrates.

fluminea. 84. T. triangular, gibbous, transversely ribbed. China.

aurivatilis. 85. T. triangular, transversely wrinkled. Canton.

iberica. 86. T. globular, smooth, polished. Shores of Iberia.

adriatica. 87. T. subglobular, margined, denticulated, white without, pearly within. Shores of the Adriatic.

finuosa. 88. T. subglobular, equivale and equal-sided, with a few transverse striae.

purpurata. 89. T. equal sided, smooth, lucid purple colour; one inch long, 1½ broad.

candida. 90. T. white, with fine transverse striae.

gallica. 91. T. triangular, pectinated. France.

senegalensis. 92. T. triangular, globose, with transverse grooves. Africa.

angulosa. 93. T. oval, flattish, transversely striated, fore-part angularly inflected. America.

94. T. transversely striated, orbicular, angular on polygon the fore-part. India.

Gen. 7. Cardium, Cockle.

Gen. Char.—The animal is a tethys: the shell is bivalve, nearly equilateral, equivale, generally convex, longitudinally ribbed, striated or grooved, with a toothed margin. Hinge of the two teeth near the beak, and a larger remote lateral one on each side; each locking into the opposite.

Species.

1. C. gibbous, equivale, with elevated, carinated, costatus, concave, membranaceous ribs; three inches long, three and a half broad, three high. African ocean.

2. C. heart-shaped, valves comprressed and carinate-cardifrons with teeth; two inches and a half long, above two broad. Indian ocean.

3. C. heart-shaped; fore part surrounded with lines, roeum; hind part with broader striae, forming by their union the figure of a heart. Nicobar islands.

4. C. heart-shaped; valves striated, notched; behind retusum the beaks a lunated heart-shaped gape; two inches long, and nearly the same breadth. India, Arabia, and Egypt.

5. C. heart-shaped, subquadrilateral; valves carina-hemisected, beaks distant. Indian ocean.

6. C. heart-shaped, subtrilateral; valves transversely lithocar-grooved, and the fore-part longitudinally striated; has dum. only been found in the fossil state.

7. C. heart-shaped, carinated; fore-part obliquely lineatus-truncated, thin, quite smooth, snowy, with gilt striae above an inch long.

* 8. C. something heart-shaped, subangular; valves an-medular, grooved, smooth. European and American seas, coast of Durham.

* 9. C. somewhat heart-shaped, ribs high, and grooved aculeatus down the middle, and befit with large hollowed spines near the circumference. European and Mediterranean seas, Devonshire.

* 10. C. slightly heart-shaped; ribs spinous, carinated-echinatus. European seas, Britain.

* 11. C. slightly heart-shaped, triangular ribs, befit ciliare along the ridges with thin spines; size of a hazel-nut. European seas, Cornwall.

12. C. slightly heart-shaped, with elevated, subtriciliatum-angular, ciliated grooves. North seas.

13. C. somewhat heart-shaped, with obtuse, knotty, tubercu-transversely striated grooves. Mediterranean.

14. C. heart-shaped, with arched imbricated scales ifocardi along the grooves. Mediterranean.

15. C. somewhat heart-shaped, subangular. India, fragum.

16. C. subcordate, with lunated, coloured grooves-unedo. India.

17. C. subcordate, grooved, and muricated at the mural fides. America.

18. C. oblong, with angular grooves, ferrated at the magnum fide. America and India.

19. C. subovate, grooved; anterior margin rough, flavum posterior one toothed. India.

* 20. C. obovate, with obsolete, longitudinal striae, levigatus and a few transverse ones concealed by a gloomy, yellowish brown epidermis. European and American seas, Britain.

21. C. 21. C. obovate, smooth, with obsolete striae; interior margin serrated. Mediterranean and Indian seas.

22. C. antiquated, with 28 depressed ribs, with obsolete, recurved scales. Abounds frequently on all sandy coasts, and is lodged a little beneath the sand. This is employed as a wholesome and nourishing food. It is the common cockle of this country.

23. C. grooved with about 36 triangular, smooth ribs. Iceland and Greenland seas.

24. C. antiquated, glabrous, thin, with angular ferruginous lines; two and three-fourths inches long, three and a half broad. Greenland and Iceland.

25. C. antiquated, with 20 remote grooves, the intermediate spaces rugged. Mediterranean seas.

26. C. Subantiquated, hind-part with 20 grooves imbricated upwards. Barbary.

27. C. slightly heart-shaped and pectinated. Mediterranean.

28. C. triangular, rounded, equilateral, with transverse, membranaceo-recurred wrinkles; hinges blue. Mediterranean.

29. C. triangular, gibbous, striated. Calpian sea.

30. C. heart-shaped, subrhombic, 24 ribs on each side; the grooves finely notched; two and one-fourth inches long, one and three-fourths broad. Arabia and Egypt.

31. C. oval, smooth; margin striated on each side the beak.

32. C. gibbous; one side impressed and ochraceous, the other convex, heart-shaped, and whitish, spotted with yellow. Nicobar islands. A very rare species.

33. C. gibbous, with prickly ribs; anterior ones with recurved, membranaceous tubercles, crenated at the sides. Nicobar islands.

34. C. rounded, ventricose, white, with deep teeth on the margin; anterior ones rosy. Africa and America.

35. C. pellucid, cinereous, with thin longitudinal striae. India.

36. C. thick, with longitudinal anterior striae, and transverse posterior ones. Guinea, Antilles islands.

37. C. Yellowish, oblong, turgid ribbed, anterior parts glabrous; margin notched; three inches long, two and a half broad, ribs about 30. Mediterranean.

38. C. brownish, rather oblong, thick, antiquated, with deeper teeth on the margin; ribs about 23. Mediterranean and North seas.

39. C. broad, unequal sided, within white; ribs flat and spinulous; two inches long, two and a half broad. Tranquebar and Nicobar islands.

*40. C. somewhat heart-shaped, subangular; grooves imbricated, or befed with recurved scales. Falmouth, Sandwich.

41. C. with crowded, undulated wrinkles; ribs broad, grooves narrow; three inches long, three and one-fourth broad. Bay of Campeachy.

42. C. rounded, brown; ribs flexuous, grooves wrinkled; 1½ inch long, and about the same breadth.

*43. C. flattish, thick, white, with flat ribs. Mouth of the Tees, England. Rare.

44. C. rounded, yellowish-white, varied with red, green, and brown, and marked with decussated striae. Cadiz.

45. C. rounded; ribs flat, broad, finely notched. Brazil.

46. C. rather oblong, white, with blackish spots; ambocular ribs about 12, very convex; 1½ inches long.

47. C. heart-shaped, equilateral, tawny white and guamo-purplish within; ribs with imbricated scales.

48. C. reddish, thin, rounded, with decussated cancellatum striae.

49. C. reddish, unequal sided; ribs convex, transe-rubiginosely striated.

50. C. unequal sided, ribbed, whitish, within pur-albidum; minute.

51. C. inequilateral, oblong, with fine ribs doubled virgescens above.

52. C. rounded, whitish, with a brown band; ribs fasciatum acute.

Gen. Char.—The animal is a tethys; the shell is bivalve, unequal fided and equivalent; the middle tooth of the hinge is complicated, with a small hollow on each side; the lateral ones are remote, and inserted into each other.

Species.

1. M. smooth, with a flat, anterior margin, on which spengleri is a lunate cape, 3½ inches broad. Cape of Good Hope.

2. M. with transverse, wrinkled plaited, diaphanous; plicatoria; anterior margin flattened, shell thin like paper; from 1 to 2 inches long, 2½ broad. Indian ocean.

3. M. thin, pellucid, white, convex, fore-part a papyracea, little gaping, finely striated and ribbed. Nicobar islands. Very rare.

4. M. smooth, diaphanous; back subtriated, with striatula; a smooth marginal impression before them, surrounded with a rim; 2½ inches long; 3 broad. Mediterranean and Coromandel coasts.

5. M. triangular, thick, with strong, thick crowd-striata, ed, arched striae.

6. M. obtusely triangular, whitish, with milk-white rotundata bands on the beak; margins on each side the beaks violet; 1½ inch long, and nearly 2 broad. Mediterranean.

7. M. smooth, diaphanous, striated; beaks smooth, glabrata; margins on each side of them striated; 1½ inch long and 2 broad. African and Indian oceans.

8. M. snowy, glossy, thick, diaphanous, smooth; nitida, depressions on each side the beaks striated.

9. M. smooth, subdiaphanous, white, with paler corallina bands; 2 inches broad, 1½ long. Mediterranean and Guinea.

10. M. thin, turgid, pellucid white; fore-part fine-lactea, ly striated, with paler bands. Indian ocean.

*11. M. semitransparent, smooth, glossy, obsoletely fulvorum, radiated, white without, purplish within; sides nearly equal; length 1½ inch, breadth 1¼. European and American seas, England, and shores of Scotland.

12. M. semitransparent, smooth, fawn-colour with grandis pale rays; beak and hinge placed beyond the middle; 2½ inches long, 3½ broad.

*13. M. strong, subtriangular, of a yellowish-white folida, colour, with a few concentric ridges; equal fided; 1½ inch long, 1¾ broad. Common on European shores, and also in Britain.

*14. M. oval, oblong, smooth, with irregular con-lutaria concentric striae; inside glossy white, gaping a little at both ends. ends. Europe, near the mouths of rivers. Found very large on the coast of Caernarvonshire, and some parts of Cornwall.—The animal which inhabits this shell, according to Montagu, is an aeolida; and he observes that it frequently protrudes not less than 7 or 8 inches from the smaller end in search of food. *Teth. Brit. p. 190.

15. M. three-sided, finely striated transversely; fore-part flattened and slightly wrinkled; 1 inch long and rather broader. Tranquebar.

16. M. obtusely triangular, smooth, thin, with pellucid chestnut spots; within white, and finely striated; a heart-shaped impression behind the beaks; 1½ inch long, and rather broader.

17. M. inflated, faintly striated, ochraceous and white within; hinge with a supernumerary, triangular, double tooth; 2¾ inches long, 3½ broad. Tranquebar.

18. M. thin, obsoletely radiated, finely striated transversely; margins on each side the beaks whitish; 2 inches long and 3 broad. Tranquebar.

19. M. wedge-shaped, blue, with fine transverse striae; margin notched within; 1 inch long and scarcely so broad.

20. M. ovate, dirty white with glaucous rays, and fine transverse striae; 2¾ inches long, 3½ broad. Mediterranean.

21. M. ovate, thin, pellucid, white, with unequal transverse striae; 1½ inch long, and 2 broad. Guinea.

22. M. ovate, thin, smooth, pellucid, flattish; anterior gape transversely striated, and wrinkled. Nicobar islands.

23. M. ovate, dirty white, with elevated longitudinal striae; crossing the transverse ones, which are a little more raised; 2¼ inches long, 2½ broad; thick, and white within.

24. M. ovate, thin, pellucid, smooth on the fore-part; the hind-part with cancellated striae. Nicobar islands.

25. M. ovate, thin, with arched plates; the plates transversely striated; no lateral teeth; 1 inch long, 2½ broad. India.

26. M. very thin, nearly round, whitish; hinge with a triangular tooth, and large cavity; 1½ inch long, and 2 broad. Common on the shores of Britain. *Mastra compressa*, Montagu, *Teth. Brit.* p. 96.

27. M. ovate, compressed, transversely striated; hinge teeth very minute, with a large oblique hollow. Mediterranean.

Gen. 9. DONAX, or Wedge-shell.

Gen. Char.—The animal is a tethys. The shell is bivalve, with generally a crenulate margin; the anterior margin very obtuse; hinge with two teeth, and a single marginal one placed a little behind; rarely double, or triple.

**SPECIES.**

1. D. triangular, heart-shaped, with a flat frontal margin. Indian ocean.

2. D. ciliated with spines on the anterior margin. Indian ocean.

3. D. wrinkled and gibbous before, with notched *rugosa* margins. Mediterranean and Atlantic seas.

4. D. oblong, smooth, gloomy, finely striated longitudinally; margin crenated; an inch broad. European coasts, Wales.

5. D. obtuse before, striated, the margin denticula *striata*. Southern Europe.

6. D. obtuse in front, lips transversely wrinkled; denticula finely striated longitudinally; margin denticulated, ta. European and American seas; shores of Britain, but rare.

7. D. wedge-shaped, margins very entire; 1 inch *cuneata*, long, 1½ broad. Tranquebar.

8. D. gibbous, finely striated transversely, spotted *falsa*, with yellow.

9. D. ovate, compressed, smooth, marked with pur *scripta*, ple waved lines; margins crenulate. Malabar coasts.

10. D. ovate, striae muricata; margin denticulat *muricata*. ed. Indian ocean.

11. D. oval, with transverse, waved, erect, striated, *irur*, membranaceous wrinkles; size of a small kidney bean. Mediterranean, shores of Devonshire and Cornwall, where it is found in the hardest limestone.

12. D. obtuse before, obsoletely striated at the sides; *levigata*, margin very entire; hinge without marginal teeth; 1½ inch long, 2 inches broad. Tranquebar.

13. D. hind-part smooth and perpendicularly striat *sinuata*, ed; fore-part truncated, and finely cancellated; angles spinous. Tranquebar. Very rare.

14. D. flesh-coloured, anterior part truncated, wrin *incarnata*, led, and marked with reticulated striae; hind-part wedge-shaped, and furrowed with fine perpendicular striae. Tranquebar.

15. D. oval, smooth, olive-green, within filvery *argentea*, margin with more elevated acute teeth, near the hinge.

16. D. ovate with elevated striae crossing a few *icolor*, transverse ones; rufous with a white ray on one side.

17. D. brown, with hyaline spots; outside with *radiata*, crowded, arched, transverse striae, inside with perpendicular ones; 1 inch broad, 1½ long. Tranquebar.

18. D. with thin perpendicular striae, crossing the *graminea*, transverse ribs on the fore-part; straw colour, with darker transverse bands; margin tawny and entire behind; 1 inch long, ¾ broad.

19. D. entirely white, with a few thin, arched, *candida*, transverse striae, which are oblique towards the rim; hinge with three oblique middle teeth; margin entire; 1 inch long, and something broader.

20. D. oblong, smooth, gloomy, light yellow, with *complana*, small spots or streaks of white, and one broad ray of *rata*, the same from the back to the opposite margin; ¼ inch long, ¾ broad. Devonshire, but rare. Montagu, *Teth. Brit.* p. 106.

21. D. oblong, suboval, smooth, gloomy, commonly *plebeia*, marked with two brown stripes longitudinally from the beak; margin smooth; scarcely ½ inch long, ½ broad. Weymouth, Dorsetshire. Montagu, *Teth. Brit.* 107.

Gen. 10. VENUS.

Gen. Char.—The animal a tethys; shell bivalve, frontal margin flattened, with incumbent lips; hinge with three teeth, all of them approximate; the lateral ones divergent at the tip.

**SPECIES.** SPECIES.

A. Shell somewhat heart-shaped.

1. V. transversely grooved, with a double row of spines on the flattened side. American ocean. This shell is very rare.

*2. V. somewhat heart-shaped, with thickened wrinkles; flattened side with attenuated wrinkles; lips complicated; 2 inches long, 1½ broad. American islands, Cornwall.

3. V. heart-shaped, with decussated striae, flattened margin, lamellated. American ocean. Very rare.

4. V. somewhat heart-shaped, with transverse, remote, reflected grooves; margin crenulated. American ocean. Very rare.

5. V. brittle, glabrous, with a few transverse striae. Brazil.

6. V. lentiform, transversely striated, with a deep, heart-shaped depression behind the beaks; flat side, broad.

verrucosa. *7. V. with membranaceous, transverse, striated grooves, forming tubercles towards the outer margin; margin crenulated; 2 inches long, 2 broad. Mediterranean, Antilles islands, Cornwall.

8. V. longitudinally striated forwards, and transversely backwards. American islands.

divergens. 9. V. white, with fine, crowded, divergent striae. American islands.

cassina. 10. V. with transverse, recurved, acute grooves; posterior margin crenated, and grooved behind the beaks. European seas. It is often found in a fossil state.

concinnata. 11. V. with transverse, membranaceous, remote striae, and a heart-shaped depression behind the beaks; 1 inch long, 1½ broad. Indian ocean.

gallina. *12. V. radiate, with transverse, obtuse striae; hind tooth of the hinge minute; margin crenulated; 1 inch long, 1½ broad. American and European seas, Cornwall.

guineensis. 13. V. with transverse, acute striae; lips finely striated and rosy; margin very entire. Africa.

petula. 14. V. slightly grooved, margin crenated; size of a hazel-nut. South of Europe.

flexuosa. 15. V. grooves obtuse, transverse; lips of the anterior margin with an elevated angle; 1 inch long, 1½ broad. American and Indian oceans.

erycina. 16. V. grooves transverse, parallel, obtuse; anterior margin glabrous; depression behind the beaks ovate; 2½ inches long, 3 broad. India.

mercenaria. 17. V. strong and thick, with slight transverse striae, and covered with a brown cuticle; within, pale violet; margin crenated; 3 inches long, and nearly 3 broad. Europe, North America. Shells of this species are found fossil in the mountains of Sweden. In North America they are called clams, and the Indians make wampum or money of them.

icelandica. *18. V. thick and strong, with slight transverse striae, and covered with a brown cuticle; within pure white, and smooth; margin entire; 3½ inches long, 4 broad. Europe, Africa, Caspian sea, Caermarthenshire, and shores of Scotland. The fish is employed as food by the Icelanders.

*19. V. smooth, with fine transverse wrinkles; margin entire; hind tooth of the hinge lanceolate; 3 inches long, 3½ broad. Asiatic seas; Cornwall, where the species is called queen.

20. V. smooth, with a few faint spots; 1½ inch long, maculata; 2½ broad. American ocean.

21. V. glabrous, with a brown gibbous slope before, meretrix, and gaping membranes; margin entire. Near the mouths of rivers, Indian ocean.

22. V. smooth, radiated with white; lips of the anterior slope violet; 1½ inch long, 1½ broad. Mediterranean and Indian seas.

23. V. triangular, rounded, gibbous, smooth, and caffrensis, marked with angular characters; 1½ inch long, 2 broad. Indian ocean, Red sea.

24. V. smooth, transversely striated before and behind; posterior slope obcordate, with violet veins. Southern ocean.

25. V. ovate, compressed, transversely striated, with meroe; a gaping future behind; 1½ inch long, 2½ broad. American and Indian ocean.

26. V. subovate, transversely striated, and subpel-minuta. Lucid; membranes closed; from 1 to 2 inches broad, 1½ long. Iceland.

*27. V. oval, longitudinally wrinkled, semipellucid, deflorata, faintly radiated with purple and white; 1½ inch long, 1½ broad. European and American seas, Falmouth.

28. V. oval, gibbous, longitudinally striated, and fimbriata, transversely grooved; margin crenated; 2 inches long, 3 broad. East Indies.

29. V. striae elevated, decussated; heart-shaped de-reticulata, pression behind; margin entire; 2 inches long, 2½ broad. India.

30. V. striae reticulated, and scaly on the back part. squamosa. India.

31. V. roundish with decussated, membranaceous puerpera, striae; lips flexuous. India.

32. V. triangular, smooth, retuse behind and be-tripla. fore; 1 inch long, and rather broader. Mediterranean.

33. V. with arched, membranaceous, transverse striae; plicata, posterior slope reddish, heart-shaped; lips oblique. Indian seas. Very rare.

34. V. gibbous, with transverse, membranaceous, rugosa, arched striae; posterior slope heart-shaped; margin crenated; 2 inches long, 2 broad. India.

35. V. with transverse, acute striae, anteriorly membranaceous; anterior slope short, posterior indistinct. Red sea.

36. V. rounded, with decussated striae; fore-part and granulata, crenated margin violet. American ocean.

37. V. with perpendicular, imbricated ribs, trans-imbricata, verely striated; margin crenated. It has been found in a fossil state in France.

38. V. with fine transverse striae, crossing some di-divaricata, verging longitudinal ones towards the margin; posterior impression ovate; margin crenated. E. Indies.

39. V. oblong, flattish, transverse striae running contraria, contrary behind; margin crenated. Guinea.

40. V. oblong, ovate, radiated, with thick, crowd-gallus, ed, transverse striae; anterior slope broad, ovate; posterior impression heart-shaped; 1½ inch long, 2 broad. Malabar.

41. V. transversely striated, the back glabrous; an-flammea, anterior slope broad, with brown lines; posterior impressions heart-shaped, with brown lines. Red sea.

---

3 F

42. V. 42. V. triangular, smooth, truncated on each side, with yellowish rays; flops heart-shaped; margin very entire. Atlantic and American seas. Rare.

* 43. V. thin, convex, somewhat triangular, with a deep obtuse sinus in the middle of the front. Britain.

44. V. triangular, very smooth, olive coloured, obscurely banded; anterior flops heart-shaped; posterior ovate. Rivers of Guinea. Rare.

45. V. green, within white, with transverse, unequal, membranaceous striae; margin acute; 2½ inches long, 3 broad. Rivers of Ceylon.

46. V. gibbous, snowy; anterior part convex; within pale violet; anterior flops roundish, posterior heart-shaped; margin very entire. India.

47. V. thin, glabrous, convex; white variegated with brown; posterior flops elongated, with oblique tumid lips; four teeth in the hinge. Mauritius.

48. V. thick, convex; anterior flops ovate, posterior heart-shaped; hinge with three teeth. India.

49. V. convex, gray, with three blackish blue rays; posterior flops elongated; lips tumid. Tranquebar.

50. V. ochraceous, with cinereous and bluish spots; anterior flops oval; posterior flops ovate, bluish. Tranquebar.

51. V. thick, triangular, equilateral, smooth; beaks convergent; primary tooth of the hinge crenulated: minute. Malabar.

52. V. oblong, ovate, inequilateral; lid transverse; striae crowded at the sides; posterior slope oblong, ovate. Japan.

53. V. ventricose, anteriorly angular, with transverse, thick, smooth and slightly arched striae; posterior flops heart-shaped. India. Rare.

54. V. Oval, quite smooth, inequilateral; flops oblong; margin very entire; 1½ inch long, 2½ broad. Malabar, Red sea.

55. V. ovate, whitish; striae transverse, anteriorly thick and strong, posteriorly thin and undulating. Mediterranean.

56. V. ovate, whitish; striae decussated; hinge with only two teeth in the left valve. Nicobar islands.

57. V. solid, weighty, inequilateral, wrinkled on both sides; margin crenulated; hinge with two teeth. Southern ocean.

58. V. greenish, glabrous, thick; margin entire; beaks prominent.

59. V. ovate; striae perpendicular, falcate, crossing the transverse ones.

60. V. brown, with fine, perpendicular striae; 1½ inch long, 2½ broad.

61. V. oblong, with fine transverse striae; margin crenated. Seas round Portugal.

62. V. ovate, white, with bay lines, and yellowish dots. Corsica.

63. V. round, smooth, with bay and yellowish rays, partly blue, and partly livid.

64. V. oval, inequilateral, slightly wrinkled, flesh-coloured, with three rays; 1½ inch long, 2½ broad.

65. V. externally steel blue, with yellow rays; internally violet. Indian ocean.

66. V. oval, obliquely striated, whitish; rays white, tawny, bluish and red.

67. V. ovate, inequilateral, finely striated and dotted; variegated with blue; rays brownish and black.

68. V. ovate, violet; striae perpendicular; 1½ inch amethystine, 2½ broad.

69. V. posteriorly ovate, tranversely and unequally striated, and marked with angular lines. Shores of Lisbon.

70. V. ovate, with fine decussated striae; white or senegal flesh-coloured, varied with brown; 1½ inch broad, not fis. one inch long. Senegal.

71. V. triangular, white or yellow, with about matadore. 40 transverse parallel grooves; 1½ inch long. Senegal.

72. V. heart-shaped, with transverse, remote, exca-succincta, vated grooves; margin crenulated.

73. V. heart-shaped, much compressed, transversely compressa, grooved.

74. V. heart-shaped, polished, white, marked with australis, brownish characters; margin entire. Southern ocean.

75. V. ovate, livid, with numerous, interrupted, gigantic, bluish rays; posterior flops ovate. Shores of Ceylon and Florida.

B. Orbicular.

* 76. V. lentiform, with crenated, decussated striae; tigerina, posterior slope imprefted, ovate. American and Indian ocean, shores of Weymouth.

77. V. orbicular, transversely striated, with rough profrata, membranaceous lips; two inches long, not so broad. Coromandel.

78. V. lentiform, with glabrous wrinkles, white with penfylva, a longitudinal groove anteriorly on each side; 2 inches nice. long. America.

79. V. white, somewhat glabrous, with a longitudinal spuria, final groove anteriorly, and hinge without lateral teeth. Shores of Iceland and Ferro islands.

80. V. lentiform, glabrous, smooth, with excavated incrustata, dots. India.

81. V. lentiform, longitudinally grooved, dotted punctata, within; 2 inches long, 2½ broad. India, but rare.

* 82. V. lentiform, transversely striated, pale, with exoleta, obsolete rays; posterior flops heart-shaped; 2 inches long, and 2 broad. Norway, and coast of Britain, Cornwall.

* 83. V. thin, convex, orbicular, whitish, tinged with undata, yellow, with thin transverse striae; margin waved. British seas, Falmouth.

84. V. gibbous with transverse, remote, rather ob-tumidula, foliate grooves; margin entire.

85. V. longitudinally striated, with transverse, white, sinensis, and violet arches; margin interiorly crenated. Chinese shores.

86. V. lentiform, transversely striated, with an ob-funata, long gaping vent on the anterior slope; hinge with 4 teeth. Nicobar islands.

* 87. V. lentiform, with remote, transverse, membrabo-realis naceous striae; 1½ inch long, 2 broad. European seas, Britain.

88. V. sublentiform, with wrinkled longitudinal peclinata, grooves, branched near the anterior margin; 1½ inch long, 2 broad. Indian and American oceans.

89. V. lentiform, compressed, striated, angular; the scripta, hinder angle straight. Indian ocean, and Red sea. Very rare.

90. V. 92. V. subglobular, lenticular, wrinkled, without teeth; posterior floe ovate. American ocean.

91. V. very convex, and surrounded with rings; intermediate grooves crenated; posterior floe heart-shaped; margin crenulated. A minute shell.

92. V. white, sub-orbicular, compressed, with concentric striae; margin very entire; posterior floe heart-shaped. Atlantic and American seas. A large shell.

93. V. lentiform, with transverse, crowded striae; anteriorly circular, and terminating in wrinkles behind; posterior floe heart-shaped; margin very entire. India.

94. V. lentiform, with transverse, acute, arched striae; margin entire; posterior floe heart-shaped. India. Rare.

95. V. globular, with fine transverse striae; margin very entire; hinge with two teeth; 1 inch long, 1½ broad. Red sea. Very rare.

96. V. orbicular, equilateral, transversely wrinkled, and variegated with rufous. Japan.

97. V. orbicular, sub-compressed, equilateral, white, with fine transverse striae. Jamaica.

98. V. orbicular, inequilateral, with crowded, acute, transverse striae; 1½ inch long. Bay of Campeachy.

99. V. orbicular, solid, compressed, with fine transverse striae, and red rays.

100. V. orbicular, with fine transverse striae, and purple rays.

101. V. orbicular, inequilateral, chestnut with darker rays, and crowded, thick, transverse striae. Jamaica.

102. V. with perpendicular scaly striae; margin denticated, violet within.

103. V. striae perpendicular, and scaly towards the margin; colour chestnut; 2 inches long, 2½ broad.

104. V. sub-rufous, cancellated; a minute shell.

105. V. orbicular, nearly equilateral, with thick, perpendicular striae; beaks turned back. Bengal.

*106. V. sub-orbicular, inequilateral, transversely striated, and marked with faint longitudinal striae; 1 inch long, 1½ broad. Dorsetshire.

107. V. brown, with thin perpendicular striae; 1½ inch long, 2½ broad.

108. V. orbicular, sub-equilateral, perpendicularly wrinkled, and with purple rays; 1½ inch long, 1½ broad.

109. V. lentiform, teafaceous, wrinkled; posterior floe heart-shaped. Ionian shores.

110. V. orbicular, teafaceous, sub-equilateral, with distant transverse wrinkles.

111. V. lentiform, transversely striated, anteriorly truncated.

112. V. orbicular, smooth, golden, with a white star at the beak. Lisbon.

113. V. orbicular, pale yellow, with elevated, transverse, distant striae. Mediterranean.

114. V. lentiform, yellowish brown, with thin, transverse, distant striae; posterior floe heart-shaped, bluish; anterior floe broad, bluish. Brazil.

115. V. orbicular, pellucid, smooth; anterior floe pale golden, with chestnut spots; posterior floe heart-shaped, with red and green veins. Brazil.

116. V. orbicular, solid, white, with undulated, golden striae, and a broad yellow band towards the margin, variegated with transverse brown lines.

117. V. orbicular, ventricole, thick, brownish, ramo-caffinated with white; stria annular. Macassar.

118. V. sub-orbicular, of an orange colour; 2 inches aurantia long, 2½ broad.

119. V. lentiform, fulvous, with fine circular striae. fulva.

120. V. orbicular, white, with reticulated striae. candida.

121. V. orbicular, transversely striated, whitish, with albinos brown spots, lines, and angular characters.

122. V. sub-orbicular, transversely striated, white, undulata, with reddish undulated lines and dots.

123. V. orbicular, equilateral, white, with fine transverse striae, thicker towards the margin.

124. V. smooth, nearly equilateral, whitish. laevis.

125. V. orbicular, smooth, inequilateral, livid horn-cornea, colour, with a white, transverse line.

126. V. orbicular, fulvid, dotted with white at the guttata margin.

127. V. inequilateral, reddish, smooth, with a few rufescens transverse lines.

128. V. lentiform, stria cancellated and radiated; wires, margin crenulated; greenish, with darker spots.

129. V. white, with radiated spots and arched striae; maculosa, in the middle a large gray spot, tapering upwards.

130. V. entirely of a flesh colour, with longitudinal costata ribs crossing the remote transverse wrinkles; 1½ inch long, 1½ broad.

131. V. thin, convex, with fine transverse striae; with wauaria, in snowy, without marked with the letter W, and many scattered dots; beaks inflated.

132. V. tumid, folio, smooth; with a few transverse tumens, wrinkles towards the margin; hinge with 4 teeth in each valve; 1½ inches long, 2 broad. Africa.

133. V. thin, orbicular, pellucid, smooth, snowy; diaphana, hinge with two teeth in each valve; 1½ inch diameter. Western shores of Africa.

134. V. sub-orbicular, compressed, hard, transversely dura, grooved, reddish, with brown rays; 6 inches broad, 4½ long.

135. V. orbicular, compressed, snowy, with longitudinal rounded grooves, crossed with transverse striae; 9 lines in diameter. Africa.

136. V. transparent, pale, fulvous within and without, lucida, with fine longitudinal grooves; 16 lines long. Africa.

137. V. orbicular, a little convex, with longitudinal discors, stria perpendicular in the middle, obliquely divergent towards the outside, and crossed by transverse ones; intermediate grooves and inner margin crenated.

138. V. orbicular, sub-equilateral, with elevated, aculeata, acute, tuberculated ribs; margin denticulated, and crenated.

C. Oval, a little angular near the beaks.

*139. V. ovate, anteriorly angular, with undulated literata, transverse striae; 2 inches long, 2½ broad. Europe and India, coast of Britain.

140. V. Inequilateral, thin, with fine decussated geographica striae; white, reticulated with brown. Mediterranean.

141. V. ovate, anteriorly angular, with transverse rotundata, striae; intermediate tooth of the hinge bifid; 1½ inch long, 3 broad. Indian ocean. Rare.

*142. V. ovate, with decussated striae anteriorly angu-decussata, lar; 1½ inch long, 2 broad. Mediterranean, British coasts. 142. V. subovate, anteriorly subangular, with unequal, transversely striæ; anterior slope tumid. Adriatic.

143. V. ovate, transversely wrinkled; 1 inch long, 1½ broad. Virginia.

144. V. depressed or rhomboid, with concentric striæ; pale brown, variegated; ¾ inch long, 1¼ broad. British coasts.

145. V. ovate, inequilateral, transversely striated and spotted with red.

146. V. ovate, transversely striated; outwardly radiated and marked towards the margin with characters, lines and spots; within yellowish.

147. V. oval, smooth, yellowish, with red spots and dots; 1½ inch long, 1¾ broad. Shores of Naples.

148. V. oblongith, smooth, filivery, with black lines united into bands. Shores of Cadiz.

149. V. oblongith, flattened, anteriorly transversely grooved; internal margin crenulated; floes linear, excavated; 1½ inch long, 1¾ broad.

150. V. grooved, umbo pointed; posterior slope wrinkled and heart-shaped; grooves fine, about 130; 1 inch broad. Africa.

151. V. oblong, thin, flattened, bluish when the fish is alive, and snowy when it is dead; 1½ inch broad, ¾ long. Africa.

152. V. ovate, reticulated, gaping on each side; hinge with 2 teeth, alternately bifid. Shores of Croatia, among rocks and stones.

Gen. 11. Spondylus.

Gen. Char.—The animal a tethys; shell hard, solid, with unequal valves, one of them convex, the other rather flat; hinge with two recurved teeth, separated by a small hollow.

Species.

1. S. slightly eared and spinous, Mediterranean, Indian, and other seas.—This species varies greatly in size, thickness, and colours. Sometimes it is entirely purple, orange, white or bloom colour, and sometimes it is marked with various freaks, spots, dots, or bands.

2. S. without ears, and spinous. In this species the shell is sub-globular, white within, without purplish, scarlet, flame colour, orange or white: spines generally two inches long, sometimes cylindrical, with a crenated margin. India, Malta. Very rare.

3. S. without ears or spines, plaited. India, America, and the Mediterranean. The shell is white, with yellowish, reddish, brownish, or violet lines and veins.

4. S. oblong, plaited, spinous. In this species the shell is imbricated, of a citron colour, or red, with the inner margin orange. It is 2 inches long, 1½ broad. The whole shell is thin and nearly transparent.

Gen. 12. Chama, or Gaping Cockle.

Gen. Char.—The animal a tethys; the shell bivalve, rather coarse; hinge with a callous gibbosity, obliquely inserted in an oblique hollow; anterior slope elosed.

Species.

* 1. C. roundish, smooth; beaks recurved; anterior slope with a gaping fent. Adriatic and Caspian seas, Hebrides. Sometimes it is found of a large size.

2. C. plaited, with arched scales; posterior slope gigan-

gaping, with crenulated margins. Indian ocean.—This species sometimes measures only about an inch in length, but sometimes it is found to be the largest of shells, and equal to 53 lb. weight. The fish which it contains is said to furnish a meal to 120 men; and its muscular strength is so great as to cut asunder a cable, or lop off the hand of a man.

3. C. plaited, muricated, posterior slope retuse, hippocloed, toothed; 5 inches long, 7 broad. Indian ocean.

4. C. somewhat heart-shaped, with longitudinal antiquata grooves, and transverse striæ; ribs from 19 to 22. Atlantic and Indian seas.

5. C. trapeziform, gibbous, with longitudinal, crenulated grooves; about the size of a pea. Norway seas.

6. C. suborbicular, compressed, coarse, with decuss-femoribated striæ.

7. C. oblong with imbricated grooves; anterior canaliculata part retuse; ¾ inch long, 1½ broad. American and Indian seas.

8. C. heart-shaped, transversely striated; one side cordata elongated, compressed. Indian and Red seas.

9. C. roundish, with toothed grooves, mixed with satiata dots; posterior slope retuse; heart-shaped.

10. C. oblong, fore-part angular, with anterior acute oblonga teeth. Shores of Guinea.

11. C. imbricated, with jagged lamellæ; beak a lit-tazaurus, little spiral obliquely. India.

12. C. orbicular, muricated; one valve flatter, the gryphoid other with a sub-spiral, produced beak. Mediterranean, American, and Indian seas.

13. C. with conic valves, and horn-shaped, oblique, bicornis tubular beaks, longer than the valve. Indian and American seas.

14. C. grooved, muricated, with excavated dots; arcuella hinge with a fossile callus; 2 inches broad and 2 long. American ocean.

15. C. obtusely triangular, equilateral, plaited; an-moltkian anterior slope elevated, with oblique plates and striæ; size of a hazel nut.

16. C. transversely wrinkled, and longitudinally concave fricated. In the middle of each valve within is an ad-rata additional chamber. American ocean. Small, whitish. Very rare.

17. C. rounded, with lamellæ disposed in rows; in-macro-ternal margin crenulated. American ocean.

18. C. white, with foliaceous, ferrated, tranverse foliaceus striæ, the interstices crenated, beaks recurved. Mediterranean and American seas.—This species is found fossil in Campania; it is sometimes round, and sometimes oblong.

19. C. rounded, white, and undulated with brown, arata with triangular, wrinkled, perpendicular ribs; margin unequal. Shores of Syracuse.

20. C. wrinkled, oblong, narrow, brown; lower fusca; valves with a projecting, rounded, subincurred beak.

21. C. roundish, ventricose, inequivalve, muricated, citrea with scattered, unequal, scaly spines. America.—This shell is of a citron colour.

22. C. roundish, longitudinally striated; posterior thaca slope retuse. Shores of Chili, where it buries itself in the sands. The shell is white, violet, and yellow, and and within an elegant purple. It is about 4 inches in diameter. The fish affords a rich and agreeable food.

23. C. suborbicular, with very deep grooves; wrinkles slightly imbricated; margin doubly folded. The grooves are about 30 in number.

24. C. oblique, with a lateral oblique pit, wrinkled; callus of the hinge toothed. Barbary.

25. C. cylindrical, white, diaphanous, with decussated striae; the transverse striae arched and imbricated.

Gen. 13. ARCA, or Ark-shell.

Gen. Char.—The animal a tethys: The shell bivalve, equivalve; the hinge with a number of teeth, sharp, alternate, and inserted all along the rim.

SPECIES.

A. Margin very entire; beaks recurved.

1. A. paralleloped, deeply striated longitudinally; lesser valve obliquely carinated. Indian ocean. Very rare.

B. Margin entire; beak inflected.

* 2. A. Noah's ark; oblong, striated, and emarginated at the tip; beaks very remote, bent in; margin gaping. Mediterranean and Atlantic seas, Cornwall.

3. A. oblong, striated, bearded with byssus; beaks approximate; margin closed. Europe and Indian seas.

4. A. oblong, striated, anteriorly angular. Mediterranean.

5. A. ovate, pellucid, substriated; anterior slope distinctly prominent; hinge ciliar. Mediterranean.

6. A. ovate, with decussated striae, snowy, and covered with a russet brown epidermis; margin gaping. Red sea.

7. A. pellucid, brittle, round at each end, obsolescently striated; teeth of the hinge very sharp. Nicobar islands.

8. A. convex, with transverse striae; hind-part rounded, fore-part extended into an acute beak; 1½ inch long, 1¼ broad. Baltic and Norway seas.

9. A. lentiform, with numerous decussated striae; lateritious and reddish within; posterior excavation triangular; hinge arched; an inch broad, and something longer. Red sea.

10. A. roundish, biradiated, with transverse striae.

11. A. whitish, covered with a whiter skin, with decussated striae; grooved, and obliquely truncated; from 4 to 5 lines long, and 3 broad. Africa.

12. A. thick, roundish, longitudinally striated, and transversely ribbed; ribs with undulated striae; 3 inches long, 3¼ broad. Found in a fossil state in the duchy of Limbourg.

13. A. with cancellated striae, and bearded; margin gaping in the middle. American ocean.

* 14. A. a little compressed, transversely striated, tapering at the remoter end, and rounded at the opposite ones; 2½ lines long, and 4 broad. Greenland seas, Sandwich.

C. Margin crenated; beaks recurved.

* 15. A. with a rhomboidal, yellowish white shell, and obsolete decussated striae; size of a horse bean. European seas, Devonshire.

16. A. oblong, with striated tubercles; beaks in nodulosa, curved, remote; margin entire, closed. Denmark.

17. A. obliquely heart-shaped, with numerous un-antiquata, armed grooves. Mediterranean and Indian seas.

18. A. obliquely heart-shaped, smooth, with grooves; senilis, margin plaited; 3 inches long, 4 broad. America, Africa.

19. A. slightly heart-shaped, with muricated granosa, grooves; 1½ inch long, 1¾ broad. American and Indian oceans.

20. A. ovate compressed; with perpendicular knotty corbicula, striae; beaks obtuse, approximate. Nicobar islands.

21. A. lenticular, with longitudinal striae, crossed by decussata, faint, transverse ones; anterior slope closed. American ocean.

22. A. lenticular, nearly equilateral, perpendicularly equilatero-striated without and within; white, with chestnut spots. ra. American ocean.

23. A. lenticular, a little oblique, with decussated pallens, striae; anterior slope, with a very narrow vent. Indian and American oceans.

24. A. ventricose; striae decussated; anterior slope cucullus, heart-shaped; 2 inches long, and 3 broad. Nicobar islands.

25. A. rounded on each side; chestnut, and marked magellani-with decussated striae; external margin inflected, and ca. repand in the middle; beaks approximate. Straits of Magellan.

26. A. rhomboidal, white, with decussated striae; reticulata, beaks approximate; anterior slope heart-shaped.

27. A. pellucida, rhomboid, with decussated striae; candida, fore-part produced; hind-part truncated. American ocean and African shores.

28. A. inequivalve, ovate, with flat, longitudinal indica, striae and deep grooves; anterior slope heart-shaped; 1½ inch long, 1¾ broad. Indian ocean.

29. A. rounded before and truncated behind, with jamaicensis crenated or nodulous perpendicular ribs. Jamaica.

30. A. ovate, with broad, crenated, or scaly, per-campeachiperpendicular striae; hinge arched. Campeachy bay and ensis. Barbadoes.

31. A. broad, cancellated, truncated before; flatten-lata, ed side heart-shaped.

32. A. ovate, longitudinally grooved, with slight senegalensis-transverse wrinkles; white; 8 lines long, 10 broad. Africa.

D. Margin crenated; beak inflected

33. A. lenticular, without ears, smooth, with a undata, plaited margin; 2 inches long, 2 broad. American ocean.

34. A. lenticular, slightly eared, with slightly im-pecluncatus, grooves; margin plaited; 1½ inch long, lus, and something broader. American ocean and Red sea.

35. A. lenticular, without ears, with smooth, longi-peclinata, longitudinal striae. American ocean.

* 36. A. suborbicular, gibbous, and faintly striated glycymeris transversely. European and Indian seas, Cornwall.

Arca Pilosa, Montagu.

37. A. suborbicular, equilateral, hairy; 1½ inches pilosa, long; 2½ broad. Asiatic and American seas.

38. A. roundish, smooth, slightly eared, and trans-nummaria, transversely striated. Mediterranean.

* 39. A.

Chap. IV.

39. A. obliquely ovate, smoothish, with a triangular hinge; size of a hazel nut. European seas. It is sometimes found fossil. Shores of Britain.

40. A. entirely white, rhomboid, heart-shaped, and ribbed; anterior and dorsal ribs knotty; beaks remote. Indian and American oceans.

41. A. equilateral, thin, flattish, with fine decussated striae; beaks approximate; hinge arched. American ocean.

42. A. ventricose, with longitudinal striae and lines; and angular on one side; beaks approximate; hinge arched; brown with a few spots. Shores of Africa and American ocean.

43. A. oblong, much depressed, striated; beak slightly prominent. Ceylon.

Gen. 14. Ostrea, Oyster.

Gen. Char.—The animal is a tethys; the shell bivalve, generally with unequal valves, and slightly eared; hinge without teeth, but furnished with an ovate hollow, and mostly lateral, transverse grooves.

SPECIES.

A. Valves furnished with ears, and radiated. The Scallop.

a. Equilateral; ears of the valves equal.

* 1. O. with 14 or 15 rounded ribs, longitudinally grooved, with fine transverse striae; 5 inches long, 5½ broad; ears large, with decussated striae; lower valve convex, white, often varied with red bands or spots; upper valve flat, reddish. Found in large beds in most European seas, where they are dredged up, pickled, and barrelled for sale. It is said, that the greatest quantity is taken after a fall of snow. This is the shell worn formerly by pilgrims on the hat or coat, as a mark that they had crossed the sea for the purpose of paying their devotions to the Holy Land; in commemoration of this it is still preferred in the arms of many families.

* 2. O. with about 14 angular and longitudinally striated rays; upper valves flat, with rounded rays, which are finely striated transversely; lower valve with angular rays, which are striated longitudinally. Ears concave and smooth on the upper side. European seas. Dorsetshire, but rare.

3. O. with 18 flattened rays; ears finely wrinkled; lower valve convex; rays finely striated transversely; upper valve flat, with about twice as many angular lines as there are rays. American ocean.

4. O. with 16 faint rays with transverse membranaceous striae; margin very entire; valves nearly equally flat. Indian ocean.

5. O. with 20 convex rays; lower valve white and very convex; upper valve white, clouded with brown, flatter and plaited. Indian ocean.

6. O. equivalve, with 12 doubled rays, and smooth on the outside; 4½ inches long, gaping at each end. Indian ocean.

7. O. upper valve sub-convex, with very fine perpendicular lines, crossing very fine, concentric, transverse striae; lower valve with 48 rays, and 48 striae within; 2½ inches long, about the same breadth. S. America. Rare.

8. O. equivalve, a little convex, margined with yellow; upper valve with faint lines crossing transverse concentric bands, and 48 elevated striae within 5½ inches long, about the same breadth. Guinea and Japan.

9. O. equivalve, glabrous, with oblong crowded striae; magellani—upper valve more convex, lower flatter than in most ca. others. Straits of Magellan.

10. O. with 9 or 10 rays; the interstices longitudi-hybrida-dinally striated; margin repand within. Norway seas.

11. O. nearly equivalve; with 12 convex rays radula-crofted by crenated striae; 3½ inches long, 2½ broad. Indian ocean.

12. O. equivalve, flattish, with 9 unequal rays, im-imbricata-bricated with scales. Red sea.

13. O. roundish with 9 convex chestnut rays; ears subrotunda-roundish, white with a yellowish border; 1½ inches long, 2 broad.

14. O. nearly equivalve, with 16 convex smoothish plica-rays, and striated aeros; 1½ inch long, 1 inch broad. India.

15. O. roundish with convex rays, outer ones finely crenata-striated longitudinally; margin deeply crenated; ears tranversely striated.

16. O. ovate with numerous fine striae; margin cre-sinuous-nated within.

17. O. oblong with scaly rays; the interstices broad-squamosa-er, and marked with perpendicular striae; ears wrinkled perpendicularly.

18. O. roundish, with 18 rays imbricated with scales; dubia—ears striated transversely; ¼ inch long.

* 19. O. with 20 smooth rays, the interstices tran-subrufa-verely striated; margin crenated; 2 inches long, and the same breadth. Shores of Britain.

20. O. flattened, with 18 smooth rays, the interstices vericolor-cancellated.

21. O. rounded with 5 rays; middle-sized. rosea.

22. O. brown with flat rays which disappear towards the hinge; lower valve convex, upper flat. Indian ocean.

23. O. thin, flat, purple, with very minute perpendicular striae crossing circular transverse ones; the striae are elevated within.

24. O. thin, pale yellow, with thick rays. lutea.

25. O. roundish, white, with a mixture of saffron; muricata—the rays convex, and finely and sharply muriated; 2½ inches long.

26. O. roundish, tawny, dotted with white and black; conspersa—the rays thick.

27. O. roundish, brown, with black transverse lines nodulosa—and dots; rays convex and knotty.

28. O. thin, whitish, rofy, with white stripes; rays radiata—convex.

29. O. oblong, pale yellow, spotted with white; punctata—beaks varied with white and brown; rays crenated; 2 inches long.

30. O. roundish, thin, varied with rofy and whitish; aculeata—rays thick with aculeate scales.

31. O. thin, flat, white, with a saffron edge; rays plana—round and broad.

32. O. oblong, red, minutely striated. puflila.

33. O. convex on each side, yellowish within; rays flavescens—convex.

34. O. roundish, deep red, with a white hinge and flabelium—few spots; rays smooth.

35. O. glabrous, resembling a spondylus; but the spondyloides—ears are equal.

36. O. 36. O. flattish on each side; outside brown, inside violet. Mediterranean.

37. O. roundish, plaited, and finely striated longitudinally; a white semicircular band towards the hinge.

38. O. within purple, without alternate brown and red bands; rays convex.

39. O. white with confluent red spots; rays rough; convex valve, with transverse, crisp lamellae; 1½ inch long, ¾ broad.

40. O. convex on each side; closed, oblong, pellucid; 32 rays; twice as long as it is broad. A rare shell.

b. Ears unequal; one of them generally ciliated, with spines within.

41. O. Ductal mantle. Equivalve, with 12 convex rays, striated, rough, and imbricated with scales; red, varied with brown and white; ears striated, crenated or scaly. India.

42. O. equivalve, with 9 thick obtuse rays; interstices longitudinally striated, tuberculated and prickly. Red sea.

43. O. equivalve, pale yellow, with tawny spots; rays 12, thick and flattish; ears white, with transverse fleshy ribs.

44. O. with 9 rays, covered with apparently vesicular tubercles. American and African oceans.

45. O. with 9 striated rough rays; one of the ears very small.

46. O. nearly equivalve, with 9 rays; smooth, with spoon-like hemispherical scales on the lower valve; minute, pellucid; upper valve spotted with red. African seas.

47. O. smooth on the outside, with 24 double rays. Indian ocean.

48. O. equivalve, with 22 rays; ears small; 2 inches long, ¾ broad. Mediterranean and Atlantic seas.

49. O. equivalve; rays about 30; compressed, and befit with transverse, prickly scales; one ear very small; 2½ inches long, 2 broad. European seas, coast of Britain.

50. O. equivalve, rays about 40, filiform; surface often irregular or distorted; 2 inches long, 1½ broad. European and American seas, Cornwall.

51. O. equivalve, semi-transparent, smooth; dark purple; with 8 nearly obsolete rays; ¾ inch long. British coasts.

52. O. smooth; ears red; ¾ inch long. Anglesea, Falmouth.

53. O. ears nearly equal, equivalve, smooth, with from 10 to 15 smooth flattish rays; inside with elevated double striae; 2 inches long, 2 broad. European and American seas.

54. O. rays 20; roundish and rough, with decussated striae; upper valve a little more convex; 2½ inches diameter. North seas, Devonshire and Cornwall, where it is called frill or queen.

55. O. equivalve, gibbous, with 20 glabrous rays. American seas.

56. O. white, with flesh-coloured spots; rays glabrous, 32 on the lower valve, 35 on the upper; 1½ inch long. Malabar.

57. O. thin, flattened, pellucid, with fine transverse wrinkles, and 11 rays which are waved.

58. O. orbicular, with purple circles, and about 100 icelandica rays; ¾ inches long, ¾ broad. Mediterranean. The fifth of this species is employed as food.

59. O. equivalve, glabrous, immaculate, with minute triradiata striae; upper valve with 3 rays. Norway seas.

60. O. nearly equivalve, striated, spotted, rough to fuciform margin. Found on the fucus faccharinus in the North seas.

61. O. nearly equivalve, striated, glabrous, red, with tigerina whitish spots. On fuci in the North seas.

62. O. nearly equivalve; striated, glabrous, rays septemradiata, convex. North seas.

63. O. nearly equivalve; within and without grooved arata, and red; one part rough, the other glabrous. North seas.

64. O. convex on each side, with 22 rounded transefornatoria, vele, wrinkled rays; interstices with longitudinal, granulated striae; 2½ inches long. Indian ocean.

65. O. orange, with 22 rounded rays, and plaited citrina margin; lower valve flatter. India.

66. O. equally convex, both sides with 20 glabrous turgida rays; interstices with transverse, crowded wrinkles; margin with plaited teeth. Indian and American seas.

67. O. flattened, thin, pellucid, striated with nu-sulphurea merous imbricated rays; margin with crenated plates, 2 inches long. Red sea.

68. O. convex, purple, within, white or red, with porphyria rays; 2½ thick, rounded fleshy rays; 2½ inches long. Red sea.

69. O. hyaline, with an acute margin, very slender vitrea rays, and concentric scaly curves. North seas.

70. O. with 20 rounded rays; interstices finely wrin-tranqueballed; margin repand; upper valve more convex, ria. Tranquebar.

71. O. white, with purple spots, and numerous un-sauciata, equal rays; margin crenated. Red sea.

72. O. oblong, with undulated rays and striae; and crenulata, transverse, interrupted bands; a small shell; margin crenulated.

73. O. roundish, spotted; with deep grooves finely innominate transversely: margin crenulated. Small.

74. O. roundish, pale, rufous, with 24 rays; ears rufescens, with decussated striae; middle-sized.

75. O. roundish; rays thick, with distant parallel/quamata, scales, and prickly at the sides.

76. O. rather oblong, with narrow scaly rays; in-anonyma, terstices broader, and striated perpendicularly; ears perpendicularly wrinkled.

77. O. flattened, with 10 smooth, flat, unequal rays; decemradiata, ears tranversely striated.

78. O. thin, with depressed, scaly rays; ears short, tenuis. India, and North seas.

79. O. with 20 rays, and transverse, semilunar bands. valentii. India.

80. O. oblong, with crowded rays, middle-sized, media. reddish.

81. O. saffron coloured, with muricated scaly rays crocea, alternately lefs; small.

82. O. roundish, white, with rosy spots, radiated, florid. small.

83. O. oblong, ochraceous, with rays smooth on one ochroleuca part, and granulated on the other; minute.

84. O. pale, tawny, with yellow spots and bands, mytilina, and smooth rays; ears transversely striated; 2½ inches long.

85. O. 85. O. saffron-coloured, oblong, with fine perpendicular striae; very minute.

86. O. oblong, flesh-coloured, with interrupted red bands, and flattened rays.

87. O. yellowish, rounded, dotted with red; rays unequally converging at the hinge.

88. O. ochraceous, with flat bifid rays; 1 inch long.

89. O. roundish, deep-red, with rounded rays.

90. O. equivalve, with numerous smooth rays: is less round, and has fewer rays, than *O. pallium*.

91. O. orange, oblong, muricated, with scales as far as the middle; rays 22; 1½ inch long, ½ broad.

92. O. roundish, heavy, with brownish, reddish, and bluish spots; interstices of the rays broad; 2 filiform bands at the hinge.

93. O. purple, with a brown margin; rays scaly from the middle, and smooth at the hinge.

94. O. variegated, with pectinated smooth rays.

c. Valves more gibbous on one side.

95. O. nearly equivalve, with 8 striated rays; margin rounded on one side. South sea.

96. O. equivalve, with 20 rough rays; interstices striated; ears equal, small. Atlantic seas.

97. O. equivalve, with 25 rays; margin very entire; ears acute; 1½ inch long. Nicobar islands.

98. O. equivalve, with 22 imbricated scaly rays, rounded at one margin; ears obliterated; 3 inches long, 2½ broad. Mediterranean and Indian seas.

99. O. with 30 imbricated, interrupted rays; ears equal; one of them unequally plaited. American ocean.

100. O. whitish, thin, gaping on each side, and oblique, with obsolete, undulated rays, and transverse, rounded, semilunar striae; 1½ inch long, ½ broad. Norway.

101. O. dirty white, with longitudinal, undulated striae, and a few transverse rings; one ear obsolete; margin entire; 5 inches long 3½ broad. Norway.

B. Rough, and generally plaited on the outside. OYSTERS.

102. O. equivalve, 3-lobed, 2 of them placed transversely like the head of a hammer; 6 inches long, and 4½ broad. Deep parts of the Indian and Southern oceans. Very rare.

103. O. sub-pellucid, narrow, elongated, lamellated; one end rounded; 3½ inches long, 1 broad. Red sea.

104. O. pellucid, lamellated, and laterally incurved; 1 inch broad, and including the curvature, 3 inches long. Nicobar islands.

105. O. plaited on the outside; margin with erect, acute, angular teeth; size of a common oyster; found in a fossil state in the calcareous mountains of Sweden.

106. O ovate, obtusely plaited at the sides; parasitical; found adhering to gorgonia in the Indian ocean.

107. O. orbicular, flat, with an entire crenated margin; size of the end joint of the thumb.

108. O. *etable or common oyster*; orbicular and rugged, with undulated, imbricated scales; one valve flat, and very entire. European and Indian seas.—It is found, either in large beds, or adhering to rocks. The shell is of various sizes, forms, and colours; with-

in white, and often glossy, and of a pearly appearance. The old shells have often an anomaly fixed to them, and they are frequently covered with the serpula and lepas, and the furtaria and other zoophytes.

The common oyster has been long known as a nutritious food, and indeed in most countries is greatly prized as esteemed as a delicate luxury of the table. The oyster is supposed by naturalists to be a hermaphrodite animal. The spawn which they cast in May, adheres to the rocks and other substances at the bottom of the sea; and the shell, it is supposed, is formed in the space of 24 hours, and which, according to some, never leaves the spot till removed by violence. But from the observations of M. Dicquemare, who has particularly studied the economy of the oyster, it appears that it possesses the power of moving from place to place, and that it varies its habits according to circumstances. Oysters which are recently taken up from places which are left dry by the sea open their shell, lose their water, and die in a few days. But the same oysters kept in reservoirs, where they are left occasionally by the sea, exposed to the rays of the sun, to severe cold, or are disturbed in their beds, acquire the habit of keeping the shell close when they are uncovered with water, and exist without injury from this treatment for a long time. The oyster should be fresh, tender, and moist. Those which are most esteemed are caught at the mouths of rivers, and in clear water. The want of fresh water, it is said, renders oysters hard, bitter, and unpalatable. Mud and sea weeds are extremely injurious to the propagation and increase of the oyster. Other shell fish, and crustaceous animals, as mussels, scallops, star-fish and crabs, are their most destructive enemies.

Oysters are of different colours in different places: in Spain they are found of a red and russet colour; in Illyria brown, with the fifth black, and in the Red Sea of the colour of the iris. The green oyster, which is eaten in Paris, is brought from Dieppe. This colour is ascribed to the verdure which encompasses the bed on which they are produced. The oysters from Brittany in France, too, have been long famous; but those which are brought from Marennes in Saintonge, are in highest estimation. The oysters which are edged with a small brown fringe or beard, are generally preferred. These are accounted by the epicures fecundated oysters.

In tropical regions, the common oyster is found attached to trees. This assertion of the growth of oysters on trees has been often ranked among the exaggerated or groundless stories of the marvellous traveller; but this circumstance, when properly explained, will not appear different from the usual economy of this testaceous animal. In warm climates where vegetation is so much more luxuriant than in northern latitudes, a great variety of plants, among which are seen large trees, grow on the shores to the very edge of the sea; and particularly on those places which are sheltered from the agitation of the waves. In such places, at the heads of bays and harbours, great abundance of mangrove trees grow up from the bottom, where it is several feet deep, covered with water. It is generally on the mangrove tree that the oyster is found in the West Indies. Without the trouble of picking them from the trees, the branches growing under water to which they are attached, are cut off, carried home in baskets, baskets, and in this state brought to table, where they are either eaten raw, or roasted, as the European oyster. We have eaten oysters which were produced in this way, in the lagoons at the head of Port Morant harbour in Jamaica, a few minutes after they were taken from the water. They were of a small size, but extremely delicate and highly flavoured.

Britain has been noted for oysters from the time of Juvenal, who, satirizing Montanus an epicure, says,

"Circeis nata forent, an Lucrinum ad saxum, Rutupinovae edita fundo, O'frea, callebat primo depredare morfu."

He, whether Circe's rock his oysters bore, Or Lucrine lake, or distant Richborough's shore, Knew at first taste.

The luxurious Romans were very fond of this fish, and had their layers or stews for oysters as we have at present. Sergius Orata was the first inventor, as early as the time of L. Cratus the orator. He did not make them for the sake of indulging his appetite, but through avarice, and made great profits from them. Orata got great credit for his Lucrine oysters; for, says Pliny, the British were not then known.

The ancients ate them raw, having them carried up unopened, and generally eating them at the beginning of the entertainment, but sometimes roasted. They also stewed them with mallows and ducks, or with fish.

Britain still retains its superiority in oysters over other countries. Most of our coasts produce them naturally; and in such places they are taken by dredging, and are become an article of commerce, both raw and pickled. The shells calcined are employed in medicine as an absorbent, and in common with other shells, prove an excellent manure.

Stews or layers of oysters are formed in places which nature never allotted as habitations for them. Those near Colchester have been long famous; at present there are others that at least rival the former, near the mouth of the Thames. The oysters, or their spat, are brought to convenient places, where they improve in taste and size. It is an error to suppose, that the fine green observed in oysters taken from artificial beds, is owing to copper; this substance, or the solution of it, is destructive to all fish. The following is the account of the whole treatment of oysters, from Bishop Sprat's History of the Royal Society, from p. 307 to 309.

"In the month of May the oysters cast their spawn, (which the dredgers call their spat): it is like a drop of candle, and about the bigness of a half-penny. The spat cleaves to stones, old oyster-shells, pieces of wood, and such like things, at the bottom of the sea, which they call cultch. It is probably conjectured, that the spat in 24 hours begins to have a shell. In the month of May, the dredgers (by the law of the admiralty court) have liberty to catch all manner of oysters, of what size soever. When they have taken them, with a knife they gently raise the small brood from the cultch, and then they throw the cultch in again, to preserve the ground for the future, unless they be so newly spat, that they cannot be safely severed from the cultch; in that case they are permitted to take the stone or shell, &c. that the spat is upon, one shell having many times 25 spat. After the month of May, it is felony to carry away the cultch, and punishable to take any other oysters, unless it be those of size, (that is to say) about the bigness of a half-crown piece, or when, the two shells being shut, a fair shilling will rattle between them.

"The places where these oysters are chiefly caught, are called the Pent-Burnham, Malden, and Colne-waters; the latter taking its name from the river of Colne, which passes by Colchester, gives name to that town, and runs into a creek of the sea, at a place called the Hythe, being the suburbs of the town. This brood and other oysters they carry to the creeks of the sea, at Bricklesea, Mersey, Langnoe, Fingrego, Wivenhoe, Tollesbury, and Saltcoate, and there throw them into the channel, which they call their beds or layers, where they grow and fatten; and in two or three years the smallest brood will be oysters of the size aforeaid. Those oysters which they would have green, they put into pits about three feet deep in the salt marshes, which are overflowed only at spring-tides, to which they have sluices, and let out the salt water until it is about a foot and a half deep. These pits from some quality in the soil co-operating with the heat of the sun, will become green, and communicate their colour to the oysters that are put into them in four or five days, though they commonly let them continue there six weeks or two months, in which time they will be of a dark green. To prove that the sun operates in the greening, Tollesbury pits will green only in summer; but that the earth hath the greater power, Bricklesea pits green both winter and summer: and for a further proof, a pit within a foot of a greening pit will not green; and those that did green very well, will in time lose their quality. The oysters, when the tide comes in, lie with their hollow shell downwards; and when it goes out, they turn on the other side; they remove not far from their place, unless in cold weather, to cover themselves in the ooze. The reason of the scarcity of oysters, and consequently of their dearth, is, because they are of late years bought up by the Dutch.

"There are great penalties by the admiralty court laid upon those that fish out of those grounds which the court appoints, or that destroy the cultch, or that take any oysters that are not of size, or that do not tread under their feet, or throw upon the shore, a fish which they call a five-finger, resembling a spur-rowl, because that fish gets into the oysters when they gape, and sucks them out.

"The reason that such a penalty is set upon any that shall destroy the cultch, is, because they find that if that be taken away, the ooze will increase, and the mussels and cockles will breed there, and destroy the oysters, they having not whereon to stick their spat.

"The oysters are sick after they have spat; but in June and July they begin to mend, and in August they are perfectly well; the male oyster is black-flick, having a black substance in the fin; the female white-flick (as they term it), having a milky substance in the fin. They are salt in the pits, falter in the layers, but fattest at sea."

The oyster affords the curious in microscopic observations. vations a very pleasing entertainment. In the clear liquor many little round living animalcules have been found, whose bodies being conjoined, form spherical figures, with tails, not changing their place otherwise than by sinking to the bottom, as being heavier than the fluid; these have been seen frequently separating, and then coming together again. In other oysters, animalcules of the same kind were found, not conjoined, but swimming by one another, whence they seemed in a more perfect state, and were judged by Mr Leeuwenhoek to be the animalcules in the roe or semen of the oyster.

A female oyster being opened, incredible multitudes of small embryo oysters were seen, covered with little shells, perfectly transparent, and swimming along slowly in the liquor; and in another female, the young ones were found of a browner colour, and without any appearance of life or motion.

Monsieur Joblot also kept the water running from oysters three days, and it appeared full of young oysters swimming about nimbly in it; these increased in size daily; but a mixture of wine, or the vapour of vinegar, killed them.

In the month of August oysters are supposed to breed, because young ones are then found in them. Mr Leeuwenhoek, on the 4th of August, opened an oyster, and took out of it a prodigious number of minute oysters, all alive, and swimming nimbly about in the liquor, by means of certain exceeding small organs, extending a little way beyond their shells; and these he calls their beards. In these little oysters, he could discover the joinings of the shells; and perceived that there were some dead ones, with their shells gaping. These, though so extremely minute, are seen to be as like the large oysters in form as one egg is to another.

As to the size of them, he computes, that 120 of them in a row would extend an inch; and consequently, that a globular body, whose diameter is an inch, would, if they were also round, be equal to 1,728,000 of them. He reckons 3000 or 4000 are in one oyster, and found many of the embryo oysters among the beards; some fastened thereto by slender filaments, and others lying loose: he likewise found animalcules in the liquor 500 times less than the embryo-oysters.

It is not uncommon to see on oyster-shells, when in a dark place, a shining matter or bluish light, which sticks to the fingers when touched, and continues shining and giving light for a considerable time, though without any sensible heat. This shining matter being examined with a microscope, is said to consist of three sorts of animalcules; but it is more probable that it is the phosphorescent light which separates from animal matters, particularly fish, in the incipient stage of the putrefactive process.

109. O. oval, slightly eased, smooth, with an oblique base; 1 inch long, 1 broad. Mediterranean.

*110. O. oval, with longitudinal, irregular, undulated filiform ridges; inside smooth, glairy white, with a pearly hue. European seas, shores of Britain.

111. O. rough, oblong, linear, with divergent hinges; internally vaulted. Red sea.

112. O. rough, lamellated, unequal, and glabrous within; lower valve large; 4 inches long. Chinese shores.

113. O. equivalve, pellucid, flattened, oval, with perpendicular, undulated striae on the upper valve; 3 inches long, 2 broad. India.

114. O. plaited, and terminating in a long, incurved hollow beak; middle ribs with imbricated, spinous wrinkles; 2 inches long, and 1 broad. Red sea.

115. O. with longitudinal, wrinkled plaits; lower valve smaller and flatter; varies much in shape and size. American and Mediterranean seas.

116. O. oblong, rugged; upper valve lamellated, with a denticulated margin; the lower excavated, and longitudinally grooved. Mediterranean.

117. O. nearly equivalve, thick, rough, lamellous; one valve with a prominent beak; 9 inches long, and 4 broad. American and Indian oceans.

118. O. upper valve flat, lower one hollow and cornucopiated; rough with scales, wrinkles and plaits, and terminating in an elongated beak. Indian and African oceans.

119. O. thin; lower valve convex and thicker; the other flat. Atlantic and Indian seas.—This species, like the common oyster, fixes itself to the roots and branches of trees, particularly the mangrove, which grow out of the water. It varies in form and size, and is often as large as the palm of the hand.

120. O. thin; upper valve longer and more concave. Adriatic.—It is found fixed to other shells.

121. O. rugged, with imbricated lamellae; margin crista with obtusely plaited teeth; 1 inch long.

122. O. equivalve, roundish, smooth, flat; 2 inches diameter. Shores of Senegal.

123. O. thin, depressed, rough, unequal; upper valve ribbed; ribs with a few spines. Guinea.

124. O. oval, thin, terminating in a short, acute, oval, lateral channelled beak; striae perpendicular, unequal, obsolete; 1 inch long.

125. O. roundish, snowy, thin pellucid; upper valve terminating in a short, acute beak.

126. O. equivalve, orbicular, white, with concentric annulated semicircles. North seas.

127. O. equivalve, oblong, white, glabrous, stria-retusated; with an umbo or knot remote from the hinge. North seas.

C. Hinge with a perpendicular grooved line.

128. O. equivalve, obovate, unequal, rounder at perna; one end; 2½ inches long; has some resemblance to a gammon of bacon. Indian and American seas.

129. O. equivalve, with a larger lobe, forming a right angle with the hinge; from 5 to 7 inches long, and 1½ broad in the middle; shell blackish, violet without, pearly within. Indian ocean and South seas. Is a rare shell.

130. O. equivalve, orbicular, compressed, membranaceous; 5 inches long, 5½ broad. Indian ocean and Cape of Good Hope. Very rare.

131. O. equivalve, thin, pellucid, and pointed at perna; the hinge; the other end dilated; margin acute; 2 inches long, more than an inch broad. Red sea.

132. O. flat, hoary, thin, pellucid, lamellated; in legume teretices of the grooves black; 2 inches long, 4 lines broad. Nicobar islands.

133. O. Gen. Char.—The animal is a ligula or strap-shaped body, emarginated and ciliated; the brittle being fixed to the upper valve. There are two linear arms, longer than the body, open, stretched out, alternate on the valve, ciliated on both sides; the hairs are fixed to both valves; the shell is inequivalve; one valve being rather flat, the other more gibbous at the base, with a produced beak, generally curved over the hinge; one of the valves is often perforated at the base; the hinge is without teeth. A small linear scar appears prominent, with a lateral tooth placed within; but on the very margin of the flat valve. There are two bony rays for the base of the animal.

Species.

1. A. orbicular; the gibbous valve conico-convex, flat valve with three hollows at the base; 1 inch long, \(\frac{1}{2}\) broad. Mediterranean seas and Philippine islands. It is sometimes found fossil.

2. A. oblong, with branched grooves; the gibbous valve with two hollows behind. An inch long, \(\frac{3}{4}\) broad; flat valve perforated. Mediterranean.

3. A. roundish, pellucid, with wrinkled plates; flat valve perforated; diameter sometimes \(3\frac{1}{2}\) inches, most frequently about 2. European and American seas, shores of Britain.—It is often found adhering to the common oyster. Mr Montagu thus accounts for the perforation in these shells. The teffaceous plug, he observes, by which the animal fixes itself to other bodies, is firmly attached by strong ligaments to these bodies, and so closely cemented, that they become inseparable. When, therefore, the shell is torn from its native place, the plug is left behind upon the stone or other shell to which it adhered.

4. A. obovate, unequal, violet; upper valve convex; lower perforated. European and American seas, shores of Britain.

5. A. roundish, yellow, smooth; one valve convex and gibbous; very thin. Coasts of Africa.

6. A. small, orbicular, entire, thin like the scale of a fish. European seas, Britain.

7. A. ovate, convex, subdiaphanous, striated; posterior beak recurved and smooth. North seas.

8. A. roundish, smooth, and rough within; beak perforated.

9. A. sub-ovate, striated, and slightly eared; beak perforated. Norway seas.

10. A. obovate, striated, retuse with a longitudinal cavity; beak perforated. Norway seas, adhering to zoophytes.

11. A. oblong, smooth, with an obsolete lateral plate on one valve, and incurved beak; the other valve short and flattened. Frequently found in a fossil state.

12. A. semiorbiculare, depressed, with numerous striae; pelecum, one valve flat. Found in a fossil state.

13. A. roundish, and a little dilated; gibbous on striata; each side; striated; valves equal. Has been only found fossil.

14. A. suborbicular, obsoletely striated; hinge truncata. European seas.

15. A. heart-shaped, with decussated striae; shorter reticularis; valve more gibbous. Found fossil.

16. A. dilated, lunated, plaited with longitudinally plicatella; striated grooves. Found only in a fossil state.

17. A. dilated, triangular, plaited with wrinkled crispa; grooves; the middle broader. Found fossil in England and Switzerland.

18. A. roundish, with numerous grooves; valves lacunosa; plaited at the tip; one of them shorter and pitted. Found only in a fossil state.

19. A. obovate, grooved; beak of one valve promi-pubeceps; the other gaping; about the size of a cucumber seed, covered with small, erect, distant hairs. Norway seas.

* 20. A. conic, pointed, grooved; one valve convex cuspidata; with an incurved beak; the other pyramidal with a large triangular foramen. Found in Derbyshire in a fossil state.

21. A. roundish with numerous grooves; the valves farcta; convex, and 8-toothed at the tip. Found fossil in Switzerland and Westphalia.

22. A. obovate, striated downy; one valve with a caput-ser-longer perforated beak. Norway seas. It is generally pentis, found adhering to the madrepora proliferata.

23. A. obovate, smooth, convex; one valve with terebratus-three plates; the other with two; the beak of one la. valve prominent and perforated. Found frequently in a fossil state.

24. A. with compressed plates at the sides of the base, angulata; anteriorly; the middle three-toothed. Found fossil.

25. A. dilated, smooth, convex; striated with about hyserita. 3 lobes; anterior part depressed, with an acute margin. Found fossil in Germany.

26. A. two-lobed, equal, striated. Only found fossil. biloba.

27. A. orbicular, flat, pellucid; hinge with two li-placenta; near callosities growing within the shell; 5 inches diameter. Indian ocean.

28. A. nearly quadrangular, convex, and nearly cella; clofed; bronzed; margin repand; 7 inches diameter. Indian ocean.

* 29. A. covered with spines as long as the shells. spinosa. England, in a fossil state.

30. A. roundish, prickly; crown smooth and recur-aculeata; veed behind; lower valve flat, smooth, and perforated at the crown. Norway seas.

31. A. hyaline, ventricose; crown bent towards the muricata; right; upper valve longitudinally striated; lower valve flat, very thin, and the circumference of the perforation elevated. Guinea.

32. A. oblong, with a rounded margin; one valve squama; flat, thin, smooth, with a large ovate perforation at the tip; the other convex, and longitudinally striated. Seas of Norway.

33. A. orbicular, hyaline, thin, punctured; flat valve punctata; perforated at the tip; small, brittle. Ferro islands.

34. A. undulata.

34. A. margin crenated; flat valve thin and smooth, with a large oval perforation; convex valve with transverse arched striae, crossing undulated longitudinal ones. Mediterranean, North seas, Devonshire.

capensis.

35. A. longitudinally striated, a little truncated; with a rounded notched margin. C. of G. Hope.

detruncata

36. A. truncated, orbicular, longitudinally striated; flat valve with three ribs within; other valve longitudinally striated within, and divided by a partition in the middle. Mediterranean.

sanguinolenta.

37. A. horny, smooth, and convex on each side; upper valve emarginated, and radiated at the sides, with an elevated sanguineous back. India.

vitrea.

38. A. ovate, ventricose, hyaline; lower valve with two bony rays at the hinge, besides lateral teeth; upper valve with a prominent perforated tip; 1½ inch long, 1 inch broad. Mediterranean.

cranium.

39. A. smooth, ventricose, finely striated transversely; ¼ inch broad, something longer. Norway seas.

dorfaia.

40. A. heart-shaped, solid, with arched transverse ring and wrinkles, and longitudinal striae and grooves. Magellanic seas.—Is often found fossil.

Pitacea.

41. A. horny and finely striated longitudinally; shorter valve gibbous; longer one flat, with an incurved tip, triangularly perforated; rather large, pellucid. Greenland. Very rare.

tridentata.

42. A. yellowish, pellucid, thin, finely striated transversely; tricuspidate with tubular points; valves united. Mediterranean.

spondylodes.

43. A. ovate, antiquated, with an obtuse channelled beak.

ventricosa.

44. A. subovate, solid, with a channelled beak.

gryphoides.

45. A. oval, smooth, solid, opaque; lower valve with a straight, obtuse, truncated beak.

flexuosa.

46. A. very thin, lamellated, hollowed in the middle; upper valve flat; lower valve convex towards the crown, with an orbicular perforation beneath it. Norway seas.

rugosa.

47. A. obovate; upper valve convex and finely wrinkled; lower valve thin and smooth, with a kidney-shaped perforation. Norway seas.

cylindrica.

48. A. very thin, cylindrical, and narrowed outwardly; upper valve gibbous, lower hollow. North seas.

nucleus.

49. A. glabrous, oval, longitudinally grooved. North seas.

avenacea.

50. A. pyriform, protracted, and slightly compressed towards the hinges. North seas.

sandaleum.

51. A. turbinated; back flat, with a striated cavity; lid flat and hemispherical. Germany, in a fossil state.

Gen. 16. Mytilus, The Muffel.

Gen. Char.—The animal is allied to an ascidia; the shell bivalve, rough, generally affixed by a byssus or beard of silky filaments; hinge mostly without teeth, with generally a subulate, excavated, longitudinal line.

Species.

A. Parasitical, affixed as it were by claws.

crista-galli.

1. M. plaited, spinous; both lips rough. Indian ocean and Red sea.

hyotis.

2. M. plaited and imbricated, with broad compressed scales; both lips smooth. Inhabits the ocean, on beds of coral.

3. M. plaited, smooth; one lip rough. American frons, ocean.

B. Flat, or compressed into a flattened form, and slightly eared.

4. M. Pearl-bearing muffel. Flattened, nearly orbicular, with a transverse base; imbricated with toothed tunics. American and Indian seas.—This species is about 8 inches long, and somewhat broader; the inside is finely polished, and produces the true mother-of-pearl; and frequently also it affords the most valuable pearls. When the outer coat of the shell, which is sometimes sea-green, or chestnut with white rays, or whitish with green rays, is removed, it exhibits the same pearly lustre as the inside; the younger shells have ears as long as the shell, and resemble scallops.

5. M. roundish; longitudinally striated, pellucid, unguis, and slightly eared. Mediterranean.

C. Ventricose or convex.

6. M. cylindrical; rounded at both ends. Euro-lithopcean, American, and Indian seas. It is about an inch broad, and 3 long.—It perforates and eats away coral rocks, and even the hardest marbles. Those which are found in Europe have a thin brittle shell; the shell of those found in India is soft, and nearly coriaceous.

7. M. rhombic, oval, brittle, rugged, antiquated, rugosus, and round at the ends. Seas and lakes, north of Europe.—It is usually found lodged in limestone; each individual in a separate apartment, with apertures too small for the shell to pass through.

8. M. striated with vaulted knobs, and a white par-bilocular, tition. Nicobar islands.

9. M. convex; one of the margins angular; the exythus anterior extremity crenated; 1½ inch long. American ocean and Red sea.

10. M. smooth; ferruginous on the outside, and barbatu, bearded at the tip; ¾ inch long. Mediterranean and Norway seas.

* 11. M. Eatible or common muffel. Smooth, violet; edulis, valves slightly recurved on the obtuse side, and somewhat angular on the acute side; beaks pointed; from 2 to 3 inches long. European and Indian sea.—This species is observed to be larger within the tropics, and to diminish gradually towards the north. It is found in large beds, and generally attaches itself to other bodies by means of its long silky beard. The fish is employed as food in many parts of the world, and is esteemed rich and nutritious.

* 12. M. very crooked on one side near the beaks, incurvatus then generally dilated; within with a violet tinge. Coast of Anglesea.

* 13. M. oval, transparent, and elegantly radiated, pelliculus, lengthwise with purple and blue; two inches long. Anglesea, in oyster beds.

* 14. M. contracted into a deep rugged cavity, oppo-umbilica-fite the hinge, forming a deep hollow when the valvatus arc closed; 5 inches long. Anglesea.

* 15. M. short, ventricose, obtuse at the beaks, and curtus, dirty yellow. Weymouth.

16. M. smooth, slightly curved; hind margin in-ungulatus, fleeted; hinge terminal, two-toothed. Mediterranean, Cape of Good Hope, and New Zealand. Found at the latter place resembling M. edulis; but is 5 inches long, and 2½ broad.

17. M. 17. M. striated, slightly curved; hind margin inflected; hinge terminal, two-toothed; scarcely an inch long. Mediterranean and Atlantic seas.

18. M. smooth, blackish, obtuse at the smaller end, and rounded at the other; one side angular, near the beaks; from 6 to 7 inches long, 3 broad. European, American, and Indian seas, Devonshire, Weymouth.

19. M. ovate, very brittle, transversely wrinkled; anterior end compressed, the other rounded; hinge lateral; from 2 to 5 inches broad, and 3 long. Frequent in the lakes and rivers of Europe, Britain.—It is the largest of British fresh-water shells. It arrives at the greatest size in ponds and stagnant waters.

20. M. oval, a little compressed; brittle and semi-transparent, with a membranaceous margin. Fresh waters of Europe.—It resembles the last, but is longer and narrower. Ducks and crows, it is said, are extremely fond of both this and the last species.

21. M. smooth, ovate, membranaceous, pellucid, with a terminal hinge. Southern ocean.

22. M. wrinkled; valves oblique and anteriorly dilated. Southern ocean.

23. M. transversely striated; beaks gibbous; hinge lateral; 6 inches long, 3½ broad. Shores of Chili.—The fish is white, and affords a grateful food.

24. M. grooved, and fleshy behind. Chili.—The fish is black, and unfit for being eaten.

25. M. oval, horny, subdiaphanous; extremities longitudinally striated; middle transversely. European and southern seas, Cornwall and Devonshire. From the South seas it is 1½ inch broad; in Britain it rarely exceeds ¾ inch.

26. M. smooth; valves 2-lobed; lobe at the hinge longer and thinner. American, Mediterranean, and Indian seas.

27. M. oblong; more obtuse on the fore-part; rough, with transverse wrinkles; 1½ inch long, 1¼ broad. North seas.—This species penetrates beds of coral and other rocks, like the pholas.

28. M. finely striated, hinge terminal, 1 tooth; 1½ inch long, ½ broad. Northern and Indian seas.

29. M. flattened on one side and inflected; beaks incurved, convergent; hinge 1-toothed. American ocean.

30. M. rhombic, inequilateral; transversely striated and wrinkled; beaks incurved. Nicobar islands.

31. M. ovate, subdiaphanous; finely striated longitudinally; margin acute; hinge 2-toothed; shell snowy and polished within. Nicobar islands. Very rare.

32. M. nearly triangular, dilated before, and flat-tipped gaping behind; beaks pointed, turned back; margin very acute; 4 inches long, 2 broad. Mediterranean and African shores.

33. M. nearly triangular, flattish; hinge 2-toothed in one valve, 1-toothed in the other. Tranquebar, Guinea.

34. M. nearly triangular, flattish; hinge 1-toothed; margin glabrous, acute; 3 inches long, 2 broad. Guinea.

35. M. carinated in the middle, and crenated at the margin, with an obtuse knob; ¾ inch long. Indian and American oceans. Perforates rocks like a pholas.

36. M. triangular and dilated outwards, with angular, decussated, and confluent lines; hinge 2-toothed. A minute shell.

37. M. oval, rufous, striated; with a crenulated sula. Margin. Seas of Greenland.—This species is the food of the anas hispanica and hispanica.

38. M. thin, slightly wedged; beaks recurved and fluviatilis large. Fresh waters of Europe.

39. M. oblong, narrow, finely striated transversely; fusca. One side emarginated, the other rounded; beaks prominent, curved. A minute brown shell.

40. M. broad, short, and rounded behind; beaks mammacorne, protuberant.

41. M. broad, and curved with a rough, rugged, pericus. yellow coat; within milky. Persian sea.

42. M. broad, very smooth, flammeous or roseo-pictus. Loured, with white bands; beaks obtuse. Portugal.

43. M. pellucid, thinning, bluish, with a claret co-foliusatus. Lour and pale red bands. Brazil.

44. M. broad and rounded at both ends; claret co-undatus. Lour, with waved, bluish, and greenish frise; margin ferrated. Portuguese sea.

45. M. rounded behind; pale flesh-colour; purple purpureus. Within; margin denticulated. Shores of Brazil.

46. M. ear-shaped, with granulated wrinkles on the saxatilis. Outer side, dilated and rounded. Amboyna.

47. M. transversely striated, rounded at each end; argenteus. Brown, filvery within; beaks rounded.

48. M. narrow, shining bluish colour, with violet fulgidus. Spots at the sides; beaks rounded, dilated. Seas of Magellan.

49. M. gibbous, azure, with yellowish stripes be-azureus. Neath; beaks obtuse; 1 inch broad, ½ long.

50. M. mouse-coloured, with violet spots, and a murinus. Broad, rounded, rosy margin; beaks pointed straight. Guinea.

51. M. long, narrow, covered with a teftaceous teftaceus. Skin; shining filvery beneath, varied with blue, red, yellow, and brown.

52. M. dilated outwardly; greenish yellow, with virgatus. Roily stripes; beaks obtuse, curved.

53. M. oblong, very thin, white, with obsolete frise, cordatus, and a heart-shaped gap behind. Indian and Southern oceans.

54. M. oval, flattish, and transversely ribbed; eight flagellis. Inches broad, 4½ long. In fresh waters.

55. M. oval, convex, rounded behind; elongated, sellenfis. And obtusely pointed before; beaks obsolete; 7 inches broad, 3 long. Stagnant waters of Germany.

56. M. suborbicular, with 15 triangular crested roseus. Grooves, and alternate triangular teeth; 3 inches broad. Africa.

57. M. gibbous, pointed, with 15 grooves; margin puniceus. Toothed; 14 lines long, and half as broad; hinge with 4 minute teeth. Africa.

58. M. flat, thin, with fine grooves; covered with niger. A black skin, under which it is milky, and finely polished; 1½ inch long; grooves about 100. Africa.

59. M. flat, smooth, covered with a thick fulvous levigatus. Skin, under which it is rofy; 2½ inches long. Africa.

60. M. transversely wrinkled; obtuse at each end; dubius. Fulvous, within pearly; beaks obsolete; hinge without teeth; 5 inches broad, 2 long. Fresh waters of Senegal.

61. M. 5-celled; valves carinated and flattish on polymor- wards; size of a plum stone. Russian sea, and in fresh waters, where it is much larger.

62. M.

62. M. smoothish, chestnut brown; within partly coloured; socket of the hinge channelled.

63. M. oblong, thin, truncated; beaks sharp and carinated; valves gaping at the end. Amboyna.

64. M. oblong, thin, truncated; beaks sharp and carinated; valves completely closed. Japan.

avonensis. * 65. M. with a suboval shell, of an olivaceous brown colour, with concentric wrinkles; size of the M. anatinae, but broader in proportion to its length. The posterior side generally more obtuse and rounded. River Avon in Wiltshire. Montagu, Test. Brit. 172.

Pinna.

Gen. Char.—The animal a limax; the shell bivalve, fragile, upright, gaping at one end, and furnished with a byssus or beard. Hinge without teeth; the valves united into one.

SPECIES.

rudis.

1. P. vaulted with arched scales, arranged in rows; from 12 to 16 inches long, and from 4 to 8 broad; red; from 6 to 8 grooves. Atlantic, Indian, and Red seas.

peclinata.

2. P. longitudinally striated half way; one side slightly wrinkled transversely; 3 inches long, 4 broad. Indian ocean.

nobilis.

3. P. striated, with channelled, tubular, subimbricated scales; \( \frac{7}{8} \) inches long, \( \frac{3}{4} \) broad. Mediterranean, Adriatic, and American seas.

muricata. * 4. P. striated with concave, ovate, acute scales; from 3 to 9 inches long, and 1 to 3 broad. European and Indian oceans, Weymouth.

rotundata.

5. P. with obsolete scales, margin rounded; sometimes 2 feet long. Mediterranean.

squamosa.

6. P. with fine undulated scales, and flexuous, broad wrinkles; smaller end pointed and naked; 13 inches long, \( \frac{6}{4} \) broad. Mediterranean.

carnea.

7. P. thin, flesh colour, naked, longitudinally grooved; external margin acute and rounded.

faccia.

8. P. smooth, falcet-shaped; a little erect, and slightly fatigued; \( \frac{3}{4} \) inches long, \( \frac{2}{4} \) broad. Mediterranean and Indian seas.

digitiformis.

9. P. smooth, tubular, finger-shaped, incurved; extreme margin membranaceous; pellucid.

lobata.

10. P. naked, lobed, straw-coloured, with purple striae.

viridis.

11. P. hyaline, with longitudinal, waved striae; the striae with a few scales, and crossed by other transverse striae at the margin. Indian ocean. Very rare.

incurna.

12. P. narrow, long, naked, carinated, with transverse, undulated wrinkles. Indian ocean.

bicolor.

13. P. thin, inflected at the lateral margin; yellowish, with black brown rays; thinly striated longitudinally. Red sea.

xyla.

14. P. flattish, horny, with blackish rays, spots, and clouds; and many smooth striae. Southern ocean of India. Red sea.

vexillum.

15. P. truncated at the outer margin; dilated, naked, with a few black clouds; striated longitudinally on the fore-part, and transversely wrinkled behind. India. Very rare.

papyracea.

16. P. thin, brittle, horny, longitudinally ribbed; extreme margin roundish. Indian ocean.

17. P. flattish, slightly incurved, red, with a few fanguin perpendicular smooth striae; 3 inches long.

18. P. very straight, thin, and perpendicularly stri-bullata, with transverse, spinous wrinkles, on the lower margin.

General Observations.—It has been doubted whether the animal which inhabits the pinna be a limax or slug, according to the opinion of Linnaeus; and it is even asserted, that it has not the smallest affinity with this animal, but approaches much more nearly to that which belongs to the mytilus. In proof of this, it is said that the pinna possesses no locomotive power, but remains fixed by its byssus or beard to other bodies; and to firmly attached, that it can by no means be disengaged at the will of the animal; for the fibres are strongly agglutinated to the sand, gravel, or other extraneous bodies within reach. Indeed it seems not at all improbable that all testaceous animals, furnished with a similar beard, are intended by this structure to remain attached to the spot where they are originally produced.

This shell-fish was celebrated among the ancients on account of the cloth which was made of the fine byssus or beard by which it is attached. As a rare and costly production it brought a high price, and was held in great estimation. At the present day even, according to the information of modern travellers, the inhabitants of Palermo and Naples manufacture gloves and stockings from the same substance.

The pinna has obtained a little reputation for the practice of some of the moral virtues, in treating a small species of crab with hospitality and friendship, by receiving it into the shell, and defending it against its enemies. In return for this kindness, the crab, like the jackall with the lion, acts the parts of a provider and monitor, by warning its host of the presence of its prey or of the approach of an enemy. But this friendly intercourse accords ill with the nature of the animals between whom it is practised. The crab, it is far more probable, is a troublesome intruder; and notwithstanding all the service he can repay, is considered as a very unwelcome guest, and is indebted for his lodging to his own activity, and the sluggish nature of his host, rather than to his kindness and hospitality.

III. UNIVALVE SHELLS.

Gen. 18. ARGONAUTA.

Gen. Char.—The animal is a sepia or clio. The shell is univalve, spiral, involute, membranaceous, one-celled.

SPECIES.

1. A. The paper nautilus. Keel or ridge of the shell argo, slightly toothed on each side. The shell, which is thin as paper, brittle, and transparent, is white or yellowish, with smooth or knotty striae or ribs, which are sometimes forked; the keel is generally brownish. This shell presents considerable varieties. Sometimes the keel is narrow, and marked with close bifurcated wrinkles; sometimes it has a broad keel with tuberculated ribs; and sometimes a broad tuberculated keel with few and smooth ribs.

The singular structure and wonderful economy of this this animal very early attracted the attention of naturalists. To its progressive motion on the surface of the ocean, mankind are indebted, it is said, for the first hint of the art of navigation. This is alluded to in the numbers of Pope.

Learn of the little nautilus to fail, Spread the thin oar, and catch the driving gale.

What is the particular organization which enables this animal to rise to the surface or to sink to the bottom at pleasure, seems not to be understood by naturalists; whether it is by throwing out a quantity of water by which it becomes specifically lighter than the element in which it lives, or by taking in a quantity of air, which will produce the same effect. It is only when the sea is calm and unruffled that the nautilus, with his feeble bark, appears on the surface. In rising through the water, the shell is reversed, the sharp edge of the keel presenting less resistance to the liquid; and when it reaches the surface, the animal, by exerting its arms, restores it to a proper position for its voyage. A quantity of water is taken into the shell to balance it. The animal then employs its arms as oars; or if a gentle breeze sweep the surface, it stretches two of them perpendicularly, by which means the membrane between them is extended in form of a sail; the other arms serve as oars to direct the course, or to keep the bark steady, as well as part of the body which hangs over the shell, and seems to answer for a rudder. Thus equipped, the solitary navigator glides smoothly along the bottom of the ocean. But, on the approach of the smallest danger, the appearance of an enemy, or the slightest ruffling of the surface of the water, it instantly retires within the shell, and taking in a quantity of water, or ejecting a quantity of air, quick as thought it sinks to the bottom. Mediterranean and Indian ocean.

2. A. keel of the shell toothed in the middle. The shell is conic, transversely ribbed, with a convex keel; aperture oval. It is a very rare species.

3. A. keel of the shell wrinkled, and without teeth; depressed, thin, wrinkled, with fine longitudinal striae crossing the wrinkles. Mediterranean.

4. A. keel with 4 smooth elevated rings; 1 line high, 5 broad. Cape of Good Hope.

5. A. shell perforated, with an entire keel; 3½ lines diameter. Greenland seas, where it is frequently seen floating in spring and autumn.

Some species of the argonauta are met with in all climates, from the Indian ocean to the shores of Greenland.

Gen. 19. Nautilus.

Gen. Char.—The nature of the animal which inhabits this shell is not well known. The shell is univalve, divided into several compartments, communicating by an aperture with each other.

Species.

A. Spiral, rounded, with contiguous whorls.

1. N. aperture of the shell heart-shaped; whorls obtuse; smooth. Indian and African ocean.—This species is often very large, and it is finely variegated with brown flexuous streaks, spots, and marks, under the epidermis, which is white; within it exhibits a beautiful pearly gloe. It is employed for drinking cups by the inhabitants of the east.

* 2. N. aperture of the shell linear; whorls with elevated joints; minute, white, opaque. Sheppey island.

* 3. N. with lateral spires, with about 20 flexuous, crispus, crenated joints in the exterior whorl; marked by elevated striae; aperture semicordate; siphon central; very minute. Mediterranean, Sheppey island, and Sandwich.

4. N. aperture obovate; 4 or 5 volutions, with deep beccarii; falcated joints; 10 in the first spire, frequent on most shores; minute.

* 5. N. similar to the preceding species; but with the perverfus; spires reversed. Shores of Britain, frequent.

* 6. N. spiral, with smooth joints; semiferrucid, white, levigatus; gloe; very minute. Sandwich.

* 7. N. spiral, slightly umbilicated on each side, with depreffulus many depressed joints. Reculver, England. Very minute, and rare.

* 8. N: spiral, umbilicated, with furrowed joints; umbilica-colour opaque, white. Sandwich. Minute, not com-tulutus.

* 9. R.: thick, spiral, doubly umbilicated, with fine crafustus; joints; opaque, white. Reculver, England. Minute, rare.

* 10. N. spiral, lobate; spires rounded on one side, lobatus; depreffed on the other. Whitstable.

* 11. N. oblong, carinated; aperture oval, narrow. carinatus. Sandwich. Minute, rare.

12. N. a little bending, with raised joints; length subarcuata; one-tenth of an inch.

* 13. N. compressed, subcarinated, spiral, smooth, lacrytris; gloe; horn-coloured, with 3 visible volutions; diameter one-fifth of an inch. Brooks, Kent; marshes, Rotherhithe. Not unfrequent. Lightfoot, Phil. Trans.

* Helix nitida, Lin. This is supposed to be the only species of fresh-water nautilus which has been described.

14. N. white, convex; aperture linear; first spire balthicus; largeft. Baltic.

15. N. spires of the shells concealed; very small. helicites. Found in a fossil flate on St Peter's mountain at Maastricht.

16. N. aperture linear; spires compressed, with rugosus; thickened margins. Southern ocean. Very small.

17. N. aperture compressed, linear; spires compress-umbilicated; umbilicus concave; minute. Croatia.

B. Spiral, rounded, with separate whirls.

18. N. aperture orbicular; whirl cylindrical; one spicula; inch in diameter. American and Indian oceans.

19. N. smooth, with 4 conic tubercles; very mi-spengleri; nute. India.

20. N. diaphanous, middle partitions protuberant ungulicula-outwards; surface with six conic tubercles; minute. tus. India.

C. Elongated, and nearly straight.

* 21. N. incurved, spiral at the tip; whirls contigu-semilitureous; minute, convex; the partitions appearing outwardly. Croatia, Sandwich. Rare.

22. N. sabonic; globular divisions growing gra-lituus; dually left; tip incurved, spiral. Red sea. Frequently found fossil.

23. N. with a slight curvature; divisions obliquely obliquus; striated;

B. Pyriform with a rounded base; cylinder half as long again as the spire.

10. C. yellow, with purplish brown; longitudinal principal branched lines, marked with two white bands, which have a few brown spots; spire obtuse and finely striated transversely: 2½ inches long. Indies.

11. C. with rough punctures at the base.—This species is divided into the following varieties. 1. Without bands. 2. With irregular bands. 3. With one regular band. 4. With two regular bands. 5. With three regular bands. 6. With four regular bands. 7. With five or more regular bands. 8. With punctuated, reticulated belts. To this last division belongs the cedo nulli, or celebrated admiral shell, which has been esteemed the rarest and most precious of tectaceous productions. Some specimens of the C. cedo nulli have brought the extravagant price of 100 guineas. The endless varieties of this species are found in the seas of South America.

12. C. teftaceous, spotted with white; with four yellow, immaculate bands; the second angularly divided. Southern ocean.

13. C. conic, smooth, glabrous; with obtuse, sculptured whirls; yellow spotted with white.

14. C. subcylindrical, smooth, glabrous; finely powdered; yellow or brown, spotted with white.

15. C. with linear belts, articulated with white and genuan brown; red, with bands alternately teftelated with brown and red.

16. C. emarginated at the base, striated; spire unglaucescent, armed, with contiguous whirls. India and Africa.

17. C. gibbous, clouded with bluish brown; acute, monochromatic at the base; sometimes dotted in rows.

18. C. grayish, surrounded with oblong dots.

19. C. ovate, rugged, and muricated at the base; rufescens; spire conico-convex. Var. 1. Without band. 2. With a band clouded whitish. Africa.

20. C. ovate, white, with reticulated yellow bands. mercurialis. Africa.

21. C. slightly emarginated at the base and wrinkled; betulinus; spire flattish, mucronate. India. A large shell.

22. C. slightly emarginated at the base, and wrinkled; figulinus; spire acuminated, with flattish whirls: three inches long. India.

23. C. ovate, white, with black band, composed of ebraeus; tranverse spots; a small shell.

24. C. emarginated at the base, and striated; whorls hercules of the spire channelled. Asia.

25. C. elongated, muricated: the spire crowned and varius; acute. Indian ocean.

26. C. elongated, finely striated transversely; varius; achaimonously clouded, and spotted with white; spire short, spotted with brown, and tipped with red. American ocean.

27. C. with white rays and bands.

28. C. pale yellow or chelidus spots, with white or leoninus; yellow transverse bands; spire rather acute.

29. C. light olive, with multifarious white dots, and jaspideus; an oblique band: oblong. Small.

30. C. brown with blue clouds and white spots. nebulosus.

31. C. conic, yellow, with white eyes and band: ocularis; bale obliquely striated.

32. C. short, brown, with two white bands: that coffee nearest the spire spotted with brown.

33. C. 33. C. pale brown, with a broad band, and articulated belts above and beneath; spire acute, crowned with tubercles, and finely striated transversely.

34. C. with chestnut stripes the whole length; spire acute, and with the pillar lip spotted with chestnut; the base acute and obliquely striated.

35. C. reticulated with chestnut, with two or three darker bands; spire crowned and acute. A very rare species.

36. C. brown, with a white band; undulated with reddish, thick, and broad striae; spire nodulous, with a granulated band.

37. C. white, clouded, striped, and spotted with brown; with numerous rows of white and brown dots; spire crowned with tubercles. American ocean.

38. C. citron with black lines, interrupted beneath; spire crowned with tubercles, with the base white. Curacao.

39. C. white, with chestnut clouds, spots, and dots; spire acute.

40. C. with alternate articulated belts and tessellated spots; spire crowned with tubercles; shell often minute, and with a white band.

41. C. with two yellowish brown bands, and numerous lines of dots; spire varied with yellow dots and lines.

42. C. snowy, with rosy and brown clouds, and numerous articulated belts, varied with white and chestnut; spire pointed.

43. C. conic, thick, transversely striated; clouded with white and brown, with a broad white band, and pyramidal spire; whorls channelled.

C. Elongated and rounded at the base; cylinder as long again as the spire.

44. C. with convex smooth striae; the base bluish. Indian ocean. Very rare.

45. C. subcylindrical, red, rough; striae tuberculated. Island of Nufatella in Asia, but very rare.

46. C. white, shaded with blue; subcylindrical, with annular striae and yellow bands.

47. C. red, with transverse lines, dotted with black; with a white band, and spire spotted with red.

48. C. subcylindrical, with annular ribs; red, with darker clouds, and barred with white; spire spotted.

49. C. subcylindrical, yellow; the base obliquely striated, with a white band near it; spire pointed with striped spots.

50. C. rufous with fulvous spots, and transverse striae; spire spotted with yellow; base obliquely striated.

51. C. bluish white, with four fulvous linear bands, and intermediate dull purple dots.

52. C. white with violet clouds and bands; rays pale brown; spire pyramidal, with six whirls.

53. C. rough, unarmed, with smooth, grooved striae. African ocean. Shell red, with white bands, and purple linear dots.

54. C. white within; outside yellowish brown and rough, with fine granulated lines, with a white band at the spire denticulated beneath; another at the base with a paler tinge; spire flattened, with striped spots; base outwardly dusky, and violet within.

55. C. white, with angular chestnut lines, and two orange bands; spire prominent; base surrounded with orange lines, and intermediate tessellated spots.

56. C. conic, snowy; spire prominent, and crowned niveus; with tubercles; aperture large.

57. C. orange flag, smooth, with whitish bands; whorls arauasia-grooved at the tips. India.

58. C. subcylindrical, with longitudinal bands, dotted with white. India.

59. C. ovate, oblong, gibbous, clouded with fine striae; parallel brown striae; 4 inches long. Africa.

60. C. with reticulated yellow veins, and yellow and textile brown spots. Asia.

61. C. white, with brown reticular veins and interrupted longitudinal bands. Asia. It varies much in its colours.

62. C. smooth, white, with bay characters and rows of dots, with three white belts and spots; the tip reddish; spire conic, with grooved whorls. Indian ocean.

D. Ventricose in the middle, and contracted at each end.

63. C. ventricose, yellow with white eyes; base trans-fasciatus, verily striated.

E. Thin, ventricose, and tinkling when thrown upon its back on a table.

64. C. bluish, with yellow clouds and yellowish thick spectrum, dots and striae; spire rather acute. Atlantic seas.

65. C. yellow clouded with white; aperture large bullatus, and bluish; spire sometimes flat, sometimes acute.

66. C. oblong, gibbous, smooth; aperture gaping tulipa. India, South America.

67. C. oblong, gibbous, crowned; aperture gaping; geographically wrinkled at the base, and a little narrower; aperture cuneus; white; spire sometimes rosy. Indian and African seas.

68. C. white, clouded and spotted with orange, with nubecula scattered white dots; spire prominent, acute.

69. C. white, with alternate rows of irregular chestnut, nut, or blackish spots, and interrupted, punctured bands.

70. C. brown, shaded with white, with a white vexillum, interrupted band; the white band is sometimes cruciate.

71. C. brown, barred with white, beneath narrow ventricose, shaded with bluish, and smooth; spire conic, ex-sustained.

Gen. 21. Cypraea, Cowrie.

Gen. Char.—The animal is a slug; shell univalve, involute, subovate, smooth, obtuse at each end; aperture effuse at each end; linear, extending the whole length of the shell, and toothed on each end.

Species.

1. C. slightly turbinated, ferruginous, with whitish examinethe-round spots and eyes; line down the back a little ma. branched. American and Atlantic seas.

2. C. slightly turbinated, and marked with irregular mappa. characters; line down the back branched. Indian and African seas.

3. C. slightly turbinated with irregular characters; arabica. stripe down the back simple. India.

4. C. slightly turbinated, subcylindrical, sprinkled argus. with eyes; beneath 4 brown spots; about 4 inches long. Indian and Atlantic seas.

5. C. obtuse, sub-cylindrical; extremities depressed. Persian gulf and Indian ocean. This is the largest shell of this genus.

6. C. slightly turbinated, gibbous, with livid and testaceous spots; emarginate on each side, and flat beneath. Guinea.

7. C. slightly turbinated, pale, with flesh-colored bands; mouth violet; 2½ inches long. Asiatic ocean.

8. C. turbinated, cinereous, with brown bands; is twice as large as the last, and the spire more prominent. India.

9. C. slightly turbinated, sub-cylindrical, testaceous, with pale bands; beneath thickened and brown; 3 inches long. India.

10. C. slightly turbinated; sides gibbous and decorticated, 4 clouded, brownish bands above. Madagascar.

11. C. slightly turbinated, lurid and slightly barred; extremities pale yellow, with 2 black spots. Mediterranean and Atlantic seas.

12. C. slightly turbinated, spotted, and marked with yellowish dots; extremities spotted with brown; throat rufous. Sicily.

13. C. slightly turbinated, white, with tubulate denticles. Sicily.

14. C. turbinated, ovate, glaucous, with longitudinal testaceous waves, and pale bands. Mediterranean.

15. C. thin, gibbous, fulvous, dotted with white, with a horizontal line in the middle; beneath white with yellow teeth.

16. C. thin, ventricose, reddish gray, with paler bands.

17. C. slightly turbinated thin; black lead colour, with four bands varied with blue and brown; undulated with brownish at the margin, and marked with blue and brown lines. Guinea.

18. C. slightly turbinated, rufet brown, with white eyes, and three paler bands on the back. American ocean.

19. C. ovate, slightly turbinated, with livid eyes; beneath flat, white; sides thickened, black, spotted with brown. Indian ocean.

20. C. slightly turbinated, orange, with a white immaculate edge; throat bright red. Friendly islands.

21. C. thin, elongated, yellowish or bluish, with ferruginous spots; within blue.

22. C. thin, elongated, uniformly straw-colored, pale yellow or reddish; beneath dotted with brown; teeth tubulate.

23. C. thin, gibbous; back clouded, and transversely barred.

24. C. turbinated, ovate, glaucous, with angular pale spots.

25. C. oblong, brown, with stripped gold spots; within blue.

26. C. oblong, purplish; beneath surrounded with a white line.

27. C. oblong, whitish; ends of the lips spotted with white.

28. C. oblong, reddish brown; beneath whitish.

29. C. cylindrical, cinereous with pellucid bands.

30. C. cylindrical, fragile, white, with transverse bands of reddish dots.

31. C. obtuse, ovate, slightly turbinated with a longitudinal testaceous line.

32. C. oblong, ferruginous, with paler bands.

33. C. turbinated, thin, bluish brown, with three yellowish bands varied with brown at each end. Rare.

34. C. turbinated, bluish, white, dotted and clouded with brown.

35. C. oblong, shaded with purple, with a straw-buff-colored band, and another narrower white one, and a brown border; 4 inches long.

36. C. cylindrical, above; pale-violet, and spotted cylindric with brown at the sides, with two brown spots at each end.

37. C. cylindrical, milk-white; one side bordered teres, and varied with a few pale yellow, narrow marks, backed with three brownish waved bands.

38. C. ovate, a little depressed; one side slightly ovata, bordered; back whitish, with crowded yellowish brown dots and waves, and 3 obsolete darker bands; 1½ inch long, ¾ broad.

39. C. oblong, of one colour, with a tinge of bloom; minute, beneath dotted with white, with the border of one side and the teeth of the lip white; above yellow at each end; spire tipped with black.

40. C. thin, oblong, barred with brown, and dotted sanguinolenta.

41. C. turbinated, glaucous, margined; above gibbosus, with transverse brownish bands; throat glaucous.

42. C. gibbous, glaucous, brown, with triangular, regina, testaceous and whitish spots, and 3 transverse bands; throat blackish, glaucous.

43. C. turbinated, undulated with brownish, cloud-undulated with pale ochre; and deeper bands. Mauritius island.

B. Obtuse, and without a manifest spire.

44. C. triangularly gibbous, and rather obtuse be-caput-hind; brown, spotted and white; beneath white; 1½ serpentinii inch long, Mauritius and Nufatella islands.

45. C. roundish, gibbous, brown, with white, confluent-reticulent, reticulated eyes, and a white horizontal line in the middle of the back; beneath white.

46. C. triangularly gibbous; behind depressed, acute; mauritius-beneath black; a large shell, spotted with brown. Java, ana. Mauritius, and Nufatella.

47. C. livid, with small white spots; 2 inches long. vitellus. Indian ocean.

48. C. retuse, gibbous, cinereous, with a longitudinal mus. brown band; teeth of the aperture blackish. American and Mediterranean seas.

49. C. obvate, obtuse behind, and rounded before; tigris. ferruginous, with deep brown spots, and a yellow longitudinal, dorsal line; 4½ inches long. Indian ocean.

50. C. ovate, obtuse behind, and rounded before, with flammeo-waved yellow spots; a rare shell.

51. C. ovate, olive, clouded with yellow, and spot-olivacea. ted with brown; beneath flat, pale-brown; teeth of the lip white.

52. C. ovate, thin, white, with greenish yellow dots feminea. disposed in rows; within violet.

53. C. oblong, ovate, with brown dots, and a yellowish line; hind part a little acute, with a rufous mouth; 2 inches long. Madagascar. 54. C. sub-cylindrical, with pale yellow extremities; 1½ inch long. Mauritius.

55. C. pyriform, dusky, with paler clouds and spots.

56. C. ovate, oblong; beneath flat; yellowish, with greenish and livid confluent drops; sides varied with scattered brown dots. India.

C. Umbilicated or perforated.

57. C. beneath brown, above whitish; small. Asia.

58. C. with fine transverse lines here and there meeting together. India.

59. C. interior lip rounded at each extremity.

60. C. pale yellow, with brown dots; the extremities with 2 brown spots.

61. C. above bluish; extremities marked with 2 brown spots. Maldives islands.

62. C. white, with 3 brown bands; oblong; minute. Madeira islands.

63. C. with an equal testaceous spot.

64. C. oblong, white; above smooth, varied with brown, and marked with 2 brown dots at the umbilicus or perforation.

65. C. pale brown, with paler bands and ochraceous spots; beneath and at the sides fulvous; within blue.

66. C. narrow, long, with flesh-coloured spots above, varied with pale, fulvous, and glaucous ones; sides chestnut.

67. C. thin; sides ruflet brown; above white, or pale brown, with transverse bands, or a fainter horizontal line.

68. C. cylindrical, marked above with characters, eyes, and a paler horizontal line; sides bloom-colour, dotted with black. India.

69. C. thin, oblong, olivaceous, with scattered ferruginous spots; beneath white.

70. C. oblong, narrow, plumbeous, with ferruginous dots and spots, and paler bands; marked at each extremity with 2 brown spots.

71. C. oblong, snowy, dotted with brown; each end marked with 2 dusky dots; ½ inch long.

72. C. oblong, gibbous; brown, with chestnut spots.

73. C. thin, ochraceous, with paler spots.

74. C. thin, cinereous, dotted with brown, and marked with transverse, elevated striae.

75. C. oblong, gibbous, smooth, yellowish.

76. C. oblong, purple; beneath white.

77. C. oblong, dusky, with two bands on the back, and whitish spots.

78. C. folio, oblong, fulvous, with brown spots, disposed in rows, and two dusky bands; sides saffron.

79. C. oblong, gibbous, clouded with brown and blue; sides spotted with black; mouth white.

80. C. ovate, marked above with lines; borders spotted.

81. C. ovate, gibbous, with cancellated spots, and a horizontal line above.

82. C. brownish, with two white bands; beneath pale yellow, dotted with brown.

83. C. oblong, gibbous; above bay, with brown and white dots.

84. C. ovate, white, with testaceous dots.

85. C. ovate, smoothish, yellowish, with four brown lunules. Shores of Guinea. Very rare shell.

86. C. lip toothed within; with three rows of tubercles; pillar lip without teeth.

D. Margined.

87. C. umbilicated, pale yellow, with white round cribraria spots.

88. C. whitish, with a knotty margin. Mediterranean, Atlantic, Ethiopic, and Indian seas.—This species is collected in great quantities, and transported to Bengal, Siam, and other parts of India, where it is employed by the natives as the medium of commerce.

89. C. surrounded on the back with a yellow ring. annulus. Amboyna and Alexandria.

90. C. gibbous, unequal, whitish; margin dotted caurica, with brown; back marked with testaceous clouds. Indian ocean.

91. C. with a jagged margin; yellow, dotted with erofa. white; sides with a brownish spot. Mauritius and Ascension islands.

92. C. with a jagged margin, flesh-colour, with a derga. greenish back, marked with fulvous dots; sides dotted with brown. Mediterranean.

93. C. with a jagged margin; yellow, dotted with flavoela. white; sides marked with obsolete, scattered, brown dots.

94. C. slightly margined, yellowish with deeper spurca. specks; sides dotted with brown. Mediterranean.

95. C. oblong, ovate; above bluish, dotted and spot-oblonga. dotted with brown; beneath and at the sides white.

96. C. cinereous, variegated with testaceous; white florida. beneath, and at the sides; 1½ inch long. Amboyna.

97. C. triangularly gibbous, dotted with white, jag-helvola. ged behind; beneath yellow, immaculate. Indian ocean.

98. C. slightly margined, pale yellow with black ocellata. eyes; margin white, dotted with brown; 1½ inch long.

99. C. pale violet, dotted with white; a very small poraria. shell.

* 100. C. with numerous transverse furrows, some of pediculus, which are forked; a small shell, and ovate, with various tints of red or white; sometimes it is marked with a longitudinal groove. Frequent on most shores. Britain.

101. C. margined on each side, slightly produced nucleus. and rugged, with raised tubercles above; 1 inch long. Nuffatella island.

102. C. whitish, produced on each side; back tuberculated, and marked with transverse undulated striae. cariensis. Madagascarcar.

103. C. somewhat produced, with elevated dots; ex-staphylea. tremities pale yellow.

104. C. produced on each side, and sprinkled with cicercula. raised dots. Mediterranean and Indian seas.

105. C. produced on each side, and smooth, white or globulus. yellow. Amboyna.

106. C. oblong, slightly produced, smooth, yellow; affinis. ocellated on each side before.

107. C. thin, oblong, white, with ferruginous spots squalina. and dots.

108. C. white or gray, with obsolete ferruginous fimbriata. spots and transverse bands; lips of the mouth marked with violet spots. cruenta.

109. C. gibbous; above bluish with rufous dots; beneath and at the sides white; lips citron.

110. C. reticulated; margin varied with striped spots.

rubiginosa.

111. C. oblong, white; within violet; back with a ferruginous blotch; each end marked with two pale yellow spots; teeth of the lips yellowish.

miliaris.

112. C. thin, short, yellowish green, with milk-white eyes, and marked with a lateral horizontal line.

acicularis.

113. C. folio; above yellowish dotted with brown, with a horizontal pale line; beneath milk-white, with impressed dots at the margin.

cresta.

114. C. thick, yellowish, with 3 whitish bands; mouth bluish; 4 inches long.

vinosa.

115. C. above white, with a claret tinge, and marked with purple eyes, surrounded with a black circle, and a horizontal white line; blue within. Mediterranean.

anguifera.

116. C. narrow, brown, with reddish spots at the side.

similis.

117. C. oblong, gibbous, yellowish, dotted with white, with a blackish spot at the margin.

striata.

118. C. convex, bluish white, dotted with brown; beneath yellow, striated on one side.

fenestrata.

119. C. oblong, folio, variegated with orange lips.

pulchra.

120. C. bluish, spotted with brown, and marked with 3 bands.

Gen. 2. Bulla, Dipper.

Gen. Char.—The animal a limax; the shell univalve, convoluted, unarmed with teeth; aperture a little straitened, oblong, longitudinal, very entire at the base; pillar oblique, smooth (B).

Species.

1. B. ovate, obtuse, slightly doubly beaked; one of the lips toothed, from which it has the appearance of a cyprea; 4 inches long. Amboyna and Friendly islands.

2. B. two beaked; the beaks long, striated and acute. Jamaica. A rare shell.

3. B. two-beaked, margin thickened outwardly; beaks long, smooth; size of a bean. Java.

4. B. oblong, rather obtuse at both ends; equal; lip arched; margin thickened within; twice the size of a grain of wheat. Mediterranean and Adriatic.

5. B. transversely angular, ovate, with a bony dot on each side. India.

6. B. angular, with an elevated belt. Brazil.

7. B. rounded, pellucid, slightly striated transversely; perforated at each end; an inch long. African and Indian seas.

* 8. B. roundish, pellucid, transversely sub-striated; outside a little wrinkled; glossy; one inch long. Europe, Africa, Devonshire.

* 9. B. rounded, pellucid, lightly striated longitudinally; crown umbilicated; size of a pea. Mediterranean, Devonshire.

10. B. rounded, obtuse at one end; crown umbilicated. Frequent on most shores; Britain.

* 11. B. oblong, oval, transversely striated; crown lignaria narrow, and slightly umbilicated; 3 inches long. European shores; Britain.

* 12. B. thick, white, opaque; aperture compressed in regularity; the middle; minute. Revolver, England.—Bulla ob-fissula, Montagu, Test. Brit. 223.

13. B. rounded, glabrous, pellucid, marked with phystic transverse lines; spire retuse. India.

14. B. roundish; spire elevated, obtuse, with flesh amply coloured bands; shell white. Asia.

15. B. obovate, with a clavated crown, indistinctly fissure, spire, and elongated beak; surface marked with reticulated striae; 3 inches long. American and Indian oceans.

16. B. rounded, turbinated, slightly striated, with a rapa, curved beak, and finely wrought spire; from 2 to 3 inches long. Indian ocean.

17. B. cylindrical; whorls of the spire grooved. candica.

18. B. oblong, turbinated, smooth; base a little conoid, striated; sutures crenulated; size of an acorn.

* 19. B. ovate, pellucid; spire obsolete; whorls concentrically, or turning from right to left; aperture ovate, oblong; ½ inch long. Shores of the Danube; lakes and rivers of Europe; Britain.

* 20. B. ovate, pellucid; spire contrary, prominent; hypnus aperture ovate, lanceolate. Europe, Britain.—Linnaeus supposes that this species may be a variety of the last; but, according to Mr Montagu, the form of the shell, the structure of the animal, and its habitat, are always distinct. Linnaeus says, that this species is found among wet mosses. Mr Montagu found it only in ditches, and in a place occasionally overflowed by the river Avon.

21. B. polished, with a pointed spire; aperture ob-turrice long. Northern Europe, in ditches and wet meadows.

22. B. brittle, with a depressed contrary spire; aperture ending in a beak; 2½ lines long. Rivers of Denmark.

23. B. sides cylindrical, with a subulate spire, truncated at the base; 2 inches long. Indian ocean.

24. B. ovate; spire indistinct, prominent at the top; aperture more dilated behind; pillar twisted; size of an acorn. Mediterranean.

25. B. with party-coloured double bands, and purple truncated pillar; aperture semilunar. Rivers of Asia.

26. B. conic, pointed with transverse bands and undulated spots; aperture white. South America, India.

27. B. conic, pointed, glabrous, with undulated fuligineous streaks; 2 inches long; 8 whorls in the spire.

28. B. conic, white, striated; pillar straight and re-striatula fleeted.

29. B. oblong, pointed, white, grooved; spire with exarate 6 or 7 whorls.

30. B. tapering, erect; white, with 2 broad, reddish bifasciate bands at the aperture; a land species.

31. B.

(b) In some of the species belonging to this genus, it appears that the animal possesses different characters from those of the limax, and particularly that which inhabits the bulla lignaria, a British shell, which is furnished with a gizzard, of a testaceous nature. See Lin. Trans. vol. ii. p. 15.

31. B. a little tapering and compressed; pale, flesh-coloured, with two remote bands; one broader and brown, the other blue.

32. B. ovate, pointed, with longitudinal brown bands; pillar inflected, entire. Tranquebar. A land species.

33. B. ovate, pointed, with a wide crimson mouth and lip; pillar truncated; 8 inches long. American ocean.

34. B. oblong, horn-coloured; spire retuse; thin; ½ inch long.

35. B. subovate, slightly two-beaked; striated on the back, and gibbous in the middle; chestnut with white spots and bands; within violet.

36. B. sub-ovate, equable, pale gray, undulated with brown, and marked with ferruginous spots, and two white bands; 1½ inch long.

37. B. thin, umbilicated on each side; white, with capillary brown lines, and a snowy band, edged with brown on each side; 1 inch long.

38. B. ovate, oblong, within milk-white, solid, pellucid; aperture wide; two grooves on the back. Brazil.

39. B. cylindrical, smooth, white, thin, slightly umbilicated; twice as large as a grain of wheat. Europe, Britain.

40. B. cylindrical, aperture sub-orbicular, and dilated beneath.

41. B. smooth, cylindrical, olive; aperture effuse; pillar inflated, truncated; 7 whorls in the spire.

42. B. sub-cylindrical, spiral, reddish, with longitudinal striae, and spotted; sutures crenulated; pillars sinuated and truncated. St Domingo.

43. B. ventricose, rugged, and longitudinally streaked; aperture ovate, with a pointed lip, and deep black border within. Africa, in rice fields.

44. B. ovate, thin, brown, and rough.

45. B. folioid, red, varied with violet; margin red; spire a little prominent.

46. B. inflated, glabrous, horny; cinnamon colour; five rows of dots; pillar sinuated, with an acute lip; extremity thin and ovate.

47. B. ovate, rough, slightly carinated on the back, and marked with decalvated striae; white with rosy lines; pillar scalloped, reflected. Java.

48. B. ovate, pellucid, with a truncated channelled crown; 6 lines long. Norway seas, Banff in Scotland, and near Portmouth.

49. B. cylindrical, horny, transversely striated, with a rotute top or crown; whorls margined, channelled.

50. B. ovate, flesh-coloured, gibbous; lip arched, thickened and toothed within. Shores of Africa.

51. B. smooth, gloffy, white, pellucid, oblong, involuted; aperture large, terminating in a short canal, most contracted at the top; length 1 inch. Weymouth.

52. B. sub-oval, thin, pellucid, white, resembling a halictus; a little wrinkled; aperture oval; length ½ inch. Weymouth.

53. B. ovate, oblong, depressed, pellucid, thin; strongly wrinkled concentrically; length ¼ inch. Milton sands, Devonshire. Montagu, Taf., Brit. p. 214.

54. B. pellucid, white, finely striated transversely; the striae magnified, have the appearance of the links of a chain; one-tenth inch diameter. Devonshire.

* 55. B. oblong, oval, smooth, white; apex rounded, umbilicata, umbilicated; aperture very narrow; ½ inch long. Falmouth.

* 56. B. sub-cylindrical, opaque, white; upper part truncata, longitudinally striated, lower plain; apex truncated, and largely umbilicated. Falmouth.

* 57. B. smooth, gloffy, pellucid, white, suboval; body large, ventricose; apex pointed; aperture sub-oval; ½ inch long. Salcombe bay. Rare.

Gen. 23. Voluta, Volute.

Gen. Char.—The animal a limax; the shell is one-celled, spiral; aperture without a beak, and sometimes effuse; pillar twisted or plaited, generally without lips or perforation.

SPECIES.

A. Aperture entire.

1. V. contracted, oval, oblong, with a rugged spire; aurispillar 2-toothed; 4 inches long. India. In marshy meadows, woods and swamps.

2. V. oval, oblong, with a wide aperture; pillar flatimena, one-toothed.

3. V. contracted, oblong, oval, grooved; white fulgens, dotted with yellow; pillar with two plaits; ½ inch long.

4. V. thin, transversely striated, flesh-colour, with bifaclata, two white bands; pillar one-toothed; not one inch long.

5. V. contracted on the upper part; yellow, with flavo, a crenulated lip; pillar with two plaits; 4½ lines long.

6. V. oval, oblong, banded; pillar with three minuta plaits.

7. V. thin, brown; whorls of the spire cancellated; puella, pillar three-toothed; very minute.

8. V. oval, oblong, glabrous, with a reflected groov-glabra, ed lip; pillar one-toothed.

9. V. oval, gibbous, umbilicated; pillar with one aurisfileni thick, flexuous plait; two inches long.

10. V. contracted, oblong; spires smooth; pillar 3 auris-juda toothed. Fens of India.

11. V. fusiform, granulate, with an ovate aperture; auris-mollcular cut, spreading; three inches long. New Caledonia.

12. V. oval, pointed at each end, and spirally stri-tornatilis, ated; pillar with a single fold; ¾ inch long. Europe, Wales.

13. V. thin, brittle, with two small spires; mouth ionensis, rounded, wide. Island of Iona, Scotland.

14. V. white, opaque, longitudinally striated. Sand-alba, which. Very minute.

15. V. contracted, oblong, ovate, opaque, striated; solidula, spire elevated and a little pointed; pillar slightly plaited.

16. V. contracted, ovate, cylindrical; spire a little livida, elevated, obtuse; pillar with five plaits; one inch long. Africa.

17. V. contracted, smooth, with an obtuse spire; coffea, aperture toothed on each side.

B. Subcylindrical, emarginated.

18. V. smooth; spire obliterated at the base; lip re-porphyria, tufa tusse in the middle; pillar obliquely striated; five inches long. Brazil.

oliva. 19. V. smooth; spire reflected at the base; pillar obliquely striated. Indian seas.

annulata. 20. V. smooth, white, with a keel-shaped ring on the back; sometimes with reddish waves.

utriculus. 21. V. elongated, smooth, with a prominent spire. Indian and Ethiopic seas.

hiatula. 22. V. thin, with a cinerous spotted back, callous beneath; aperture large; pillar toothed at the base. Shores of Spain.

jaspidea. 23. V. white dotted with greenish brown, or violet; spire prominent; whirls with a band composed of spots at the base; an inch long. Shores of Spain.

nivea. 24. V. snowy, elongated, smooth, banded. Spanish seas.

ispidula. 25. V. smooth with a prominent spire and single margin; pillar obliquely striated; from one to two inches long. India.

carniolus. 26. V. orange with blue bands; spire flattened; aperture white.

C. Oboval, effuse, emarginated.

daëtylus. 27. V. smooth, with decussated striae, obtuse; pillar with six plait: \( \frac{1}{8} \) inch long. India.

miliaria. 28. V. slightly emarginated, white, with an obliterated pale yellow spire; pillar obliquely striated. Mediterranean.

monilis. 29. V. entire white with an obliterated white spire; pillar obliquely striated; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch long. China; where it is employed for making beads and necklaces. A variety is found in Africa only \( \frac{2}{3} \) lines long, with 8 or 10 thin plait in the pillar.

exilis. 30. V. obovate, entire, yellowish, with two brown bands; spire prominent; pillar obliquely striated.

pericula. 31. V. smooth, with a retuse umbilicated spire; pillar with seven plait; lip with a crenated margin; one inch long. African sea.

pallida. *32. V. shell entire, oblong, ovate, with an elevated spire; pillar with four plait. African and European shores, Britain.

faba. 33. V. slightly emarginated, smooth, a little plaited; spire prominent; pillar with four plait; lip with a crenulated margin; one inch long. African ocean.

glabella. 34. V. very entire, smooth, with a levigated spire; pillar with four plait; lip gibbous; margin toothed; from one to two inches long. African and American seas.

prunum. 35. V. very entire, smooth, with a levigated spire; pillar with four plait; lip without tooth, or margin; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch long. Island of Goree.

reticulata. 36. V. with slight decussated grooves; lip internally striated; pillars slightly perforated; two inches long. American ocean and Guinea.

vercatoria. 37. V. striated, with an obtuse spire; pillar retuse, toothed; lip gibbous, denticulated; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch long. Mediterranean, American, and Indian seas.

rufica. 38. V. smooth with a prominent spire; pillar retuse, toothed; lip gibbous, denticulated. Mediterranean and American seas.

paupercula. 39. V. entire, smooth, with a striated base; spire a little prominent; pillar with four plait; lip obtuse. Mediterranean and Indian seas.

mendicaria. 40. V. slightly striated, with a slightly granulated spire; pillar smooth; lip gibbous and denticulated; size of a kidney bean. Mediterranean and Indian seas.

41. V. entire, plaited, and croswife reticulated; pil-cancellata lar with three plait, slightly umbilicated, and a little produced. African ocean.

42. V. smooth, white, with blue bands and yellow elegant mouth; spire nearly obliterated; pillar fix-toothed; scarcely one inch long.

43. V. smooth, greenish white, with numerous ovum bands; lip inflected; pillar with four plait; \( \frac{2}{3} \) inches long.

44. V. spire obsolete; sides with thickened margins; marginate four plait in the pillar.

45. V. substriated, glabrous; spire obtuse, smooth, nucæa, prominent; five plait in the pillar. Indian ocean.

46. V. conic, white, with hollow punctured grooves canus, at the base; whirls crenated; fix plait in the pillar.

D. Fusiform.

47. V. nearly entire, oblong, smooth, with a prominent excoriated spire; three plait in the pillar; lip slightly toothed inwardly. Mediterranean.

48. V. slightly emarginated, oblong, smooth; spire cornicula, longish; four plait in the pillar; lip equal and unarmed. Mediterranean.

49. V. entire, tapering, plaited and tranversely stri-virgated; three plait in the pillar, which is perforated. About a finger's length, and marked with about twelve grooves.

50. V. emarginated, striated, and tranversely wrinkled; four plait in the pillar, which is perforated; lip la notched; two inches long. India.

51. V. nearly entire, tranversely wrinkled; four ruffina, plait in the pillar; lip crenulated. India.

52. V. nearly entire, smooth, yellowish with red rubila, clouds tranversely striated; lip crenulated; four plait in the pillar. Friendly islands.

53. V. emarginated, longitudinally grooved and sanguifera tranversely striated; lips smooth; four plait in the pillar; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch long. Mediterranean and Indian seas.

54. V. emarginated, round, smooth; whorls of the coffra, spire with plaited striae; four plait in the pillar; \( \frac{2}{3} \) inches long. Asiatic sea.

55. V. slightly emarginated, round, smooth; about morio, three plait in the pillar.

56. V. tapering, marked with tranverse rays of red acus, dots; spire pointed, smooth; scarcely an inch long.

57. V. emarginated, subangular, unarmed, and tranversely striated; four plait in the pillar; throat striated; two inches long. India.

58. V. emarginated, angular, anterior angles a little plicaria, spinous; four plait in the pillar; lip smooth; two inches long. Indian ocean.

59. V. cylindrical, glabrous, reddish, with sublivid ballata, belts; four plait in the pillar within; aperture effuse. Indian ocean.

60. V., cylindrical with decussated striae, and impre-crenula, fed dots; white with yellowish clouds; lip and whirls nodulous; margin of the whirls crenulated; eight plait in the pillar. Indian ocean.

61. V. tapering, black with white spots, tranversely, feutulata, striated, first whirl a little ventricole; four plait in the pillar. Indian ocean.

62. V. 62. V. tapering, emarginated, blackish; whirls flat- tilt; four plait in the pillar. Guinea, Greenland.

63. V. tapering, emarginated, longitudinally ribbed, plaited, and transversely striated; three plaits in the pillar. Indian ocean.

64. V. tapering, emarginated, barred and transverse- ly striated with longitudinal knotty ribs, spotted with red; pillar with three plaits. Indian ocean.

65. V. tapering, emarginated, granulous, with de- cussated striae and longitudinal ribs barred with brown; five plaits in the pillar. Indian ocean.

66. V. tapering, emarginated, transversely striated and longitudinally grooved, with elevated dots and reddish lines; three plaits in the pillar. Indian ocean.

67. V. tapering, smooth, brown with white bands; six plaits in the pillar, which is emarginated at the base. Shores of Amboyna.

68. V. tapering, chestnut, with flexuous white bands; pillar obsoletely plaited: two inches long.

69. V. tapering, white with reticulated and spotted brown bands: one inch long.

70. V. tapering, brown, cancellated; angles of the section nodulous, and whitish: four plaits in the pil- lar.

71. V. tapering, chestnut with yellow clouds and spots; eight whirls in the spire; which are longitudi- nally plaited and transversely striated; five plaits in the pillar.

72. V. tapering, orange; a white band in the four first whirls of the spire; lip denticulated; four plaits in the pillar.

73. V. tapering, with decussated striae; the longitu- dinal one undulated; about four plaits in the pillar.

74. V. tapering, punctured, whirls longitudinally ribbed, and finely striated transversely; three first an- gular; about five plaits in a slightly umbilicated pil- lar.

75. V. tapering, cancellated; beak short and cancel- lated; four plaits in the pillar. Tranquebar.

76. V. tapering, smooth, white with yellow spots and black dots; pillar doubly plaited.

77. V. tapering, two plaits in the pillar: whirls turgid, with a band of black dots; first whirl double.

78. V. tapering, with perpendicular black lines crossing a white band; 3 plaits in the pillar.

79. V. tapering; beneath brown dotted with white; above white, with perpendicular waved yellow stripes; a minute shell.

80. V. tapering, finely striated transversely; dusky, with red dots, and two paler bands; minute.

81. V. tapering and grooved longitudinally; brown, with a transverse white nodulous band; pillar five- toothed.

82. V. tapering, smooth, brown; spire with a pale band; narrow, small.

83. V. tapering, chestnut, with white eyes; mi- nute.

84. V. tapering, red, with rows of black dots; lip prominent; beak reflected.

85. V. tapering, varied with white and brown; lip infected.

86. V. tapering, reddish, finely striated transversely; aperture oblong, oval; spire obtuse; 1 1/2 inch long. A- merican seas.

87. V. tapering, cancellated, with an obtuse spire: clathrata. lip margined; beak reflected. American ocean.

88. V. tapering, gibbous, yellow; each whirl with tricolor, a white band, teffelated with black; 3 plaits in the pillar.

89. V. tapering, chestnut brown, with undulated turrita, brown lines; aperture striated; 3 plaits in the pillar.

90. V. tapering, smooth, white, with perpendicular, syracusa waved, blackish yellow stripes. Syracuse.

91. V. tapering, polished, chestnut; within white; nitens. pillar with 4 plaits.

92. V. tapering, citron, with rufous bands; 2 1/2 citrina. inches long.

93. V. tapering pale brown, and longitudinally mucronata. striated; spire perforated; pillar perforated, and 4- plaited.

94. V. tapering, a little ventricose; longitudinally rugosa. wrinkled, and transversely striated; whitish with pice- ous lines.

95. V. tapering, cinereous, striated with red; spire trigona. glabrous; whirls rather tumid.

96. V. tapering, glabrous; 5 plaits in the pillar; suffus. has been only found in a fossil state.

97. V. tapering, thin, glabrous; brown surrounded leucochela. with lines of white dots. Friendly islands.

98. V. tapering, whitish, cancellated; whirls with clathrus. a band of yellow spots.

99. V. tapering, transversely ribbed, with a trans- virgata. verle brown band, and longitudinal waved spots; two inches long.

100. V. tapering, cancellated; varied with tawney leucochoma. and white, with waved brown spots; mouth ochraceous.

101. V. tapering, transversely striated; yellow with variegata. a brown band and spots.

102. V. emarginated, tapering, marked with decuf-filaris. fated striae, and red threads; pillar 3-plaited.

103. V. cylindrical, whitish, glabrous; spire project-volva. ing, obtuse, emarginated at the base; pillar 4-plaited; 2 inches long. Shores of Guinea.

104. V. ovate, bay, longitudinally wrinkled; be- zieroveli. neath transversely grooved; spire obtuse, and crenated at the future; 4 plaits in the pillar; lip denticulated.

105. V. ovate, triangular, rugged, knotty, tran- rhinoceros. verle grooved and umbilicated; pillar 3-plaited; lip toothed; throat striated; whirls murecated with knobs. Shores of New Guinea.

106. V. tapering, white; spire with fine transverse coftata. striae, and rounded ribs; first whirl with 3 brown bands; 4 plaits in the pillar.

107. V. ovate, white; spire spotted with brown; spuria. 6 brown bands in the first whirl; tail emarginated; lip impressed; pillar 6-plaited.

108. V. emarginated, striated, and marked with pertusa. hollow punctures; lip denticulated; 5 plaits in the pillar; 3 inches long. India.

109. V. emarginated, transversely striated; white cardinalis. with rows of teffelated chestnut spots; pillars 5-plaited Indian ocean.

110. V. emarginated, smooth; margin of the whirls episcopalis. entire; lip denticulated; 4 plaits in the pillar; 5 inches long. India.—The animal of this shell is said to be poisonous when it is eaten, and has the power of inflicting a wound on those who touch it, with a kind of pointed trunk. The natives of the island Tanna em- ploy the shell as a hatchet, fixing it in a handle.

111. V. 111. V. emarginated; transversely striated; margins of the whorls and lip denticulated; pillar 4-plaited. Indian ocean.

112. V. obovate, folio, transversely striated, marked with nodulous plaits; whorls crowned with tubercles. India.

113. V. margined, with obtuse spines in the whorls; lip smooth and very thick; pillar 8-plaited. American ocean. The plaits in the pillar arc from 9 to 12 in some varieties.

114. V. emarginated, with acute spines on the whorls; lip smooth; pillar 4-plaited; from 3 to 6 inches long. Indian seas.

115. V. emarginated; whorls tuberculated, and marked with black characters; 5 plaits in the pillar.

116. V. emarginated; whorls with subacute spines; 5 stronger and 3 obsolete plaits in the pillar; 6 inches long. India, Jamaica. Very rare.

117. V. nearly entire, turbinated, with conic somewhat erect spines; upper ones larger; pillar 4-plaited; 3 inches long. Indian ocean.

118. V. ovate, rugged, knotty; 3 plaits in the pillar; 2½ inches long. Indian and American seas.

119. V. ovate, acute, with divergent spines; about 5 plaits in the pillar; spines on the outer whorls gradually lessening into tubercles. Coromandel and Ceylon.

120. V. obovate, slightly tailed, with striated whorls on the spire; tip produced and quite glabrous; pillar 3-plaited; 7 inches long. Tranquebar and Ceylon.

121. V. obovate, smooth, with a pointed spire, and ventricose; pillar 5-plaited. Indian and American seas.

122. V. ventricose, yellowish-white, with orange bands; first whorl tuberculated and larger than the rest; pillar 6 plaited. Indian ocean. Very rare.

123. V. pyriform, smooth, with yellowish clouds; spire varied with chestnut spots; 4 plaits in the pillar.

124. V. elongated, ribbed; ribs crossed with fine transverse lines; lip margined; spire papillary at the tip; many plaits in the pillar; 4 inches long.

125. V. ventricose; spire ribbed with fine transverse striae crossing the ribs; lip margined, umbilicated; 3 plaits in the pillar; 1 inch long. Mauritius and Guinea.

126. V. tapering and transversely striated; white with longitudinal chevrons; lip denticulated, striated; 3 plaits in the pillar; 3 inches long.

127. V. longitudinally ribbed, and finely striated transversely; a row of acute tubercles on the two first whorls; 3 plaits on the pillar. Indian seas.

128. V. ventricose, ochraceous, with white and brown lines; lip subulate; whorls of the spire convex; first largest; 2 inches long.

129. V. finely reticulated and striated, with elevated transverse belts; lip crenated; 4 plaits in the pillar, which is a little umbilicated.

130. V. coarse, brown, smooth; base transversely striated; spire obtuse; first whorl ventricose, with narrow bands; the rest with a broad white band; pillar with 3 plaits and umbilicated.

E. Ventricose; the spire papillary at the tip.

131. V. emarginated; spire crowned with vaulted spines; 4 plaits in the pillar; 7 or 8 inches long. Peria, Asia, and the Cape of Good Hope.

132. V. emarginated; whorls of the spire with cymbiform grooved margins; 4 plaits in the pillar; lip callous. Spain, Africa, and America.

133. V. emarginated; spire smooth; pillar 3-plait-olla, ed; 4 inches long. Spain, America, Philippine isles.

134. V. elongated, with a broad aperture; lip ampli-cute; whorls of the spire scarcely visible; 1 inch long.

135. V. emarginated; covered with a brown cuticle, under which it is reddish; lip a little prominent; 4 plaits in the pillar; 4 whorls in the spire; 8 inches long; nearly as broad. Persian gulf.

136. V. emarginated; lip a little prominent; pillar navicus 4 plaited; 2 inches long.

137. V. elongated, yellow, with a long tubercle at the tip, which is sometimes oblique.

138. V. elongated, yellow, with 3 bands of brown indica dots; 4 plaits in the pillar. India.

139. V. coarct, clouded, with zig-zag brown lines; scapha lip subulate, pillar bluish with 4 plaits. Cape of Good Hope. Very rare.

140. V. ovate, glabrous; whitish with longitudinal cymbiform red lines; whorls knotty; 3 plaits in the pillar; 2 inches long. Indian ocean.

141. V. subovate, tefaceous, with reddish bay praps spots, emarginated at the base; 4 plaits in the pillar. Coromandel coast.

142. V. cylindrical, yellowish, emarginated; aperture effuse, spreading; 3 plaits in the pillar. Eastern shores of Africa.

143. V. white, smooth, reticulated with gold, e-reticulated; 4 plaits in the pillar; spire conic; first whorl cylindrical and ventricose; 2 inches long. Java.

144. V. brownish yellow, striated with brown; 3 plaits in the pillar; 5½ inches long. Straits of Magellan.

Gen. 24. Buccinum, Whelk.

Gen. Char.—The animal is a limax; the shell univalve, spiral, gibbous; aperture ovate, terminating in a short canal, leaning to the right, with a retuse beak or projection; pillar lip expanded.

Species.

A. Inflated, rounded, thin, subdiaphanous, and brittle.

1. B. roundish, surrounded with obtuse grooves, between which is an elevated line; aperture without teeth; 4 inches long. Indian lea.

2. B. obovate, surrounded by grooves which are galea double on the fore-part; aperture without teeth; pillar umbilicated. Mediterranean and Adriatic seas.

This shell is nearly as large as a man's head.

* 3. B. ovate, inflated, slightly grooved, and undula-perdita, teted with white; aperture without teeth; 6 inches long. India, America, Weymouth.

4. B. ovate, surrounded with obtuse grooves; aperture toothed; 2½ inches long. Java, Amboyna, Mexico.

5. B. ovate, surrounded with remote obtuse grooves; dolium beak a little prominent. Sicily, Africa, India.

6. B. ovate, surrounded with rounded ribs; beak a caudal little prominent; ¾ inch long.

7. B. 7. B. Snowy, ribbed; outer whirls of the spire fearcely prominent.

8. B. ovate, longitudinally wrinkled and transversely plaited; with a short recurved beak; pillar lip crenated and grooved within.

9. B. pyramidal or sharp-pointed at bottom; white, with dark brown spiral lines; very small. Cornwall.

10. B. white, with 5 whirls, which are longitudinally ribbed, and transversely striated. Pembrokehire coast.

11. B. with 5 spines, spirally striated, and transversely ribbed; less than a pea. Norway, England.

12. B. white, opaque, with 3 spires; aperture oval. Foweyham creek, England. Minute and rare.

B. With a short exserted, reflected beak; lip outwardly unarmed.

13. B. white, opaque, with three whirls, which are longitudinally ribbed; very minute. Pembrokehire coast.

14. B. smooth, with 3 whirls and a long beak; very small. Pembrokehire coast.

15. B. smooth, with 3 whirls, and a long beak; aperture contracted; very minute. Pembrokehire coast.

16. B. with 4 tuberculated belts and prominent beak. Adriatic and Mediterranean seas.

17. B. a little plaited forwards, marked with decussated striae; aperture toothed; beak recurved. Jamaica.

18. B. Great spiked casket. Turbinated, or crowned with spines; aperture toothed, beak recurved; from 9 to 12 inches long. India.

19. B. Red helmet. With decussated striae, and knotty belts, between which is a double line; aperture toothed; beak recurved. America and India.

20. B. Persian wheel. With two tuberculated belts, and recurved beak; 10 inches long. American ocean.

21. B. slightly plaited and crowned; aperture toothed; beak recurved; 5 inches long. American ocean.

22. B. obovate, with decussated striae, and elevated longitudinal ones; aperture toothed; beak recurved; 4 inches long. America and India.

23. B. with decussated striae, and covered with small square scales; aperture toothed; beak recurved. Africa, Mediterranean.

24. B. Small diced casket. Subfriated and surrounded with four rows of square spots; aperture toothed; beak recurved; 3 inches long; outer pillar lip with a toothed inner margin. India, Mediterranean.

25. B. ovate, smooth, bluish, with transverse yellow bands; spotted with brown, and intermediate brown characters. New Zealand.

26. B. with sometimes transverse, striated and waved spots; spire obtuse; inner lip glabrous.

27. B. ovate, smooth, and covered with hollow punctures; spire elongated; lips toothed; beaks recurved. India.

28. B. thin, cinereous, with white bands tessellated with brown; whirls with 5 rows of tubercles; 6 inches long. South seas. Very rare.

29. B. white, with variegated yellowish, chestnut, and white bands; beaks recurved. India.

30. B. with four spotted bands; whirls a little pro-

minent, and longitudinally ribbed; the first crowned with tubercles; 3½ inches long.

31. B. transversely striated; spire obtuse; whorls bilineatum with a spotted band and 2 lines. Weymouth.

32. B. coarse, transversely striated and wave spot-gibbium. Tuated; spire acute, pyramidal; 2 inches long.

33. B. ventricose, striated, pillar lip thin; beak ventricoshort.

34. B. transversely striated; spire acute; the 2 first frigofum. Whirls crowned with spines; outer pillar lip spotted within, and emarginated without.

35. B. smooth, with undulated spots; spire rugged rugofum. And striated; beak with 5 plaits; outer pillar lip strong and straight.

36. B. coarse, and with a slightly prominent, acute pondero-spire; first whirl crowned with tubercles; outer pillar fum. Ribbed within.

37. B. smooth, and marked with a band of rufous recurvi-spots; spire a little prominent; first whirl inflected; roflrum. 2½ inches long. Barbadoes.

38. B. transversely striated, and spotted here and trifascia-there, with three equal bands; aperture bluish within; tum. Outer pillar lip toothed; inner with rows of tubercles; 3 inches long.

39. B. finely striated transversely, and with three senegal-spotted bands; second whirl of the spire surrounded cum. With a turgid ring; outer pillar lip crenated. Senegal.

40. B. ochraceous, transversely striated; first whirl ochroleu-crowned with spines; outer pillar lip toothed; inner cum. Repand; 2½ inches long.

41. B. transversely striated; spire depressed; outer fritiatum. Whirl knotted at the margin; aperture toothed; beak recurved. America.

42. B. obovate, umbilicated, fulvous, with nume-caffir. Rous transverse striae; pillar lip membranaceous; united lip of the aperture acute. Mediterranean.

43. B. ovate, transversely grooved, whitish with frigatum. Reddish bands, varicose; spire conic, with decussated striae; aperture oblong, toothed; inner pillar lip plaited, granulated; lip of the aperture fringed, spotted. India.

44. B. globular, yellowish, grooved and striated; tyrrhenum. Spire conic; aperture white; lip margined, and slightly toothed within. Seas round Tuscany.

45. B. ovate, white, transversely striated, and groo-abbrevi-ved; spire conic; lip of the aperture doubled, and tum. Toothed within; pillar lip reflected and wrinkled; beak very short. India and America.

C. Lip prickly outwardly behind.

46. B. Small curled casket. A little plaited, and erinaceus. Crowned with papillae. America, India.

47. B. Smooth gray casket. Smooth, crowned with glaucum. Papillae; 5 inches long. Indian sea.

48. Smooth spotted-tipped casket. Entirely smooth, vibex. With yellowish, waved, brown spots. America, India.

49. B. ventricose; whirls of the spire with a band tessellatum. At the base, tessellated with black.

50. B. slightly plaited and crowned with papillae nodulosum. Lip smooth, with two rows of sharp spines behind; 1 inch long.

51. B. grooved, with an acute spire; whirls with simbria. Rows of tubercles. papillosum. 52. B. Small bulge netted whelk. Covered with tubercles, in rows; 2½ inches long. Indian sea. Rare.

glans. 53. B. Smooth, inner pillar lip with two teeth; 2 inches long. Indian ocean. Very rare.

D. Pillar lip dilated and thickened.

arcularia. 54. B. Plaited and crowned with papillae. Indian ocean.

pullus. 55. B. Small coffin shell. Gibbous, obliquely striated and tuberculated; aperture wrinkled; not an inch long. Mediterranean and European coasts, Britain.

gibbosulum. 56. B. Gibbous, smooth, snowy, tinged or spotted; small. Mediterranean and Indian seas.

mutabile. 57. B. Smooth, rugged; spire exserted; inner lip extended forward, and thickish. Mediterranean.

neriteum. 58. B. Convex, obtuse, smooth; inner pillar lip obsolete; size of a pea. Mediterranean.

E. Pillar lip appearing as if worn flat.

harpa. 59. B. Musical-harp shell. With equal, longitudinal, distinct mucronate veins; pillar lip smooth; from 3 to 5 inches long. Indian sea.

cofatum. 60. B. With equal, longitudinal, crowned mucronate veins; pillar lip smooth. Falkland islands. Very rare.

perficum. 61. B. Flat, with the lip crenulated, and the pillar flat; 4 inches long. India, and Persian gulf.

monodon. 62. B. Rough with a crenulated lip; pillar flat, protruding obliquely a subulate spine; gray, white within. America.

patulum. 63. B. Muricated; the lip crenated without; the pillar falcate; 4 inches long. America and Ethiopia.

haemastoma. 64. B. Slightly muricated; lip striated within; the pillar rather flat; throat fulvous; 2 inches long. Mediterranean and Ethiopic seas.

lapillus. * 65. B. Purple whelk. Ovate, acute, spirally striated, without protuberances; pillar flattish; 1¼ inch long. The colour is white, cinereous, or yellowish; the shell is often transversely bored or grooved; it is sometimes thin and without teeth in the aperture, and sometimes more solid, and the aperture toothed. Shores of Europe, Britain.—This is one of the species which yields a fine purple dye.

finaragduluss. 66. B. Ovate, achte and glabrous; pillar flattish and slightly plaited; grooved; shines with a green glofs, and like mother-of-pearl.

tuba. 67. B. Fusiform, yellowish brown; the spire cancelled; first whirl smooth, and three times longer than the rest; ventricose above. India.

pyrum. 68. B. Turbinated; aperture red; pillar smooth; the spire short; first whirl ventricose. India, Red sea. Very rare.

spadiceum. 69. B. Oblong, turbinated; chestnut, with transverse undulated white lines.

foffile. 70. B. Convex, transversely plaited; spire short; pillar callous. Found fossil in Germany.

umbilicatum. 71. B. Oblong, turbinated and plaited; spire knotty; aperture grooved within; pillar slightly umbilicated.

candidum. 72. B. Oblong, turbinated; solid, smooth and white.

scala. 73. B. Oblong; aperture oval, emarginated, four-toothed; base white; spire acute; the whorls distant; the first with four glabrous ribs.

74. B. Ventricose, coarse, gray, glabrous; aperture oval; pillar callous; base with two callosities; spire scarcely prominent; has 5 whorls.

75. B. Subglobular, glabrous; aperture oval, mac-marginated on each side; lip toothed; pillar a little striaturned; spire scarcely prominent. Found in a fossile state.

76. B. Ponderous, convex, glabrous; whorls di-labyrinthian and margined; aperture oval, ample; pillar obliquely plaited. Holland.

77. B. Coarse, ovate, oblong, white with transverse furcatus brown stripe; aperture oval; beak prominent; first whirl ventricose. India, Africa.

78. B. Ovate, coarse, yellow, with elevated knotty, varium transverse darker ribs; aperture oval, without teeth.

79. B. Ovate, whitish, surrounded with red threads; filiform, spire a little prominent; aperture oval; lip striated with red; pillar slightly umbilicated.

80. B. Ovate, striated, whitish with chestnut shades; coronal a white band in the middle, edged with brown spots on each side; gibbous in the middle.

81. B. Subglobular; whitish with leek-green and squalid lurid tessellated spots in rows; 4 whorls in the spire.

82. B. Subcylindrical, transversely striated, reddish crafum with chestnut bands; lip denticulated. Ceylon.

83. B. Striated; brown, spotted and barred with fornica white; whorls channeled with 4 rows of knots; 1½ tum. inch long.

F. Smooth, and not included in the former divisions.

84. B. Diced whelk. Smooth; whorls 6 or 7 in the spirature; separated by a canal; pillar abrupt and perforated; 2 inches long. India and China.

85. B. With transverse plaits and undulated striae; pyrozen the base and spine a little prominent; each of the whorls with a fulvous band; the first double.

86. B. Oblong, finely striated, pale brown with leuviolus darker bands; aperture oval, terminating in a canal; lum. first whirl gibbous and large; whorls 5 or 6. India.

87. B. Smooth, black, with rows of white spots and occulta dots; spire prominent; first whirl ventricose.

88. B. Obtusely pyramidal and transversely striated; pyramid white, with blackish and brown clouds and stripes. Dale. Tranquebar.

89. B. Quite glabrous and minute; sometimes with glaberrima a tessellated band on the two first whorls.

90. B. Minute, transversely striated; toothed or striatus; spotted in the aperture.

91. B. Glabrous with 3 broad red bands within; trifaclia first whirl of the spire ventricose; 1 inch long.

92. B. Glabrous, and marked with a white band and leucosoma chestnut lines. Minute.

93. B. Glabrous, with decussating bands and lines. cancello

94. B. Glabrous, ochraceous; spire with an obtuse obtusum blue tip; first whirl ventricose; two inches long.

95. B. Glabrous, with obtuse whorls; the lowest glabrous slightly channeled and produced at the base; 4 inches long. American, Africa.

96. B. Glabrous; 5 or 6 whorls distinct; lip prom. trombonnent; base obliquely striated.

97. B. Ovate, smooth, black with a carious spire; praerufus pillar glabrous; size of a bean; crowned jagged, abrupt. Southern Europe.

98. B. Oblong, smooth, thin, banded; aperture oval, entire; 3 inches long. Rivers of New Zealand.

99. B. 99. B. ovate, thick, whitish, transversely ribbed and grooved; aperture oval; lip plaited within; pillar lip flat. Shores of New Zealand.

100. B. obovate, slightly umbilicated; yellowish, with rows of red spots; lips sinuated. New Zealand.

G. Angular, and not enumerated in the former divisions.

101. B. ovate, with transverse, elevated, glabrous striae; belly obtusely 5-angular; lip striated within; 2 inches long. Malacca.

102. B. ovate, with transverse, elevated, glabrous striae; belly cylindrical; lip striated within.

103. B. ovate; spire with 12 angles and transversely striated; aperture toothed; lip orange; pillar perforated. Coromandel coast.

104. B. coarse, dirty brown, transversely striated; 2 rows of black dots in the interstices of the striae; 4 channelled whirls in the spire. India.

105. B. transversely striated with red parallelogram spots.

106. B. ovate; brown with snowy spots; whirls of the spire grooved; lip crenulated; throat striated.

107. B. thin, narrow, ventricose; spire conic, depressed; first and second whirls crowned with spines.

108. B. roundish, wrinkled; whirls lamellated on the fore-part; pillar perforated. China.

109. B. ovate-oblong smooth, a little striated; lower whirl lightly keeled; 2 inches long. Northern seas.

* 110. B. Waved whelk. Oblong, coarse, with deep, transverse, undulated striae; whorls 7, with many curved angles; 3 to 4 inches long. India, Europe; very common on the shores of Britain.—The fishermen, from supposing that it is destructive to the large scallop (ostraea maxima), by inflicting its tail, as they term it, into the shell, either use it for bait, or destroy it, when they take it in dredging. The spawn of this species is often found in clusters in many parts of the coast.

111. B. ovate-oblong, with transverse elevated striae, which are undulated near the tip; 4 inches long. Coasts of Britain.

112. B. elongated, slightly tailed; angular; longitudinally ciliated; pillar slightly plaited; whirls 5; 6 inches long. Greenland seas.

113. B. oblong, pointed, glabrous; minutely striated transversely, and longitudinally ribbed; 4 lines long. Greenland seas.

114. B. oblong, conic, and transversely striated; upper whirls with many oblique and obtuse angles, lower ones with a single ridge. South sea.

115. B. ovate with unequally distant longitudinal tubercles on the belly; lip channelled and a little distinct; ribs 6; first and second whirls broadest; spire obtuse. Shell whitish mixed with yellow.

116. B. oblong, glabrous, brown, with a yellowish band in the middle of the first whirl.

117. B. cinereous, with longitudinal, undulated, and interrupted transverse brown striae; margin white, spotted with brown; aperture white.

118. B. oblong, with waved spots and clouds; spire short; first whirl gibbous; tail narrow, prominent.

119. B. thin, with a short, acute, slightly ribbed spire; the first whirl a little globular; 1 inch long.

India, among the leaves and branches of maritime shrubs.

120. B. ventricose, cancellated; whirls distant; 1 textum, inch long.

121. B. oblong; longitudinally plaited, and transversely striated; the first brown and black, and striated with white; ventricose; aperture ribbed; pillar slightly plaited; 2 inches long.

122. B. oblong, with transverse elevated striae; 6 anglicum, brown whirls in the spire; a little ventricose. Britain.

* 123. B. ventricose, ribbed, brown; the first whirl porcatum, covering the next. Britain.

124. B. glabrous, white; spire bluish at the tip, ob-lavilliflute; first whirl largest, ventricose.

125. B. oblong, narrow, glabrous; yellowish, with igneum, red waved spots and clouds; outer whirls perpendicularly striated.

126. B. oblong, narrow, chestnut with darker belts; plumatum, throat narrow, black or blue, with striated teeth; lip striated within; spire acute. South American islands.

127. B. oblong, narrow, horizontally ribbed; ribs lyratum, transversely striated; pillar smooth.

128. B. ovate, ventricose, hoary; longitudinally clathra-ribbed, and transversely plaited; lip grooved within; tum. spire acute; beak short, recurved.

* 129. B. Reticulated whelk. Oblong, ovate, trans-reticula-versely striated, and longitudinally wrinkled; aperture tum, toothed, gloomy; size of a nut. European and Ethiopic seas, Britain.

* 130. B. with 5 whirls, spirally striated and trans-minutum, versely ribbed; less than a pea. Norway, Britain.

131. B. ovate, cancellated, white; 5 whirls, first niveum, ventricose; 1 inch long. Tranquebar.

132. B. yellow, with pale brown bands; spire with scalare, 6 whirls cancellated; whirls flat, distant, the first a little convex; aperture triangular; lip toothed; pillar plaited, verrucose, umbilicated. A very rare shell.

133. B. with decussated striae, brown, within white. indicum. India.

134. B. white, varied with brown; transversely stri-nodulosum, ated; here and there knotty. Shores of American islands.

135. B. cancellated and nodulous in the angles of pifcatori-fection; aperture toothed on each side, and acute. um. India.

136. B. white, within yellowish; lip 6-toothed; mauritii. whirls crowned with spines, the first with 4 rows. Mauritius.

137. B. oblong; aperture simple, and without teeth; armilla-each whirl crowned with a row of tubercles.

138. B. oblong; perpendicularly plaited, and trans-plicatum, versely striated; with alternate white and brown bands; violet within. India.

* 139. B. ventricose, oblong; with longitudinal plait-vulgamum, like striae, crossed with fine undulated transverse ones. Mediterranean, shores of England.

140. B. with party-coloured bands, transversely stri-folatum, ated; spire horizontally ribbed, part of the first whirl glabrous. Tranquebar.

141. B. white, cancellated; spire acute; minute. nanum.

142. B. narrow, cancellated; aperture large, crena-exile. ted and spotted; small.

143. B. cancellated; with perpendicular ribs; the chalys. interstices smooth and flat; aperture ovate; spire hardly prominent; a minute shell.

144. B. striae decussated, knotted in the angles of sections; ventricose; pale yellow, with a bluish band on each whorl; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch long.

145. B. gibbous, with decussated striae, knotty in the angles of section, the transverse striae undulated; lip winged; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch long.

146. B. narrow, rugged; wrinkles tuberculated with punctum; white, and dotted with black; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch long.

147. B. ovate, oblong, polished; barred and marked with longitudinal rugged striae; lip slightly toothed within. Mediterranean.

148. B. ovate, oblong, polished; striated with brown, and smooth; aperture without teeth or pillar lip; spire without plait. Mediterranean.

149. B. lightly plaited, transversely ribbed, grooved, tuberculated, lamellous; barred with chestnut, brown, and white. New Zealand.

150. B. smooth, chestnut-brown, veined, with flattish whirls, and obtuse beak. New Zealand.

151. B. ovate, ventricose, black, with a short spire; pillar depressed, white; throat white; lip striated and crenulated within. New Zealand.

152. B. ovate, oblong; brown striated with white, and slightly plaited.

153. B. ovate, smooth, with alternate whitish and brownish spots in interrupted rows. Shores of New Zealand.

154. B. ovate, rough, with crowded transverse grooves, and flame-coloured undulations. New Zealand.

155. B. tapering; transversely ribbed and grooved; with a nodulous spiral stria at the future of the whirls; aperture ovate; lip slightly plaited. Tahiti.

156. B. imperforated, lamellated; white, within purple; lip white; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch long.

H. Tapering, subulate, smooth.

157. B. somewhat spindle-shaped, with smooth, undivided, entire whirls; spire with 14 or more whirls. Asia, Africa.

158. B. subulate, smooth, undivided, very entire; first whorl not gibbous; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inches long. Indian ocean.

159. B. whirls of the spire bifid, with a crenated margin; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inches long. Africa and India.

160. B. whirls of the spire bifid; upper margin compressed, tapering; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inches long. Africa.

161. B. subfibrated, with a double crenated future on each of the whirls; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inches long. Africa and India.

162. B. whirls of the spire 16 or 20, bifid and obliquely striated; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inches long. Southern seas of Africa.

163. B. whirls of the spire biparted and striated; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inches long. India.

164. B. smooth with entire whirls, and longitudinal tektaceous lines; thin; spire acute. India.

165. B. whirls of the spire bifid, smooth; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inches long. Africa and India.

166. B. whirls of the spire subangular, with 3 muriated striae; black; base gibbous; whirls white at the base. Africa.

167. B. pellucid, white with reddish dots; the whirls slightly emarginated, on the back; a very minute shell.

168. B. acute, whitish, with undulated horizontal acus lines; whirls bifid, crenulated, and wrinkled; pillar spirally twisted; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch long.

169. B. subulate, horizontally striated; whirls girt; succinct white or straw colour. Indian ocean.

170. B. subulate, varied with yellow or reddish comma patches; whirls flattish, transversely striated; and fur-laturn, rounded with an elevated belt.

171. B. ventricose; whirls perpendicularly striated haflatus with alternate brown and white bands; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch long.

172. B. white, with brown bands of hollow dots.

173. B. whirls of the spire longitudinally ribbed, the phallus base with a rugged future; lip a little prominent and emarginated above; 9 whirls in the spire; ribs a little curved. India.

174. B. whirls of the spire convex, distant, transversely-striated; upper ones horizontally ribbed; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inches long. Found in fresh waters.

175. B. whirls of the spire ribbed, and transversely apertur striated, the first gibbous; beak a little prominent, \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch long.

176. B. reticulate, wrinkled, with an incurved muricin spire; aperture crenated; pillar wrinkled; lip thickened.

177. B. the whirls surrounded with a row of tuber-tubercles; minute.

178. B. subulate, punctured, transversely striated; punctul aperture obovate; whirls of the spire surrounded with tum. a band, the first ventricose; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch long.

179. B. subulate, smooth, thin, and finely striated acicula, transversely; whirls of the spire contiguous; tapering to a point. In fresh waters.

180. B. aperture ovate, oblong; whirls ventricose, fasciola distant and horizontally striated; the striae elevated and tum. separated by an intermediate band.

181. B. subulate, smooth, snowy, with two bands; niveum. whirls of the spire contiguous.

182. B. a little ventricose; white, with brown undu-mucronations; aperture oval; whirls 5; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inches long. tum. India.

183. B. coarse, with a subcurved obtuse lip; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch digitellar long. India.

184. B. whirls of the spire entire, with oblique de-obliquum ciliated striae; a finger's length, thickness of a quill. India.

185. B. subangular, grooved; fleck-blue or dotted chalybea with white and black; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch long. India.

186. B. thin, with contiguous whirls; beak slightly, fleuvitatis, emarginated; 4 to 5 inches long. India, in the mouths of muddy rivers.

187. B. subulate; whitish with reddish rays; whirls radiatum; convex, surrounded with granulated striae; first largest and ventricose.

188. B. whirls of the spire longitudinally wrinkled, dividulum and marked with transverse granulated striae, the first twice as large as the next; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch long.

189. B. whirls spotted; aperture long, without teeth; edentulum pillar plaited.

190. B. longitudinally striated, with punctured spot-pugio. ted bands between the whirls.

191. B. spotted with 17 grooved whirls.

192. B. whirls of the spire convex, and twice varicoform crowned; crowned; the first with 3 rows of punctures; \( \frac{3}{4} \) inches long.

193. B. subulate, spotted; whirls convex, subremote.

194. B. subulate, smooth, cinereous, with obsolete bands; whirls undivided and longitudinally striated at the future; whirls \( \frac{1}{4} \); 2 inches long.

195. B. greenish yellow, with 2 red bands; whirls of the spire flattened; aperture large, oval. Rivers of Virginia.

196. B. whirls of the spire bifid; lower one substriated, upper one filiform; subulate, gloomy.

197. B. whirls of the spire bifid; upper one grooved; lower one moniliform, subulate; yellowish white.

198. B. with 3 elevated belts grooved above and beneath; size of a cherry. Iceland.

199. B. whirls of the spire bifid; the lower one substriated, upper one more protuberant; white; subulate.

200. B. white, gloomy, semipellucid; 5 whirls in the spire; aperture oval. Faversham, England.

Gen. 25. Strombus.

Gen. Char.—The animal a limax; the shell univalve, spiral; aperture much dilated; the lip expanding, and produced into a groove leaning to the left (c).

Species.

A. The lip projecting into linear divisions or claws.

1. S. tapering, smooth, with a subulate beak and toothed lip. Red sea.

2. S. Corvoraunt's Foot; lip with four palmated angular claws; mouth smooth; whirls tuberculated; 2 inches long. European and American seas, shores of Britain.

3. S. lip with 6 curved claws, and recurved beak; lip striated; two hind claws divergent and bent outwards; beak tuberculated. Indian ocean. Rare shell.

4. S. lip with 4 knotty claws; hinder one very long; 4 inches long.

5. S. lip with seven straightish claws; mouth smooth. Asia. A large shell.

6. S. lip with 10 inflected claws; mouth substriated; back compressed; gibbous. Asia. Rare.

7. S. tapering, smooth, with a subulate beak, and simple lip.

B. Lobed.

8. S. lip thickened and 3-lobed on the fore-part; back warty, and crowned with tubercles; beak obtuse; \( \frac{3}{4} \) inches long. Asia, America.

9. S. lip entire; back crowned with 3 rows of protuberances, and rosy between them. Africa.

10. S. lip thin, rugged, repand above; back orange, transversely striated, and crowned with tubercles; aperture white, polished.

11. S. lip mucronate on the fore-part, and very long; back crowned with tubercles; beak straight; 6 inches long. Asia and America.

12. S. lip projecting into a sharp point; back auriculately divided; beak erect and acute; 3 inches long. Asia.

13. S. anterior lip prominent, rounded, smooth; pupilis, spire spinous; beak 3-lobed, obtuse. South America.

14. S. anterior lip rounded, prominent, smooth; spire alatus; unarmed; beak 3-lobed, obtuse.

15. S. lip a little prominent; beak entire; back margined, smooth.

16. S. lip a little prominent; back smooth; whirls luhuanus, rounded, equal; \( \frac{2}{3} \) inches long. Asia.

17. S. lip a little prominent; beak smooth; whirls gibberulus, gibbous, unequal. Asia.

18. S. obovate, with knotty belts, and a subulate, onicus, smooth projection; an inch long. South America.

C. Dilated.

19. S. lip rounded, entire on the fore-part; belly lucifer, doubly striated; spire crowned with tubercles; upper ones minute. South America.

20. S. lip rounded, and very large; shell crowned; gigas, belly and spire with conic expanded spines; gloomy white; within, a rich rose colour; 10 inches long. South America.

21. S. lip rounded, very large; belly unarmed; latissimus, spire a little knotty; 14 inches long. Asia.

22. S. lip rounded, short; belly smooth; spire a lit. epidromis, little knotty; \( \frac{3}{4} \) inches long. Southern Asia.

23. S. lip retuse, gibbous; belly and spire with minimus, knotty plait; aperture 2-lipped, smooth; \( \frac{1}{4} \) inch long. India.

24. S. somewhat heart-shaped; with a round, short, canarium, retuse, smooth lip; pillar smooth; \( \frac{2}{3} \) inches long. Asia.

25. S. lip rounded, short; belly smooth; spire e-vittatus, longated; whirls divided by an elevated future; 4 inches long.

26. S. lip rounded, retuse; belly smooth, with 4 succinatus, pale, linear, punctured belts. Asia.

27. S. lip tapering, entire, slightly plaited, and spinosus, crowned with fine spines; spire prickly. Hitherto found in a fossil state only.

28. S. lip continued into a longitudinal cleft ridge; fissurella, India. Frequently found fossil in Campania.

29. S. lip tapering, retuse, short, striated; belly urceus, and spire with knotty plait; aperture 2-lipped, unarmed; \( \frac{2}{3} \) inches long. Indian ocean.

30. S. thin, white, with orange spots and clouds; tridenta, back smooth, plaited; whirls grooved; lip 3-toothed; tus, beak violet. Indian ocean.

31. S. lip tapering, short-toothed; belly and spire dentatus, plaited; \( \frac{1}{4} \) inch long.

32. S. very thick; first whirl crowned with tubercules; interstices of the tubercles plaited; the next whirl transversely ribbed; the rest transversely striated; 6 inches long.

(c) It ought to be observed, that these shells, in their young state, want the lip, and then have a thin turbinated appearance; from which circumstance they have been sometimes referred to a different genus.

33. S. conic, with a mucronate, 8-toothed lip; spire knotty; 7 inches long; very rare.

34. S. transversely striated, gibbous; spire unarmed; first whirl crowned with tubercles.

35. S. lip a little prominent, and twice emarginated beneath; first whirl of the spire smooth in the middle, and transversely striated on each side; the rest crowned with obtuse knots.

36. S. smooth, filvery, radiated with brown; with obsolete transverse plait; spire elongated, with inflated, rounded whorls; above 2 inches long.

37. S. folioid, subcylindrical, with alternate, reddish ochraceous bands; lip denticulated within; pillar flat, glabrous, and emarginated at the base. Indian ocean; very rare.

38. S. oblong, subulate, white, with round whirls; aperture spreading; ovate; beak a little ascending.

D. Tapering, with a very long spire.

39. S. oblong, ovate, tuberculated; lip thickened.

40. S. smoothish; lip separated behind. Savannahs of the Indian ocean.

41. S. smooth; lip separated before and behind; 26 lines long. Fens of Amboyne.

42. S. subulate, brown; with 7 spiral impressed lines; aperture ovate; 11 lines long.

43. S. shell subulate, yellowish, with a white band; striated with red near the future; lesser whorls grooved, 6 larger ones smooth; spire with 12 or 13.

44. S. subulate, cinereous, transversely striated; whorls 8 to 11, knotty, and marked with red streaks. Coromandel, Friendly islands.

45. S. barred with brown; whorls 7, muricated; each with 7 yellow compressed tubercles; aperture ovate; 10 lines long. Africa.

46. S. brown, tuberculated; whorls 12, with 5 rows of tubercles on each; minute; lip depressed, crenulated; 18 lines long. Marshes of Africa.

47. S. smooth; lip very prominent, and emarginated behind.

48. S. with black whorls transversely striated; outer ones smooth; margin of the lip and pillar white.

49. S. brown, with numerous tubercles and whorls; lip separated before and behind; within striated with tus. brown.

50. S. brown; lowest whirl edged with white.

51. S. subangular, with spinous knobs; lip separated on the fore-part; brown, transversely striated.

52. S. convex, striated, white, with a few fulvous streaks; pillar finuated, inflected, thin, pellucid; 2½ inches long.

53. S. whorls reverved, thin, longitudinally striated; 1½ inch long, with 10 whorls. Hitherto found in a fossil state only in Helvetia.

Gen. 26. Murex.

Gen. Char.—The animal a climax; the shell univalve, spiral, rough, with membranaceous sutures; aperture oval, terminating in an entire, straight, or slightly ascending canal.

SPECIES.

A. Spinous, with a produced beak.

1. M. ovate, tuberculated; with a long fubulated, straight, muricated beak. Asia, America, Red sea.

2. M. Thorny woodcock. Oval, with a triple row of fleshy spines; beak elongated, subulate, with similar spines. Var. 1. With spines shorter than the beak. 2. With spines as long as the beak. This last is rare. Asia, America, Red sea.

3. M. roundish, surrounded with subulate, oblique cornua, spines; beak long, fubulate, straight, with a few short spines; 8 inches long; spines 2 inches. Africa. Very rare.

4. M. subovate, surrounded with straight spines; beak brandaris, fubulate, straight, obliquely surrounded with spines. Mediterranean, Adriatic.

5. M. ovate, knotty, and surrounded with spines on trunculus, the fore part; beak short, perforated, truncated. Mediterranean, Jamaica.

6. M. ovate, knotty, with 3 to 7 protuberances; pomum, beak broad; coarse and ponderous. Eastern shores of Africa.

7. M. ovate, transversely grooved, with transverse decussatus ribs crossed by perpendicular knots; beak imperforated; 7 distinct whorls in the spire. Africa.

8. M. turgid, knotty, transversely striated, with a triacon- triple row of spines. Found in a fossil state.

9. M. transversely striated with 8 rows of hollow melan-black spines; spire a little knotty and prickly; beak mattox, fubulate.

10. M. white with numerous rows of leafy, black, radix, undulated spines. A very rare shell.

11. M. white, with rows of spines, and very short candidus, beak; some of the spines black; 2 inches long.

12. M. inflated with rows of spines, white, barred with fasciatus, brown; 4 distinct turgid whorls in the spire.

B. Suture expanding into cripded foliations; beak abbreviated. PURPURA.

13. M. a triple row of foliations; spire contiguous; ramulosus, beak truncated. America, Asia, Red sea.

14. M. a triple row of foliations; aperture 1-toothed. foliatus. North America.

15. M. 4 rows of foliations; spire capitate; beak scorpio, truncated. Asia. Very rare.

16. M. 5 rows of foliations; spire contiguous; beak fajastilis, abbreviated. Mediterranean, Asia.

17. M. white, diaphanous; 6 rows of foliations, diaphana which are tipped with black.

18. Ochraceous, transversely striated, with nume-cichoreum rows of foliations.

19. M. varied with white and red; with flat acute versicolor foliations; pointed with black.

* 20. M. subangular; whorls crowned with tubular erinaceus and subspinous rays; scales or points; beak short and covered; 2 inches long. European seas, shores of Britain.

21. M. 7 rows of foliations, white, with elevated Ariatut, transverse, brown striae; 7 whorls in the spire. India.

22. M. shell elongated, triangular, with membran-triptenous foliations at the angles; 5 whorls in the spire. Found fossil in Campania.

23. M. umbilicated with muricated ribs; whorls/facelum, flatish above, with acute margins; lip crenated; beak straight, ascending. Nicobar.

24. M. triangular, knotty, transversely grooved, with motacilla, a triple row of tubercles; beak long, subulate, straight; mouth white. India.

25. M. 25. M. long, subulate, triangular; ribs reticulated; beak straight, closed; spire pyramidal, with 6 whorls.

C. With thick, protuberant, rounded sutures.

26. M. protuberances crossed by smooth belts; aperture ovate.

27. M. rough, with opposite, impressed protuberances, with one or two muricated belts. Asia.

28. M. protuberances opposite, continued, and barred with tuberculated dots; aperture orbicular. Mediterranean, Atlantic, India.

29. M. turgid, with opposite continued protuberances; spire pointed; whorls surrounded with a crown of tubercles; the outmost glabrous.

30. M. protuberances nearly opposite, gibbous, with longitudinal tuberculated protuberances; from 4 to 14 inches long. Indian ocean.

31. M. protuberances alternate, and numerous tubercles; back unarmed and striated behind; aperture toothless. Mediterranean and African seas.

32. M. protuberances decussated, triangular, wrinkled and knotty on the fore-part; aperture ovate, toothless; from 5 to 7 inches long. Asia, Guinea, and America.

33. M. with a single protuberance; angular, and a little wrinkled with knots; pillar perforated; aperture toothed; 3 inches long. Barbary, Guinea, South America.

34. M. protuberances decussated, angular, with longitudinal tuberculous knots; beak flexuous; aperture toothed. Mediterranean.

35. M. protuberances decussated, and a little wrinkled with knots; aperture toothed; beak subascending. Mediterranean.

36. M. fix opposite, continued, vaulted protuberances, and knotty belts; beak oblique. A rare shell.

37. M. varicose, ovate, transversely grooved and knotty; beak long, flexuous, subulate. Indian ocean.

38. M. thin, transversely striated; beak subulate; spire a little prominent, tipped with brown; whorls grooved; first gibbous.

39. M. protuberances decussated, obtuse, with knotty wrinkles; belly equal; aperture toothed. Africa, India, South America. Rare.

40. M. protuberances hollowed, smooth, nearly opposite; aperture toothed. Mediterranean.

41. M. protuberances nearly opposite, reticulated with tuberculated spots; pillar almost toothless; beak ascending; 6 inches long. Mediterranean, America.

42. M. protuberances membranaceous, continued through the spire, and terminated with a spine. Falkland islands.

43. M. whorls knotty; aperture violet; lip toothed; beak straight. New Holland.

44. M. protuberances and lips membranaceous, dilated; gibbous and reticulated with tubercles; aperture finuous; beak erect; 3 inches long. Mediterranean and Asia.

45. M. varicose, with tuberculated belts; aperture a little toothed; beak elongated; whorls ventricose.

46. M. transversely striated, with spinous protuberances; the spines decreasing towards the head; 2½ inches long. Senegal.

47. M. ventricose, with 5 or 6 whorls, forming angular ridges; aperture semicircular; beak a little reflected; 4 inches long. Europe, Britain.

D. More or less spinous, and without manifest beak.

48. M. obovate, with subulate spines in rows; a-rinicus; aperture and lip toothed; 1½ inch long. Asiatic ocean.

49. M. obovate with conic spines; lip toothed; nodas; pillar smooth, coloured; 3½ inches long.

50. M. knots in numerous rows; lip with pointed neritoideus angles; pillar flattened. India.

51. M. coarse, ventricose, transversely striated, with fucus; 4 rows of knots; pillar impressed; outmost whorls flattened.

52. M. obovate and knotty on the fore part; aper-loco. aperture tubercular, toothless; 4 or 5 inches long. Chinese shores. Yields a purple fluid.

53. M. subovate, with acute spines in 4 rows; aper-hystrix; aperture toothless, repand.

54. M. ovate, with obsolete spines, which are mancinella blackish; aperture toothless; pillar transversely striated.

55. M. ovate, striated, with 3 or 5 rows of obtuse hippocasta-spines or tubercles; aperture transversely striated. num. Guinea, India.

56. M. Small prickly whelk. Tapering, longitudinally cancellated; aperture striated; ribs prickly; 2 inches long. Indian ocean.

57. M. obovate, glaucous, with a subpinnate whorl; melongera; spire somewhat prominent; aperture smooth; 5½ inches long. India, America.

58. M. thick, ventricose, transversely grooved and confluent; aperture repand, ovate; lip sinuous, inwardly plaited and denticulated. India.

59. M. brown, subovate, slightly beaked with lima; crowded, nodulous, paler belts. George's bay.

E. With a long, straight, subulate, closed beak, and unarmed with spines.

60. M. without beak, slightly plaited, ovate, point-cariosus; lip carious. Found in the aqueduct at Seville.

61. M. tapering with acute spotted belts, and straight babylonius; tail; lip cleft; 4 inches long. Indian and American islands.

62. M. tapering, with immaculate knotty belts; lip javanum; with a separate scoop. India.

63. M. ventricole, pointed with a cancellated, re-sinensis; flexed beak; aperture oval; whorls with transverse, granulated striae; base crowned with spines. Senegal.

64. M. spire with elevated rings; interfaces filiformis; ed with short, straw-like projections; whorls crowned with tubercles at the base; 3 inches long. Southern ocean.

65. M. ovate, longitudinally striated; lip undulated; australis; whorls channelled; first turgid, and 4-plaited; the next 3-plaited; 2½ inches long. South sea.

66. M. spire pointed, and transversely striated; uncinatus; first whorls with a callus, armed with hooks in the middle, 5 and 6 ribbed, the rest glabrous.

67. M. tapering; whorls crowned with tubercles, turris; and surrounded with a granulate belt; the first finely striated transversely.

68. M. beak a little reflected, and obliquely striated; cylistatus; 3 first whorls of the spire ribbed; other 4 cancellated; first. fifth obconic; pillar with a single plait. Found fossil in Campania.

69. M. longitudinally plaited, and transversely ribbed; spire a little prominent; aperture ovate; lip crenulated.

70. M. tapering, striated, knotty; carinated, with a long straight beak; lip crenulated; beak 3 inches long. Indian ocean.

71. M. black, with a white band; beak dilated; pillar wrinkled; whorls knotty; 6 inches long. Africa.

72. M. beak dilated; whorls of the spire flat above. Indian ocean.

73. M. beak long, spire mucronated; whorls convex above. Tranquebar.

74. M. beak dilated; whorls of the spire separated by a small canal. Canada, Frozen sea.

75. M. beak dilated; whorls separated by a small canal; first crowned with knobs at the base.

76. M. transversely striated; beak dilated; spire a little prominent; whorls crowned with spines at the base; 8 inches long.

77. M. solid, umbilicated, with a triple row of knots transversely striated; aperture largely striated. India.

78. M. beak dilated; whorls of the spire separated by a small groove; the first with transverse carinated ribs. Brazil.

79. M. hemispherical, glabrous, diaphanous; beak straight, spreading; crown papillary. North America.

80. M. beak dilated; spire crowned with spines. New Guinea.

81. M. beak dilated and repand; spire recurved and slightly crowned. American ocean. Exceedingly rare.

82. M. beak dilated; shell oblong; 8 round whirls, first ventricose; 4 to 6 inches long. European seas, Scotland.

83. M. oblong, striated, and somewhat rugged; beak dilated; whorls 8, with two elevated lines; five inches long. European seas, shores of Britain.

84. M. ovate oblong; beak dilated; whorls ventricose; a little angular and longitudinally striated; 7 inches long. Greenland seas.

85. M. oblong, transversely wrinkled, and longitudinally striated; lip denticulated within, and thickened without.

86. M. oblong, longitudinally ribbed; beak a little reflected; emarginated and truncated; very minute; whorls 6. Coasts of Europe, and shores of Britain.

87. M. narrow, oblong, ribbed; spire pointed. Shores of England.

88. M. gibbous, with transverse tuberculated ribs; brown, with darker bands; within white; aperture ovate.

89. M. cancellated, yellow, with alternate white bands, and chestnut patches; 11 round whirls in the spire. India. Very rare.

90. M. ventricose, umbilicated, transversely striated; whorls of the spire with parallel ribs; the first large. Straits of Magellan.

91. M. ovate, solid, opaque, cinereous; whorls of the spire cancelled, and separated by a groove.

92. M. whorls surrounded with grooves, and tubercles above; tip of the tubercles and aperture white.

93. M. ventricose, tapering, spotted with black; aperture oval; beak short; pillar with a single plait; spire with 8 prickly whorls.

94. M. subtriangular, cancelled; spire with 7 infragranulata; fluted contiguous whorls; the first with a large distinct tubercle; 2 inches long. Senegal.

95. M. longitudinally ribbed, and finely striated; aperture oval; beak short; pillar with flattened distal whorls, with rows of tubercles; aperture semilunar; 1 inch long. Senegal.

96. M. rounded with annular grooves; aperture sulcatus; oval; first whorl of the spire turgid; 1½ inch long. Senegal.

97. M. ventricose; oblong, smooth, with rounded tritonis; whorls; aperture toothed; beak short; 16 inches long. India and the South seas.—This shell is used by the natives of New Zealand as a musical instrument, and by the Africans and many nations of the East, as a military horn.

98. M. ventricose; oblong, smooth; spire striated; with rounded whorls; aperture smooth; beak short; 1½ inch long. Mediterranean and Africa. Rare.

99. M. ventricose; oblong, smooth; whorls rounded tulipa, with a double future; pillar with two plaits; beak dilated, striated. South America.

100. M. oblong beak, and grooved with longitudinal membranaceous plaits. Iceland.

101. M. solid, black or pale brown, with a white nassa, subdiaphanous band; whorls knotty; pillar a little plaited.

102. M. whorls of the spire plaited and knotty. pellicula.

103. M. umbilicated with distant, wedged, rib-scala, bed, and transversely striated whorls; aperture heart-shaped.

104. M. angular, longitudinally plaited, and transversely striated; lip toothed; mouth violet; beak straight, short. China.

105. M. fattiguated with brown and yellowish bands; corona, beak straight, entire. Mexico.

106. M. ovate, with a few elevated obtuse belts on dolarium. The whorls; size of a walnut. The ocean.

107. M. oblong, slender, white; margins of the cornutus, whorls complicated; aperture toothless; 3 inches long. British and North seas.

108. M. oblong, coarse, with obtusely knotty whorls; lignarius, aperture toothless; beak short.

109. M. oblong, obtusely angular, with slightly exapension. knotty whorls; aperture toothed; 6 inches long. Indian ocean.

110. M. solid, ventricose, smooth, with an oblong ve/pertilio, oval aperture; beak and crowned spire striated; four inches long. Indian ocean.

111. M. thin, diaphanous, ventricose, and transversely/colymus, ly striated; middle of the beak smooth; spire with obtuse, undulated knots; pillar 3-plaited.

112. M. ventricose, longitudinally ribbed; ribs harpa, transversely striated; spire a little prominent; whorls distant.

113. M. fusiform, transversely striated; white, with tuba, a brown tip to the spire, which has 8 whorls, distant, and crowned at the base with knots. China.

114. M. oblong, with striated plaited whorls, co./syrauca-vered anus. varied with tuberculated ridges; aperture toothless; beak short. Mediterranean; rare.

115. M. oblong, with rounded, plaited, and transversely reticulated whorls; aperture toothed, striated within. Mediterranean.

116. M. nearly without beak; fusiform, smooth, pale, with longitudinal brown striae; lip toothed; very small. Mediterranean.

117. M. transversely striated, with distant undulate tuberculated whorls; aperture oblong; beak straight; 4 inches long; yellow. Ternate island.

118. M. umbilicated, undulate knotty; striae elevated, brown; perforation funnel-shaped; pillar two-plaited; 4 inches long; very rare.

119. M. ventricose, undulated with tubercles; striated, grooved, and obtusely angled; black, with an oval aperture; and short beak; 3½ inches long. Indian ocean.

120. M. transversely striated; spire papillous at the tip, with round whorls; first large and ventricose; 5 inches long. Iceland.

121. M. fusiform; spire transversely striated; whorls dilatant, flattish; the first round, smooth; 3½ inches long. Found fossil in Campania.

122. M. fusiform, incaneculated, with a long beak; 1½ inch long. Found fossil in Campania.

123. M. inowly, transversely striated; spire with distant whorls; keeled in the middle, and crowned with tubercles; lip grooved within, and denticulated at the margin; ½ inches long.

124. M. brown, transversely striated, spire mucronate; whorls distant, convex, and knotty at the base; beak long.

125. M. solid, ventricose, with waved angles; and finely striated transversely; spire mucronate; whorls knotty at the base; lip denticulated; 8½ inches long; ponderous. India.

126. M. thin, striated, with an obtuse, knotty spire, and long straight beak; 9 inches long. India.

127. M. narrowed; whorls of the spire transversely ribbed, and longitudinally crenated; aperture ovate; ribbed with white within, and toothed at the margin; pillar 2-plaited. Amboyna.

128. M. narrowed; first whirl of the spire longitudinally plaited, and transversely ribbed; the other smooth and round; beak transversely striated.

129. M. subcylindrical; spire obtuse; whorls round and striated; lower ones mostly glabrous. India.

130. M. umbilicated and surrouned with belts; middle ones more raised; whorls crowned with tubercles, which are spotted with brown. Red sea.

131. M. thin, transversely striated; spire mucronate; whorls round; lip crenulated; 4 inches long.

132. M. rounded, white, with violet spots, longitudinally ribbed, and transversely striated; spire obtuse.

133. M. whorls of the spire turgid, gibbous, nodulous and annulated; lip denticulated beneath; 21 inches long.

134. M. whitish; spire obtuse; whorls slightly crowned with wrinkled, unequal tubercles, beak transversely striated; 1½ inch long.

135. M. tapering, orange; spire obtuse; whorls distant, with longitudinal ribs, and flexuous transverse striae.

136. M. tapering; spire with contiguous whorls, granularis separated by a flexuous line; first ventricose; Adriatic.

137. M. tapering, transversely ribbed; whorls con vexillum vex; aperture oval; lip denticulated.

138. M. oblong, ventricose; whorls with a striated vulpinus margin; aperture glabrous; beak short, and bent outwards.

139. M. ovate, transversely striated; spire with flat afer. tiful whorls; crowned with a row of rounded tubercles; 1½ inch long. Senegal.

140. M. ventricose; spire obtuse, cancellate, with campani carinated whorls; first ventricose and smooth; beak cur. long and smooth; three inches long. Found fossil in Campania.

141. M. whorls of the spire with decussated ribs, arenofus. the first large, three outermost smooth; lip toothed outwardly; very small. Sandy shores of India.

142. M. narrow, transversely striated; spire micro maroc nated; whorls distant, contrary, round, and longitudi cally ribbed; beak prominent; 1½ inch long. Shores of Morocco.

143. M. oblong, whitish, with transverse, reddish lineatus, striae; beak short, straight. New Zealand.

144. M. a little tapering; whorls carinate above, perron. margined and flattened; beak long and straight. Southern ocean.

145. M. cylindrical; spire with a crenated callous larva belt; upper whorls with plaited knots, lower ones flat tiful; beak short, straight, emarginated.

146. M. solid, thick, coarse; spire exserted; whorls neroides transversely striated; aperture semibicar and stri us. ated.

147. M. ovate, angular, iridescent; longitudinally prifinati grooved and plaited; beak short; lip denticulated. cut. India, and South seas.

148. M. ribs longitudinally plaited, and transversely columbari grooved; angular, Ipinous, carinate; alternately va um. ried with white and brown; whorls suddenly diminish ing; beak short, straight. Pulo Condor.

149. M. ribbed, varied with brown, yellow and operrimus white; whorls oblique, with a tuberculated margin, and brown band in the middle; beak short, dilated, ascending; 2 inches long.

150. M. white, undulated with bay; with grooves undulatus marked with raised striae; whorls nodulous at the mar gin; beak straight; four inches long. Red sea.

F. Tapering, subulate, with a very short beak.

151. M. whorls of the spire plaited above; pillar vertagus. plaited within; beak ascending; three inches long. India.

152. M. whorls of the spire tuberculated, with a spi aluco nous streak in the middle; pillar with a single plait; beak ascending; four inches long. Southern ocean, Red sea, Atlantic.

153. M. whorls surrounded with belts longitudinally annularis striated; first whirl transversely striated; beak ascend ing.

154. M. ventricose; spire transversely striated; plicatulus. whorls longitudinally plaited and knotty; aperture oval.

155. M. ventricose, transversely striated and crown fordidus. ed with black knots; lip dilated.

156. M. spire transversely striated and grooved; cingulatus. whirls surrounded with three rows of granulations, the first a little knotty. Tranquebar.

157. M. rounded, brown; first whirl of the spire gibbous; the others varicose; the last with numerous spines.

158. M. transversely striated; spire crowned. Rivers of America.

159. M. brown; first whirls of the spire crowned with spines, the others with knots; aperture repand.

160. M. reticulated; spire mucronate; first whirl grooved and transversely striated; lip winged.

161. M. transversely striated, and alternately barred with brown and white; spire mucronate; whirls distant, with undulated knots.

162. M. with a triple moniliform belt on each of the whirls; aperture oval, with curved striae within; 1 to 2½ inches long.

163. M. whirls crenulated; the upper striae denticulated. Mediterranean.

164. M. whirls of the spire with a slightly knotty zone above; beak short.

165. M. whirls of the spire tuberculated, with a double row of punctured striae. Africa.

166. M. whirls of the spire grooved, transversely striated and mucronate. Guinea.

167. M. rough, with decumbent tubercles; beak acute, ascending; 2 inches long; white. India.

168. M. whirls of the spire with longitudinal plaited grooves, with the tip seemingly broken off. European seas. Britain.

169. M. striated; whirls of the spire transversely grooved with undulated, longitudinal plaits; lip dilated, crenulated. Marshes of Molucca islands.

170. M. with transverse, undulated striae, crossed by longitudinal lines; aperture orbicular.

171. M. longitudinally striated; whirls undivided, with a snowy belt at the future, marked with reddish spots.

172. M. transversely striated, and surrounded with glabrous knots; lip thickened.

173. M. whirls of the spire margined; belly gibbous; lip cleft, denticulated; beak short.

174. M. black; whirls transversely striated and tuberculated; pillar with one plait.

175. M. four contrary whirls marked with double striae; beak dilated. European and North seas.

176. M. contrary, hyaline, with 6 finely crenulated whirls.

177. M. tapering, rough with granulations; lip doubled, emarginated on each side, and toothed within; aperture oval and striated.

178. M. transversely striated and spotted; whirls with plaited knots; lip double, dilated. Pulo Condor.

179. M. yellowish, hexagonal, with transverse, granulated striae; first whirl tuberculated. South sea; and is often found fossil.

*180. M. with five whirls, spirally striated, and remote ribs; pellicid; a very minute and elegant shell. Coasts of Wales.

Gen. 27. Trochus.

Gen. Char.—The animal a limax; shell univalve, spiral, more or less conic; aperture somewhat angular or rounded; the upper side transverse and contracted; pillar placed obliquely.

Species.

A. Erect, with the pillar perforated.

1. T. conic, smooth, somewhat umbilicated; a niloticus large ponderous shell, with oblique, red, perpendicular striae. Indian ocean.

2. T. conic, tuberculated, with an oblique perforation; inner lip two-lobed. Asia, South America.

3. T. convex, obtuse, margined; the umbilicus pervious and crenulated, 2½ inches long. Asia, Africa.

This is a very beautiful shell.

4. T. convex; pillar 2-toothed; perforation crenu-hybridae. Mediterranean.

5. T. convex, with callo-punctured striae; pillar 1-crucian, toothed. Mediterranean.

6. T. obovate, striated; marked with concatenated, pharaonic globular dots; aperture and pillar toothed; umbilicus crenated. European and Asiatic seas.

7. T. convex, obliquely umbilicated; ridges of the magus, whirls rising into obtuse tubercles. European and African coasts, Britain.

8. T. striated, plaited above, and more convex be-modulatus, neath; aperture ovate and 1-toothed. Red sea.

9. T. subovate; grooves moniliform and alternately, larger; shell black; aperture yellowish.

10. T. obliquely umbilicated; convex; whirls varius, slightly margined. Mediterranean.

11. T. ovate, obliquely umbilicated; whirls round-cinerarii, ed; size of a pea. Shores of Europe. Britain.

12. T. ovate, subumbilicated; perforation nearly divaricatufus; lowest whirl more remote. Mediterranean tus, and Greenland seas.

13. T. conico-concave; perforation pervious, exactly umbilica-cylindrical; whirl slightly emarginated. Shores of ris. Europe.

14. T. convex, conic; whirls spinous and margined; solaris, aperture semi-heart-shaped; 2 inches diameter. India and America.

15. T. depressed, oblique; white with brown lines; testum, spire transversely striated, and longitudinally ribbed; first whirl ventricose; aperture orbicular; first whirl large; pillar brown.

16. T. conic, white spotted with red; whirls round, conus, with moniliform belts; first whirl only perforated. India.

17. T. subequal, mucronate; whirls 9, spinous be-spinifus, neath; on each side a linear band of white and black, with a triple row of knots.

18. T. lateritius, spotted with white; the base flat, jujubina, with concentric lines of concatenated dots; whirls channelled, telescopically at the lower margin with white and chestnut. South America.

19. T. plaited with knots, transversely striated, alveare, with belts of concatenated dots; perforation funnel-shaped; pillar crenulated. India.

20. T. base and continued perforation funnel-shaped; concavus, whirls contiguous, undulated and plaited; aperture denticulated at the margin; 2 inches broad. India.

21. T. surrounded with granulations and knots, vernus, green, and whitish towards the tip; the tip varied with black dots. India.

22. T. covered with white, greenish, and buff-coloured spots; tip with red and black ones; base white, spotted. spotted with red; within pearly; whirls with many rows of knots; lower margins glabrous. India.

23. T. wrinkled and plaited; whirls knotty beneath, with concatenated dots in the middle; whirls distant; perforation funnel-shaped. India.

24. T. wrinkled and plaited, obliquely crenated and transversely striated; base flat; white with red dots. India.

25. T. plaited and wrinkled, sea-green; whirls with concatenated dots; upper ones with a radiated spinous margin. India.

26. T. surrounded with rows of ochraceous knots and granulations, waved with red; one part of the base smooth.

27. T. dots elevated, concatenated; whirls with oblong white knots beneath, and intermediate purple grooves.

28. T. rough, with unequal knots and granulations; many rows of knots on the whirls; tubercles larger on the marginal row.

29. T. white, with a rosy shade; transversely striated, with many rows of knots; margin of the whirls prominent; perforation funnel-shaped.

30. T. white, radiated with purple; conic; margin of the whirls knotty; perforation funnel-shaped.

31. T. brownish, cylindrical; whirls convex, marked with transverse lines; perforation crenated. Very rare.

32. T. radiated with red; pyramidal; whirls with concatenated dots; perforation funnel-shaped. South America.

33. T. green; first whirl with 5 rows of knots, second with 4, the rest glabrous.

34. T. black-brown; obtusely pyramidal. China.

35. T. deep black; whirls flattish; spire transversely striated; pillar 1-toothed. China.

36. T. whirls of the spire ochraceous, with spotted tubercles; and with an intermediate, spotted, wrinkled groove.

37. T. ochraceous, varied with black at the tip; pyramidal and transversely striated; whirls of the spire flattish; margin tumid and spotted with red; very small. Shores of Morocco.

38. T. pyramidal, with chestnut spots and clouds; margin of the whirls vaulted and nodulous; ½ to 2 inches long.

39. T. depressed, varied with white and chestnut; base convex, with a scarlet ring marked with deeper spots. Cape.

40. T. depressed, white spotted with red; whirls transversely striated and plaited, distant; pillar 1-toothed; ½ inch long. Red Sea.

41. T. whitish, radiated with red, and red at the tip; depressed; whirls surrounded with a belt of moniliform dots.

42. T. pale brown; base sub-convex; whirls smooth, obsoletely striated transversely; perforation white, funnel-shaped.

43. T. pellucid, flesh colour; base convex; whirls 6; convex and finely striated transversely.

44. T. convex, rosy, grooved; perforation very minute; shell small. Cape of Good Hope.

45. T. depressed, brown, with whitish spots; very minute.

46. T. greenish, obliquely radiated with white; whirls convex, with a belt of moniliform granulations; pillar toothed.

47. T. convex, with numerous rows of granulations; urbanus; perforation denticulated; aperture crenulated.

48. T. clouded with brown and gray; rows of granulations numerous, with knots; aperture crenated; perforation toothed; 6 lines long. Guinea.

49. T. cinereous, with moniliform belts of granula-nodulus; perforation white, toothed; aperture crenated.

50. T. depressed, pale flesh colour, with crowded carmine moniliform belts of granulations; perforation large; 1-toothed.

51. T. transversely striated; whirls distant; numer-tessellatus; square spots on the spire. European seas.

52. T. convex, chestnut; whirls of the spire convex, croceus; the outer ones saffron-coloured. Africa.

53. T. depressed, convex, with oblique violet rays; obliquatus; whirls convex. Mediterranean.

54. T. convex, chestnut; whirls with a fillet, varied vitatus; with red and white at the upper margin.

55. T. depressed, pyramidal; base concave; whirls schreiteri; transversely striated and obliquely ribbed, the first with a keeled margin; perforation funnel-shaped. Found fossil in Campania.

56. T. conic-convex; whirls unarmed; aperture indicut; semi-heart-shaped; perforation spiral; scarcely 1 inch high. India.

57. T. depressed, chestnut; whirls transversely stria-infundibulated and crenated, with rows of granulations; perfora-liformis; aperture pervious, crenulated.

58. T. straw colour; whirls convex, with decumbent framineus stria separated by a groove; perforation pervious. Tranquebar.

59. T. white, marked with brownish rays and cre-variegatus; nated striae; perforation crenated, pervious.

60. T. convex, transversely striated; white, with arcola; square reddish spots; perforation crenulated, whirls of the spire separated by a white streak.

61. T. greenish yellow, with longitudinal plaited ribs inermis; terminated by a spine; aperture comprimif; perforation wrinkled.

62. T. conic, olive, covered with rows of raised viò-imperialis; lecales; whirls inflated, with a spinous radiate margin; spire with 7 whirls; large. South seas.

63. T. depressed, straw colour, with darker ribs; planus; whirls of the spire plaited; perforation pervious.

64. T. conic; white, with oblique brown bands; albidus; whirls channeled near the future.

65. T. conic; base greenish gray, spotted with fuscaetus; brown; whirls round; flattish at the future.

66. T. conic; red, dotted with white; slightly per-corallinus; forated; whirls round, the first with 15, the next with 6 rows of tubercles; 6 whirls in the spire; 4 lines long. Senegal.

67. T. gray, with whitish spots; whirls flattish, and griseus; transversely grooved. Senegal.

68. T. convex; the whirls reversed. Found near ferrugineus. Scaphusia, converted into iron ore.

69. T. pyramidal, with contrary round whirls; 3 novus; of them with a quadruple trifarious row of tubercles, the fourth very distant.

70. T. very thin, and of a wax colour; first whirl fragilis; large, with a brown band in the middle.

71. T. obtusely pyramidal; 4 elevated contiguous callofus; whirls, tumid at the margin, in the spire.

3 K 2

72. T. 72. T. convex, gray with whitish spots; whirls flattened; 6 lines long. Senegal.

neritoides

73. T. sub-ovate, convex, depressed; smooth, reddish, glabrous; 2 lines long. Greenland.

perlatus

74. T. reddish, with elevated dots; unequally ribbed; spire depressed; whirls convex.

terrestris

* 75. T. conic; livid; minute. Mountains of Cumberland.

fusca

* 76. T. opaque, brown, margined; aperture roundish; spires 5. Sandwich.

B. Imperforated, erect; umbilicus closed.

vesicularius

77. T. conic, convex, with a gibbous callous base; aperture somewhat heart-shaped; very small. Mediterranean and Asia.

lobio

78. T. ovate, sub-fricated; pillar 1-toothed. Asia, Africa, New Zealand.

tuber

79. T. depressed; whirls somewhat keeled, and knotted at the upper and lower margin; 2 inches diameter. Mediterranean and South America.

* 80. T. conic; aperture obvate; last whirl angular; minute. Mediterranean; Falmouth.

friatus

* 81. T. conic, smooth; whirls separated by a prominent line. European sea; Britain.

ziziphinus

* 82. T. conic, livid, smooth, transversely striated; whirls margined. European and African coasts, shores of Britain.

obeliscus

83. T. conic; surrounded with numerous rows of white or green moniliform granulations; pillar 1-toothed; 2 inches high. India.

distortus

84. T. solid, white, polished; striated, distorted, and obtuse at the tip; first whirl gibbous; aperture compressed; ovate.

virgatus

85. T. pyramidal, with rosy and white stripes, and numerous rows of knots; base with concentric white and red circles. India.

foveolatus

86. T. cinereous, variegated with greenish, whitish, and reddish; whirls of the spire tuberculated at the lower margin. Red sea.

diaphanus

87. T. thin, pellucid, with alternate chestnut and white moniliform belts of granulations; 1½ inch high. New Zealand.

iris

88. T. covered with a smooth coat, under which it is bluish and reddish, shining with iridescent. Southern ocean.

rostratus

89. T. pyramidal, transversely striated; varied with white and red; tip green, pellucid; 1 inch high. South sea.

notatus

90. T. frise decuticated; grooved within; tip deep red.

elegans

91. T. pyramidal, striated, brownish purple. South sea.

melanostoma

92. T. obtusely pyramidal; spotted with greenish. South sea.

erythroleucus

93. T. pyramidal; striated with white and red. Morocco.

punctula

94. T. red, punctulated; very minute.

imbricatus

95. T. pyramidal, obliquely grooved, plaited and ribbed; whirls a little prominent at the margin. South American seas.

americanus

96. T. o-chraceous; longitudinally grooved; whirls transversely striated; lip denticulated. South America.

cylatus

97. T. sea-green, with protuberances and oblique-scaly plaits; whirls of the spire transversely striated and grooved in the middle; concave spines on the lower margin of the first whirl.

98. T. purple, with plaited tuberculated whirls.

99. T. tea-green, with numerous rows of tubercles cooing and oblique undulated plaits; 4 inches long, as broad, and covered with a horny lid. Cooke's bay.

100. T. brownish, with a convex base; whirls with nodulous a single row of tubercles, first with 2. South sea.

101. T. pyramidal; white, varied with reddish and auriferous green; whirls spinous; pillar emarginated, plaited. Bourbon and Mauritius islands.

102. T. pyramidal; white; whirls of the spire longitudinally ribbed, with transverse moniliform belts of green granulations; 1½ inch wide. Indian and South seas.

103. T. convex on each side, solid; spire smooth; helicinoid; 2 first whirls obliquely ribbed. South seas.

104. T. ovate, with undulated ribs and transverse argyrostrigose; whirls ventricose; 2 inches broad and high. South sea.

105. T. obtusely pyramidal; black, with a purple sinuous band at the base; pillar white. China.

106. T. black, with a sub-convex granulate base; fugubris; minute, with 5 whirls. South seas.

107. T. obtuse; whirls round, with many rows of aper. tubercles, grooved and transversely striated; pillar toothed.

108. T. conic, convex, transversely striated, with teletatus oblong square spots disposed in rows; pillar lip spotted with black. Mediterranean, Africa.

109. T. conic, convex; citron, with angular black citrinus lines. Asia.

110. T. pyramidal, white, variegated with scarlet; granatus; 2 first whirls very large; 2 inches high. South seas.

111. T. smooth, conic, white with a saffron tip. crocatus.

112. T. whirls round, and obsoletely plaited; aper. conchyliature compressed, brownish; 2 inches high. South phorus. America.

113. T. convex; white, with green, brown, and ful. pantherious spots; 2 rows of tubercles on the whirls; 8 lines nus. long. Senegal.

114. T. rough, with concatenated globules; base grandina convex, with concentric, granulated frise; lip double-toothed. Palmerston island.

115. T. depressed, with belts dotted with white be. inequalneath; whirls crowned with spines. Friendly islands.

116. T. gray, with red stripes, and transversely stri. tigris. ated with white. New Zealand.

117. T. conic, brown, obliquely striated with black. pulligo. George's bay.

* 118. T. conic, white; whirls 4, tuberculated. Pem-parvus. brockshire coast.

C. Tapering, with an exerted pillar, and falling on the side when placed upon the base.

119. T. imperforated, striated; pillars spiral; 4 teleco. inches long. Indian ocean.

120. T. umbilicated, glabrous; pillar with recurved oblate twisted plaits. South America.

121. T. glabrous, imperforated; whirls reversed; perversus small. Mediterranean.

122. T. flat at the base; finely striated transverse-pyfillus. ly; whirls reversed; ¼ inch long. Indian seas.

123. T. flat at the base; longitudinally ribbed; undulatus. whirls reversed. Indian shores.

124. T. Gen. Char.—The animal a limax; the shell univalve, spiral, solid; aperture contracted, orbicular, entire.

Species.

A. Pillar, margin of the aperture dilated and imperforated.

1. T. roundish, smooth, very obtuse; above ventricose. North seas.

2. T. ovate, glabrous, obtuse, minute. Mediterranean, America.

3. T. periwinkle; subovate, acute, striated; ½ inch high; finely striated transversely. Shores of Europe; Britain. The animal of this species is frequently eaten.

4. T. pale red; 5 distinct, tumid, striated whorls; first ventricose. England, in woods; very rare.

5. T. smooth; whorls 5, distinct, tumid. Western shores of England.

6. T. somewhat conic, cinereous; variegated with fine zig-zag black streaks. Western coasts of England.

7. T. umbilicated, subovate, acute; surrounded with striae of raised dots; pillar margin a little obtuse; an inch high. Europe, America.

8. T. subovate, smooth; aperture lateral, margined; umbilicus covered. Pulo Condor.

9. T. subovate, smooth, brown, with paler, flat, dotted belts.

B. Solid, imperforated.

10. T. oblong ovate; stria decussated and raised with dots; very minute. Shores of Europe, Britain.

11. T. ovate, smooth; variegated with red and white; minute, transparent, glossy. European seas, shores of Britain.

12. T. oblong, white, marbled, or banded with black; 6 tumid whorls in the spire; ½ inch long. Coasts of Wales.

13. T. convex, smooth; aperture somewhat angular. India.

14. T. ovate, smooth, glossy; whorls somewhat angular on the upper part. India, South America.

15. T. ovate, striated, with one stria thicker on the back. India.

16. T. subovate, wrinkled; whorls surrounded with two rows of vaulted spines; yellowish, radiated with brown. India.

17. T. subovate, wrinkled, with obtuse vaulted spines echinatus, and whorls; pillar lip expanded, crenated. South sea, and Friendly islands.

18. T. ovate; spines obtuse, depressed; beneath pectum perpillons. India.

19. T. conic; spines obtuse, concatenated; striae pa-pagodae, pillos beneath 3; 3 inches high. India.

20. T. subconic; variegated with black and gray, sulcatus, and covered with hollow scales. Friendly islands.

21. T. nearly imperforated, depressed; whorls rough; calcar with compressed hollow spines above. India.

22. T. subovate, striated; whorls rugged above. rugosus. Mediterranean, New Zealand.

23. T. subovate, smooth; 3 rows of protuberances marmora in the whorls; beak dilated behind. South America, tus.

24. T. convex, obtuse; whorls knotty above; and feraformicus parated by a canal. Asiatic and African seas.

25. T. convex, obtuse, smooth, angular. India. olearius.

26. T. whorls and spire round, with decussated striae; cornutus, the first with 3 rows of imbricated spines; a large shell. China.

27. T. rugged; whorls round, dilatant, transversely radiatus, striated, and armed with small imbricated spines. Red sea.

28. T. glabrous, glossy green; within snowy; aper-imperialis, ture filvery; pillar lip callous above; whorls of the spire very convex.

29. T. wrinkled; white, with greenish clouds; tip coronatus, orange; whorls crowned with spines and knots; pillar produced into a beak. Seas of Malacca. Very rare.

30. T. grooved and transversely striated; whorls 6, canaliculatus; very convex. India.

31. T. whorls of the spire cylindrical; grooved and jetifer, transversely striated. India.

32. T. oblong, with broad, smooth striae; yellowish, sparverius, spotted with brown. India.

33. T. oblong, transversely striated; stria spinosus; spinosus, aperture filvery. India.

34. T. filvery gray, with transverse orange and yellow molitkianus low bands; whorls of moniliform belts of granulations.

35. T. variegated white and yellowish; whorls round; spengleri-transversely striated, and separated by a canal. Indian anus ocean. Very rare.

36. T. transversely striated; chestnut brown, spotted caffanea, with white; whorls 5, surrounded with rows of knots. South America.

37. T. filvery gray, surrounded with many rows of crenulatus, knots; aperture milk-white within.

38. T. ponderous, slightly depressed; smoothish and sinarogdus, obliquely wrinkled; 4 whorls in the spire; first round and larger; 2 inches broad and high. New Zealand.

39. T. pellucid, thin and finely annulated; first papyra-whirl large, the next with a band varied with red and ceur, white.

40. T. transversely grooved; first whirl black, finely athiops, striated; the rest filvery; lips bordered with brown.

41. T. brownish, reticulated; whorls surrounded nicobaricus, with belts; throat golden. Nicobar islands.

42. T. smooth, with compressed roundish whorls; cidaris, the first round and very large; aperture compressed, filvery; pillar a little prominent. India, China. nigerrimus. 43. T. smooth, deep black; whirls distant, with a hollowed margin. Southern ocean.

helcinus. 44. T. smooth, nearly imperforated; roundish, with contiguous convex whirls; pillar thickened.

punctatus. 45. T. ovate, thick, with a mucronate spire; whirls smooth, flattened; the two first very large; 6 lines long. Senegal.

hamastomus. 46. T. ovate, solid, glabrous; whirls 6, striated; aperture margined, oval.

torquatus. 47. T. ovate, with convex transverse grooves, and rugged striae; whirls with a knotty belt. New Zealand.

undulatus. 48. T. ovate, convex, with longitudinal undulated streaks; spire obtuse; mouth silvery. New Zealand.

niveus. 49. T. spiral, snowy, diaphanous, transversely striated; whirls often distorted. Nicobar islands.

helicoides. 50. T. horny, fimbriaphanous, smoothith; ribs 3; whirls distant; aperture triangular. Indian ocean.

nitidus. * 51. T. smooth, obtuse; whirls 4; aperture oval. Pembrokeshire coast.

scriptus. * 52. T. smooth, opaque; whirls 3, with brown lines resembling characters; aperture roundish; minute. Pembrokeshire coast.

costatus. * 53. T. opaque; 4 whirls deeply ribbed longitudinally, and finely striated transversely. Devonshire.

subluteus. * 54. T. opaque; 5 longitudinally ribbed whirls; aperture rounded, margined; minute. Pembrokeshire coast.

albulus. * 55. T. opaque; whirls 5, longitudinally ribbed; aperture roundish; not margined. Pembrokeshire coast.

reticulatus. * 56. T. white, opaque; whirls 4, reticulated. Pembrokeshire coast.

ruber. * 57. T. opaque, smooth, with 5 whirls. Cornwall.

interstinctus. * 58. T. pellucid, smooth; whirls 5, finely ribbed. Devonshire.

striatus. * 59. T. pellucid, white; whirls 5, separated by a fine rib. Plymouth.

fubarcenatus. * 60. T. pellucid, white, curved towards the tip; whirls 10, longitudinally ribbed. Pembrokeshire coast.

areus. * 61. T. pellucid; whirls longitudinally ribbed; brassy between the ribs. Pembrokeshire coast.

elegans. * 62. T. pellucid; whirls 6, spirally striated; ribs remote. Pembrokeshire coast.

pellucidus. * 63. T. pellucid, white, with 5 reticulated whirls. Pembrokeshire coast.

canaliculatus. * 64. T. pellucid, whitish; whirls 5, longitudinally grooved. Pembrokeshire coast.

divisus. * 65. T. pellucid, white; whirls 4, each divided into 2 parts; upper one smooth; the lower one spirally striated. Pembrokeshire sands.

C. Solid, perforated.

pica. 66. T. conic, rounded, smooth; a small tooth near the umbilicus; 3½ inches broad. In most seas.

sanguineus. 67. T. umbilicated, conic, convex, striated and smooth; whirls slightly grooved; size of a pea. Africa.

oxygostomus. 68. T. subovate, with transversely striated lines on the back. India.

margaritacea. 69. T. subovate, with smooth, elevated, dorsal lines. Indian ocean.

vericolor. 70. T. glabrous; finely striated transversely, and varied with green and white. South sea.

71. T. umbilicus rough; whirls, with branched delphin spines. India.

72. T. depressed, knotty; an unequally tuberculated nodulated ridge on the back of the first whirl.

73. T. subnucronate; covered with smooth spines.

74. T. bafe convex; whirls radiated with spines filiformi 12 larger ones on the first; small. South sea.

75. T. whirls crowned with lacinated spines; the aculea first with 9 large ones. Nicobar islands.

76. T. bafe flattened; whirls spinulous at the lower flabella margin.

77. T. whirls convex, and separated by a band, tef-mephiu felled with brown and white; colour of a medlar. South sea.

78. T. surrounded with knotty rings; dirty green, granula with a reddish tip. Indian and South seas.

79. T. spire annulated; first whirl very large; perforation spoon-shaped. South sea.

80. T. black, with double, alternate, black, and atratus cinereous moniliform belts of granulations; pillar 1-toothed; size of a nut. Nicobar islands.

81. T. depressed, orbicular; white, varied with dentate brown; lower margin of the pillar denticulated.

82. T. dirty green, varied with brown; whirls 4, diadem first large. New Zealand. A large shell.

83. T. smooth, roundish, cinereous; whirls substri-cinerated, ventricose, flattened at the future.

84. T. thin, diaphanous, white, round; 6 keel-carinate shaped whirls in the spire; perforations spiral.

85. T. thin, smooth; whirls flattened; 2 lines long. after, Senegal.

86. T. depressed, smooth, opaque, brown; whirls planorb 4; ¼ line in diameter.

87. T. hyaline, smooth, subcarinated; whirls 6, margined rounded; lip fringed, reflected.

88. T. whirls rounded; perforation deep, wide, and helicoid funnel-shaped.

89. T. pyramidal, with foliaceous wrinkles; perforation large.

90. T. transversely striated; within margaritaceous.

91. T. granulated, slightly umbilicated; with porphyromargaritaceus. New Caledonia.

92. T. white, glabrous, striated green. New Zealand.

D. Cancelled.

93. T. navel flattish, spreading; whirls round, with crinellu crenated striae.

94. T. umbilicated, somewhat oblong and obtuse; thermal whirls round, smooth; 4 whirls. Minute. Fresh water near the baths in Tuscany.

95. T. wentle-trap; conic; whirls distant, longitudinally ribbed. Var. 1. perforated with 8 whirls.

2. Imperforated with 10 whirls; 2 inches long. Bar- bary, Coromandel.—The wentle-trap is a very rare shell, and therefore greatly esteemed among collectors. As a proof of this, in the year 1753, four specimens which were disposed of at the sale of Commodore Lillo's shells in London, brought £51.12s. Two were sold at 16 guineas each; one at 18 guineas, and the fourth at 23l. 2s.

* 96. T. false wentle-trap; taper, not umbilicated; clathru spire with longitudinal ribs; whirls smooth, ventricose, and separated by a deep canal; from 1 to 3 inches long. long. Indian and European seas, Britain, Falmouth, South Devon.

97. T. ducky, with 12 finely tuberculated whorls. Northumberland coast.

98. T. tapering, perforated; whorls contiguous; smooth, ribbed. Mediterranean.

99. T. taper, subcancellated; whorls 8-ribbed, contiguous; crenated above.

100. T. taper; suture crowded, longitudinal, raised; size of a barley-corn. Mediterranean.

101. T. subcancellated, taper; whorls contiguous; belts interrupted, varicose; size of a barley-corn. Mediterranean.

102. T. ovate, obtuse; whorls contiguous, imbricated, and longitudinally striated, 1½ inch long. South America.

103. T. umbilicated, rounded, rather acute; whorls round, with decussated striae; aperture reflected.

104. T. oblong, obtuse, with wrinkled striae; aperture with a dilated, flat, crenated border; 8 lines long. Jamaica.

105. T. white, cylindrical, reticulated; aperture remote.

106. T. oblong, umbilicated, brown, striated with convex dots; lip white, dilated; 15 lines long. Jamaica.

107. T. ovate, imperforated, ventricose; finely striated spirally; 6 lines long. Woods of Europe, Britain.

108. T. umbilicated, convex, a little prominent; whorls round, substriated; aperture reflected. Southern Europe.

109. T. umbilicated, oblong; whorls equal; striae decussated; aperture dilated.

110. T. subovate, wrinkled, perforated. Coromandel.

E. Tapering.

111. T. whorls of the spire imbricated downwards; 4 inches long. American islands.

112. T. smooth; whorls imbricated upwards; 3 inches long. Tranquebar.

113. T. with a single prominent, acute, transverse rib; 4 inches long. Tranquebar.

114. T. whorls with two prominent, acute, transverse ribs; 5 inches long. Coromandel, shores of Britain.

115. T. whorls with 2 prominent, obtuse, distant, transverse ribs; 2 inches long. Europe, Guinea, shores of Britain.

116. T. whorls 6, prominent, acutely striated; from 2 to 6 inches long. Shores of Europe, Africa and China; Britain.

117. T. with 8 smooth whorls nearly obsolete. Minute. Shores of Anglesea.

118. T. white, with 8 whorls transversely striated.

119. T. whorls of the spire flattened, with 7 obtuse striae; 2 to 3 inches long. South America, Barbary.

120. T. whorls of the spire with 10 obfusco striae; 2 to 4½ inches long. European, Mediterranean seas.

121. T. whorls of the spire ribbed; aperture ovate. Denmark.

122. T. imperforated, glabrous; whorls rounded, striated. Depths of the Greenland seas.

123. T. whorls with a prominent, margined suture; 1½ inch long.

124. T. pellucid; whorls contrary; sutures subcrenated; aperture 2-toothed behind; 1½ inch long. Europe; roots of trees, Britain.

125. T. pellucid; whorls reversed, not crenated; aperture 3-toothed, ¼ inch long. Europe, Britain, among mofs, and in old walls.

126. T. obtuse; grooves curved; whorls 11; 7½ fusulatus, lines long.

127. T. obtuse; groove straight; whorls 9; aper-fusurture toothed.

128. T. obtuse, white; grooves oblique; aperture fusulatus, nearly square; whorls 8; 12 lines long.

129. T. whorls 9, recurved; aperture 4-toothed; quadridentis; 5 lines long. Bombay, Italy.

130. T. whitish; whorls 7; aperture 3-toothed; 5 tridentis, lines long. Italy.

131. T. ovate, obtuse, pellucid; 4 to 6 whorls; mycorum; aperture toothlets, oval; 1 line long. Among mofs, Britain.

132. T. deep brown, spires 4; first ventricose; a-ulva; aperture oval; size of a grain of wheat. Britain.

133. T. imperforated, smooth; whorls 5, nearly ob-trifasciatus; transversely barred. Minute. Pembrokeshire coast.

134. T. smooth; whorls 5, obliquely barred; aper-membrature fuboval. Minute. Pembrokehire coast.

135. T. whorls 5, subobtuse, roundish; minute. interrup-tus.

136. T. smooth; whorls 5, somewhat angular a-subfusrus, above. Pembrokehire coast.

137. T. whorls 3; the first with 3 transverse ridges; strigatus, minute. Seafalter, England.

138. T. whorls 7, ridged; aperture oval. Seafal-albidus. Rare.

139. T. carinated; whorls 7; aperture contracted, carinatus-marginated. Sandwich. Rare.

140. T. whorls 6; aperture oval, margined; mi-clathratus-lus. Sandwich. Very rare.

141. T. thick, barred; whorls 5; aperture round, crassit, margined; minute. Sandwich. Rare.

142. T. nine whorls, dotted, reversed; aperture con-punctatus, tracted; minute. Sandwich.

143. T. whorls 6, reticulated; aperture oval, sub-sheppea-marginated; minute. Sheppey island.

144. T. whorls 3, elegantly reticulated; aperture sandvicen-oval, toothed; minute. Sandwich.

145. T. whorls 5, distinct, transversely striated, bar-obtusus, red with white.

146. T. white, smooth; aperture with a flattish, auriscal-concave, obtuse, reflected lip. Mediterranean.

147. T. imperforated, glabrous; aperture oval; polius, size of a barley-corn. Mediterranean.

148. T. flattish; whorls annulated, and crested on daetylus, the back; minute. In flagrate waters in Europe.

149. T. two obtuse, approximate ridges on the obsoletus, whorls of the spire.

150. T. subumbilicated, whitish; whorls 12; aper-quinque-dentatus.

151. T. pyramidal, ventricose, horny, pellucid; pyramid-aperture comprelled; above one-fourth of an inch long. Germany.

152. T. conic, smooth, glossy; whorls 5 or 6; a-unidenta-puncture fuboval; pillar furnished near the middle with tus, 1 tooth; two-tenths of an inch long. Salcomb bay. Gen. Gen. Char.—The animal a limax; shell univalve, spiral, subdiaphanous, brittle; aperture contracted, semilunar, or roundish.

SPECIES.

A. Whirls with a keel-shaped acute margin.

scarabaeus. 1. H. ovate, both edges keel-shaped; aperture toothed. Mountains of Asia, and the Friendly islands.

lapicida. * 2. H. umbilicated; convex on each side; aperture transverse, margined, ovate; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch in diameter. Rocks, woods, and hedges in Europe, Britain.

marginata. 3. H. subumbilicated, a little depressed; obliquely striated; aperture transverse; 9 lines in diameter.

cicatricosa. 4. H. umbilicated, depressed and wrinkled; whirls reversed.

egophthalmos. 5. H. umbilicated, depressed, greenish, immaculate; whirls 7; an inch across. India, South America.

oculus capri. 6. H. subcarinated, umbilicated, convex; aperture margined. Trees in Asia.

albula. * 7. H. umbilicated, flattish; gibbous beneath; aperture somewhat heart-shaped. Europe, Britain, rocks and dry banks.

maculata. 8. H. perforated, flattish, subcarinated; white, dotted with brown; gibbous beneath, with linear bands; 5 lines across.

albina. 9. H. perforated, flattish, white, gibbous beneath; aperture quadrangular.

striaatula. 10. H. subcarinated, umbilicated, convex, striated; more gibbous beneath; aperture roundish, lunated; minute. Water-falls of Lombardy.

algira. 11. H. subangular, umbilicated, convex, whirls 6; navel pervious.

leucas. 12. H. subcarinated, umbilicated, convex, smooth; beneath gibbous; navel very minute; aperture roundish, lunate.

levipes. 13. H. perforated, subcarinated, contrary, convex, pale with a rufous band, united to a white one; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch in diameter.

exilis. 14. H. perforated, depressed, subcarinated; pale with a rufous band joined to a white one; whirls striated; 10 lines across. Tranquebar.

vermiculata. 15. H. subglobular, depressed, rough, imperforated; dotted with white; lip reflected, white. Italy and Portugal.

candida. 16. H. umbilicated, convex on each side; aperture not margined.

spadicea. 17. H. perforated, umbilicated, chestnut; whirls 5; 7 lines high.

incarnata. 18. H. perforated, subglobular, subcarinated; whirls 6; lip flesh-coloured; 6 lines broad. Woods of Denmark and Germany.

sericea. 19. H. perforated, subglobular, convex on each side; tentoonofoe. Denmark, in gardens.

coronulata. 20. H. perforated, globular, subcarinated and striated; white, with a brown band; \( \frac{3}{4} \) lines wide. Lyons.

planorbis. * 21. H. subcarinated, umbilicated, flat; above concave; aperture oblique; ovate and acute on each side. Ponds and rivers of Europe and Barbary, Britain.

complanata. 22. H. carinated downwards, umbilicated, convex; flat beneath; aperture semi-heart-shaped. Ponds and rivers of Europe.

23. H. subcarinated, imperforated, convex, with an ringent inverted, ringent aperture; lip 4-plaited behind; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch wide. India.

24. H. imperforated, subcarinated, reddish brown, sinuata, with a white ridge; aperture transverse; toothed and 3-plaited behind; 9 lines in diameter. America.

25. H. imperforated, white; flattish above; beneath lucerna gibbous; aperture transverse, 2-toothed; 13 lines broad.

26. H. imperforated, flattish above, beneath gibbous; lamellar whorls scarred. A rare shell.

27. H. imperforated, a little convex on each side, carinata with a white transverse lip. India.

28. H. imperforated, top-shaped, white, with fulvous lychnic bands; aperture transverse, 2-toothed.

29. H. subglobular, umbilicated, subcarinated; yellowish, with a whitish band; aperture transverse, 2-toothed, and finuated behind.

30. H. subcarinated, imperforated, convex; aperture cornuta with a white margin. India.

31. H. subcarinated, with flame-coloured, red, and pellucid white bands; beneath surrounded with 4 rows of dots; ventricose; aperture fringed. Warm parts of America.

32. H. flat, thin, concave above; aperture oval, vortex, flat; 3 lines wide. Ponds and rivers of Europe, Britain.

33. H. subcarinated, imperforated, ovate, pointed, scabra, and striated.

34. H. convex on each side; horny, with subferru-gothica ginous bands. Woods of Sweden.

35. H. imperforated, depressed, with decussated striae; squatter aperture acute on each side. India. A land species, ana, very rare.

36. H. top-shaped, acuminate, with convex spiral tricari-atria, and triple ridge; aperture dilated; 11 lines nana, wide.

37. H. brownish, depressed; first whirl round; aperture elongate contracted; nearly triangular; 3-toothed and margined. Virginia and Allea.

38. H. depressed, umbilicated; whirls contiguous; ocularia the first large; aperture oblong, ovate.

39. H. umbilicated, convex on each side; variegata-affinis, dotted with white and chestnut; aperture winged and slightly margined.

40. H. umbilicated, obliquely striated; convex a-marginata; beneath a little depressed; first whirl carinated; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch broad.

41. H. subcarinated, imperforated; convex on each sinuata, side; with hollow dots; aperture transverse; 7-toothed; whirls 6.

42. H. umbilicated, subcarinated, obliquely striated maculata, and a little depressed; aperture lunated, with a margined lip.

43. H. subumbilicated, subcarinated, aperture trans-punctata, oblong; lip margined, 3-toothed.

44. H. ovate, glabrous; whirls 5; the first gib-wirea, house, the rest carinated; aperture oblong-ovate; 2 inches high.

45. H. umbilicated, depressed, white; whirls 4, annulata; the first gibbous and doubly carinated; aperture ovate; 2 lines in diameter.

46. H. umbilicated, white, depressed above; whirls rhenan- carinated and irregularly striated, the last brown.

Rhine.

via.

47. H. depressed, umbilicated; white, with longitudinal black spots above, and 5 bands beneath. Santa Cruz.

rugata.

48. H. umbilicated, wrinkled, and obliquely striated; aperture lunated. Jamaica.

49. H. imperforated, smooth, saffron; with brown margin, and base of the whorls; aperture blue. Otaheite.

nata.

50. H. rounded, brown; whorls carinated; aperture finuous. New Zealand.

inata.

* 51. H. striated, carinated; whorls 3; aperture sub-oval; minute. Fresh water near Faverham, England.

B. Umbilicated; whorls rounded.

nea.

* 52. H. above umbilicated, flat, blackish; whorls 4. Fresh waters, Europe, Coronado, Britain.

orbis.

53. H. concave on each side, flat, whitish; whorls 5; rounded; ½ line diameter. Stagnant waters, France, Germany.

54. H. flattish, orbicular; aperture oval; lip fringed.

55. H. subumbilicated, flat on each side, equal; aperture linear; arched; 1 to 2 lines wide. Stagnant waters of Europe.

56. H. polished, yellowish, above convex, umbilicated; flat beneath, perforated; 1 to 3 lines in diameter. Ditches of Denmark.

57. H. white, umbilicated on each side; aperture dilated; 1 to 2 lines wide. Denmark, aquatic plants.

58. H. pellucid, umbilicated above; striated with dots. Ditches in Denmark and Berlin.

59. H. umbilicated, flattish; aperture oval; 12 to 16 lines in diameter. China.

60. H. umbilicated; convex, hifpid, diaphanous; whorls 5; aperture roundish, lunated. Woods of Europe, Britain.

61. H. subumbilicated, subglobular, glabrous; whorls above more ventricose; aperture large, ovate, oblong; 1 to 5 inches wide. Asia and America.

62. H. globular, perforated; reddish brown; whorls four. Fifth ponds of Denmark.

63. H. globular, perforated; aperture rolled spirally inwards. Lakes of Germany.

64. H. globular, horny, with an obtuse crown; 1 to 2 lines wide. Seas of Denmark.

* 65. H. subumbilicated, subovate, obtuse; aperture roundish, semilunar; reddish brown, with obsolete, paler bands. Woods of Europe, Britain.—This species was a favourite dish among the Romans. It is still used as an article of food in many parts of Europe, during the season of Lent. It was introduced into England by Sir Kenelm Digby, as a cure for consumption.

66. H. umbilicated, roundish, pointed; lip margined; aperture oval.

67. H. subumbilicated, convex, obtuse; yellowish, with a brown band; from 12 to 18 lines wide. Woods of Jamaica and China.

68. H. perforated, subglobular, dull chestnut, with a rufous band united to a white one; whorls 7, striated.

69. H. perforated, subglobular, with hollow dots; rupa, and a red band; first whirl larger; 8 lines wide.

70. H. globular, subumbilicated, white; lip reflect-globulus, ed; whorls 5.

71. H. imperforated, depressed; gray, with white lactea, dots; aperture red brown. Jamaica and Portugal.

72. H. depressed, umbilicated, white, with a cut incisa, margin.

* 73. H. umbilicated, convex, pointed; aperture sub-arbusculear, a little reflected at the rim, brown, with a rum, flange black spiral band; 9½ lines wide. Shrubberies and hedges, Britain.

74. H. nearly imperforated, globular, pelucid; fulva, fulvous, with a white lip; 1 to 3 lines wide. Woods of Denmark.

75. H. subimperforated, subglobular, striated; whorls epitylum; 7½ lines in diameter.

76. H. subimperforated; white, with rufous lip and cineta, bands; whorls 5; 18 lines wide.

77. H. subimperforated, subglobular; white, with ligata, rufous bands; whorls 4; 14 lines wide. Italy.

78. H. subimperforated, subglobular; pale yellow, aspera, with 4 rufous bands, interrupted with white spots; whorls 4; 12 to 18 lines in diameter. Italy.

79. H. subimperforated, subglobular; pale, imma-extensa, culate; aperture large; whorls 4, distant.

80. H. perforated, globular; white, with subinter-pifana, rupted red bands; lip rofy; 5 to 7½ lines wide. Barbary, Italy.

81. H. perforated, with a depressed crown; white, striata, with rufous bands, and numerous lines; lip white on each side; 10 lines wide.

82. H. perforated, globular, polished; white, with nemorensis, brown bands; 1½ lines wide. India, var. fuscus.

* 83. H. umbilicated, convex, slightly depressed; a-zonaria, aperture rather oblong and margined; whorls 5; first ventricose; 11 to 13 lines in diameter. Barbary, Europe, Britain.

84. H. umbilicated; subdepressed, striated, white; striata, 6 lines wide. Italy.

* 85. H. umbilicated, depressed, yellowish, with a ericetum-brown band or bands; 4 to 11 lines wide. Europe, rum.

Britain.

* 86. H. umbilicated, subdepressed, fulvous, horny, nitens, or yellowish green; subfibratia; aperture large; whorls 4 or 5; 1 to 4 lines wide. Wet woods of Europe, Britain.

87. H. umbilicated, cinereous; whorls 4; rib trans-coflata, verely plaited; aperture circular; 1 line wide. Highlands of Denmark.

88. H. umbilicated, subdepressed; aperture circi-pulchella, nate; lip white, reflected; whorls 4; 1 line wide.

Moist woods of Denmark.

89. H. umbilicated, subdepressed, with elevated, rotundata, transverse lines, and ferruginous spots; 2½ lines wide. Moist places, and rotten wood, in France, Germany, and Denmark. Common.

90. H. umbilicated, depressed; yellowish, polished; cellaria, white beneath; aperture large; whorls 5; 3½ lines wide. Cellars in Germany.

91. H. umbilicated, depressed on both sides; whorls obvoluta, obvoluted. Var. 1. Whitish, glabrous, with a triangular aperture. 2. Brown, hifpid, with a linear aperture; 4 to 5 lines wide. Italy.

92. H. perforated, subdepressed, striated; white, with a rufous band; 5 lines wide. France.

93. H. perforated, striated; convex beneath; radiated. France and Virginia.

94. H. perforated, depressed; glossy white, diaphanous; 4 to 5 whirls; 1 line wide. Denmark, among mosses.

95. H. umbilicated, convex; aperture margined, suborbicular, and elongated above; of the shape of an apple; 16 lines wide. India.

96. H. globular, umbilicated, whitish yellow; whirls 5, reversed; the outermost divaricated; 19 lines wide.

97. H. umbilicated, globular; aperture without pillar lip; 7½ lines wide. Hedges of Denmark.

98. H. subglobular, umbilicated; gibbous beneath; lip reflected, white; whirls 5, the first very convex.

99. H. Subglobular, subumbilicated; white, with crowded chestnut bands and blue crown; lip reflected, white; 9 lines in diameter. Coromandel.

100. H. subglobular, subumbilicated; flesh colour, and transversely striated; whirls 5; 19 lines wide.

101. H. umbilicated, convex, obtuse; whirls 5, round; navel wide; size of a nut. Southern Europe. A land species.

102. H. umbilicated, perforated, convex, obtuse; whirls 5, round, and yellowish white; umbilicus spreading; size of a small apple. Southern Europe. A land species.

103. H. umbilicated ovate; whirls 5; striated; aperture large, ovate, and united to the tip. Rivers of Africa.

104. H. umbilicated, convex; whirls 5, round; umbilicus thin, perforated; aperture suborbicular. Southern Europe.

105. H. umbilicated, ovate, oblong; finely striated; aperture white within.

106. H. perforated, ovate, ventricose, and streaked; tip ribbed and rosy; lip of the same colour; pillar white; whirls 6; 4 inches long.

107. H. perforated, ovate, oblong, striated; lip and pillar rosy; whirls 6; aperture oval; 3 inches long. South America and India.

108. H. perforated, oblong; white, with longitudinal, rufous bands; pillar reflected; straight; 18 to 20 lines long. Guinea.

109. H. top-shaped, white with rufous bands; whirls 6; aperture transverse, large; 15 lines long.

110. H. top-shaped, umbilicated; convex on both sides; brown, with prickly ribs; lips whitish; ¾ line wide. Woods of Denmark.

111. H. top-shaped, umbilicated, acuminate; aperture circinate; 11 to 22 lines wide.

112. H. top-shaped, umbilicated, pointed; white, with spiral, convex striae; aperture circinate; 13 lines wide.

113. H. glabrous, hardish, umbilicated; chestnut, with white bands; whirls flat beneath; aperture ovate, oblong; 1 inch long.

114. H. umbilicated, rounded, thin; aperture semilunar. Woods of Europe; Britain.

115. H. umbilicated, a little depressed, yellow; aperture compressed; first whirl flattened, round. Olive groves, Florence.

116. H. umbilicated, subglobular, smooth; aperture bivalve; 1 inch high.

117. H. subumbilicated, smooth; whirls convex; aperture lunated; 10 lines high.

118. H. subumbilicated, conic, white, with chestnut pilae bands; aperture semilunar; tip obtuse.

119. H. rounded, subumbilicated, thin; aperture fusiform, semilunar. Thuringia.

120. H. umbilicated, with an obtusely mucronate teres spire; first whirl very large, the rest gradually decreasing; aperture margined, semilunar; whirls 6.

121. H. rounded, umbilicated, thin, glossy white; nivosa; aperture semilunar.

122. H. flat on both sides, umbilicated; whirls 6, media the first round; aperture suborbicular. Germany.

123. H. umbilicated, very thin, flat, polished, and tenell convex above; aperture compressed, semilunar; whirls 5, contiguous.

124. H. umbilicated, depressed, white; whirls 6, crepuscular, round, 3d and 4th brown, the last reddish at the tip; aperture semilunar, smooth. Guinea.

125. H. umbilicated, pellucid; beneath hemispherical, white; whirls reversed. Shores of Guinea.

126. H. umbilicated, obtusely subtriangular, rough, avellated, plaited and silvery within; aperture smooth, cared; first whirl with an elevated circle; size and colour of a nut; pillar lip white. Southern ocean.

127. H. inflated, subumbilicated, fragile; whirls 5; rufescence very large; aperture semilunar; 6 lines wide. Rivers of Hamburg.

128. H. umbilicated, obtusely subpyramidal; whirls pervious, 4, convex; the first with an elevated circle; the rest surrounded with a groove; aperture semilunar; minute.

129. H. umbilicated, oblong; whirls round and levigate; smooth; aperture orbicular.

130. H. umbilicated, pellucid; whirls 5, divided fossa by a groove; aperture orbicular and not margined. larix. The animal, besides the two tentacles, is furnished with a crest. Waters of Strasbourg and Paris. Very rare.

131. H. umbilicated depressed; first whirl villous, holothurian; aperture triangular, margined; whirls 6; ¼ inch wide. France and Switzerland.

132. H. thin, fragile, white, umbilicated; first whirl turgescent, inflated; whirls 6; ¾ inch wide. Waters of Hamburg.

133. H. umbilicated, pellucid, horny, transversely transversely striated, and convex; whirls 6, gradually decreasing; aperture semilunar; 4 or 5 lines in diameter.

134. H. cartilaginous, horny, pale yellow, subpallida-corniculata, gibbous. Kurile islands.

135. H. depressed, deeply umbilicated. Leaves corniculatae, and branches of trees, Senegal.

136. H. pyramidal, white, umbilicated; whirls 6, elegans, acute, flattish, and margined. Barbary and Southern Europe. A land snail.

137. H. pyramidal, smooth, white, obtuse; base immaculate, perforated, convex. South sea islands.

138. H. pyramidal, subfunebrated, very finely stria-bidetted; lip reflected, 2-toothed. Botanic garden at Strasbourg.

139. H. pyramidal, subimperforated, varied with turbinata, yellow and rufous. Coromandel.

142. H. conic, ovate, white, with 3 brownish bands in the first whirl; aperture fringed; lip white, dilated. Tranquebar. A land species.

141. H. conic, ventricose, perforated, pellucid, with a black tip; first whirl with 3 yellowish bands. Bengal.

142. H. top-shaped, perforated, polished; longitudinally striated; whorls reversed, the first keel-shaped; aperture angular.

143. H. umbilicated; whorls 3, bristly; aperture roundish; minute. Boggy ground, Pembrokeshire.

144. H. whorls 3, longitudinally striated; tube at the base margined; minute. Coast of Pembrokeshire.

145. H. subumbilicated, smooth; whorls 3, first more ventricose; aperture dilated; minute. Sandwich and Tenbigh.

146. H. umbilicated; whorls 2, transversely striated; minute. Pembrokeshire coast.

147. H. slightly umbilicated, smooth; whorls 2; minute. Pembrokeshire coast.

148. H. subglobular, umbilicated; mouth roundish; margin thorny; minute. Near Faveresham. Rare.

149. H. subumbilicated, reticulated; mouth rounded, margined; minute. Reculver. Very rare.

C. Rounded and imperforated.

150. H. subumbilicated, ovate, oblong; whorls 5 to 8, contrary; 18 to 28 lines long. India.

151. H. conic, yellow; lip reflected, white; whorls 6 to 7; aperture ovate; 18 to 22 lines long.

152. H. conic, a little pointed; whitish with a rufous band and streaks; lip reflected; whorls 7; 2½ inches long.

153. H. conic, pointed; whorls 8, obliquely streaked, contrary; 2½ inches long. Mauritius and Bourbon islands.

154. H. conic, pointed, white with fulvous streaks; lip white, reflected; whorls 7; 22 lines long.

155. H. conic, pointed; whorls contrary; white, with undulated, interrupted, brown streaks; 15 lines long; very rare.

156. H. subcylindrical, glabrous, contrary, barred; pillar yellow; lip slightly reflected; 12 to 16 lines long; very rare.

157. H. gloomy, whitish, thin, longitudinally striated; spire contrary, hemispherical; minute. Armenian coast.

158. H. globular, chestnut-brown, barred with white; lip fringed, white; crown obtuse. Jamaica.

159. H. subglobular, depressed; base concave; aperture lunated. Rhode Island.

160. H. oblong, polished, white, diaphanous; whorls 8; aperture ovate, toothlets; 11 lines long. India.

161. H. oblong, a little wrinkled, rosy; whorls 6; aperture toothlets; 20 lines long.

162. H. nearly imperforated, roundish, obtuse, diaphanous and very brittle; aperture dilated behind, with an emarginated lip; 1 inch broad and high. In most seas.—The animal which inhabits this shell shines in the night, and stains the hand with a violet or purple dye.

163. H. imperforated, roundish, solid, with a depressed spire; whorls 6, contiguous.

164. H. imperforated, ventricose, subovate, obtuse; whorls 5 to 6, very convex; aperture nearly orbicular; 1½ inch long. Stagnant waters of Europe, Britain. This species is viviparous.

165. H. ovate, ventricose; white with 3 shining fascia; red bands; whorls 5; spire acute; 9 to 15 lines long. Italy.

166. H. subovate, pointed, yellowish-white, with a diffusible black lip; whorls 6. Tranquebar.

* 167. H. perforated, roundish, thin, pellucid, and nemoralis; marked with variously coloured transverse bands; whorls 5, from 9 to 11 lines wide. Woods of Europe, Britain.

* 168. H. Garden Snail; imperforated, globular, pale, horienfis; with broad, interrupted, brown bands; lip white; 7 to 8 lines wide. Gardens and orchards, Europe, Britain.—This species is extremely destructive to the tender leaves of plants, and fruits. It is oviparous; the eggs are round, and about the size of small peas.

169. H. imperforated roundish, smooth; whitish, lucorum; with rufous streaks and bands. Southern parts of Europe.

170. H. imperforated, subovate, obtuse, gray with grisea; two pale bands; aperture rather oblong. Woods of Europe.

171. H. imperforated, roundish, brown, with a longitudinal white band; whorls 5, round, first large; aperture pure purple; 1½ inch broad. Ceylon.

172. H. imperforated, subovate, brown striped pallia; whorls 4; aperture oblique, margined, whitish; 2 inches broad.

173. H. imperforated, subovate; sulphur with a venusta; white band margined with red; whorls 4; lip reflected, margined; 10 lines broad.

174. H. imperforated, subglobular, glabrous; whorls picta; 4, round, first ventricose, the others depressed; aperture lunar. Italy.

175. H. imperforated, subovate, covered with a variegata; brown cuticle, under which it is barred; aperture white within. Italy.

176. H. imperforated, solid, ovate; whorls 6, round, folida; contiguous; pillar thickened; 1 inch long.

177. H. imperforated, subglobular, finely striated aperta; longitudinally; whorls 3, first ventricose; aperture lunar; pillar spiral.

178. H. imperforated, roundish, and transversely vericolor; striated; whorls round, the first ventricose; aperture ovate.

179. H. imperforated, ovate; whorls 6, flattish, contiguous; aperture unequal, 5-toothed; 3 lines long. Senegal.

180. H. imperforated, ovate, transversely striated nucleus; with black belts; aperture finuous. Otaheite.

181. H. imperforated, ovate, smooth, red; aperture coccinea; pale yellow. New Zealand.

* 182. H. imperforated, subpellucid, smooth, with variegata; red lines; whorls 4; the first more ventricose; minute. Welch coast.

* 183. H. whorls 3; aperture rounded, margined; mi-fulgida; nute. Welch coast.

* 184. H. striated; aperture suboval; whorls reflected fritata; on the back; minute. Sandwich. Very rare.

D. Tapering.

* 185. H. imperforated, tapering; spire mutilated, decollata; truncated; whorls 4 to 7, first large; 6 to 15 lines long.* Europe, Asia, and Africa; Britain. 186. H. conic, tapering, imperforated; whirs 5; ventricole, remote; spire obtuse; aperture ovate.

187. H. hyaline, transversely ribbed, perforated, and a little tapering; whirs distant; aperture circular; 6 lines high.

188. H. imperforated, tapering, subcylindrical, obtuse; whirs 4; aperture ovate; size of a grain of rye. Fresh waters, north of Europe.

189. H. subperforated, and a little tapering; whirs 3; aperture ovate; minute. Fresh waters.

190. H. subperforated, tapering; whirs 8; aperture roundish; 4 lines long. America, Europe, Britain.

191. H. tapering, convex, striated; pillar sinuated, inflected; whirs 7 to 8, with incumbent margins; aperture ovate, oblong; 2½ inches long.

192. H. tapering, white, with a fulvous tip; whirs 7 or 8, contrary, spotted; aperture oblong; 2¾ inches long.

193. H. imperforated, ovate, pointed, transversely striated; brown, with yellow bands; band on the first whirl double, on the rest single. Iceland.

194. H. subulate, fempellucid, longitudinally plaited; whirs 10, round; aperture ovate.

195. H. subulate, smooth, finely striated transversely; whirs about 12, round; aperture ovate; pillar glabrous.

196. H. subulate, smooth, finely striated transversely; whirs about 10, round; aperture ovate; pillar smooth.

197. H. imperforated, tapering, glabrous; pillar somewhat depressed; pillar inflected.

198. H. tapering, pellucid, glabrous; whirs 5 or 6, round, equal; aperture ovate; pillar slightly plaited; size of an oat. Barbary.

199. H. tapering, milk-white, longitudinally striated; whirs 7, contiguous; aperture ovate; ¼ inch long. Mountains of Southern Europe.

200. H. thin, glossy, pellucid; whirs 6; aperture oblong; ¼ inch long. France.

201. H. shell tapering; whirs 8 or 9, distant ribbed; first round, the rest flatfish; aperture ovate; 1 inch long.

202. H. black, tapering, minutely striated; whirs 7, rather convex; aperture oblong, oval; 2 inches long.

203. H. tapering, horny, finely striated transversely, and longitudinally plaited; lip acute. Rivers of India.

204. H. tapering, white, transversely subfriated, and surrounded with a crenulated belt near the future. Rivers of India.

205. H. white, tapering, somewhat umbilicated; first whirl a little keel-shaped, with a blackish band.

206. H. cylindrical, glabrous, yellowish orange; lip obtuse.

207. H. tapering, very glabrous, chestnut-brown with darker spots; throat whitish. Fresh waters, Coromandel.

208. H. white, densely striated, subcylindrical; whirs a little convex; lip margined; 3 inches long.

209. H. ovate, oblong, purplish, telescopically with purple; within iridescent. New Zealand.

E. Ovata, imperforated.

210. H. coarse, nearly imperforated, ovate, oblong, pupa; whirs 6; aperture oblong, lunated. Mauritania.

211. H. coarct, oblong, imperforated; whirs 8; barbara aperture roundish, lunated; size of a barley-corn. Algiers.

212. H. oblong, imperforated; whirs toothed, spi-amarulous; 10 lines long. Rivers of India.

*213. H. transversely grooved; white, striated with naevia; black; whirs flatfish, the first large and round; spire pointed; an inch long. Southern ocean, Plymouth dock.

214. H. pointed, cinereous, transversely striated; aspera; whirs 7 to 8, toothed, marked with red streaks, and armed with sharp spines; 5 to 8 lines long. Coromandel.

*215. H. imperforated, ovate, tapering to a point; flagrati; somewhat angular, by several longitudinal wrinkles; whirs 6 to 7, first ventricole; aperture oblong, oval; 2½ inches long. Still waters of Europe, Britain.

*216. H. imperforated, ovate, tapering to a point; fragili; spire acute; whirs 5 to 7; aperture oblong, oval; 11 lines long. Still waters of Europe, Britain.

217. H. cylindrical, pointed, horny; aperture o-glabra; whirs 8; 4 lines long. Moist meadows of Denmark.

*218. H. oblong, pointed, brown; aperture ovate; palustris; whirs 5 to 6. Meadows of Europe, Britain.

219. H. ovate, oblong, whirs 5, truncated upwards; truncaperture ovate; 2 to 5 lines long. Greece.

*220. H. subconic, horny, with a sharp point; aperturergus; aperture ovate; 2 to 8 lines long. Stagnant waters of Denmark, Britain.

*221. H. ventricole, diaphanous, with an obtuse pro-glutina jection; 2 to 3 whirs; aperture wide; 2 to 4 lines long. Denmark, chiefly on the leaves of nymphæa lutea. Marshes at Deal.

*222. H. imperforated, obtuse, ovate, yellow; whirs putris; 3, the first large, the others minute; aperture ovate; 1 to 8 lines long. Ponds in Europe, Britain.

223. H. conic, pointed, white, with a red band; acuta; whirs 7; aperture ovate, toothless; 4 lines long. Italy.

224. H. conic, perforated; striae rugged; aperture papilla; transverse; whirs 6; 10 lines wide.

225. H. subcylindrical; whirs 5; aperture tooth-minuta; lefs, oval. Greece. Not a line long.

*226. H. conic, white, with transverse rufous lines; detrita; whirs 6; aperture ovate; 8½ lines long. Saxony, Britain.

227. H. conic, pale, striated; whirs 7; the 4 outer-ventricole most nearly of equal width; 8½ lines long. Greece.

*228. H. conic, brown; whirs 6; aperture oval, obfusa; toothless; nail white; above dusky, eyes only black. Roots of trees, Europe, Britain.

*229. H. conic, fulvous, polished; whirs 5 or 6; lubrica; aperture toothless; 2½ lines long. Mofs and wet rotten wood, Britain.

*230. H. imperforated, somewhat oblong, pellucid; limosa; aperture ovate. Wet meadows of Europe, Sandwich, river Avon.

231. H. turbinated, cinereous, nearly imperforated; contortia-crown truncated; whirs 5; aperture circinated.

232. H. 232. H. imperforated, greenish; whirls 5, spirally angular; throat wide; 12 lines long. China.

*233. H. imperforated, ovate, obtuse, clouded with brown; whirls 4 or 5; aperture subovate; 1—4 lines long. Ponds and still waters of Britain.

*234. H. imperforated, ovate, gibbous, with a depression in the middle of the lip; whirls 3—5; the first ventricose; spire acute, short; aperture much dilated; 2—15 lines long. Ponds of Europe, Britain.

*235. H. whorls 2; first ventricose; the other minute, and placed laterally; pale red, pellucid. Europe, Devonshire.

236. H. imperforated, ovate, pointed; whirls 4; wrinkles elevated; aperture ovate, dilated. Shores of the Baltic.

237. H. imperforated, convex, longitudinally striated; aperture roundish.

238. H. imperforated, convex, ovate; without lip; aperture extending to the tip. Mediterranean.

239. H. imperforated, depressed, with waved striae; aperture oval; open all the way down; whirls 4, lateral. Mediterranean, Atlantic, Indian and North seas.

240. H. imperforated, subdepressed, white; whirls 6; 6 lines wide. France.

241. H. cylindrical, glabrous; whirls 4 or 5; round, reverfed; aperture square, 6-toothed; 1 line long. In decayed wood. Denmark.

242. H. hyaline, subconic, glabrous; whirls 5, round; aperture ovate, with three teeth within.

243. H. subimperforated, convex; grooves remote, compressed; aperture semiorbiculare. Mediterranean sea.

244. H. imperforated, ovate, black; aperture ovate. Waters of Greece.

245. H. subcylindrical, with decussated striae; whirls 7, reverfed; 3 very large, depressed in the middle. Guinea.

246. H. marbled with white, cinereous and blue; whirls 5, round; aperture ovate, ¼ inch long. Rivers of Strasbourg.

247. H. cheshut, pellucid, thin; whirls 4, narrow; aperture ovate.

248. H. ovate, pointed, pellucid, transversely striated; whirls 7, first largest; aperture oblong, ovate; 9 lines long.

249. H. ovate, conic, subimperforated; 2 last whorls in the centre of the first; aperture orbicular; 1½ line long.

250. H. white, solid, opaque; first whirl twice as large as the rest; aperture large, margined. River Unistrut.

251. H. white, opaque, pointed; aperture oval. Waters of Hamburg.

252. H. ovate, pointed, subimperforated; first whirl ventricose, large; aperture semicircular; 6 or 7 lines long. Stagnant waters.

253. H. ovate, pointed; whirls 5; first large, aperture ovate, oblong. Aquatic.

254. H. obtuse; whirls 4, distant, inflated in the middle; aperture orbicular, margined; 2 lines long.

255. H. bluish, ovate, pointed; whirls 4, a little ventricose; aperture oblong, rounded; 2 lines long.

256. H. inflated; whorls 4, short; two lower ones cinerea, distant; aperture orbicular, not margined; 2 lines long. Allace.

257. H. imperforated, oblong, white with longitudinal undata, red undulations; whirls 6—7, first thrice as large as the next; 1½ inch long.

258. H. imperforated, oblong, thin, brown; whorls teres, 4; first ovate, and thrice as large as the next; aperture ovate.

259. H. subimperforated, oblong, finely striated with substriata, white; whirls 5; first twice as large as the next; aperture oval, margined; ¼ inch long.

260. H. smooth, brown; aperture triangular, margined; minute.

261. H. ventricose, pointed, cinereous; first whirl tumida, large; aperture oval, large; margined on one side; 1½ inch long.

262. H. oblong, pointed, longitudinally ribbed, acicula, and transversely striated; whirls 10, equally decreasing; aperture oval; ¼ inch long. Coromandel.

263. H. ovate, imperforated; whirls 8—9, round, peregrina, distant, and equally decreasing; aperture oval; ¼ inch long. American islands.

264. H. oblong, imperforated; whirls distant, venanubia-tricofe; aperture orbicular; 2½ inches long. Danube.

265. H. oblong, imperforated, smooth, pointed; turbinata, whorls inflated; the first larger, the rest gradually decreasing; aperture suboval, margined; 2½ inches long. Danube.

266. H. oblong, curved, subimperforated; aperture oval, margined; 2½ inches in diameter. Danube.

267. H. thin, smooth, white, with chestnut bands; exilis, spire obtuse; whorls flattened; 8 lines to one inch long.

Gen. 30. Nerita, Nerite.

Gen. Char.—The animal is a limax; the shell univalve spiral, gibbous, flattish at bottom; aperture semi-orbicular, or semilunar; pillar lip transversely truncated, flattish.

Species.

A. Umbilicated.

1. N. smooth; spire slightly pointed; umbilicus canrena, gibbous, and bifid. India, Africa, America.

2. N. with decussated striae, and impressed dots; cancellate, subclavate; umbilicus gibbous, bifid. American lata, illands.

*3. N. smooth, glossy, faintly wrinkled; spire rather glauca, obtuse; umbilicus rather closed by the pillar lip, which is gibbous and two-coloured; 2 inches long. Barbary, Europe, Britain.

4. N. subglobular; umbilicus perforated, equal. In-vitellus, dian ocean.

5. N. convex; umbilicus somewhat heart-shaped, albumen, with a flattened lobe. Cape of Good Hope, Barbary, Indian islands. Extremely rare.

6. N. ovate, glabrous; umbilicus partly covered; mammilla, whorls 4 or 5; aperture ovate.

7. N. subglobular, folioid, bay with white bands; leucozoa, spire somewhat depressed; whorls 4 or 5; an inch long.

8. N. 8. M. subglobular, solid; tip bluish; lateritious bands in the throat, and a white one on the beak. Mauritius island. Rather large.

9. N. thin, rufous; umbilicus darker, with a white border; throat with a reddish band. Mauritius island.

10. N. subglobular, with angular, tawny lines, and flattened lobe; white or yellowish. Africa. Rare.

11. N. smooth, snowy, with rufous spots and specks; umbilicus gibbous, bifid. Mediterranean, American seas.

12. N. subglobular, polished very smooth; base of the spire a little wrinkled; pillar snowy. Eastern seas.

13. N. subglobular, white, with red spots; lip obtuse and bluish; umbilicus spiral.

14. N. wrinkled; within glabrous; umbilicus bordered with white. American islands.

15. N. subglobular, smooth, light green, brownish within; livid at the tip; wrinkled at the angle of the whirls. Africa.

16. N. subglobular, obliquely plaited; spire with 4 whirls, mucronate; umbilicus bifid.

17. N. white, reticulated with reddish lines, and blackish at the tip; umbilicus nearly covered; whirls convex.

18. N. subglobular, brown, with a double white fillet in the middle; reticulated and denticulated on each side. Africa.

19. N. thin, pellucid, smooth, oblong; first whirl ventricose, flat and large; umbilicus half closed; 2 inches long. Indian sea.

* 20. N. semitransparent, horn-colour; whorls prominent; aperture semilunar, and patulous; umbilicus large; a small shell. Coasts of Kent and Dorset.

21. N. pellucid, thin, oblong, with decussated striae; dirty yellow; whirls 4; aperture suboval; pillar white; umbilicus half closed. Tranquebar.

22. N. depressed, ovate, transversely undulated and longitudinally ribbed; ribs flat, oblique, and semilunar; spire papillary. Fossil in Campania.

23. N. flattish, with a circinated aperture. N. seas.

24. N. globular, facunate, thick; whirls 4, separated by deep grooves. North seas.

25. N. globular, thick; spire submucronated; whirls 3. New Zealand.

B. Imperforated; lip toothless.

26. N. whirls of the spire crowned with spines; minute. India, America.

27. N. grooved, with equal, tuberculated ribs; size of a walnut. Indian islands.

28. N. obsoletely striated; white or pale violent. Red sea.

fluviatilis. * 29. N. rugged, spotted, streaked, or mottled with white and purplish brown or pink; mouth closed with a teffaceous operculum; 4 lines long. In slow rivers of Barbary and Europe, Britain.

littoralis. * 30. N. smooth, with a carious crown; whirls 4 or 5, first large; size of a horse bean. Europe, shores of Britain. Common.

lacustris. 31. N. smoothish, horny, or blackish, ending in a very fine point. Still waters and warm springs of Europe; supposed to be only a variety of N. fluviatilis.

magdalence 32. N. grooves wide and black; within white; whirls 3; lip smooth, 2-toothed; 6 lines long. Magdalen islands.

33. N. thin, with decussated striae; tuberculated; margin black, with ochraceous spots; subglobular; aperture to margined outwardly.

34. N. thin, pellucid, ovate, polished; dull yellow dubia; varied with black; outer lip acute; inner glabrous; crown prominent; very rare.

35. N. smooth, pellucid; whirls 3; very minute. Pellucida Pembrokeshire coast.

* 36. N. smooth, somewhat pellucid; whirls 2; very alba. Minute. Pembrokeshire coast.

C. Imperforated; lips toothed.

37. N. smooth, coarse, with an excavated eye-like pulliger; small spire; inner lip smooth, crenulated; whirls 2, one large, terminating in an acute tooth; 14—16 lines long. Rivers of India.

38. N. thin, smooth, undulated, with an obtuse undulate crown; outer lip subfriated, and toothless; inner one a little denticulated. India.

39. N. thick, opaque, globular; deep black with aerrima coloured lines; outer lip glabrous; inner lip tuberculated, wrinkled.

40. N. smooth, subglobular; white, with yellowish larva; brown bands; crown obtuse, lip slightly denticulated; middle sized. Amboyne. Rare.

41. N. smooth, roundish, milk-white; whirls with pupa; transverse, parallel, black striae; lip flat; teeth scarcely visible.

42. N. smooth; inner lip 2-toothed; size of a pea. Bidens.

43. N. smooth, green; inner lip crenulated in the viridis. Minorca and Jamaica.

44. N. smooth, ovate, inner lip denticulated; 2 to virginea 10 lines long. India, South America.

45. N. smooth; crown obliterated; lip toothed on polita. Each side; brown. India, South seas.

46. N. striated; lips toothed; inner one flattish and peloront wrinkled. American islands.

47. N. striated; lips slightly toothed; inner one tu-albicula berculated. Cape of Good Hope. Indian ocean.

48. N. grooved, transversely striated; inner lip tooth-hispid; ribs 30, unequal.

49. N. grooved; 17 to 20 transverse ribs; outer plicata, lip 5 or 6 teethed within; inner convex, wrinkled, with three long, strong teeth, beside lesser ones. India.

50. N. grooved, lips toothed; inner lip with a yel-groove, low spot, and 3 or 4 teeth; convex and wrinkled. Molucca islands.

51. N. with 20 grooves, varied with undulated al-chama-ternate black and white rays; lips toothed; inner one leon. wrinkled and tuberculated. Indian ocean.

52. N. grooves 30; ribs about 30, flattened; lips undata. toothed; inner one wrinkled and tuberculated. Indian seas.

53. N. grooved, with 15 to 19 ribs; lips toothed; exuvia. inner one tuberculated. India.

54. N. folioid, thick, glabrous; undulated with black maxima and yellowish rays; outer lip toothless; inner one con- cave, 4-toothed; a very large shell.

55. N. angular black lines; with 16 crenated ribs textilis. and grooves; outer lip crenated without, and toothed within; inner lip wrinkled above, and tuberculated beneath.

56. N. deep black, glabrous, and thinly striated atrata. above; above; both lips white; outer one finely grooved, and slightly toothed within. Atlantic and South seas.

57. N. with 16 white grooves; ribs spotted with white; crown a little prominent; outer lip glabrous on each side; inner one concave, yellowish and toothed. Ascension island; a large shell.

58. N. mouth and lips white; whirls round, surrounded with black, parallel striae; outer lip striated within. Malacca seas.

59. N. with blackish bluish, red and white square spots, and bands, spotted with red and white; inner lip striated within, and toothed on each side. Antilles islands.

60. N. white, radiated with black without; striae transverse, rounded, smooth; inner lip wrinkled and toothed. Indian seas.

61. N. yellowish within, subglobular, surrounded with thicker striae; interstices snowy; lips white, toothed; outer one crenated without. Nicobar islands.

62. N. subviolet with a yellowish tip; white within, with elevated black striae; lips toothed; outer one grooved within; inner one wrinkled. Red sea.

63. N. grooved, yellowish within; crown a little prominent; outer lip unarmed and crenulated outwardly; inner lip yellowish, smooth. Malacca.

64. N. subglobular, black; white within; grooved and striated; lips wrinkled and denticulated. Antilles islands.

65. N. subglobular, with crowded transverse striae; white, with purplish undulated rays; outer lip grooved within; inner lip wrinkled above.

66. N. subglobular, with crowded transverse striae; deep black with ochraceous rays; lip slightly denticulated; inner one tuberculated in the middle. American islands.

67. N. obtuse, transversely striated; the striae marked with nearly square black and white spots; both lips denticulated; outer lip slightly striated within, inner lip with one or two teeth; concave, glabrous, and denticulated beneath. Islands between Africa and America.

68. N. blackish with 2 gray bands; crown white. India.

69. N. subglobular, white, with various characters; inner lip crenulated, toothed. India.

70. N. ovate, solid, smooth, violet dotted with white; inner lip denticulated beneath.

71. N. ovate, obtuse, deep black; whirls 3, the first turgid, with 25—30 grooves; the two others very minute; 1 inch broad. Senegal.

72. N. black, ovate, pointed; whirls 3, with 30 grooves; left lip wrinkled. Africa.

73. N. variegated with red, black, and white; right lip with 10 teeth; left lip glabrous, with three large emarginated teeth; 9 lines long.

74. N. surrounded with belts; spire reversed; aperture 8-toothed. Found only in a fossil state.

75. N. bands alternately white and black; within white; crown much elevated; outer lip acute; whirls 4. Fresh waters in Antilles islands.

76. N. blackish, transversely striated; the striae spinous; inner lip flattish, smooth, and slightly toothed. India.

Gen. 31. Haliotis, Sea-ear.

Gen. Char.:—The animal is a limax; the shell is univalve, dilated, ear-shaped, with a longitudinal row of orifices along the surface; spire lateral and nearly concealed.

Species:

1. H. Midas' ear; roundish, both sides polished; midse orifices from 8 to 10; 7 to 9 inches long. Indian ocean, Cape of Good Hope.

2. H. tubovate; outside transversely grooved, rug-tuberculed and tuberculated; wrinkles on the outside undula-tata. The inner margin of the shell has a ridge the whole length, which terminates in one spiral turn at the end. This ridge is befit with tubercles, the last 6 of which, or from 6 to 9, are open. The inside is open, concave, and of a beautiful mother-of-pearl: the length is from 3 to 4 inches; breadth from 2 to 3. It is found on the shores in the south of England, after violent storms. It is common in the island of Guernsey, adhering to the rocks at the lowest ebb. The fish is eaten by the inhabitants, and the common people adorn their houses, with the shells, by sticking them on the outside with plaster.

3. H. ovate, ferruginous, transversely wrinkled, and striata longitudinally striated; 4 or 5 orifices open. Asia, Barbary.

4. H. ovate, longitudinally striated; larger stria varia, tuberculated; orifices 20 to 30; 4 or 5 open. India.

5. H. oval, longitudinally striated, with obsolete marma, transverse ones; orifices about 30; 4 or 5 open; 2 to 4 rata, inches long. Africa, India.

6. H. off's ear; smoothish, oblong; margin some-afinum, what falcated; nerves on the outside elevated; orifices about 32; 5 to 7 open; 3 inches long. India.

7. H. ovate, red, with an elevated angle on the parva belly; orifices 30; 4 or 5 open. Africa, India.

8. H. ovate, greenish, spotted with brown; stria bifriata elevated, double, transverse; 6 orifices open. Africa.

9. H. varied with gray, bluish, and red; ovate; australis; spire prominent, inflated; 7 to 9 orifices open; 3 inches long. New Zealand.

10. H. ovate, somewhat convex, solid, with decus-guineensis, fat striae; orifices flattened; 6 open; 2½ inches long. Guinea.

11. H. ovate, imperforated, with prickly ribs; spire imperforated; 1 inch long. India. Extremely rare.

12. H. ovate, imperforated; margin oblique above, perverfa, and tuberculated within; spire reversed; ¼ inch long. Fossil.

13. H. transversely plaited on the outside; margin plicata, broad, thick, and finely striated longitudinally; ¼ inch long. Fossil near Hildesheim.

14. H. ovate, smoothish, solid; varied with white glabra, and green; 6 orifices open; 2½ inches long.

15. H. roundish, varied with rosy and white; outer pulcher lip crenated; orifices 30; 6 pervious; 7 lines long. rima, South sea islands.

16. H. ovate, with decussated undulated striae; um-virginea, der side tridentate; 6 orifices open; 1¼ inch long. New Zealand.

17. H. suborbicular, depressed, wrinkled; varied ovina, with white, chestnut, and yellowish; orifices in the middle pervious.

18. H. oval, rugged, varied with white and red; gigantea, spotted; inner lip with a very broad margin; 3 to 7 orifices open.

19. H.

19. H. ear ventricose, fulvid brown, with transverse wrinkles, and longitudinal, tuberous plaits; under side iridescent; 4½ inches long. New Zealand. Extremely rare.

Gen. 32. Patella, Limpet.

Gen. Char.—The animal is a limax; the shell univalve, subconic, shaped like a basin, without spire.

SPECIES.

A. Having an internal lip; shell entire.

equestris.

1. P. orbicular, perforated outwardly; lip vaulted, perpendicular; 1 inch wide. Indian and American seas.

2. P. ovate; tip subspiral; lip lateral; size of a cherry; inhabitant red.

* 3. P. subconic, smooth; lip somewhat lateral. Mediterranean and Indian seas. On oysters in Salcombe, Devonshire.

porcellana.

4. P. oval; tip recurved; lip placed behind and flattened. India and Goree.

fornicata.

5. P. oval, obliquely recurved behind; lip placed behind, and concave. Barbadoes, Mediterranean.

aculeata.

6. P. oval, brown, with prickly striae; crown recurved. American islands.

trochiformis.

7. P. conic, longitudinally plaited; internal lip lateral. Tranquebar and Falkland islands.

auricula.

8. P. roundish, with radiated grooves, and striated; crown recurved; internal cavity ear-shaped. Borneo, Santa Cruz.

rugosa.

9. P. ovate, thin, obsoletely wrinkled transversely; margin unequal; lip unequally repand; above 1 inch long. China. It is generally found on the buccinum spiratum.

goreensis.

10. P. oval, flat, thin, white, glossy, lamellated on the outside; 5 to 6 lines in diameter. Rocks at Goree.

contorta.

11. P. granulated with white, and fine perpendicular, oblique ribs; lip thin, oblique, and covering half the cavity. Rare.

explanata.

12. P. white, finely striated; crown inclining downwards and dilated, behind which the shell is depressed.

plicata.

13. P. conic, ochraceous, with ferruginous rays within; with longitudinal, transversely striated plaits.

friata.

14. P. white, conic, striated; grooves undulated; crown a little lateral.

solea.

15. P. twisted, pellucid, with ferruginous spots; thinly plaited and transversely grooved above; lip undulated, repand; ½ inch long.

echinata.

16. P. conic, prickly; within glabrous. Found fossil near Crignon.

B. Margin angular, or irregularly toothed.

crepidula.

17. P. oval, flattish, smooth; lip semilunar, flat behind. Mediterranean.

laciniosa.

18. P. rays unequal, elevated; thicker and obtuse, on the outside. India.

faccharina.

19. P. angular, with 7 keel-shaped, obtuse ribs. Java and Barbadoes.

barbara.

20. P. toothed, with 19 elevated, vaulted, and muricated rays. Falkland islands.

granularis

21. P. toothed, with elevated, angular, imbricated striae; 2 inches long. Southern Europe, and Cape of Good Hope.

22. P. angular, with numerous muricated striae; granular; 1½ to 3 inches long. Jamaica, southern Europe.

* 23. P. with about 14 obsolete angles, and divulged, acute, crenated margin; crown central; 2 inches high. Marine rocks of Europe and India, Britain.

* 24. P. oblong with about 14 angles; crown lateral. Depressa Rocks of Europe, Britain.

25. P. crenated, subangular; striae numerous, unequal; beneath blue; blackish, on the outside. Mediterranean.

26. P. conic, tuberculated; tubercles white, in tubercle rows; slightly toothed; retuse behind. Lata.

27. P. roundish, pectinated; rays imbricated, tuberculated, and transversely striated; crown incurved; 2½ inches long. Chili, Falkland islands.

28. P. oval, three-ribbed; white; striated at the tricostal fides; internal margin flattish, a little jagged. Indian ocean.

29. P. carinated, rounded on the fore-part, with mytiline undulated striae; brown and pearly within; hinder margin crenated; 1 inch long. South America.

30. P. toothed, oval, conic, somewhat compressed; ovata, ribbed; brown between the ribs; brown within, with white grooves; 9 lines long.

31. P. angular, ovate, depressed; rays 10, elevated; with short, intermediate ribs; 8 lines long.

32. P. folio, ovate, gibbous; unequally ribbed; glabrous within, with alternate, cinereous, and horny rays; margin crenated; 1½ inch long. Shores of Iceland.

32. P. oval, subpellucid; ribs 16 to 20; tubercles crowded on the outside; 1 to 3 inches long. Shores of Cyprus.

34. P. ovate, a little gibbous, white; ribs 20 to costata. 40; keel-shaped, crowded, unequal, tuberculated; 2 inches long.

35. P. ovate, dusky; ribs smooth, unequal, white, leucopleura crowded; crown usuallly brown; 1 inch long.

36. P. a little rugged, white, with brown, flexuous striae, branching outwards; 2 brown spots in the bottom of the hollow.

37. P. convex; ribs 11 to 16; 8 larger, tuberculated; 1¼ inch long. American islands.

38. P. toothed; red under the brown skin, with rubra, elevated, rounded striae, and lesser imbricated ones; within white; 1½ inch long.

39. P. ovate, gibbous, thin, toothed; liver-colour; hepatic striae elevated, keel-shaped and obtusely spined; crown white; 1½ inch long.

40. P. subconvex, brown, with 12 larger rays, badia, each surrounded by a rib, and as many lesser ones; 2½ inches long.

41. P. flattish, brown, with 10 elevated striae; crown fuscofasciatus of a different colour; bottom of a pale liver colour; spatulated spot, edged with glaucous and gold; inner margin brown; 2 to 3 inches long.

42. P. flattened; forepart narrow and rounded; maculata yellowish, spotted with brown; crown white; rays 10 or 11 equal, rounded, flat; ¾ to 1 inch long.

43. P. suboval, flattened, varied with brown; ribs rotundate, flat, rounded; crown and bottom differently coloured; 1 to 2 inches long.

44. P. ovate, obscurely edged with white; radiatpecten. ed, striae distant, pectinated outwardly; crown gray; 1 to 2 inches long. North America.

45. P. ovate, wrinkled, chestnut; crown with a white circle; ½ inch long.

46. P. oval, brown, radiated with white on each side; striae elevated, pectinated; crown white; bottom yellowish; ¼ inch long.

47. P. ovate, olive-colored; within brown varied with white, with elevated unequal striae; margin with 2 rows of unequal spines; brown, pale yellow; 1½ inch long.

48. P. ovate, wax-color on both sides; perpendicularly striated; ribs 13, flattened; bottom white; ¼ inch long.

49. P. ovate, with striae elevated, transverse, brownish; spotted with white, and reaching half way down; crown with a white, impressed circumference; and 3 brownish spots; 1 inch long.

50. P. ovate, folio, citron undulated with brown; striae elevated, crowded, wrinkled; bottom white; 1 inch long.

51. P. ovate, denticulated, cinereous, with three black belts; within milk-white, with elevated, unequal striae, nodulous on the outside, and spinous at the margin; 1 inch long; crown acute, reddish or whitish.

52. P. ovate, white; ribs flattened, of unequal lengths; interstices brownish; crown obtuse, with a brown belt; ½ inch long.

53. P. thin, ovate; margin knotty; within pearly, with elevated chestnut striae; crown pointed, brown; ¼ inch long. Straits of Magellan.

54. P. ochraceous, with three yellow bands, and elevated, acute, unequal striae; crown white; 1 inch high.

55. P. white, denticulated; striae unequal, elevated, acute; crown surrounded with a double row of cinereous dots, and a dusky gray band; 1 inch long.

56. P. yellow, radiated with brown; striae unequal, elevated, knotty; crown and bottom white; ½ inch long.

57. P. toothed, cinereous; striae unequal, elevated; interstices brown and rugged; crown pointed; milk-white or filvery.

58. P. whitish, rays brownish, and striae unequal, elevated, rounded; interstices rugged; crown obtuse, white, with a broad, interrupted brown band, and another marginal one; ¼ inch long.

59. P. cinereous and brown, with decumbent striae, and 2 rows of tubercles; crown yellowish; bottom with a spatulated white spot; ¼ inch long. Jamaica.

60. P. rounded, smooth, yellowish, with a broad, citron, marginal band, spotted with brown, and another narrower one; margin dilated, acute; crown varied with bluish and white; ¼ inch long.

61. P. smooth, thick, filvery; rays 11, brown; margin filvery; crown pale yellow; bottom ivory, with a double white ring; 2 inches long. Very rare.

62. P. white, with strong, rounded, brown ribs; pearly within; crown and bottom copper-colored; 2 inches long.

63. P. pale liver-color on both sides; ribs keel-shaped, alternately larger and less; crown flat, white; ¼ inch long.

64. P. brown, glabrous above; striae beneath elevated, crowded, white; crown obtuse, white; border fulvous; bottom fulvous; ¼ inch long.

65. P. yellowish, varied with brown; ribs unequal, flaveola, flattened; crown obtuse; bottom varied reddish and white; ¼ inch long.

66. P. denticulated, compressed on each side; round-infundibulated, yellow, perpendicularly striated; ribs keel-shaped; lum. bottom varied, white and cinereous; ¼ inch long. Rare.

67. P. rounded, glabrous, white; a small shell. cyathus.

68. P. ovate, entirely yellow, with undulated grooves; sinica, perpendicularly striated within; margin scalloped here and there; ¾ inches long. China.

69. P. roundish, white, with many colored dots; punctata, radiated at the base, and surrounded with 2 brown rings; margin flexuous.

70. P. ovate, with annular striae; black with ele-lugubris, vated, unequal striae; margin crenated; crown and bottom white.

71. P. ovate, toothed, yellowish, with elevated flat-ulyssipotened striae; crown pointed, orange. Lisbon.

72. P. oblong, red, with elevated, unequal, white umbella, striae; margin crenated. Africa.

73. P. thin, pelliculoid, striated, blackish with olive crenata, rays; within glaucous or cinereous; crown pointed; margin crenated, bottom milk-white. Shores of Africa, Malaga, Lisbon.

74. P. ferruginous, with angular or undulated rustiferruginea, lines and cinereous belts; within milk-white, with elevated, knotty striae; crown pointed; margin plaited.

75. P. oval, ochraceous, with elevated black striae; melano-within filvery, spotted; crown pointed, white, smooth, gramma. bottom with a straw-colored spot.

76. P. ovate, thin; margin flexuous; within filvery, repanda, with brownish rays, and thin, undulated striae, with bay granulations. Seas of Magellan.

77. P. oval, white, thinly striated, and varied with angulosa, red spots and dots; margin with 8 angles.

78. P. oval, smooth, polished, pelliculoid, striated with tigrina, yellowish ribs; bluish olive dotted with brown; margin with 7 angles.

79. P. oblong, flattish; bay striated with white; monopis, within milk-white, with 11 elevated, unequal striae; crown rounded, white. American islands.

80. P. ovate, toothed, brown dotted with green; chlorophic-with 11 elevated, hollow, broader striae, and as many ta. narrower ones; crown white.

81. P. thin, white, unequally striated, within pear-margaritely; crown with an orange mark, surrounded with a tacea. yellow ring; margin crenated. Iceland.

82. P. oval, thin, ochraceous, with angular chei-tenuiflora, nut lines, and 10 to 12 elevated, obtuse, hollow, unequal striae.

83. P. solid, subconic, tranversely plaited; margin mitrula, flexuous. Barbadoes.

84. P. ovate, toothed, with 30 elevated, obtuse, plicaria, undulated, and tranversely wrinkled striae. Shores of Magellan.

85. P. whitish, obtusely pentangular; margin cre-pentagona, nated, dilated; crown obtuse; bottom reddish.

86. P. ovate, tender, pelliculoid; striae elevated; cænea. crown and bottom copper-colored; ¼ inch long. Straits of Magellan.

87. P. thin, oblong, ovate, with fine undulated conchacea.

C. With the tip or crown pointed and recurved.

hungarica. * 90. P. entire, conic, pointed, striated, with a hooked, revolute crown; 2 inches high. America, Mediterranean, and Asiatic seas; shores of Britain.

imbricata. 91. P. entire, oblong, imbricated; the crown placed behind.

mammelaritis. * 92. P. entire, conic, striated, subdiaphanous, with a smooth reflected crown. Shores of the Mediterranean and Africa, Britain.

tricarinata 93. P. subfriated, with 3 ribs on the forepart; 2½ inches high.

petinata. 94. P. entire, ovate, with wrinkled, slightly branched striae; crown nearly central; 2 inches long. Mediterranean.

lutea. 95. P. entire, oval, convex, striated, with a submarginal, reflected, mucronate crown; size of a melon seed. India.

criflata. 96. P. crown revolute; back crested, keel-shaped.

lacustris. 97. P. entire, oval, membranaceous, with a central, mucronate, reflected crown; 1½ to 2½ lines long. Fresh waters of Europe, Britain.

fluvialitis. 98. P. entire, oval, a little horny, with a marginal, mucronate crown; aperture oval; 2½ lines long. Rivers of Europe, Britain.

cæca. 99. P. entire, with elevated dots and striated; crown acute, straight. Bays of Norway, on stones.

virginea. 100. P. entire, white, with 18 red bands. Bays of Norway, on fuci.

teffelata. 101. P. entire, whitish, teffelated with red. Norway, on rocks and fuel.

fulva. 102. P. entire, orange, with a mucronate and nearly vertical crown. Norway.

subspiralis. 103. P. ovate, with an obtuse nearly spiral tip. Norway.

ambigua. 104. P. ovate; margin slightly toothed; pointed reflected, somewhat acute. Norway.

rubicunda. 105. P. entire, subconic, smoothish, and reddish; 2½ lines long. Deeps of Greenland.

bormiana. 106. P. ovate, entire, finely striated longitudinally; white with red veins; 6 lines long.

calyptra. 107. P. entire; ribs somewhat imbricated; crown hooked; margin sinuated. North America.

melanoleuca. 108. P. striated, entire, alternately black and white; 1 inch long.

postunculus. 109. P. oblong, convex, slightly toothed, within polished; striae knotty, elevated; crown bent forwards; 1 inch long.

fusciata. 110. P. ovate, white, with a brown band; striae elevated, acute; margin dilated, erenated, and cinereous within; 1 inch long.

elegans. 111. P. with decussated striae, white radiated with red; denticulated; crown gray; 2 inches long.

squamosa. 112. P. striae elevated, and transversely undulated on the outside; brown, silvery towards the margin; crown hooked and bronzed; 3½ inches long.

squalida. 113. P. entire brown, whitish within; margin bluish, radiated with brown; with elevated, obsolete striae; crown knotty.

114. P. smooth, subangular, yellow radiated with crocea; brown; crown obtuse, white; 1 inch long.

115. P. ovate smooth, white on both sides, with a candida rosy belt on the outside; crown lateral; ¼ inch long.

116. P. compressed, convex in the middle, cancellated, white, with a brownish band on the outside, and margined within; crown marginal, obtuse; ¼ inch long.

117. P. rounded, convex, thin; whitish with red spots; minima crown obtuse, white, marginal; ¼ inch long. Ferro islands.

118. P. ovate, thin, pellucid, with fine crowded tranque striae; chestnut with white scales, within milk-white; barica, with a brown spot at the bottom, and azure spot on the crown. Tranquebar.

119. P. oblong, horny, very thin, pellucid, glabrous, pervera, with a ferruginous base. Africa.

120. P. with decussated grooves; thin, pale flesh-cernua colour; aperture oblong.

121. P. entirely white, flat; point of the crown incurved twisted.

122. P. oval, depressed, brownish, with green dots, interrupted oblique, interrupted rays; crown with an obtuse hook; 1 inch long.

D. Entire, and not pointed at the tip or crown.

123. P. conic, striated, greenish or pale brown; afra; within white; crown glabrous, white, obtuse; margin glabrous. Island of Goree.

124. P. conic, white, with brown rays marked with hyaline striae granulated with black; crown acute, surrounded with a chestnut ring; very small. Portugal, on the sea rocks.

125. P. rounded, convex, gray, with decussated striae; radiata; crown pointed, central, and marked with 12 orange, radiated lines; bottom horny. Jamaica.

126. P. pyramidal reddish gray, with thin, circu-areolate striae crossed by longitudinal ones; crown violet.

127. P. ovate, with fine annulated striae, reddish-flamed gray, with undulated brown rays; crown acute, central; white in the middle.

128. P. reddish gray, with radiated striae, glabrous, indica; narrower on one side; crown acute, smooth, surrounded with a reddish ring; 3½ inches long. India.

129. P. thiek, subovate, yellowish, with black rays, furina and longitudinal, unequal striae; and surrounded with menigi knotty belts; crown obtuse, smooth, white. Surinam.

130. P. ovate, yellow; base unequally striated; vitellina crown whitish, obtuse.

131. P. ovate, convex, white, solid, with flexuous, sanguine elevated, longitudinal striae, intermixed with capillary lenia ones; crown lateral, surrounded with a broad ring, dotted with red. Africa.

132. P. ovate, yellow, within bluish white, with ob-leavigatique flattened striae, alternately thicker and thinner; crown white, smooth, polished.

133. P. rounded, white, with many-coloured dots, punctul radiated towards the base, and surrounded with 2 brown rings.

* 134. P. entire, obovate, gibbous, pellucid, with 4 pellucic blue rays; size of a walnut. European and northern seas, shores of Britain.

135. P. 135. P. entire, acute, smooth, glabrous. Indian and North seas.

136. P. entire, ovate, striated; crown obtuse, nearly central; 14 lines long. Greenland seas.

137. P. entire, oval, oblong, striated, smooth; compressed on the back; 14 inches long. India.

138. P. entire, conic, with 30 obtuse striae; three inches long.

139. P. entire, ovate, obtuse, with 39 cinereous, siliform, elevated striae.

140. P. entire, striated, with a submucronate, erect crown; within white, with a black, heart-shaped spot, white in the middle; minute. Mediterranean.

141. P. entire, oval, subconvex; brown, with a white crest; 1 inch long.

142. P. entire, conic, compressed, with reticulated veins.

143. P. oval, entire, gilded; within silvery, with somewhat imbricated striae; margin with plaited teeth. Straits of Magellan, and Falkland islands.

144. P. oval, entire, striated; black brown radiated with white; within silvery. Friendly islands and New Zealand.

145. P. entire, oval, pellucid, depressed, striated, horny, and radiated with black spots. New Zealand.

146. P. roundish; the inside silvery; the outside with reddish streaks, and a yellowish border. Indian and American seas.

147. P. entire, roundish, diaphanous; depressed with yellowish rays within; crown pale yellow; margin very acute; 4 inches long. Indian ocean.

148. P. thin, oval, depressed, radiated, white, dotted with red; within smooth; 6 lines long.

149. P. ovate, conic, folioid; brown divided into partitions, by perpendicular white lines; within smooth, white; margin cut archwise; 6 lines long.

150. P. ovate, convex, with fine decussated striae; white, with two broad yellow bands; within whitish, with a milk-white bottom; crown brownish; near 2 inches long.

151. P. oval, with decussated striae, longitudinal ones alternately brown and white; within pearly, with a white bottom; 1½ inch long. Cape of Good Hope.

152. P. coarse brown, orbicular, with the crown near the margin. Deeps of the seas of Norway.

153. P. finely striated and varied with dots of different colours; bottom dusky; 1½ inch long.

154. P. glabrous, lead colour, with a white, horsehoe-shaped band within; ¾ inch long. Ferro islands.

155. P. oval, thin, black, with white perpendicular flattened striae; crown gray; bottom with a brownish spot; not an inch long.

156. P. white, flattish; one part narrow, channelled within, with a bluish callus, shaped like a horseshoe; the other part rounded; 1 to 2 inches long.

157. P. oval, thin, depressed, cancellated, radiated; 1 to 1½ inch long.

158. P. oval, convex, varied with red, and slightly toothed, with elevated, unequal rough striae; 1 to 2 inches long.

159. P. depressed, thin, hyaline, dotted with red, with chestnut rays outwardly, and crowned thinner, and granulated thicker striae; an inch long.

160. P. oval, flat, with crowded longitudinal striae, of unequal thicknesses and all granulated; an inch long.

161. P. somewhat convex; white, with crowded red decussated dots; within radiated with red and white, with decussated glabrous striae, and a few longitudinal, thicker, white ones; 1½ inch long.

162. P. thin, depressed, white, dotted with red; hematolivaceous within brownish, striated; crown varied with cinereous, and brownish; near an inch long.

163. P. flattish, cancellated, cinereous, with a chef-afteroides, nut star, and rays towards the margin; crown smooth; gray, surrounded with brown dots; an inch long.

164. P. oval, somewhat convex, thin; striae crowd-ovalis; gray, with blackish rays and spots; an inch long.

165. P. a little convex, striated, reddish; crown rubella, whitish, spotted with red; bottom whitish; 1½ inch long.

166. P. flattish, a little wrinkled; striated, reddish; speetabilis; white, with a chestnut band towards the crown, and another bay one at the margin; 3 inches long.

167. P. solid, flattish, striated; black, with cine-conspurcaceous dots; within bluish; crown dirty yellow; two ta. inches long.

168. P. folioid, flattish, striated; whitish, with cine-melanostictaceous rays and black dots, disposed in 5 or 6 belts; ta. crown pointed and whitish.

169. P. black, striated, with a paler crown; bot-atra. tom with a brownish mark, surrounded with a white horse-shoe-shaped band; 1½ inch long.

170. P. oval, convex, folioid, glabrous; liver colour; peculiaris; within, and the crown brownish; the latter surrounded with a white border, and interrupted, whitish band.

171. P. oval, black, within bluish, striated; the canefuscus, larger striae flattened and gray; crown obtuse, brownish, with a whitish area; 2 inches long.

172. P. oblong, flattish, dilated on each side, and wirecens; striated; olivaceous, radiated, and spotted with white; within blue; 1½ inch long.

173. P. rounded, convex, longitudinally striated and pulla. tranversely wrinkled, brownish; within rufet brown, with whitish and brownish rays, and two milk-white bands above; 1½ inch long.

174. P. suboval, crenated, striated, ochraceous, with revoluta, red spots and rays, broader on one side; margin revolute; an inch long.

175. P. ovate, convex, striated; the striae facy, va-squamata, rided with white and black; crown gray, nearly central; an inch long.

176. P. ovate, finely striated, testaceous, with 3 telacea. tranverse brownish rings; within pale yellow, with a whitish bottom; an inch long.

177. P. ovate, thin, brown, with darker bands capillaris, and paler striae; within brownish; crown and bottom white; ½ inch long.

178. P. ovate, narrower on one side, finely striat-glaucoid; bluish, with a white band towards the margin, and another bluish one; crown and margin white; ½ inch long.

179. P. ovate, flattish, striated; varied with yel-obscura. lowish and brown, and dotted with green; within brown; crown bay; scarcely ¼ inch long.

180. P. oval, subconvex, unequally striated; whitish, exoleta, with a few black lines, reaching half way; near an inch long.

181. P. oval, flattish, solid, with a few black rays, affinis. reaching half way; bottom with a spatulated white spot; \( \frac{3}{4} \) inch long.

* 182. P. white, opaque, flat, round; margin regularly toothed. Sandwich. Rare.

183. P. ovate, convex, finely striated and varied with brown.

184. P. rounded, folio, glabrous, honey-colour; white within; crown brownish; margin spotted with brown, and silvery within; \( \frac{3}{4} \) inch long.

185. P. solid, glabrous, pointed, pale chestnut; pale flesh-colour within.

186. P. ovate, convex, smooth; one side broader and chestnut; the other with the crown pale yellow; margin flesh-colour on each side; \( \frac{3}{4} \) inch long. Guinea. Rare.

187. P. depressed, hemispherical; obsoletely cancellated, varied with white and brownish; margin white on one side.

188. P. ovate, longitudinally striated; whitish, with brown rays and crown; pearly within.

189. P. subconic, folio, glabrous, snowy; with 7 to 8 transverse concentric rings; crown rounded; 4 lines wide. Africa.

190. P. oval, with crowded radiated grooves, polished within; crown nearly central; an inch long. Africa.

191. P. narrow, with decussated striae; rosy, with a whitish callous belt on one side in the middle; margin acute, revolute on each side; an inch long.

192. P. somewhat oval, obsoletely striated, ferruginous, with two elevated, obscurely barred belts; crown nearly central.

193. P. clear white, with undulated striae, narrow; broader side with an acute callus; narrower side repand; crown towards the narrower side; \( \frac{3}{4} \) inch long.

* 194. P. small, entire, without glofs, whitish, faintly radiated with red; rather larger than a pea. Devonshire coasts. Very rare.

E. With the crown or tip perforated.

* 195. P. oval, conic, with reticulated striae; cleft on the fore-part; crown recurved; \( \frac{3}{4} \) inch long. European and Barbary coasts, Devonshire.

* 196. P. grooved and perforated on the fore-part; crown recurved; \( \frac{3}{4} \) inches long. Iceland seas, Falmouth harbour.

197. P. oval, gibbous, convex, with reticulated striae; margin crenated; perforation near the posterior margin. Mediterranean and Indian seas.

* 198. P. ovate, convex, reticulated; crown not much elevated; perforation oblong; margin crenulated; length \( \frac{3}{4} \) inch. Foreign specimens \( \frac{3}{4} \) inch. European seas, Sandwich.

199. P. ovate, striated, rugged, brown; perforation oblong; 2 inches long. Mediterranean and Atlantic.

200. P. subovate, rugged, white radiated with red; perforation ovate. Mediterranean.

201. P. ovate, solid, clouded white and green, with oblique, undulated, alternate, violet and white rays; \( \frac{3}{4} \) inches long. Straits of Magellan.

202. P. oblong, unequally striated; within smooth; milk-white with greenish bands; margin crenated; perforation circular, and surrounded with a chestnut ring. Barbadoes.

203. P. whitish, transversely annulated with longitudinal striae; covered with foliaceous tubercles; perforation oblong. Jamaica and Barbadoes.

204. P. ovate, compressed, striated; finely annulated, and radiated with black; bottom milk-white; perforation nearly central.

205. P. A little convex, transversely wrinkled; perforation brownish, with straw-coloured rays and spots; striae longitudinal, and alternately larger and fealy; \( \frac{3}{4} \) inch long.

206. P. oblong, compressed, unequally striated; porphyry white, with purple, interrupted belts; greenish white zonae within; perforation minute, surrounded on the inside with a red circle. North America.

207. P. thinly striated with alternate rosy and white rosea rays; perforation oval, and surrounded with a red ring on the inside. Minute.

208. P. repand on each side, compressed; perforation radiated with grooves; from 1 to \( \frac{3}{4} \) inch long.

209. P. thin, white, and finely striated; perforation avellan oblong, and divided by a ligament.

210. P. ovate, convex, white; striae elevated, thicker towards the margin, and marked with four rows of tubercles; exterior tubercles spinous; perforation oblong.

211. P. ovate, gibbous; whitish, radiated with denticulate brown; green within; striae elevated, somewhat rugged, and alternately larger; margin denticulated; crenated within; perforation in form of a parallelogram.

212. P. ovate, convex; striae elevated, knotty, nodulous, crossing thinner transverse ones; within white; crown black.

213. P. depressed, white; striae elevated, every 4th angula, of which is larger; perforation narrow, surrounded with a chestnut band on the outside, and a green one within; \( \frac{3}{4} \) inch long.

214. P. ovate, convex; striae decussated; perforation unequal, surrounded with an elevated ring and red line; 1 inch long.

215. P. oval, pyramidal, reddish, with 12 elevated minuta. white striae; bottom white; perforation oval and nearly central.

216. P. ovate, convex, striated; yellowish, with confertifl red dots and 3 oblique rays; crown central; perforation linear.

217. P. oval, striated, reddish, with a white band tubercular in the middle; margin entire; perforation linear; 1 inch long.

218. P. oval, thin, red; within greenish white; sanguine striae longitudinal, crossing finer transverse ones, which are rugged outwardly; \( \frac{3}{4} \) inch long.

219. P. oval, ventricose, with red decussated striae; ventricose crown depressed; perforation orbicular; an inch long.

220. P. oval, flattish, striated; white, with 3 brown iridio rays; crown central; perforation linear; \( \frac{3}{4} \) inch long.

221. P. pellucid, oval, a little convex; longitudinal tenuis ly striated; white, with 5 half brown rays; perforation with a cinereous margin; not \( \frac{3}{4} \) inch long.

222. P. convex, rosy, with an interrupted black band, melanos and elevated, unequal, white striae; crown pointed; nias. perforation orbicular, and surrounded within with an elevated gray ring; \( \frac{3}{4} \) inch long.

223. P. 223. P. convex, rofy, with elevated, knotty, white, and alternately larger striae; perforation round and large; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch long.

224. P. convex, chestnut; striae unequal, crowded, decussated; within smooth, with alternate green and white bands; perforation round, surrounded with a chestnut ring, and an elevated white one within; above an inch long.

225. P. convex, white shaded with red; here and there striated with red; within smooth, white; perforation oval.

226. P. convex, above clear white, and cancellated; longitudinally striated towards the margin, with a rofy band; perforation orbicular; an inch long.

227. P. convex, white; striae glabrous, acute, unequal; crown rofy; perforation large, orbicular; an inch long.

228. P. convex, rofy, striated; ribs 12, smooth; within smooth, and greenish white; one and one-fourth of an inch long.

229. P. narrow, alternately radiated with chestnut and white; striae unequally thick, lamellated; margin inflected; perforation oblong; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch long.

230. P. convex, white, with red lines outwardly, and elevated, rugged, contrary striae; 10 of them larger; margin repand, inflected; crown reddish; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch long.

231. P. above brown, striated, terminated by a knotty belt; beneath radiated with red, with acute, knotty ribs; perforation orbicular; three-fourths of an inch long.

232. P. convex, with nodulous, unequal ribs; larger ones yellowish brown, and marked with black dots, disposed in interrupted circles; crown cinereous; perforation surrounded within with an elevated, grays-colored ring, and a brown circle.

233. P. a little convex, narrow, white, with red lines; outwardly spotted with black, with elevated, convex, unequal striae; perforation oblong, with a chestnut margin within, with a reddish ring; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch long.

234. P. white, chestnut towards the margin, with 20 alternately larger ribs; crown reddish, with an oblong perforation; near an inch long.

235. P. ovate, pointed, white; above smooth, with an elevated belt in the middle; dotted with ferruginous towards the margin; with elevated, unequal, smooth striae; perforation narrow, orbicular; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch long.

236. P. flattened, white, suborbicular, with 20 elevated, alternately less and shorter striae, perforation round, and surrounded on each side with a reddish circle; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch long.

237. P. thin, effuse, pointed, finely striated, yellowish, with 6 brown rays; crown cinereous; perforation oblong.

238. P. convex, obsoletely striated, and furnished with concentric, imbricated wrinkles; perforation oval, or nearly round; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch diameter.

239. P. folio, ovate, compressed; within white; crown a little recurved, and obtuse; perforation linear; 6 lines long.

240. P. convex, with decussated lines and black rays. Falkland islands.

Gen. Char.—The animal a terebella; shell univalve, tubular, straight or slightly curved, with an undivided cavity open at both ends.

Species.

1. D. with 10 ribs, slightly curved and striated; 4 elephantine inches long. Indian and European seas.

2. D. with 10 ribs, smooth, and slightly curved; aprinum. Indian seas.

3. D. ribbed, curved, subulate, of one colour; arcuatum. greenish.

4. D. with 8 ribs and 8 striae, pointed; green, tip-striatum. ped with white. Sicilian seas.

5. D. ribs 6, striated. Found fossil at Loretto. sexangu-

6. D. with 20 striae, slightly curved, interrupted; dentalis. red, tipped with white. Mediterranean.

7. D. finely striated, slightly curved; gray, with fasciatus, darker bands; thickness of a crow quill. Sicily.

8. D. straight, doubly or triply striated, and annu-reclum. lated.

9. D. roundish, somewhat obtuse; finely and equally fissile. striated. Fossil near Loretto.

10. D. round, obliquely striated. Found fossil. annulatum.

11. D. slightly curved, somewhat obtuse; striae de-radula. cussated, longitudinal ones granulated; an inch long. Found fossil in Piedmont.

12. D. striae decussated, all of them smooth; longi-interrup-

tional striae with finer interrupted ones. Found fossilium. in Piedmont.

13. D. round, slightly curved, continued, with polium. crowded, annular striae; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch long. Indian and European seas.

14. D. white, smooth, round, slightly curved, with eburneum. remote rings. India.

* 15. D. round, slightly curved, smooth, glossy, ta-entalis. tapering to a small point; pervious; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch long. Indian and European shores; western coasts of England.

16. D. round, curved, and smooth; arietinum. Scandinavia.

17. D. round, slightly curved, interrupted, opaque; corneum. \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch long. African ocean.

18. D. curved, very smooth, white, with fulvous nebulosum. clouds and spots. Sicily.

19. D. horny, flexile, straightish, round and smooth; pellucidum. 2\( \frac{1}{2} \) inches long. North seas.

20. D. hyaline, glabrous, slightly curved, and ta-vitreum. tapering gradually; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch long. Found fossil in Piedmont.

21. D round, straightish, smooth, minute; not minutum. larger than a bristle. Mediterranean.

* 22. D. white, opaque, transversely striated and im-imperfora-

perforated; minute. Sandwich, Falmouth harbour.

* 23. D. subpellucid, subarcuated, tapering to a small gadus. point; pervious, contracting a little towards the larger end; white, glossy, and smooth. British channel; called by the mariners hake's tooth. It is frequently brought up with the sounding line.

* 24. D. subcylindrical, arcuated, marked with regular-trachea, lar, strong, transverse striae; aperture round, tapering to

to the other extremity, which is closed; inch long, resembles the trachea of an animal. Milton, Devonshire. Rare.

glabrum. * 25. D. cylindric, arcuated, smooth, glossy, without striae or wrinkles; aperture orbicular; the other end closed, rounded; length one line. Devonshire coast. Montagu, Test. Brit. p. 497.

Gen. Char.—The animal a terebella; shell univalve, tubular, generally adhering to other substances; often separated internally by entire divisions at unequal distances.

SPECIES.

nautiloides.* 1. S. flattened, minute, confluent, verrucose, spiral, with very thin, internal, fenuliform divisions. Seas of Norway, and on the byssus of the pinna ingens on the coast of Devonshire.

feminulum. 2. S. regular, oval, loofe, glabrous, not larger than a grain of land. Adriatic and Red seas; and is sometimes found fossil.

planorbis. 3. S. orbicular, regular, flat, equal; resembles a round scale; adheres to shells.

spirillum. * 4. S. regular, spiral, orbicular; whorls round, gradually decreasing. Found in the ocean, on zoophytes, on the corallina officinalis from Milton rocks, Devonshire.

spirorbis. * 5. S. regular, spiral, orbicular; whorls slightly channelled above and inwardly, and diminishing gradually towards the centre. Found in most seas, adhering to fuci. Shores of Britain.

triquetra. * 6. S. strong, opaque, irregularly twisted and contorted; triangular; ½ to 1 inch long. Found in the ocean, adhering to marine substances, stones, and the bottoms of ships. Coasts of Britain.

intricata. * 7. S. filiform, rough, and intricately twisted; greenish white, a little rugged and coarse. European and Indian seas; shores of Britain, on shells.

filograna. 8. S. capillary, fasciculated, unbranched complications, and cancellated; forms a beautiful kind of network; 4 inches long. Mediterranean.

granulata. 9. S. round, spiral, glomerated; elevated ribs on the upper side; size of a coriander seed. North seas, in masses adhering to shells and stones.

contortoplicata. * 10. S. angular, rugged, and irregularly entwined; transversely striated; 3 to 4 inches long. European and American seas; shores of Britain.

glomerata. 11. S. round, glomerated, with decussated wrinkles. European and Atlantic seas.

lumbricalis. 12. S. round, flexuous, with a spiral, acute tip; transversely ribbed, and longitudinally wrinkled; 3 to 5 inches long. Atlantic and Indian seas, in large masses.

polythalamia. 13. S. round, diaphanous, smooth, straightish, with numerous internal divisions. Mediterranean and Indian seas, under the sands.

arenaria. 14. S. jointed, entire, distinct, flattish beneath. India and Africa.

anguina. 15. S. roundish, somewhat spiral, with a longitudinal, jointed cleft. Indian ocean.

vermiculata. * 16. S. round, tapering, curved, wrinkled; 2 to 3 inches long. European seas; coasts of Britain.—The animal which inhabits this shell is of a bright scarlet colour, and is furnished with elegant feathered tentacles, from the midst of which arises a trumpet-shaped tube, and a lesser simple one.

17. S. Watering-pot; round, straight, taper, with a penis, dilated, radiated, larger extremity; the dila is covered with cylindrical pores; 3 to 5 inches long. Indian ocean.

18. S. roundish, flexuous, rofy, with numerous rows echinata of prickles, obtuse at the end; aperture margined; size of a crow quill.

19. S. brown, roundish, striated. Indian ocean, adjoicing to corals.

20. S. polished, smoothish, with annulated plait, a protensa, little tapering towards the end; size of a quill. Indian and American seas.

21. S. round, with decussated striae, slightly wrink-decussated, flexuous, red; within smooth, white.

22. S. smooth, white, the broader part straight, and proboscis transversely plaited; 2 to 4 inches long.

23. S. subfibrated, yellowish brown, round, twisted afra, into 3 whorls, with a central tip.

24. S. long, narrow, round, smooth, yellowish; many cerebrum times twisted. America.

25. S. conic, spirally twisted, yellowish, with brown cornucopia bands; the middle round and twisted; aperture orbicular.

26. S. round, cancellated, yellow, within horny; 8 goreensis; to 9 inches long. Goree.

27. S. triangular, twisted, tuberculated, with hollow intefinal dots; 8 to 9 inches long. Africa.

28. S. round, white, transversely striated, and thrice infundibularly twisted; the first turn, seemingly composed of 5 funnels placed in each other. Indian ocean; fixed to stones.

29. S. cinereous, convex above, beneath flat; pyramidal, and many times twisted; an inch long; open lips at the narrower end. Indian sea.

30. S. white, round, subulate, straight, and toothed denticle at the sides; with a longitudinal, glabrous rib in the fa. middle; tip glabrous, a little incurved; ½ inch long. Found in the lepas tintinnabulum.

31. S. roundish, twisted, umbilicated, with decussated melitena striae, and longitudinal, knotty ribs; within smooth, with numerous divisions. Found fossil in Malta.

32. S. round, smooth, incurved; base nearly obfo-norwegi-lete, undulated; mouth obliquely truncated. Norway.

33. S. round, smooth, polished, ascending in a flexu-porrectious manner from the spire or base.

* 34. S. round, regular, spiral, orbicular, wrinkled, vitrea, with a thickened aperture. Greenland seas; shores of Britain.

35. S. spiral, glomerated, with three grooves, the cancellate lower interrupted by transverse ribs; aperture 2-toothed. Greenland seas.

36. S. sub-orbicular, umbilicated, convex, radiated flellaris, with wrinkles. Greenland seas.

37. S. somewhat triangular, and a little flexuous, giganter, gradually tapering; violet; within smooth and pale yellow; aperture white, with undulated striae, and armed with a conic tooth; a foot high, and as thick as the little finger. Africa and America.

38. S. filiform, glabrous, conglomerated, perforated. cinerea. Shores of Maflilia.

39. S. **CONCHOLOGY**

*39. S. whirls 2, deeply and spirally grooved; greenish; minute. Coast of Pembrokeshire, on the roots of fucus digitalis.*

*40. S. suboval, with 2 bends, imperforated; minute. Found at Denbigh.*

*41. S. regular, rounded; margin reflected at the aperture; minute. Pembrokeshire sands.*

*42. S. regular, rounded, pellucid, with three whirls; horny. Pembrokeshire coal.*

*43. S. semilunar, ventricose, white, opaque, glossy; minute. Sandwich and Reculver.*

*44. S. white, opaque, glossy; semilunar and perforated; minute. Sandwich. Rare.*

*45. S. oval, thin, smooth, pellucid, with milky veins; minute. Sandwich; very rare.*

*46. S. round, striated, grooved, with a narrow neck, like an oil flask; minute. Sandwich and Sheppey.*

*47. S. rounded, margined, with a slender recurved neck. Sandwich; rare.*

*48. S. straight, with 3 close whirls at the smaller end; minute. Sandwich.*

---

**Gen. 35. Teredo.**

**Gen. Char.**—The animal is a teredella, with two calcareous, hemispherical valves, cut off before, and two lanceolate ones; the shell tapering, flexuous, and penetrating wood.

**Species.**

1. T. Ship-worn; shell thin, cylindrical, smooth; more or less twisted; rather obtuse at the tip; 4 to 6 inches long.

At the smaller end the shell becomes thick and strong, and is furnished within with plait or laminae, which contract that part, leaving a very small opening. The anterior valves attached to the head of the animal, are of a hemispherical form, one half of the front projecting in a sharp angle, and somewhat pointed. The inside of each valve is white, furnished with a long, flat, curved tooth, projecting inwards, under the hinge, and a short lateral tooth at the extremity of the hinge, corresponding in each valve. The margin opposite the hinge runs to an acute angle, at the point of which, in each valve, is a small knob, which comes in contact when the valves are brought together. Near the extremity of the tail there are two valves, one on each side; a little concave on the inside, and rounded at the end. By their means the extremity of the tube at the thickened part is closed. These are properly to be considered as the shell of the animal, because they are attached to it. The tube, or teffaceous sheath, which lines the hole made in the wood, appears only to be formed as an apartment, in which the animal may move with more ease; for it is found that two tubes never come in immediate contact with each other, although the fibres of the wood between them are frequently no thicker than paper. This tube is seldom so long as the animal; the internal part of the perforation is usually not lined with it for the space of 2 inches, and sometimes more; but the smaller end is always even with the surface of the timber which is perforated; but so small, as not easily to be discovered, yet it is sufficient to admit the water, which is regulated by the posterior valves of the animal.

It is found in the sides and bottom of ships, and even the strongest oak, which has been some time under water. This teffaceous animal was originally a native of the warmer climates, and was brought to Europe, where it has been produced, and has proved extremely destructive to the bottoms of ships, and to works constructed of wood, which remain for some time constantly under water. It appears, from some piles of solid oak which were examined in the dock-yard of Plymouth, and which had remained under water for about four or five years, that the destructive effects of these animals are very great in that time; for these piles were found to be greatly perforated, which rendered it necessary to remove them, and replace them with others. The bottoms of ships which frequent warm climates, it is well known, are treated with copper, to secure them from the effects of these destructive animals. But the method which is adopted about the dock-yards to preserve the timbers which are constantly under water, is to cover them with broad-headed nails; which, by the effects of the sea water are soon incrusted with a coating of rust, which is found to be impenetrable to the shipworm.

It has been observed that the teredo navalis cuts across the grain of the wood as seldom as possible. After it has penetrated a little way, it turns and continues with the grain, till it meets with another shell, or a knot in the wood. The course which it then takes is regulated by the nature of the obstruction. If this be considerable, it makes a short turn back in the form of a syphon, rather than continue for any distance across the grain.

2. T. solid, cylindrical, undulated; 7 inches long. utricularis.

In wood.

3. T. clavated at one end, incurved at the other; clava, narrower, obtuse and perforated in the middle; 2 inches long. Found in the seed-vessels of the xylotenum granatum.

---

**Gen. 36. Sabella.**

**Gen. Char.**—The animal a nereis, with a ringent mouth, and two thicker tentacula behind the head; shell tubular, composed of particles of sand, broken shells, and vegetable substances, united to a membrane by a glutinous cement.

**Species.**

1. S. solitary; loose, curved, with lentiform, glossy granulations; thickness of a swan's quill. India and American islands.

2. S. solitary, fixed by the base, simple, curved, with feabra, radiated, rough granulations. America.

*3. S. numerous, parallel tubes, communicating by alveolata, an aperture, forming in the mass the appearance of honey combs; 2 to 3 inches long. European coasts, Britain.*

*4. S. solitary, subcylindrical, papryraceous, chiefly chrysodon; composed of fragments of shells, thickness of a quill; 2 to 6 inches long. European and Indian seas, shores of Britain.*

*5. S. straight, conic, composed of minute particles of belgica; sand; 2 to 3 inches long. European coasts, shores of Britain.*

6. S. brown, with alternate white and black rings; rectangula, straight, with a rectangular gibbous extremity; 9 inches long.

7. S. capensis.

7. S. cylindrical, conic, open at both ends; membranaceous; rough, with interrupted, transverse striae. Cape of Good Hope.

nigra.

8. S. cylindrical, black, smoothish on the outside; composed of minute particles of sand; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch long. Rivulets of Thuringia.

flagellata.

9. S. straight, tapering, open at both ends; smooth, with a margined aperture, composed of very minute particles of sand. Rivers of Thuringia.

conica.

10. S. narrow, conic, smooth, straight, cinereous; with a blackish open tip, composed of very minute particles of sand; not \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch long.

uncinata.

11. S. smooth, round, tapering, with an open hooked tip; \( \frac{3}{4} \) inch long. Rivers of Thuringia.

subulosa.

12. S. cylindrical, closed at the tip, subclavated, perforated, and composed of larger grains of sand; not an inch long. Thuringia and Belgium.

vegetabilis.

13. S. depressed, composed of fragments of twigs, stems and bark, and broken pieces of the tellina cornea; an inch long. Waters of Thuringia.

ammoniata.

14. S. polygono-cylindrical, within smooth, composed of fragments of cornu ammonis. Rivers.

helicina.

15. S. round, within smooth, composed of fragments of the helix pufilla; an inch long. Stagnant waters of Thuringia.

dimidiata.

16. S. one part of the shell composed of sand or gravel, the other thicker, clavated, and composed of fragments of shells. Waters of Thuringia.

fixa.

17. S. composed of small stones; tapering towards the tip; an inch long; affixed to stones in the water, and open at the side by which it is fixed. Thuringia.

clavata.

18. S. composed of small stones; the open end clavated, and consisting of larger stones; solitary. Thuringia.

corticalis.

19. S. composed of pieces of bark, towards the end of broken stems.

arundinacea.

20. S. subconic, open at both ends, composed of fragments of the bark of reeds, placed on each other; an inch long.

aculeata.

* 21. S. composed of small twigs, the points of which project a little; an inch long. Thuringia, Britain.

marufipialis.

22. S. black; open end cylindrical and narrower, the other part tinged and ovate; 2 inches long.

norwegica.

23. S. roundish, open at both ends, brittle, membranaceous; composed of very minute grains of sand; 4 inches long. Norway.

lumbricatissima.

24. S. coarse, creeping, fragile, open at both ends; the animal not furnished with tentacula at the mouth; body prickly, jointed. Deeps of the Greenland seas; fixed to stones.

indica.

25. S. cylindrical, composed of capillary, sub-cylindrical, agglutinated crystals of quartz. Indian ocean.

arenaria.

* 26. S. extremely fragile, cylindrical, composed of pure sand, slightly cemented together, without any internal membrane; size of a raven's quill; from 1 to 2 inches long. Dorsetshire coast. Montagu.

subcylindrica.

* 27. S. long, subcylindrical, flender, fragile, composed of fine sand, and minute bits of broken shells, cemented together on a fine membrane; 3 inches long. Salcomb-bay. Montagu.

fetiformis.

* 28. S. long, slender, gradually tapering to the lower end, composed of fine fragments of shells, and minute flat bits of stones, cemented together at their edges; 3 to 4 inches long. Salcomb bay.—Some have been observed with a lateral branch near the smaller end, which is supposed to be a young one. Montagu.

* 29. S. small, short, composed of sand and minute bits curta, of flat stones, agglutinated to a tough membrane; size of a crow quill; an inch long. Inlet near Kings-bridge. This tabella is gregarious, covering the whole surface of the shore, appearing like bits of straw covered with mud. Montagu.

* 30. S. short, broad, and very flat, composed of large compressive fragments of flat, bivalve shells, placed with the concave side inwards; \( \frac{1}{2} \) inch long. Deeps at Torcross, Devonshire.

Number of Species included under each Genus, in the Enumeration preceding Classification.

I. Multivalves.

| Genera | Species | |--------|---------| | 1. Chiton | - | | 2. Lepas | - | | 3. Pholas | - | | **Total** | **74** |

II. Bivalves.

| Genera | Species | |--------|---------| | 4. Mya | - | | 5. Solen | - | | 6. Tellina | - | | 7. Cardium | - | | 8. Mastra | - | | 9. Donax | - | | 10. Venus | - | | 11. Spondylus | - | | 12. Chama | - | | 13. Arca | - | | 14. Ostrea | - | | 15. Anomia | - | | 16. Mytilus | - | | 17. Pinna | - | | **Total** | **743** |

III. Univalves.

| Genera | Species | |--------|---------| | 18. Argonauta | - | | 19. Nautilus | - | | 20. Conus | - | | 21. Cyprea | - | | 22. Bulla | - | | 23. Voluta | - | | 24. Buccinum | - | | 25. Strombus | - | | 26. Murex | - | | 27. Trochus | - | | 28. Turbo | - | | 29. Helix | - | | 30. Nerita | - | | 31. Haliotis | - | | 32. Patella | - | | 33. Dentalium | - | | 34. Serpula | - | | 35. Teredo | - | | 36. Sabella | - | | **Total** | **1855** |

Total number of species, 2672. Species of Shells which have been found in the Fossil State.

LEPAS Anserifera. CARDIUM Lithocardium. Only found fossil. VENERIS Callina. Mercenaria. Mountains of Sweden. Imbricata. France. CHAMA Folliacea. Campania. ARCA Fossilis. Limbourg. Nucleus. OSTREA Diluviana. Sweden. Mytiloides. Alface. Torta. Alface. ANOMIA Craniofariis. Gryphus. Pecten. Striatala. Exists only fossil. Reticularis. Plicatella. Only fossil. Crispa. England and Switzerland. Lacunosa. Only fossil. Culpidata. Derbyshire. Farcta. Switzerland. Terebratula. Angulata. Hypterita. Germany. Biloba. Only fossil. Spinosa. England. Dorsata. Sandalium. Germany.

NAUTILUS Helicites. Litius. Orthocera. Belemnita. VOLUTA Fossilis. Only fossil. BUCCINUM Fossil. Germany. Marginatum. STROMBUS Spinofus. Only fossil. Fissurella. Campania. Sinister. Fossil only. Helvetia. MUREX Triacanthus. Triptenus. Campania. Costatus. Campania. Laevigatus. Campania. Fossilis. Campania. Campanicus. Campania. TROCHUS Schreteri. Campania. NERITA Clathrata. Campania. Perversa. Only fossil. HALIOTIS Perversa. Plicata. PATELLA Echinata. DENTALIUM Sexangulum. Loretto. Fossil. Loretto. Annulatum. Radula. Piedmont. Interruptum. Vitreum. Piedmont. SERPULA Seminulum. Melitensis. Malta.

CHAP. V. OF THE CONSTITUENT PARTS OF SHELLS, &c.

HAVING in the former chapter enumerated, under each genus, all the species of testaceous animals which have been hitherto discovered; and having given the characteristic marks by which each is distinguished, which marks are derived from the shell or testaceous covering; we now propose to inquire what is the nature of this substance; in what way it is produced by the animal, and how it is enlarged as the animal increases in size. These topics shall be the subject of the present chapter, which may be conveniently divided into the following sections. 1. Of the constituent parts of shells. 2. Of their formation. 3. Of the colours of shells. 4. Of the formation of the umbilicus and protuberances, &c. 5. Of the pearl.

SECT. I. Of the Constituent Parts of Shells.

The nature and component parts of testaceous substances have been particularly investigated by Mr Hatchett, from whose paper we extract the following observations.

In his examination of marine shells, Mr Hatchett found, from the nature of the substance of which they are composed, that they might be arranged in two divisions. Under the first are included those which have a porcellaneous appearance and enamelled surface, and exhibit, when broken, something of a fibrous texture. The other division is distinguished, by having a strong epidermis or covering, under which is the shell, composed principally or entirely of mother-of-pearl. To the first division belong different species of voluta, cypraea, and others. The second comprehends the oyster, the river mussel, and some species of haliotis and turbo.

Porcellaneous shells.—The shells of this description Porcellaneous which were examined, were different species of voluta and cypraea. When they were exposed to a red heat for a quarter of an hour, they crackled, and lost the colours of their enamelled surface. No apparent smoke, and no smell, like that of burnt horn or cartilage, were emitted during the process. The figure remained the same, excepting a few flaws; and they became of an opaque white, partially tinged with pale gray. When they were dissolved in acids, after being burnt, they deposited a small quantity of animal coal, which proves that they contain some portion of gluten. Shells which had not been exposed to the fire, dissolved with great effervescence in the different acids; and the solution remained transparent and colourless; from which it appears, that the proportion of gluten is small, since it could not be traced in the solution of the unburnt shells.

In examining the different solutions of shells, whether burnt or unburnt, by chemical tests, it was found, that no trace of phosphate of lime, or of any other combination of phosphoric acid, existed in these substances. And it appeared from many experiments, that the component parts of porcellaneous shells, are carbonate of lime, cemented with a very small portion of animal gluten. Some species of patella, which were brought from Madeira, were also subjected to chemical examination, by the same philosopher. When exposed to a red heat in a crucible, they emitted a perceptible smell of horn or feathers; and by farther examination, by solution, the proportion of carbonic matter deposited appeared to be greater, and the proportion of carbonate of lime less, than what was indicated by the result of the experiments on porcellaneous shells. When unburnt shells belonging to the same species, were immersed in nitric acid very much diluted, the epidermis separated, and the whole of the carbonate of lime was dissolved. A gelatinous substance, nearly in a liquid state, remained, but it did not retain the figure of the shell, and exhibited no appearance of a fibrous structure. These shells, therefore, contain a larger portion of gelatinous matter than the porcellaneous shells, but the other component part consists entirely of carbonate of lime.

Shells composed of mother-of-pearl.—Shells of this description were subjected to similar experiments with the former. When the common oyster was exposed to a red heat, the effects were the same as those which were produced by the same process on the species of patella from Madeira. The solution of the unburnt shell was also similar, excepting only that the gelatinous part was of a greater consistency. When the river mussel was burnt in a crucible, it emitted much smoke, with a strong smell of burnt horn or cartilage; the shell became of a dark gray colour, and exfoliated. By solution in the acids, the proportion of carbonic matter separated was greater, and that of carbonate of lime obtained was less, than from the other shells on which experiments were made.

When an unburnt shell of this description was immersed in diluted nitric acid, a rapid solution and effervescence took place; and at the end of two days, the whole of the carbonate of lime was nearly dissolved. A series of membranes now only remained, of which the epidermis constituted the first. These membranes still retained the figure of the shell. The carbonate of lime was at first readily dissolved, because the acid came easily in contact with it; but the process became slower, as it was more difficult for the acid to infuse itself between the different membranes of which the shell is composed. The haliotis iris, and the turbo olearius, were found to resemble this mussel, except that the membranaceous parts were more compact and dense.

When these shells are deprived by an acid of the carbonate of lime, which gives them their hardness, they appear to be formed of different membranes, applied stratum super stratum. Each membrane is furnished with a corresponding coat or crust of carbonate of lime, and it is so situated, that it is always between every two membranes, beginning with the epidermis, and ending with the internal membrane, which has been last formed. The animals which inhabit these stratified shells, increase their habitation by the addition of a stratum of carbonate of lime, which is secured by a new membrane. And as every additional stratum exceeds in extent that which was previously formed, the shell becomes stronger in proportion as it is enlarged; and thus the growth and age of the animal may be denoted by the number of strata of which the shell is composed. Similar experiments were made on pieces of mother-of-pearl as they are imported from China, and with precisely the same results. They appeared to be composed of the same gelatinous matter and carbonate of lime. In all the shells of this description which were immersed in acids, the membranaceous parts retained the exact figure of the shell, and they appeared distinctly to be composed of fibres, arranged in a parallel direction, corresponding to the configuration of the shell.

Pearl.—The constituent parts of pearl appear to be Pearl, similar to those of mother-of-pearl. They are composed of concentric coats of membrane and carbonate of lime, and resemble in structure the globular, calcareous concretions which are known by the name of pisolites. The iridescence and undulated appearance of pearl and mother-of-pearl, evidently depend on their lamellated structure and semitransparency.

From these experiments it appears, that shells are composed of carbonate of lime and gluten. In some, as parts in the porcellaneous shells, the proportion of carbonate of lime is great, while that of the animal matter is small; and these may be regarded as the beginning of the series; while shells that come under the description of mother-of-pearl are to be placed at the other extremity, having a smaller proportion of carbonate of lime, and a greater proportion of membranaceous substance. In the first the carbonate of lime is merely cemented by the animal matter; in the latter the carbonate of lime serves to harden the membranaceous substance. But between these two extremes, in the proportion of carbonate of lime and animal gluten, of which all teffaceous substances are composed, there are no doubt numerous intermediate gradations, arising from the nature of the animal to which they form a covering, its peculiar habits, or mode of life.

Sect. II. Of the Formation of Shells.

The shell or covering of teffaceous animals, has been considered as in some measure analogous to the bones of other animals, although its formation and growth are very different, since it serves as a base or support to the muscles, which are attached to its internal surface. The principal use of the shell, however, is to serve as a covering or defence to the animal.

Teffaceous animals are not only extremely different in external form, but also in the mode of their production. Some are viviparous, as the most of those which inhabit bivalve shells, multivalves, and even some of roes, the univalves; while the others, which form the far greater proportion, are oviparous. In one point, however, they all agree, that whatever be the mode of production, whether from an egg, or directly from the uterus of the mother, the shell is formed on the body of the young animal, and is proportioned to its bulk.

The best observations which have yet been made, and the most elaborate investigation which has hitherto appeared, concerning the formation and development of non-shell, are those of the celebrated Reaumur, which were published in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences for the year 1729. The same subject has been prosecuted by other authors, but their results have been nearly the same as those of this distinguished naturalist. Klein is almost the only author who has advanced a different opinion. In his dissertation concerning the formation of The Conchology, he charges Reaumur with supporting the opinion, that terebraceous animals, when they proceed from eggs, are not furnished with the shell, but that it is formed after being hatched. This opinion indeed has been ascribed to Reaumur by the historian of the academy, who, in the analysis of his excellent memoir on the formation of shells, has observed, "that hitherto the curious have been struck with the prodigious variety, the exact regularity of structure, the singular beauty and splendour of colour of shells; but naturalists have been less attentive in studying and investigating the mode of their formation. They seem to have thought that although shells, as well as the covering of crustaceous animals, are bones placed externally to the animals which they cover, it was necessary to consider them as part of their bodies, and to include this inexplicable circumstance under that of the general formation of animals, which is incomprehensible to the human mind. They have therefore supposed that the animal and its shell proceeded from the same egg, and were developed together; and they have readily satisfied in admiring the economy of nature in providing so elaborate a covering for so low an order of animals. But this supposition, although probable, is not founded in truth. The animal only, not the shell, is produced from the egg. The discovery of this fact is owing to Reaumur."

It must seem very extraordinary, that such an error should have crept into the abstract of the memoir of this celebrated philosopher, who in the course of it has clearly expressed a contrary opinion. "I have frequently," says Reaumur, "compared the shells of snails which were just hatched, and even those which I had taken from the eggs before they were hatched, with other shells of full grown snails of the same species, with which I had left only the same number of whorls of the spire with the small shells, and then they appeared in all respects the same." He farther observes, "that what has been said with regard to the increase of shells, renders it unnecessary to enter into the detail of their original formation; for it is easy to conceive, that when the body of a small embryo which is one day to fill a large shell, has arrived at a certain state, in which the different teguments in which it is included have sufficient confidence to secrete from their pores the peculiar fluid which is destined to the formation of the shell, this fluid may be deposited on the surface, may thicken, and at last become firm and solid. And thus commences the formation of the shell, in the same way as its increase is continued. Snails do not proceed from the egg without being previously furnished with this shell, which then has one turn and a little more of the spire.

When the eggs of terebraceous animals are hatched, the young appears with its shell already formed, and according to the observation of Reaumur, it has then one complete turn of the spire and a little more; but at that period the shell is extremely thin. It seems probable that the formation of the shell is posterior to that of the principal organs of the animal, as the bones in the fetus of other animals are formed after the brain and heart.

Reaumur has suspected that the shell is the last formed, and if proofs are wanting to establish this fact, it is certain that at particular periods, if the eggs of terebraceous animals are opened, the external parts of the embryo are found already developed, without any appearance of the shell. But whatever may be the period of the formation of the shell, it may be received as an established fact, that the animal is furnished with it at the time it leaves the egg. Leeuwenhoek first observed this fact with regard to oysters; the same observation was afterwards made by Lister, and extended to others, both land and river shells. This observation has been confirmed by other naturalists, and particularly by Rumphius, Swammerdam, Reaumur, and Adamson. From the investigations of the latter it appears, that although there are many of the marine terebraceous animals which are viviparous, they resemble those which are oviparous, in being furnished with the shell when they are separated from the parent.

Since then it appears, that the shell of terebraceous animals is completely formed previous to the development of the animal, and that it may be considered as an essential part of its organization, let us now inquire into the mode by which its growth is effected. According to the decisive experiments of Reaumur, the enlargement of the shell is owing to juxta-position, or successive additions of earthy and animal matter, independent of any organized structure. Klein has supported a contrary opinion, and supposes that the growth of shells is effected by intus-sucception, or a kind of circulation. The opinion of Reaumur, however, has most generally prevailed. Excepting Bonnet, few naturalists have adopted that of Klein; and it will appear that this celebrated naturalist was led to entertain this opinion concerning the mode of the formation of shells, by the experiments of Herissant on the generation of bone and shell. From these experiments it was clearly demonstrated, that shells are composed of two substances, the one a membranaceous or animal substance, and the other an earthy matter; but no such conclusion can be drawn from them in support of the opinion, that the shell is a continuation of the body of the animal, or that it is so closely connected as the bones in the bodies of other animals; or even that this connexion is formed by means of fibres of the ligament which attaches the animal to its shell: for it has been shown, that these muscular or ligamentous fibres, in all descriptions of terebraceous animals, are successively separated, in proportion to the increase or enlargement of the shell. This could not possibly take place, if the evolution and formation of the shell, according to the opinion of Herissant, depended on an internal circulation, analogous to what happens in the body of the animal. In this case the vessels which proceed from its body, having no longer a communication with those which are supposed to exist in the shell, it would be deprived of nourishment, and consequently could not increase in size. And it is found, that this separation takes place in all shells. It is gradually completed as the growth of the shell advances.

A body may increase in volume in two different ways. Either the particles of which it is composed pass through that body by means of circulation, and undergo certain changes by which they are prepared to form part of the body; or the particles of which a body is composed, may unite with it by juxta-position, without any previous circulation or preparation within the body, to the increase of which they are destined. Of the Conchology. It is in the first way that the growth of vegetables and animals is accomplished; the second is the mode by which shells receive new additions of matter, and enlarge in size. The first is the mode of increase peculiar to living, organized substances; by the second, inorganic substances receive new additions of matter, and increase in volume. These indeed afford sufficient characteristic marks for a natural division of bodies into two classes, namely organized and inorganic substances.

The experiments of Reaumur have decisively proved, that the growth of shells is owing to the latter mode of increase. These experiments were made, not only on sea shells, but also on land and river shells; on univalves and bivalves; and, in all, the result was invariably the same. In conducting these experiments, he inclosed the shells, on the progress of which he made his observations, in boxes pierced with small holes, so as to admit the water, but so small as to prevent the escape of the animal. These boxes were sunk into the sea, or the river, and in this way he was enabled to watch the progress of the growth of the shell. He first observed, that when the animal which exactly filled its shell began to increase its size, the shell in a short time not being sufficiently large to cover its whole body, part of it was naked or unprotected. This part of the animal must always be towards the opening of the shell, because the shell being previously completely filled, it cannot extend in any other direction. All animals which inhabit shells of a spiral form, such as the snail and volute, can only extend at the head, or the opening of the shell; whereas the animals in bivalve shells, such as the mussel and the oyster, may enlarge in their whole circumference. In all the species of terebraceous animals, it is this part which appears by the increase of the animal when it enlarges the shell. This increase takes place, according to Reaumur, by the following mechanism.

It is a necessary effect of the laws of motion, when liquids run in canals, that the small particles of these fluids, or the small foreign bodies mixed with them, which on account of their figure, or their less degree of solidity in proportion to their surface, move slower than the others, fly off from the centre of motion, and approach towards the sides of these canals. It even frequently happens, that these small particles attach themselves to the internal surface of these canals or tubes, and form concretions of different degrees of thickness. It is besides certain, that the fluids which circulate in these tubes, press against their sides on every point of their interior surface; so that if they were pierced with a number of small holes of sufficient diameter to give passage to the small particles of matter floating in these fluids, these particles would be deposited on the external surface, where a crust would be formed, similar to that in the inside; with this difference, that it would become thicker and more solid, being less exposed to the friction of the fluid, than that which is deposited in the interior of the tube.

To a similar mechanism Reaumur ascribes the increase of shells. The external surface of that part of the body of the animal which has extended beyond the limits of the old shell, is furnished with a great number of canals, in which circulate the necessary fluids for the nutrition of the animal. A great many small particles of a viscid and earthy matter are mixed with these fluids. Now, as these particles are less fluid than those of which the liquids themselves are composed, they approach the sides of the vessels, which are themselves furnished on that side of the external surface of the body of the animal, with a great number of pores, which allow them to escape from the vessels, so that they are deposited on the external surface of these tubes, or rather in that of the body of the animal itself, which is uncovered by the shell.

These particles of earthy and viscid matter having reached the surface of the body of the animal, readily unite with each other, and with the extremity of the old shell, especially when the excess of moisture is diffused; and thus by their union they compose a small solid body, which is the first layer of the new addition. Other particles of similar matter continuing to escape in the same way from the excretory vessels of the animal, form a second layer under the first; afterwards a third, and a fourth, or more, till the new part of the shell has acquired sufficient consistence and thickness. It is, however, observed to continue thinner for a certain time than the former opening, till the increase of the animal requires another enlargement of its covering.

When a terebraceous animal is going to enlarge its shell, as for instance the common snail, the body projects from the opening. It is then seen to attach itself to a wall or some other solid substance, and the portion of its body which is unprotected by the shell, is soon covered with the fluids which are excreted from its surface. The pellicle which they produce when the fluid dries, is at first thin and elastic, but gradually assumes more consistence, and becomes at last similar to the old part of the shell. If in this stage of the process a bit of the shell is broken and removed, without injuring the body of the snail, the skin of the animal is soon covered with a fluid, which gradually thickens, and becomes solid. Twenty-four hours after the operation, a fine crust may be observed, which constitutes part of the first and external layer, for repairing the breach shell, which was made. At the end of some days this layer has become thicker, and in 10 or 12 days, the new piece of shell which is formed, has acquired the same thickness as that which was removed. In making this experiment, certain precautions are necessary, otherwise there is some risk of its failure. If, after the broken piece of the shell has been removed, and particularly if the fracture is made near the edge of the opening, the animal is not supplied with a sufficient quantity of nourishment, its volume or bulk is soon diminished; and now finding that what remains of the shell is a complete covering to its diminished body, no excretion takes place for the production of a new portion. In removing snails from a wall to which they had attached themselves, for the purpose of observing the progress of the formation of the shell, some days will escape after they are placed in the box, before the process commences, because the terebraceous matter which had been already expended after fixing on the wall, must be fully supplied before any new portion can be again formed.

This experiment shows clearly, that shells are only enlarged by receiving new additions of matter, after it has been excreted from the body of the animal, and not

Of the Connexion by intus-fusception, or a circulation through the body of the shell itself. If this were the case, the production of new matter to fill up the breach made in the shell, would first appear all round the edge of the opening, and forming a kind of callus, similar to what happens in the reproduction of bony matter in other animals, it would gradually extend till the whole breach is filled up. But, on the contrary, this matter first appears on the body of the animal from which it has exuded, and the whole extent of the opening is closed at once by the fluid which has been directly secreted from the surface of the body. Nor can it be supposed, that the liquid has insensibly exuded from the shell, and falling on the body of the animal, is there collected in sufficient quantity for the formation of the new piece of shell. This is fully demonstrated by the two following experiments of the same nature.

Reaumur broke several shells of snails; and, having made a very large hole about the middle of the shell, and about an equal distance between its summit and opening, he introduced between the body of the animal and its shell, through the hole, a piece of skin which was extremely fine, but of very close texture. He glued this skin to the internal surface of the shell, so that it shut up accurately the artificial opening which he had made. It must then be obvious, that if the reproduction of the piece of shell which was removed, depended on the excretion of a fluid from the shell itself, and not on that which proceeds from the surface of the animal's body, the new piece of shell would be formed on the external surface of the piece of skin which was introduced; and it is not possible that it could be formed between the skin and the body of the animal. But the contrary of this has always happened. The new telescopically matter is always deposited on the internal surface of the skin; that is, on the side which is in contact with the animal's body; and no matter whatever was deposited on the other surface. This experiment has been repeated by others, and has been invariably attended with the same result.

The second experiment made by Reaumur is not less decisive than the first. He took a number of snails and broke the shells, so that he diminished the number of the turns of the spire about half part. Having in this manner rendered the shell too small to cover the body entirely, they were nearly in the same situation as when an increase of the animal's body requires an augmentation of the shell. He then took a bit of skin, as in the former experiment, sufficiently large for the opening of the shell, and introduced one of its edges between the body of the animal and the shell, to the interior surface of which he glued it; after which having folded back the other extremity of the skin on the external surface of the shell, he glued it in like manner, so that the whole external opening was completely covered with the skin. The results were exactly the same as before. The shell grew, the skin remained in its place, and that part of it which was attached to the interior surface was fixed between the new piece and the old shell, which consequently could not contribute to its formation.

From these experiments, which may be easily repeated, it appears that the increase of shells is owing to the secretion of an earthy and viscid animal matter, which is prepared in the body of the animal, and which is successively formed by layers from the interior part of the shell to the external surface. This formation is determined by the previous enlargement of the animal. The different strata or layers of which shells are composed, can be easily demonstrated by exposing them to the action of fire, and removing them before their structure is entirely destroyed. By this process the animal matter is consumed, and the earthy substance remains, exhibiting a laminated structure. The same structure may be demonstrated, as has been already observed, in detailing Mr Hatchett's experiments, by immersing a shell of the description of mother-of-pearl in a diluted acid. The earthy matter in this case is dissolved by the acid, and the layers of animal matter which are interposed, resisting the action of the acid, remain unchanged, and still retain the original figure of the shell.

It is a necessary consequence of the mode in which turns of the shells of snails are increased, that they cannot increase in volume, but by the augmentation of the turns of the spire, and that the length of each turn of the shell already formed remains always the same. This may be easily put to the test of experiment, by reducing the shell of a snail which has reached its full size to the same number of turns with those of younger shells of the same species. The two shells do not then exhibit any other difference than in their thickness; and it would be the same, by comparing the youngest shells, those which have been just separated from the egg, with the first turns of those of the same species which have been reduced by breaking them to an equal diameter. The number of turns or whirls of which the spire of a shell is composed, increases very considerably the size of the shell in univalves, and one turn more or less makes a great difference in their volume. According to Reaumur, the diameter of each turn of the spire is in the snail nearly double that of the preceding one, and \( \frac{1}{2} \) of that which follows; but in many other shells, both marine and river, the last whirls of the spire, compared with the preceding ones, greatly exceed this proportion. In some, the external opening is 12 times greater than the preceding one, and in others, it is not more than eight times. This depends entirely on the increase of the animal's body, and the proportion of that increase. The growth of some is lengthwise, and in them the increase of diameter is proportionally less; while others increase more in thickness than in length. Those telescopically animals which have only a few turns in the spire of the shell, are of this description. To the former belong such as have a greater number of turns in the spire.

Those who have adopted the opinion of Klein with regard to the formation of shells, have denied the separation of the animal from the shell, which lucidly takes place near the tip in univalves. It is indeed many cases, on this circumstance of the connexion of the animal with the shell, that the truth of this theory depends. According to it, the animal is attached to the internal surface of the tip of the shell in univalves, and on this connexion depend the increase of the shell and even the life of the animal. But it is a certain fact, that the posterior part of the body of the animal is entirely detached from the tip of the shell; and this holds, not not only with regard to all land and sea shells which have lost the first turns of the spire, and consequently those of the tip; but also in a great number of other marine testaceous animals. It seems not only certain, but even necessary, that this separation between the animal and the shell should also take place in bivalve shells, if we take a distinct and rational view of their growth. Whether this separation is suddenly effected, or by gradual process, which is most probable, it seems to be sufficiently obvious, by examining the internal surface of the valves. This is still more strongly confirmed by having univalve shells, particularly those which are considerably elongated and have a great number of turns in the spire, in a direction perpendicular to their axis. In old shells, several of the first turns of the spire will be found completely filled up with teflaceous matter, so that the tip of the shell has become quite solid, or at least it will appear to have been long unoccupied by any part of the body of the animal. But in transparent shells, as in some species of helix, it is seen that this attachment does not exist; and the H. planorbis can be preserved alive, although the tip of the spire is broken off.

Sect. III. Of the Colours of Shells.

The infinite variety of the colours of shells is one of the most striking parts of their history; and it becomes a curious and interesting object of investigation to inquire, whether these colours are uniform and constant in the species, and from what proceed this regularity and uniformity. The experiments and observations of Reaumur will assist us in this investigation. When a hole is made in a shell, nearly at an equal distance between its tip and opening, the new piece of shell which is formed to shut up the hole is usually of a white colour, and often very different from that of the rest of the shell. It would appear at first that the new piece is of a different nature, and that it is not formed in the same way as the rest of the shell. To meet this difficulty, it will be necessary to explain on what depends the regular variety of the colours of certain shells: the same experiments which lead to the discovery of the cause of the one, will serve to unfold the other.

This remarkable variety of colour is in no shell more remarkable than in the helix nemoralis. The ground of this shell is white, citron or yellow, or a compound of different shades of these colours. Different coloured rays are traced on this ground, turning spirally with the shell; in some they are black, in others brown, and sometimes reddish. The breadth of each of these rays gradually increases as they approach to the opening of the shell. It even sometimes happens, that two of these bands are so much extended in breadth, that they meet together and form one. Some individuals have five or six of these bands, while others have three or four, and even two, and sometimes only one. Others again have none at all, although of the same species; and among the individuals which are marked with coloured bands, they are not always of the same breadth, in the same parts of the shell; from which it appears, that no certain specific characters can be derived from the colour, since it is subject to so much variety. According to Reaumur, the viscid and earthy matter of which the shell is composed is secreted from the surface of the animal's body; but in certain places of the surface, particles which produce a different colour are separated; and whether this depends on a peculiar organization of those places, or on the form of the particles themselves, it appears that these particles, either of a different nature, or of a different figure, by uniting, form bodies which reflect different rays of light; that is to say, form parts of the shell of different colours.

This seems to be a necessary consequence of the mode in which the growth of shells is accomplished. The whole external layer of the shell is formed by created the neck of the animal, because it is that part which the shell is nearest to the head, and consequently as the animal increases in size, this part eases to be covered with the old shell. It, therefore, depends on this part of the animal to extend the shell, and for this purpose it is sufficient that the neck be furnished with glands for secreting the different fluids, to form a shell of different colours. If, for instance, there are two or three glandular bodies which secrete brown or black particles, and that these glandular bodies are disposed in a parallel direction to each other, while the glands on the rest of the surface only secrete particles of matter which reflect the light of a citron colour, the shell formed by these bodies will have a citron ground, with black or brown bands, nearly parallel, or which gradually approach to each other, and become larger in the same proportion as the external organs of the animal increase in size.

If no such glandular structure, or difference in the matter secreted, could be traced on the neck of the expel helix nemoralis, this explanation of the cause of the variety of colours in shells would appear extremely probable; but this probability amounts to certainty, from the actual observation of the existence of this peculiarity of structure and effect. When the helix nemoralis is deprived of part of its shell, the body appears of a white colour, excepting towards the neck, where the white inclines to yellow, and where besides there is a number of black or brown bands, equal to that of the bands on the shell, and arranged in the same direction. It has been observed, too, that the individuals which have only one black stripe on the shell, have only one single black spot on the neck; and those having four spots on the neck, have four stripes of the same colour on the shell. These rays are placed immediately under those of the shell; they commence at the distance of about a line from the extremity of the neck, which is itself usually spotted with black all round. The existence, therefore, of these excretory organs can no longer be doubted. The difference of colour seems to prove the difference of structure. But to establish this beyond the possibility of doubt, it is only necessary to have recourse to experiment, by observing what happens in the new piece of shell which is renewed, in place of that portion which has been removed; and if it appear that that part of the shell which is formed opposite to the black rays of the animal, is black, and if that which is formed between the stripes be of a different colour from that of the stripes themselves on the rest of the body, no farther proof can be required. Now, it has been observed, that that part of the new shell formed on the neck opposite to the black or brown stripes on the animal's body, is itself black or brown, that formed between the stripes is white or citron, while the rest of the body is white, but different from that of the neck, when it is of this colour.

It sometimes happens, that the part of the shell which has been renewed is of a different colour. This apparent deviation will appear less difficult to be reconciled to the explanation of the process which has now been given, if we attend to the circumstance that the new shell formed opposite to the neck of the animal is never different from that of the old shell, excepting that the external surface is extremely rough, and presents numerous furrows or grooves, in place of the smoothness and fine polish of the old shell. In this case, the inequality of surface is occasioned by the motion of the animal retiring within its shell, before the new piece has acquired sufficient consistence and solidity; and thus the new shell, having contracted on its surface wrinkles or furrows, the light is very differently reflected. But there is another cause for this difference of colour in these circumstances. When a large piece of shell is removed, the first layer which is formed is usually white. The particles of the fluid which are necessary for the formation of the shell of this colour, seem to be more easily excreted from the surface of the body than the particles of fluid which go to the formation of any other colour. It is observed that the body of the animal is covered with this fluid, long before there is any appearance of secretion about the neck. This liquid is extended to the neck, and there produces a new layer of white shell; but as this layer is extremely thin and transparent, it does not prevent the usual secretion of the colouring matter at the neck to appear. In this period of the process, if the animal retire within its shell, the new layer, still adhering in many points to its body, and not having acquired sufficient solidity, will be distorted and wrinkled; and not only exhibit that inequality of surface which generally appears in shells thus formed, but the arrangement of the stripes or colours will also be destroyed.

It would be a very false conclusion from this account of the mode of the formation of the stripes which appear on certain species of shells, that the external surface of all shells should be marked with colours, or should be uniformly of the same colour; and that there should be no shells whose external surface is marked with different spots, differently arranged, of an irregular figure, and separated from each other by unequal intervals. For if it has been shown, that these colours are produced on the surface of the shell, only by means of the secretory organs, situated on the neck of the animal, it cannot be supposed that the same effects will follow, unless the animal is placed in the same circumstances. These secretory organs, therefore, must exist during the entire formation of the shell, to furnish the same quantity of colouring matter during the whole of its progress. But if it happen, on the contrary, that these organs undergo any change; if the pores through which the liquid is poured out to form a shell or part of a shell of a brown colour, become too large or too small, or in other respects change their form, after having poured out a certain quantity of this fluid; and that those which furnish the fluid of which the white part of the shell is composed, are also changed, it must happen that the shell which is produced is marked with different black and white spots, combined with a degree of irregularity corresponding to the change on the secretory organs. This will appear to be the case, by attending to the changes which take place in the secretory organs of snails which produce coloured shells; for in them it may be observed, that the colours are distinct and well marked in some, towards the opening, while they are scarcely perceptible on the first turn of the spire towards the tip of the shell; and these changes of colour cannot be supposed to exist without a corresponding change on the secretory organs.

The fluidity of the liquid secreted for the formation of the shell, has probably also some effect in the regular distribution of the colours which appear on some species. It is easy to imagine that some animals may secrete a fluid for the formation of the shell, of such a degree of fluidity as to flow easily from one place to another, and thus produce irregular marks on the shell. But besides, if there are secretory organs situated on the neck of the animal, which prepare fluids of different colours; if the animal moves, or is disturbed by any means, when these fluids are excreted on the surface of the shell, the colours will appear in a different place from their original distribution, or be mixed and blended together, and thus occasion that irregularity which is observed in those parts of shells which have been last produced, or renewed.

But it will be necessary to have recourse to the first secretory organs of these causes, namely to the change of structure in organs containing the secretory organs of the neck, to explain the regular distribution of the round spots, or of those of a square or rectangular figure, with which certain shells are marked, and to suppose that those vessels which are arranged in a square or rectangular manner, which furnish peculiar fluids, are shut or open at different periods. It may happen that the development of a great part of the animal, occasioned by a more vigorous growth in certain species than in others, may, in some cases, be the only cause of those regular spots, sometimes white on a coloured ground, and sometimes coloured on a white ground, which the shell exhibits, if the glands which secrete the colouring matter correspond in their distribution to that of the divisions on the shell, and if they occupy a greater space on the neck than is usual in other species. In this way may be accounted for, the regularity of these marks, and the increase of their size, which is usually proportioned to that of the turns of the spire, from the consideration of the secretory organs of the animal enlarging in the same proportion as the other parts of its body, and their effects in the formation of the shell corresponding to the development of these parts. Hence it follows, that the largest marks are observed on the external convolutions of the shell.

According to Reaumur, the last layer of the shell, which is formed from a fluid secreted from that part of the shell which does not reach the neck, should be white, and this is most generally the case. In those shells which are internally coloured, the fluids secreted from the body of the animal are of the same colour, and they take the place of those which are usually white, or of a pearly nature, as is observed in many others. The nature of these internal Of the Conchology.

The internal layers is always obvious; for if they are not white, they exhibit everywhere a uniform colour, and never variegated, like what appears externally. By removing with a file any part of the external surface of the shell, the layers which appear immediately under the surface, are those which have been furnished by the body of the animal; while those on the surface itself, usually more variegated than the rest, owe their formation to the veils about the neck, and have been formed in the way already described.

The growth of shells, being proportioned to that of the inhabitant, proceeds almost imperceptibly. In most shells, however, it is easy to distinguish the different additions which they have received; for they are marked on their convex surface with different eminences which are parallel to each other, similar to lines of different degrees of depth, which give the shell a fibrous structure. These elevations are called striae, may be traced through the whole of the shell in bivalves, and in the longitudinal direction of those which have a spiral form. From the slightest observation of the manner in which shells are formed, it is easy to see that they receive no addition, without leaving, in a greater or less degree, some traces of these inequalities; for every small addition of tectaceous matter which is made, must be attached to the old part of the shell, which consequently must be more elevated than the former, whatever be its thickness, when the enlargement of the animal requires the formation of the latter. Thus, the shell will be marked with a great number of these striae, parallel to each other, which may be distinctly seen on many different species.

Every shell has usually some of these eminences at greater distances, and more elevated than the others. By these the different periods when the shell ceased to increase, or rather those when its growth was interrupted, are marked; and they have some degree of analogy with the different shoots from the branch of a tree. The heat of summer or the cold of winter interrupting the growth of the animal, at least among such as are tectaceous, which live on the land, or inhabit rivers in temperate regions, the shell is not enlarged in extent during these seasons. It is otherwise, however, with regard to its thickness, for there is continually exuded from the body of the animal, small quantities of fluid, which increase its thickness. Hence it is, when the shell begins to increase in extent, the edge to which the new portion is cemented, is much thicker than when the growth was gradual and imperceptible, and consequently the place at which the growth commences after a long interruption is distinguished by a more elevated ridge, than in the continued progressive additions which it receives. The numerous instances of this interruption in the growth of shells, will occur to the attentive conchologist in the progress of his researches. We have at present in our possession, a fine illustration of the same thing, in a specimen of murex ramosus. The animal, it would appear from the original part of the shell, had been for some time in a sickly or unhealthy state; for it has undergone many of the changes to which dead shells are subject. It has lost its enamel; it seems to have undergone some degree of decomposition, and some species of serpula and other parasitical animals had made it their abode; but from this sickly state it seems to have recovered, and acquired great vigour; for the next addition which is made to the shell, is equal to its original bulk. It is entire, clean, and in perfect preservation, forming a singular contrast with the old shell.

The place at which shells begin to increase, after the growth has been for some time interrupted, may differ, be distinguished by a difference of colour in the stripes, by the difference with which the shell is usually marked. In these places, black or brown stripes exhibit more vivid colours, and sometimes even little different from those on the rest of the superior surface of the shell. The cause of this change is not difficult to trace, if we recollect that the secretory organs which prepare the colouring matter, at least in the helix nemoralis, have their origin at some distance from the extremity of the neck, from which we have seen that the first layer of shell which is traced to the extremity itself, should be of a different colour from that of the stripes; but as the increase of the animal occasions the stripes to be formed under the first shell, during which it is still very thin, and consequently transparent, it does not prevent the shell produced under it, of a black colour, to appear so. But when the animal has ceased to grow for some time, it then increases the thickness of the shell last formed, so that the shell which is next produced from the colouring matter, when the animal begins to grow, being laid on one part of the old shell much thicker and less transparent, the colour of these stripes must appear less bright, and therefore different in those places, from the other parts of the shell.

In taking a review of what has been said concerning Colours, the production of the colours of shells, it must appear owing to that they rays or coloured lines are owing to glands, the glandular secretion of the colouring fluid, and which are arranged on the anterior edge of the neck, while the posterior part furnishes only a fluid of a different colour, and usually less deep than the first. By means of this principle it is not difficult to account for the arrangement of the different colours which are so splendidly exhibited among this class of natural objects. These colours may be reduced to one or more, which are more vivid on a lighter ground; to coloured, circular bands on a ground of a less vivid colour, or pure white; to longitudinal lines, round or square spots, and in a regular, or irregular, zig-zag form. All these may be easily explained, according to the principles which have been laid down, the application of which, from what has been said, will not, we hope, be found difficult.

But from this mode, which is the most general in the production of the colours of shells, there are certain deviations. In that division of shells which is made by some naturalists, and which is distinguished by the names of porcelain shells, on account of the fine enamel with which they are covered, there are two sets of colours, which are disposed in a parallel direction to each other. The external range of these colours is owing to a peculiarity of structure in the animals which inhabit them, different from that of other tectaceous animals, and to an operation which does not take place in other shells. In these shells, the colouring matter seems to be deposited in two different ways, and at two different periods. In the first process, when the body of the shell is formed, the colouring matter is excreted from the glands, in the same way... Conchology.

Conchology is in other testaceous animals; and it is arranged according to the dilution of the glands on the body of the animals. At this period of the process, the shell is only of moderate thickness, and much less than what it afterwards acquires, when completely formed. On the external surface of the shell first formed, another layer is deposited, which is more compact than the first, in some places thicker, and usually variegated with different colours. The external surface of the shell being thus completely covered with this second layer, the original colours are concealed; and if the same shell were examined at different periods of its formation, it would appear like two distinct species. The organs which are employed by the animal in the production of this second layer of shell, and set of colours, are two soft, membranaceous wings, which being protruded from the opening of the shell, completely cover the whole of its external, convex surface. These two wings, which are quite distinct from the glandular structure above the neck of the animal, which is situated a little lower, are also provided with glands, which furnish colouring matter, usually different from that which is furnished by the glands of the neck; and it is the upper surface of the wings, which is alone provided with this glandular structure. This surface, when this part of the animal is protruded from the shell, and extended over it, comes into contact with the external surface of the latter. Hence it is, that those membranaceous organs deposit on the first formed and coloured layers of the shell, new layers of tectaceous matter, which is differently coloured, and diversified with entire spots, either circular, or in a waved direction, which are sometimes of a more vivid tint than that of the ground, or white upon a dark ground, or brown upon a yellow ground; or are composed of straight lines, or curved, or interlaced with each other, reddish, brown, yellow or white, on different coloured grounds, or in dots or points whose shades and arrangement are not less diversified.

This mode of the formation of the external layer of porcelain shells, has been proved by the actual observation of some naturalists. In some species, a longitudinal line of a paler colour is observed on the convex surface of the shell. This is ascribed to the junction of the two wings of the animal, where a smaller quantity of colouring matter has been deposited, or where the shell has been less completely covered with the protruded part of the animal. But the existence of this second layer is still more distinctly proved by mechanical means. The external layer may be removed by means of a file, and the shell restored to its original state; and then the colours which it first received are brought into view. This circumstance is still farther demonstrated by an attentive examination of different species of shells, and particularly the *Cypraea argus*. In examining this shell, there are observed under the external layer, which is of a yellow colour, some slight traces of four transverse bands of a brown colour, which surround the shell, and which must have been formed previous to the more superficial yellow layer. By a more minute examination, it will appear that the circular spots with which the external yellow layer is marked, have been posteriorly formed to this layer; and finally, on the four turns of the spire forming a flight projection at the base of the shell, there are some brown, circular spots, which are quite superficial, and which sometimes include two of the constituent parts of the shell.

This effect of communicating a new set of colours Shell to the external surface of the shell, is not the only one, which is produced by the membranaceous structure of the animal which inhabits the porcelain and other shells. The form of the shell is also changed in a remarkable manner, a great quantity of tectaceous matter being deposited on the surface of the opening, which then assumes a considerable thickness. The turns of the spire are incrusted, and sometimes disappear on the outside of the shells; and wrinkles, furrows, and even tubercles, which exist on the surface of some species, are also formed. The surface of *Cypraea pediculus* exhibits circular frise which did not originally exist, and which owe their formation to this cause. In other species, the surface is marked with projecting points or tubercles, which are produced in the same manner as the circular frise of the former, and which also depend on the structure of the membranaceous wings of the animal, and the tectaceous substance which is secreted and deposited from their surface. Thus, it appears that porcelain shells, and those of some other species, are formed at two distinct periods. It is during the second period of the process that the colour of the complete shell is formed. In farther illustration of this point, of the formation of shells of this description at two different periods, one or two examples may be given of the difference which takes place, when the last layer formed is removed. In the *Cypraea exanthema*, the shell is ferruginous, with whitish round spots and eyes; but when layer removed, the outer coat is worn off, it becomes barred or teffle, moved with brown or blue. The *Cypraea arabica*, as its different name imports, exhibits characters on its surface, having some resemblance to Arabic letters. The ground on which these characters, which are of a brown colour, are placed, is whitish or bluish; but when the outer coat is worn down, the shell is sometimes bluish with brown bands, or pale with darker angular spots and lines, brown mixed with violet, or reddish blue.

But besides the causes which have been mentioned concerning the production and variety of the colours of shells, arising from the difference of structure in the organs which secrete the colouring matter, and the changes to which these organs are subjected in the growth of the animal, the effects of light and heat, altogether independent of the animal itself, are probably very considerable. Two individuals of the same species, the one from the Mediterranean or European seas, and the other from the tropical regions, exhibit very different shades of colour. The colours of the inhabitant of the torrid zone are always more bright and vivid than those of the native of more temperate climates. The two shells, although similar in form, size, and other characters, are uniformly different in the intensity of their colours. These differences, which have led conchologists to increase the number of species, obviously depend on the action of the climate, and particularly of light, nourishment, and other circumstances which have Of the Conchology have hitherto eluded the observation of naturalists, are uniform and constant, as long as the causes which operate in their production, continue to act. At first sight it might be supposed that the difference of temperature is the cause of the difference in the intensity of colour, in shells produced in different climates. It might be supposed too, that the different depths at which shells are found in the ocean, the medium in which they live being thus very different, would occasion great diversity in the colour. Near the surface, where the heat is greatest, if the operation of this cause were considerable, the colours of shells should be expected to be most vivid, and as the depth increased, at least to a certain extent, the intensity of colour should be diminished. But it has been observed in bivalve shells which are found at great depths, such as some species of oyster and spondylus, that the lower valve which is attached to the rock, is almost always white or colourless, while the upper valve often exhibits bright and vivid colours; but this difference cannot be attributed to the difference of temperature, for in both valves it must be the same; the matter secreted for their formation is prepared by the same organs, and is deposited in a similar manner; and indeed they are altogether placed in the same circumstances, and have been exposed in their production and growth to the operation of the same causes, excepting that the upper valve is exposed to the rays of light, and is therefore coloured, while the lower valve is removed from the action of this cause, and is colourless.

The same difference is observed in the valves of other shells, which are produced in similar circumstances. The different species of pholas which make their abode in calcareous or coral rocks, and the teredo navalis, or ship-worm, which pierces wood, and makes it its habitation, are usually colourless. Those terebraceous animals too, which live at great depths in the ocean, and are thus far removed from the influence of light, are also distinguished by very faint colours, or are entirely white.

Sect. IV. Of the Formation of the Umbilicus, Protuberances, &c.

We have hitherto considered only the general formation of shells. In the present section we shall treat of some other circumstances which produce variations in their external figure. Such, for instance, is the formation of the umbilicus, of spines, tubercles, ribs, and other protuberances.

Umbilicus. Univalve shells, which are furnished with a regular spire, may be divided with regard to their form, into four classes; namely, shells having a disc, cylindrical shells, turbinated, and ovoid or egg-shaped shells. These four forms are the most common which spiral univalve shells assume, and they depend on the manner in which the turns of the spire are applied to the common axis, and the difference of their arrangement. They derive their primitive figure from the small shell while it is yet included in the egg, and probably from that of the external organs of the animal which is contained in it. But although all univalve shells may be referred to one or other of these four principal forms, they exhibit a great variety of slighter shades of difference. Let us now see in what way it may be conceived that the bodies of the animals which inhabit univalve shells, give them a spiral form. If we can suppose that from the first production of these animals, when they begin to be developed, the fibres of one part of the body, such as those of the external surface, are longer than those of the opposite side. Owing to this difference, it is obvious that the body of the animal continues to increase, according to this original tendency, until it will assume a curved form, the concave part of which will be on that side where the fibres are shortest; and if the long fibres on the external surface, and the short fibres on the internal surface, continue to increase in the same proportion, this must give the body a spiral form; but in this case, the different convolutions of which the animal is composed, will be in the same plane, and can only apply to a small number of shells included in the first division, namely those which are characterized with having a disc.

The convolutions of the spire which are described by the shell of univalve terebraceous animals, and the body which serves as a mould for these, are disposed in different planes. Some other cause, therefore, must operate in producing this deviation. Between the two surfaces of the body of the animal, which is supposed to be furnished with fibres of different lengths, it is easy to conceive two other surfaces directly opposite to each other, an upper and an under surface, each of which is included between the two preceding surfaces, but of smaller extent; and it is easy to conceive farther, that these two latter surfaces are so formed, that the fibres of the one are longer than the corresponding and opposite fibres of the other. According to this structure, the body of the animal will tend to that surface on which the fibres are shortest, and thus describe, during its development, a spiral line in different planes, in proportion to the difference of tension between the superior and inferior surface of the body, as well as between the lateral surfaces.

The form of the shell depending on the external form of the body of the animal, the umbilicus, which is a produce different cavity from that of the opening of the shell in which the animal is contained, and which is seen on the inferior surface of some shells, in the centre of the convolutions of the spire, depends entirely on the place on which the animal has formed the additions to its shell. If the plane of these convolutions has been directed round a conical or elliptical axis, and each convolution of the spire be more or less distant towards the centre of the shell from this hollow point, a shell may be thus formed, whose umbilicus will be more or less open, according to the greater or less degree of separation which the animal must give to the convolutions of the spire, corresponding to its structure. An opposite effect will be observed, if the increase of the convolutions of the spire is supposed to take place round an axis which is so small as to permit them to come in contact with each other. In this case no cavity will be formed in the centre, no appearance of umbilicus will be seen. But if we conceive that the animal, in enlarging itself, turns round a solid of a curved figure, in place of the conic axis above alluded to, and that the end of this solid is at the summit of the shell, it is obvious that an opening or an umbilicus of the shape of this solid, will be formed in the shell.

Ribs. The longitudinal elevations which are ob- Conchology.

Conchology is concerned with the study of mollusks, particularly their shells. The text discusses various aspects of shell formation and structure:

1. **Varices**: These are elevations on the shell surface, often in a line parallel to the axis of the shell. They are formed during the growth stage of the shell and can be smooth or irregular protuberances.

2. **Spines**: These are projections from the shell, often produced by organs around the neck area. They are uniform in appearance and serve as a mold for the shell's anterior parts.

3. **Tubercles**: Many shells have these small bumps, which are produced by organs similar to those that form the shell itself. They are smooth and polished, and in bivalve shells, they contribute to the overall shape and structure.

4. **Grooves**: Elevated ribs found on the outer surface of some shells, which are smooth and polished. They are part of the shell's structure and contribute to its overall form.

The text explains how these features are formed and their role in the shell's development. It also mentions that the shell grows in a regular manner, with each part being added to the existing structure. Of the Con-part of the body being deposited on the grooves, channels, or flutes, which were formed when the anterior part of the body occupied that part of the shell, fills them up completely, and leaves the surface quite smooth and polished. New additions being made to the shell as the growth of the animal requires it, the smooth surface of the body advances forward, and fills up with its secretions what is now grooved; while the new part of the shell, which corresponds to that part of the body, which has an unequal surface, only presents this appearance. It is in this way that the ribs or grooves are formed in different species of oyster, cardium, and other bivalve shells.

But there is a peculiarity of structure in a species of cockle, the white fluted or ribbed cockle, *cardium coelatum*, which seems more difficult of explanation in its mode of formation. The ribs of this species are not only of the usual structure of other species of ribbed or grooved shells, but are particularly distinguished by having them hollow. The whole number of the ribs amounts to about 18 on each valve, of which the 11 exterior ones are of a triangular form, of about three lines high, and hollowed through their whole length, from the beak to the margin of the valves. To have a distinct notion of the formation of these hollow, triangular ribs, it is necessary to conceive, that the margin of the anterior part of the animal is deeply channelled or grooved; and when this part of the body is in contact with the recent shell, the tips or elevations are formed, and are then open to the internal surface of the shell; but the posterior part of the body being hard and smooth, never comes in contact with the excavated part of the ribs. On the contrary, as the testaceous matter is excreted from this part of the body, it is deposited on that part of the internal surface of the shell which it touches, stretches across the deep grooves, and forms the third and interior side of the triangular ribs.

Thus it appears, that spines, tubercles, and all other protuberances on the surface of bivalve shells, owe the peculiarity of their form and shape to the peculiar structure of different organs situated on the anterior margin of the body of the animal, and are composed of the testaceous matter which is excreted by these organs. The nature of the process is the same as in univalve shells of a spiral form. The diversity only appears in the difference of the organs and structure of the animals which inhabit different shells. To a similar process may be ascribed the formation of flutes, of scales, and of various excavations which sometimes accompany them.

**Sect. V. Of the Production of Pearls.**

In treating of the constituent parts of shells, it was observed, that the composition of the pearl appears, from analysis, to be precisely the same as the mother-of-pearl, or those shells in which the pearl is usually found. From this we must conclude, that the pearl, and the mother-of-pearl, are produced by the same secretion. It appears, from observations of naturalists, and indeed it might have been expected, from the similarity of composition, that all testaceous animals, whose shells come under the description of mother-of-pearl, occasionally produce pearls.

Different opinions have been entertained with regard to the cause of the formation of this precious production. According to some, it is merely a morbid concretion, formed within some part of the body of the animal, or at least within the shell, without any apparent external injury; while others suppose that it is only owing to wounds which the shell, or the animal, or both, have received from accidental causes, or from the action of insects, or some testaceous animal, making perforations in the shell. It is not improbable that pearls may be formed in both ways.

Every day's experience informs us, that similar concretions are formed in different cavities of the bodies to be seen in other animals; but without any obvious cause or external injury. The formation of such concretions, as, for instance, biliary and urinary calculi, producing the most excruciating disorders in the human body, are too fatally known. These concretions, no doubt, owe their origin to the diseased or unhealthy action of the vessels secreting the fluids in which they are formed. By this diseased action producing a superabundance of the matter which enters into the composition of the concretion; or this matter in the fluid state meeting with some solid body, which becomes a nucleus, is attracted by it, and deposited in concentric layers, till the concretion acquires a larger or smaller size, according to the duration and quantity of the secretion and deposition. In the same way, it seems extremely probable the pearl may be frequently formed; the matter of which it is composed being constantly secreted by the animal for the production of the new part of the shell. If then this matter should at any time be produced in greater quantity than what is necessary to form the inner layers of the shell, and particularly if it should meet with a solid particle of any body, it will be attracted by it, and thus constitute the rudiments of a pearl, which will receive constant additions of concentric layers, and increase in size in proportion to the age of the animal and the quantity of matter deposited.

Pearls, it is said, have been found within the body of the animal. If this be true, the pearly matter, in its passage through the vessels of the body, must have met with some nucleus, around which the concentric layers have been formed. In most cases, however, the pearl is found loose in the shell, entirely detached from the animal. It must then have been formed of the matter which was thrown out of the body; but it is not unlikely that pearls are formed both ways, or that the same pearl may be partly formed within the body of the animal, and be afterwards excluded, and arrive at its utmost size, while it remains loose in the shell.

But, according to others, the pearl owes its formation to some external injury. The following seems to form exactly a perfect distinct view of this opinion. When Faujas de St Fond visited Loch Tay, he was led to make some inquiries concerning the pearl-fishery, which had been carried on in several parts of the river Tay for some years. Shells were brought to him; and in these shells the fishermen pretended to find pearls, which they expected to sell at a higher rate, as they were found in the presence of the traveller. But he informs us, that they attempted to impose on him, by introducing a pearl secretly into the shells as they opened them. Observing this circumstance, he told them that he could know at once, by examining the outside of CHAP. VI. OF THE HABITATION OF TESTACEOUS ANIMALS, METHODS OF FISHING, COLLECTING, &c.

TO the detailed account which we have now given of the natural history of testaceous animals, and particularly of the formation and growth of the shell, we have only to add a few observations concerning their habitation, the methods of fishing, collecting, and preserving them. These topics shall be the subject of the following sections.

Sect. I. Of the Habitation of Testaceous Animals.

Testaceous animals are found on every part of the surface of the globe. Some are inhabitants of the land, while others only frequent rivers and lakes, and a third and numerous class live in the ocean. From this classification of shells has been formed, and they have been divided into land, fresh-water, and sea shells. But whatever difference might exist in the habits and economy of testaceous animals which are produced in places so different, it affords few marks of discrimination for the purpose of classification.

Land shells are spread over the whole surface of the earth, and although more accessible, are perhaps less known than those which inhabit the ocean. From the small number of land shells which have been collected, it would appear at first sight that they are less numerous than marine shells. This, however, seems not to be the case with regard to the number of species; and it is well known, that the number of individuals of land shells, in some instances, far exceeds that of sea shells. The sea shells of the Mediterranean have been observed by naturalists, to be nearly the same from the Straits of Gibraltar to the island of Sicily; but the land shells of Languedoc are different from those of Provence, of Dauphiny, Piedmont, and different parts of Italy. Some are found in Spain, in Corsica, in Sardinia and Sicily, which are not to be met with in other places; Of the Ha-and from the great variety and number of land shells, it seems probable that many of them are yet unknown.

But let us now take a general view of those places of the world where different terebraceous animals are most frequently found.

It has been already observed, that light and heat have very considerable influence in adding to the splendour of the colours of shells. The most beautiful shells are found in countries between the tropics, where they are more immediately subject to the direct rays of the sun, and a higher temperature. From these causes the shells produced in these countries have a lustre and brilliancy which those of colder climates never possess.

The shores of Asia furnish us with the pearl-oysters and scallops in great perfection. About Ambayna are found the most beautiful specimens of the cabbage-shell, the arroboir, the ducal mantle, and the coral oysters, or echinated oysters. Here also are found a great variety of extremely beautiful mussels, tellinae and volutes; some few buccinums, and the shell called the Ethiopian crown, in its greatest perfection. The dolia, the murices, and the caffandriae, are also found on these coasts in great beauty. Many elegant snails and screw-shells are also brought from thence; and finally, the scorpion and spider shells. The Maldivian and Philippine islands, Bengal, and the coast of Malabar, abound with the most elegant of all the species of snails, and furnish many other kinds of shells in great abundance and perfection. China abounds in the finest species of porcelain shells, and has also a great variety of beautiful snails. Japan furnishes us with all the thicker and larger bivalves; and the island of Cyprus is famous above all other parts of the world for the beauty and variety of the patella or limpet found there.

America affords many very elegant shells, but not in so great abundance or beauty as the shores of Asia. Panama is famous for the cylinders or rhombi, and we have beside, from the same place, some good porcelains and a very fine species of dolium, or concha globosa, called from this place the Panama purple shell. One of the most beautiful of the cylinders is also known among our naturalists under the name of the Panama shell. About Brazil, and in the gulf of Mexico, there are found murices and dolia of extreme beauty; and also a great variety of porcelains, purpurae, pectens, neritae, bucardiae or heart-shells, and elegant limpets. The isle of Cayenne affords one of the most beautiful of the buccinum kind, and the Midas ear is found principally about this place. Jamaica and the island of Barbadoes have their shores covered with porcelains, chamae, and buccina; and at St Domingo there are found almost all the same species of shells that we have from the East Indies; only they are less beautiful, and the colours more pale and dead. The pearl-oyster is found also on this coast, but smaller than in the Persian gulf. At Martinique there are found in general the same shells as at St Domingo, but yet less beautiful. About Canada are found the violet chamae; and the lakes of that country abound with mussels of very elegant pale blue and pale red colours. Some species of these are remarkably light and thin; others are very thick and heavy. The Great Bank of Newfoundland is very barren in shells; the principal kind found there are mussels of several species, some of which are of considerable beauty. About Carthagena there are many mother-of-pearl shells, but they are not of so brilliant colours as those of the Persian gulf. The island of Magellan, at the southern point of America, furnishes us with a very remarkable species of mussel called by its name; and several very elegant species of limpets are found there, particularly the pyramidal.

In Africa, on the coast of Guinea, there is a prodigious quantity of that small species of porcelain which is used there as money; and there is another species of porcelain on the same coast which is all over white: the women make bracelets of the latter, and the people of the Levant adorn their hair with them. The coast of Zanguebar is very rich in shells; we find there a vast variety of the large porcelains, many of them of great beauty; and the nux maris or sea nut is very frequent there. Beside these, and many other shells, there are found on this coast all the species of nautili, many of which are very beautiful. The Canary islands abound with a vast variety of the murices, and some other good shells; and we have from Madeira great variety of the echini or sea-eggs, different from those of the European seas. Several species of mussels are also common there, and the sea-ears are nowhere more abundant. The Red sea is beyond all other parts of the world abundant in shells, scarcely any kind is wanting there; but what we principally have from thence are the purpurae, porcelains, and echini marini.

The Mediterranean and Northern ocean contain a great variety of shells, and many of very remarkable diversity; and they are upon the whole, however, greatly inferior to those of the East Indies. The Mediterranean abounds much more in shells than the ocean. The gulf of Tarentum affords great variety of purpurae, of porcelains, nautili, and elegant oysters; the coasts of Naples and Sardinia afford also the same, and with them a vast number of the folens of all the known species. The island of Sicily is famous for a very elegant kind of oyster which is entirely white; pinnae marinæ and porcelains are also found in great plenty there, with tellinae and chamae of many species, and a great variety of other beautiful shells. Corsica is famous, beyond all other places, for vast quantities of the pinnae marinæ; and many other beautiful shells are found there. About Syracuse are found the gondola shell, the winged murice, and a great variety of elegant snails, with some of the tunis and nerites. The Adriatic sea, or gulf of Venice, is less furnished with shells than almost any of the seas thereabout. Mussels and oysters of several species are however found there, and some of the cordiform or heart shells; there are also some tellinae. About Ancona there are vast numbers of the pholades buried in stone; and the sea-ears are particularly frequent about Puzzoli. (Bonani Recreat. Ment. et Ocul.)

The ports of Marfeilles, Toulon, and Antibes, are full of pinnae marinæ, muscles, tellinae, and chamae. The coasts of Bretagne afford great numbers of the conchæ anatiferæ and pouffe-pieds; they are found on old rotten boards, on sea substances, and among clusters of sponges. The other ports of France, as Rochelle, Dunkirk, Brest, St Maloës, and others, furnish oysters excellent for the table, but of the common kind, and of no beauty in their shells; great numbers of mussels are also found there; and the common tellinae, the onion-peel oysters, the folens, and conchæ. Our own English coasts are not the least fruitful in shells, though they do not produce such elegantly painted ones as the Indies. About Plymouth are found oysters, mussels, and solens, in great abundance; and there, and on most of our shores, are numbers of the aures mariae and dentalia, with pectens, which are excellent food; and many elegant species of the chamae and tellinae are filled up in the sea about Scarborough and other places. Ireland affords us great number of mussels, and some very elegant scallop-shells in great abundance, and the phalae are frequent on most of our shores. We have also great variety of the buccina and cochleae, some volutes; and, on the Guernsey coast, a peculiarly beautiful snail, called thence the Guernsey snail.

The coasts of Spain and Portugal afford much the same species of shells with the East Indies, but they are of much fainter colours, and greatly inferior in beauty. There are, according to Tavernier and others, some rivers in Bavaria in which there are found pearls of a fine water. About Cadiz there are found very large pinnae marinæ, and some fine buccina. The isles of Majorca and Minorca afford great variety of extremely elegant shells. The pinnae marinæ are also very numerous there, and their flesh is wrought into gloves, stockings, and other things. The Baltic affords a great many beautiful species, but particularly an orange-coloured pecten, or scallop-shell, which is not found in any other part of the world.

The fresh-water shells are found much more frequently, and in much greater plenty than the sea kinds; there is scarce a pond, a ditch, or river of fresh water in any part of the world, in which there are not found vast numbers of these shells with the fish living in them. All these shells are small, and they are of very little beauty, being usually of a plain grayish or brownish colour. Our ditches afford us chamae, buccina, neriteæ, and some patellæ; but the Nile, and some other rivers, furnished the ancients with a species of tellina which was large and eatable, and so much superior to the common sea tellina in flavour, that it is commonly known by the name of tellina regia, "the royal tellina." We have a small species of buccinum common in our fresh waters, which is very elegant, and always has its operculum in the manner of the larger buccina; a small kind of mussel is also very common, which is so extremely thin and tender, that it can hardly be handled without breaking to pieces. The large fresh-water mussel, commonly called in England the horse-mussel, mya margaritifera, is too well known to need a description; and the size sufficiently distinguishes it from all other fresh-water shells.

Sect. II. Of the Methods of Fishing and Collecting Shells.

Land shells are immediately within the reach of the hand of the collector, as well as many sea and river shells, which inhabit shallow waters, or attach themselves to rocks or marine plants on the shores of the ocean. Those shells which are at moderate depths in the sea, are to be collected by dredging. But in whatever way shells are found, those are always to be preferred which fill contain the living animal; for then, not only some information may be obtained with regard to its structure and natural history, but the shells themselves are in all their natural beauty, and the full glow of their colours. Those shells too should be preferred, which are procured from the deeper parts of the ocean, because they have then arrived at the largest size, and are in the greatest perfection. But these are beyond the reach of man, and are only accidentally found on the shores after storms, or attached to sea-weeds which have been torn from the rocks by the agitation of the waves.

When shells are found with the animal alive; the method recommended to destroy it and separate it entirely from the shell, is to boil it in water for a very short time, and after allowing it to cool gradually, to lay it in cold water till it is cleaned. By this process, the attachment between the shell and animal is destroyed, and the latter, which has become hard and contracted, is easily picked out from its covering. The shell, after this treatment, is ready to be placed in the cabinet, or to be polished in the way we shall presently describe, according to the state in which it is found, or the views of the collector.

As the pearl has been held in high estimation in all ages of the world, and as it is an important object of commerce in many parts of it, the history of the pearl fishery, or of those shell fish which produce the pearl, cannot fail to be interesting.

In different parts of Britain the pearl-fishery has been carried on to a considerable extent; and in some places it has been reckoned of such value, that government has granted the right of fishing to individuals by patent. By a grant of this kind, Sir John Hawkins obtained the privilege of fishing for pearls in the river Irty in Cumberland; and Buchan of Auchmacoy seems to have held, by a similar right, the sole privilege of the pearl-fishery near the mouth of the river Ythan in Aberdeenshire; for it appears that this grant was refused by government in 1633, in the first parliament of Charles I. In the same river, at the distance of ten miles from the sea, a successful fishery of pearls has been frequently carried on; and a few years ago, in the river Cluny in the same county, a Jew employed a number of people to collect the mussels which contained them, and some large and valuable pearls were found. Some years ago, in the river Teath in Perthshire, the pearls which were got brought about 100l. sterling to those employed in searching for them, in the course of one season. It was observed, that those mussels only which were crooked and distorted, yielded pearls. The method which has been practised in this river for fishing the pearl mussel, is the following. The fisherman provides himself with an instrument formed of two iron plates or spoons, having something of the shape of the mussel. Each of these is attached to an elastic handle of the same metal, terminating in an open tube, which is fixed to the end of a long wooden handle. The concave sides of the plates approach each other, and are kept in close contact by the elasticity of the handles. With this instrument the fisherman enters the water, and directs his course to those places which he supposes are resorted to by the mussels. Of the Ha-fels. These he discovers with his feet, and having found one, he presses the instrument upon it, the plates or valves of which, in consequence of the elasticity of the handles, separate, and then grasp it firmly. In this way he can detach it from the place to which it adheres, and bring it to the surface of the water. The pearl-mussel is a native of many other of the rivers of Scotland, as of the Els in Forfarshire, where a pearl was found of the size of a pistol bullet, and sold for 4l. sterling; of the Devon in Clackmannanshire, the Clyde, and of Loch Ken in Galloway, where it is said great numbers of pearls are fished in dry summers, many of which fell from one thirling to one guinea. But the greatest pearl-fishery which has ever been established in Scotland, of which there is any record, is that of the river Tay, about 30 years ago. The pearl-mussel is found in every part of this river, from its source in Loch Tay, to its junction with the sea. In different parts of the river, but particularly in the vicinity of Perth, we are informed, that not less than 11,000l. worth of pearls were sent to London between the years 1761 and 1764. They were sold from 10s. to 1l. 16s. per ounce. About this time one pearl was found which weighed 33 grs. This fishery, however, as well as the pearl-fishery in the other rivers of Scotland, seems to be greatly exhausted, and very probably, as it has been supposed, from the improvident avarice of the undertakers, not allowing the animal to arrive at that age which seems to be necessary for the production of pearl.

But the pearl-fishery of the warmer climates, in different places of the East Indies, in the gulf of Persia, and the Red sea, and particularly that which is annually carried on in the bay of Condatchy, in the island of Ceylon, is by far the most extensive and most important of any in the world. The latter, of which we have given a detailed account in the description of Ceylon, and to which we refer our readers, has been under the inspection of government since it fell into the hands of the British, as it was under that of the Portuguese and Dutch, its former masters. To the Dutch, it is said, while they were in possession of the island, this fishery brought an annual tribute of 20,000l. To the account which has been already given of this fishery, we may add the following, from the Asiatic Annual Register for the year 1800.

"The person who farmed the pearl-fishery at Ceylon, last year, was a Tamu merchant, who for the privilege of fishing with more than the usual number of donies or boats, paid between two and three hundred thousand Porto Novo pagodas (d.), a sum nearly double the usual rent. His excellency the honourable Mr North, by the last ships from Ceylon, has transmitted a very minute detail of the fishery in all its stages, some of which are truly singular and remarkable. It appears that the fear of sharks is the cause of a great deal of interruption to the fishery, the divers being extremely timid and superstitious; every one of them, even the most expert, entertain a dread of sharks, and will not on any account descend until the conjuror has performed his ceremonies. This prejudice is so deeply rooted in their minds, that the government was obliged to keep two such conjurors in their pay, to remove the fears of the divers. The manner of enchanting consists of a number of prayers learned by heart, that nobody, probably not even the conjuror himself, understands, which he, standing on the shore, continues muttering and grumbling from sunrise until the boats return. During this period, they are obliged to abstain from food and sleep, otherwise their prayers would be of no avail; they are, however, allowed to drink, which privilege they indulge in a high degree, and are frequently so giddy as to be rendered very unfit for devotion. Some of these conjurors accompany the divers in their boats, which pleases them very much, as they have their protectors near at hand. Nevertheless, I was told, said Mr North, that in one of the preceding fisheries, a diver lost his leg by a shark; and when the head conjuror was called to an account for the accident, he replied, that an old witch had just come from the coast, who, from envy and malice, had caused this disaster by a counter-conjuration, which made fruitless his skill, and which he was informed of too late; but he afterwards showed his superiority, by enchanting the sharks so effectually, that, though they appeared to most of the divers, they were unable to open their mouths. During my stay, continues Mr North, at Condatchy, no accident of this kind happened. If a shark is seen, the divers instantly make a signal, which on perceiving all the boats return immediately. A diver who trod upon a hammer oyster, and was somewhat wounded, thought he was bit by a shark; consequently made the usual signal, which caused all the boats to return; for which mistake he was afterwards punished. The largest and most perfect pearl taken last season, was about the size of a small pistol bullet."

Sect. III. Of the Methods of Polishing Shells.

The art of polishing shells has but lately reached its present state of perfection; and as the admiration of sea shells has become so general, it may be expected that we should give some instructions in the means of adding to their natural beauty.

Among the immense variety of shells with which we are acquainted, some are taken up out of the sea, or employed found on its shores, in all their perfection and beauty; their colours being all disposed by nature upon the surface, and their natural polish superior to anything that art could give. Where nature is in herself thus perfect, it were madness to attempt to add anything to her charms: but in others, where the beauties are latent and covered with a coarser outer skin, art is to be called in; and the outer veil being taken off, all the internal beauties appear.

Among the shells which are found naturally polished are the porcelains, or cowries; the cæsanders; the dolia, or conchæ globosæ, or tuns; some buccinas; the volutes and the cylinders, or olives, or, as they are generally though improperly called, the rhombi; excepting only two or three, as the tiara, the plumb, and the butter-tub.

(d) Perhaps near 100,000l. sterling. The pagoda is from 7s. to 8s. 6d. sterling.

Ha-butter-tub rhombus, where there is an unpromising film on the surface, hiding a very great share of beauty within. Though the generality of the shells of these genera are taken out of the sea in all their beauty, and in their utmost natural polish, there are several other genera, in which all or most of the species are taken up naturally rough and foul, and covered with an epidermis, or coarse outer skin, which is in many rough and downy or hairy. The telline, the mussels, the cochleae, and many others, are of this kind. The more nice collectors, as naturalists, insist upon having all their shells in their native and genuine appearance, as they are found when living at sea; but others who make collections, hate the disagreeable outsides, and will have all such polished. It would be very advisable, however, for both kinds of collectors to have the same shells in different specimens both rough and polished: the naturalist would by this means, besides knowing the outside of the shell, be better acquainted with its internal characters than he otherwise could be; while those who wish to have them polished, might compare the beauties of the shell, in its wrought state, to its coarse appearance as nature gives it. How many elegancies in this part of the creation must be wholly lost to us, if it were not for the affluence of an art of this kind! Many shells in their native state are like rough diamonds; and we can form no just idea of their beauties till they have been polished and wrought into form.

Though the art of polishing shells is a very valuable one, yet it is very dangerous to the shells; for without the utmost care, the means used to polish and beautify a shell often wholly destroy it. When a shell is to be polished, the first thing to be examined, is whether it have naturally a smooth surface, or be covered with tubercles and prominences.

A shell which has a smooth surface, and a natural dull polish, need only be rubbed with the hand, or with a piece of chamoy leather, with some tripoli, or fine rotten stone, and it will become of a perfectly bright and fine polish. Emery is not to be used on this occasion, because it wears away too much of the shell. This operation requires the hand of an experienced person, that knows how superficial the work must be, and where he is to stop; for in many of these shells the lines are only on the surface, and the wearing away even so little of the shell defaces them. A shell that is rough, foul, and crusty, or covered with a tartarous coat, must be left a whole day steeping in hot water: when it has imbibed a large quantity of this, it is to be rubbed with rough emery on a stick, or with the blade of a knife, in order to get off the coat. After this, it may be dipped in diluted aquafortis, spirit of salt, or any other acid; and after remaining a few moments in it, be again plunged into common water. This will add greatly to the speed of the work. After this it is to be well rubbed with linen cloths, impregnated with common soap; and when by these several means it is made perfectly clean, the polishing is to be finished with fine emery and a hair-brush. If after this the shell when dry appears not to have so good a polish as was desired, it must be rubbed over with a solution of gum arabic; and this will add greatly to its glofs, without doing it the smallest injury. The gum-water must not be too thick, and then it gives no sensible coat, only heightening the colours. The white of an egg answers this purpose also very well; but it is subject to turn yellow. If the shell has an epidermis, which will by no means admit the polishing of it, it is to be dipped several times in diluted aquafortis, that this may be eaten off; and then the shell is to be polished in the usual way with putty, fine emery, or tripoli, on the hair of a fine brush. When it is only a pellicle that hides the colours, the shell must be steeped in hot water, and after that the skin worked off by degrees with an old file. This is the case with several of the cylinders, which have not the natural polish of the rest.

When a shell is covered with a thick and fatty epidermis, as is the case with several of the mussels and tellines; in this case aquafortis will do no service, as it will not touch the skin: then a rough brush and coarse emery are to be used; and if this does not succeed, the feel-skin, or, as the workmen call it, fibro-skin and pumice-stone, are to be employed.

When a shell has a thick crust, which will not give way to any of these means, the only way left is to plunge it several times into strong aquafortis, till the stubborn crust is wholly eroded. The limpets, auris marina, the helmet-shells, and several other species of this kind, must have this sort of management; but as the design is to show the hidden beauties under the crust, and not to destroy the natural beauty and polish of the inside of the shell, the aquafortis must be used in this manner: A long piece of wax must be provided, and one end of it made perfectly to cover the whole mouth of the shell; the other end will then serve as a handle, and the mouth being stopped by the wax, the liquor cannot get into the inside to spoil it; then there must be placed on a table a vessel full of aquafortis, and another full of common water.

The shell is to be plunged into the aquafortis; and after remaining a few minutes in it, is to be taken out, and plunged into the common water. The progress of the aquafortis makes in eroding the surface is thus to be carefully observed every time it is taken out: the point of the shell, and any other tender parts, are to be covered with wax, to prevent the aquafortis from eating them away; and if there be any worm-holes, they also must be stopped up with wax, otherwise the aquafortis would soon eat through in those places. When the repeated dippings into the aquafortis show that the coat is sufficiently eaten away, then the shell is to be brought carefully with fine emery and a brush; and when it is polished as high as can be by this means, it must be wiped clean, and rubbed over with gum-water or the white of an egg. In this sort of work the operator must always have the caution to wear gloves; otherwise the least touch of the aquafortis will burn the fingers, and turn them yellow; and often, if it be not regarded, will eat off the skin and the nails.

These are the methods to be used with shells which require but a moderate quantity of the surface to be taken off; but there are others which require to have a larger quantity removed, and to be uncovered deeper: this is called entirely sealing a shell. This is done by means of a horizontal wheel of lead or tin, impregnated with rough emery; and the shell is wrought down in the same manner in which stones are wrought by the lapidary. Nothing is more difficult, however, than the performing performing this work with nicety: very often shells are cut down too far by it, and wholly spoiled; and to avoid this, a coarse vein must be often left standing in some place, and taken down afterwards with the file, when the cutting it down at the wheel would have spoiled the adjacent parts.

After the shell is thus cut down to a proper degree, it is to be polished with fine emery, tripoli, or rotten stone, with a wooden wheel turned by the same machine as a leaden one, or by the common method of working with the hand with the same ingredients. When a shell is full of tubercles or protuberances which must be preserved, it is then impossible to use the wheel; and if the common way of dipping into aquafortis be attempted, the tubercles being harder than the rest of the shell, will be corroded before the rest is sufficiently sealed, and the shell will be spoiled. In this case, industry and patience are the only means of effecting a polish. A camel's-hair pencil must be dipped in aquafortis; and with this the intermediate parts of the shell must be wetted, leaving the protuberances dry: this is to be often repeated; and after a few moments the shell is always to be plunged into water to stop the erosion of the acid, which would otherwise eat too deep, and destroy the beauty of the shell. When this has sufficiently taken off the foulness of the shell, it is to be polished with emery of the finest kind, or with tripoli, by means of a small stick; or the common polishing-stone used by the goldsmiths may be used.

This is a very tedious and troublesome thing, especially when the calcinated oysters and murices, and some other such shells, are to be wrought: and what is worst of all is, that when all this labour has been employed, the benefits is not well done; for there still remain several places which could not be reached by any instrument, so that the shell must necessarily be rubbed over with gum-water or the white of an egg afterwards, in order to bring out the colours and give a gloss; in some cases it is even necessary to give a coat of varnish.

These are the means used by artists to brighten the colours and add to the beauty of shells; and the changes produced by polishing in this manner are so great, that the shell can scarcely be known afterwards to be the same it was; and hence we hear of new shells in the cabinets of collectors, which have no real existence as separate species, but are shells well known, disguised by polishing. To caution the reader against errors of this kind, it may be proper to add the most remarkable species thus usually altered.

The onyx-shell or volute, called the purple or violet-tip, which in its natural state is of a simple pale brown, when it is wrought slightly, or polished with just the superfluous taken off, is of a fine bright yellow; and when it is eaten away deeper, it appears of a fine milk-white, with the lower part bluish: it is in this state that it is called the onyx-shell; and it is preferred in many cabinets in its rough state, and in its yellow appearance, as different species of shells.

The violet shell, so common among the curious, is a species of porcelain, or common cowry, which does not appear in that elegance till it has been polished; and the common sea-ear shows itself in two or three different forms, as it is more or less deeply wrought. In its rough state it is dusky and coarse, of a pale brown on the outside, and pearly within; when of the it is eaten down a little way below the surface, it shows variegations of black and green; and when still farther eroded, it appears of a fine pearly hue within and without.

The nautilus, when it is polished down, appears all over of a fine pearly colour; but when it is eaten away but to a small depth, it appears of a fine yellowish colour with dusky hairs. The burgau, when entirely cleared of its coat, is of the most beautiful pearl colour: but when slightly eroded, it appears of a variegated mixture of green and red; whence it has been called the parquet shell. The common helmet-shell, when wrought, is of the colour of the finest agate; and the mussels, in general, though very plain shells in their common appearance, become very beautiful when polished, and show large veins of the most elegant colours. The Persian shell, in its natural state, is all over white, and covered with tubercles; but when it has been ground down on a wheel, and polished, it appears of a gray colour, with spots and veins of a very bright and highly polished white. The limpets, in general, become very different when polished, most of them showing very elegant colours; among these the tortoise-shell limpet is the principal; it does not appear at all of that colour or transparency till it has been wrought.

That elegant species of shell called the jonquil-chamomile, which has deceived so many judges of these things, chama into an opinion of its being a new species, is only a white chama with a reticulated surface; but when this is polished, it loses at once its reticular work and its colour, and becomes perfectly smooth, and of a fine bright yellow. The violet-coloured chama of New England, when worked down and polished, is of a fine milk-white, with a great number of blue veins, disposed like the variegations in agates.

The affer-car shell, when polished after working it down with the file, becomes extremely glossy, and obtains a fine rose-colour all about the mouth. These are some of the most frequent among an endless variety of changes wrought on shells by polishing; and we find there are many of the very greatest beauties of this part of the creation which must have been lost but for this method of searching deep in the substance of the shell for them.

The Dutch are very fond of shells, and are very nice in their manner of working them; they are under the no restraint, however, in their works; but use the most violent methods, so as often to destroy all the beauty of the shell. They file them down on all sides, and often take them to the wheel, when it must destroy the very characters of the species. Nor do they stop here: but determined to have beauty at any rate, they are for improving upon nature, and frequently add some lines and colours with a pencil, afterwards covering them with a fine coat of varnish, so that they seem the natural lineations of the shell: the Dutch cabinets are by these means made very beautiful, but they are by no means to be regarded as instructors in natural history. There are some artificers of this nation who have a way of covering shells all over with a different tinge from that which nature gives them; and the curious are often enticed by these tricks to purchase them for new species. There is another kind of work bestowed on certain species of shells, particularly the nautilus; namely, the engraving on it lines and circles, and figures of stars, and other things. This is too obvious a work of art to suffer any one to suppose it natural. Buonani has figured several of these wrought shells at the end of his work; but this was applying his labour to very little purpose; the shells are spoiled as objects of natural history by it.—They are principally done in the East Indies.

Shells are subject to several imperfections; some of which are natural and others accidental. The natural defects are the effect of age, or sickness in the fish. The greatest mischief happens to shells by the fish dying in them. The curious in these things pretend to be always able to distinguish a shell taken up with the fish alive, from one found on the shores: they call the first a living, the second a dead shell; and say that the colours are always much fainter in the dead shells. When the shells have lain long dead on the shores, they are subject to many injuries, of which the being eaten by sea-worms is not the least; age renders the finest shells livid or dead in their colours.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

PLATE CLII. Animals inhabiting Shells.

Fig. 1. Chiton aculeatus. Under part shewing the bristly fringe.

Fig. 2. Animal inhabiting Lepas tintinnabulum.

Fig. 3. Lepas balanus.

Fig. 4. Lepas anatifa.

Fig. 5. Animal inhabiting the genus Pholas.

Fig. 6. Animal inhabiting the Mya.

Fig. 7. Animal inhabiting the Solen.

Fig. 8. Animal of the Tellina.

Fig. 9. Animal of the Cardium.

Fig. 10. Animal of the Maistra.

Fig. 11. Animal inhabiting the Donax.

Fig. 12. Animal inhabiting the Venus.

Fig. 13. Animal of the Ostrea.

Fig. 14. Chiton aculeatus. Shell with 8 valves; a, a, the valves longitudinally arranged, and incumbent on the back; b, b, the rounded sides.

Fig. 15. Lepas anatifa. Shell having 5 valves; a, the larger valves nearly quadrangular; b, the lesser valves nearly triangular, at the apex of the shell; c, the foliary valve, rounded, acute.

Fig. 16. Pholas daedalus. The shell is bivalve, with a, a, a, three subsidiary valves; b, b, the upper extremity dotted like net-work; c, c, the superior transversely striated.

PLATE CLIII.

Fig. 17. Mya margaritifera, the pearl-bearing mussel.

Fig. 18. Solen radiatus, radiated solen.

Fig. 19. Tellina radiata, radiated tellina.

Fig. 20. Cardium cardia, Venus heart cockle; a, a, beaks approaching to each other.

Fig. 21. Maistra bullorum, simple maistra.

Fig. 22. Donax denticulata, denticulated donax.

Fig. 23. Venus fimbria, bordered Venus shell.

Besides the imperfections arising from age and sickness in the shells, shells are subject to other deformities, such as morbid cavities, or protuberances, in parts where there should be none. When the shell is valuable, these faults may be hid, and much added to the beauty of the specimen, without at all injuring it as an object of natural history, which should always be the great end of collecting these things. The cavities may be filled up with mastic, dissolved in spirit of wine, or with finglats; these substances must be either coloured to the tinge of the shell, or else a pencil dipped in water-colours must finish them up to the resemblance of the rest; and then the whole shell being rubbed over with gum-water, or with the white of an egg, scarce any eye can perceive the artifice: the same substances may also be used to repair the battered edge of a shell, provided the pieces chipped off be not too large. And when the excrescences of a shell are faulty, they are to be taken down with a fine file. If the lip of a shell be so battered that it will not admit of repairing by any cement, the whole must be filed down or ground on the wheel till it become even.

PLATE CLIV.

Fig. 24. Spondylus gedaroporus, stiff spondylus.

Fig. 25. Chama gigas, giant chama, or gaping cockle.—This is the largest shell known.

PLATE CLV.

Fig. 32. Nautilus beccarii, chambered nautilus. A section of the shell; a, a, a, the genicula; b, b, b, the articulations; d, d, the lateral syphon.

Fig. 33. Cypraea lynx; a, a, the lips turned in and toothed; b, the linear aperture.

Fig. 34. Cypraea moneta, cowrie; a, a, knobbed margin; b, back gibbous; e, e, prominences instead of a spire.

Fig. 35. Bulla ampullacea; a, back without spire; b, vertex umbilicated.

Fig. 36. Voluta musica; a, venter, marked with interrupted lines; b, base emarginated; c, c, wreaths crowned at the futures with obtuse spines; d, d, columella or pillar, plaited; e, e, outer lip, smooth.

Fig. 37. Buccinum harpa, musical-harp shell; a, dilated venter; b, b, b, longitudinal varices, crowned with c, c, sharp spines.

Fig. 38. Buccinum undatum.

Fig. 39. Strombus scorpio, scorpion strombus; a, a, back with knobby cingula and waved frises; b, spire conical; c, c, elevated futures; d, d, waved margin of the lip; e, e, caudal digiti; f, f, lateral digiti. Fig. 40. *Murex tribulus*, thorny woodcock. Fig. 41. *Trochus telecopium*, telescope-top shell; *a*, the base; *b*, pillar projecting, spiral; *c*, outer lip dilated. Fig. 42. *Turbo scalaris*, winkle-trap; *a*, cancellated wreaths; *b*, membranaceous cingula; *c*, spire acute, papillary; *d*, aperture circular; *e*, lip reflexed. Fig. 43. *Helix lucifera*; *a*, umbilicus; *b*, round venter; *c*, closed, semilunar aperture. Fig. 44. *Helix decollata*. Fig. 45. *Nerita canrena*; *a*, umbilicus gibbous, deep; *b*, outer lip dilated, arched, entire; *c*, lip of the pillar tranverse, truncated. Fig. 46. *Haliotis varia*; *a*, ribs acute, and striated crosswise; *b*, lateral spire, with its margin dentated. Fig. 47. *Patella saccharina*; *a*, seven ridged acute ribs; *b*, obtuse vertex. Fig. 48. *Dentalium arcuatum*, arched tooth-shell. Fig. 49. *Serpula glomerata*. Fig. 50. *Terebra navalis*, ship-worm. Fig. 51. *Sabella alveolata*.

**INDEX of the Genera**, shewing the page on which the Classification of each Genus begins.

| A. | D. | N. | Solen, | |----|----|----|--------| | Anomia, p. 419 | Dentalium, p. 461 | Nautilus, p. 423 | P. 404 | | Arca, 413 | Donax, 408 | Nerita, 433 | Spondylus, 412 | | Argonauta, 422 | | | Strombus, 437 |

| B. | H. | O. | T. | |----|----|----|----| | Buccinum, 402 | Halitatis, 455 | Ostrea, 414 | Tellina, 404 | | Bulla, 428 | Helix, 448 | | Terebro, 463 | | | | | Trochus, 442 | | | | | Turbo, 445 |

| C. | I. | P. | V. | |----|----|----|----| | Cardium, 406 | Lepas, 402 | Patella, 456 | Venus, 408 | | Chama, 412 | Macra, 407 | Pholas, 453 | Voluta, 429 | | Chiton, 401 | Murex, 438 | Pinna, 422 | | | Conus, 424 | Mya, 403 | Sabella, 463 | | | Cypraea, 425 | Mytilus, 422 | Serpula, 462 | |

**INDEX**

**ACORN-shell**, species of, No 25 **Adanson**, his system of shells, 11 **Amphitrite**, generic character of, 15 **Ancients** procreate the study of shells, 3 **Animal** gives form to the shell, 112 **method of killing**, 139 **Anomia**, species of, 43 **Arca**, species of, 36 **Argonauta**, 46 **Ark-shell**, see Arca, 36 **Ascidia**, generic character of, 15

**B.** **Bivalves**, terms of, defined, 18 generic characters of, 22 **Breynius**, his system of shells, 7 **Buccinum**, species of, 52 **Bulla**, species of, 50

**C.** **Cardium**, species of, 30 **Chama**, species of, 35 **Characters**, generic, of testaceous animals, 15 **Chiton**, species of, 24 **Classification of shells**, 20 **Clio**, generic character of, 15 **Cockle**, see Cardium,

**Concretions**, pearls supposed to be morbid, 122 **Cone-shell**, see Conus, 48 **Conus**, species of, ib. **Cowrie**, see Cypraea, 49 **Cypraea**, species of, ib.

**D.** **Da Costa**, his system of shells, 14 **D'Argenville**, his system of shells, 9

**Dentalium**, species of, **Dipper**, see Bulla, **Donax**, species of, **Doris**, generic character of, **Dutch method of polishing shells**, F. **Fifbery**, pearl, in Britain, in Ceylon, **Gaping cockle**, see Chama, **Geoffroy**, his system of shells, **Grooves**, formation of, **Growth of shells**, interrupted, **H.** **Haliotis**, species of, **Helix**, species of, **K.** **Klein**, his system of shells, opinion of the formation of shells, **L.** **Land shells very numerous,** Index.

Land shells, method of collecting, No 137 Lingus, his system of shells, 6 Layer of shells, last formed, white, 97 Lobus, species of, 25 Light, effects of, on shells, 108 Linum, generic character of, 15 Limpet, see Patella, Lifter, his system of shells, 5

M. Maistra, species of, 31 Moderns, progress of, in conchology, 4 Muller, his system of shells, 13 Multivalves, terms of, defined, 17 Murex, species of, 54 Mussel, see Mytilus, Mya, species of, 27 margaritifera yields pearl and mother-of-pearl, ib. Mytilus, species of, 44 margaritiferus produces pearls, ib.

N. Nautilus, species of, 47 Nereis, generic character of, 15 Nerita, species of, 58

O. Organs secreting colouring matter, enlarge, 96 Ostrea, species of, 37 Oyster, see Ostrea edulis, employed as food, 38 of different kinds, 39 grows on trees in warm climates, 40 in Jamaica, 111 the British noted among the Romans, 40 retains its superiority, 41 management of, 41 liquid of, seen by the microscope, 42

P. Patella, species of, 60 Pearl, component parts of, 70 found in mother-of-pearl shells, 121 supposed to be a morbid concretion, 122 from external injury, 123 discovery of its formation by Linnaeus, 124 fishery, 140 in Britain, 141 in Ceylon, 142 Ship-worm, natural history of 63

Pholas, species of, No 26 Striata perforates wood across the fibre, 111 Pilgrims visiting the Holy Land, wear the scallop, 37 Pinna, species of, 45 Polishing shells, 143 with leather, 144 pumice-stone, 145 Dutch method, 153 Porcelain shells, colours of, 103 have an external layer formed, 104 proved, 105 become thicker, 106

R. Razor-shell, see Solen, 26 Reaumur's investigation of the formation of shells, 73 opinion mistaken, 74 controverted, 77 experiments, 79 Ribs of shells, formation of, 114 only on sea-shells, 115 hollow, 119

S. Sabella, species of, 64 Scallop, see Ostrea maxima, 37 worn by pilgrims, 111 Sea-ear, see Haliotis, 59 Sea-wing, see Pinna, 45 Sepia, generic character of, 15 Serpula, species of, 62 Shells, constituent parts of, 71 porcellaneous, 68 mother-of-pearl, 69 formed in the egg, 75 last formed, 76 process of their formation, 80 formed by secretion from the animal, 81 time necessary, 82 layers seen by burning, 84 growth of, interrupted, 99 distinguished by colour, 101 lower valve colourless, 109 spiral, four classes, 111 derive their form from the animal, 112 found on every part of the globe, 125 land numerous, 126 tropical, most beautiful, 127 sea, methods of fishing, 138 Ship-worm, natural history of 63

Snails, see Helix, No 66 Solen, species of, 26 Species of shells enumerated, 65 found fossil, 66

Spines produced, 117 Spio, generic character of, 15 Spires of the shell, turns increased, 85 Spondylus, species of, 34 Sprat's, Bishop, history of the oyster, 41 Strike, formation of, 98 Strombus, species of, 53 Systems of conchology, 4 Litters, 5 Langius's, 6 Breynius's, 7 Tournefort's, 8 D'Argenville's, 9 Klein's, 10 Adanson's, 11 Geoffroy's, 12 Muller's, 13 Da Costa's, 14

T. Tellina, species of, 29 Teredo, species of, 63 Terebella, generic character of, 15 Terms explained, 16 in multivalves, 17 bivalves, 18 univalves, 19 Tetraeaceous animals both oviparous and viviparous, 72 detached from the shell, 86 Tethys, generic character of, 15 Tooth-shell, see Dentalium, 61 Tournefort's system of shells, 8 Triton, generic character of, 15 Trochus, species of, 55 Tropical shells most beautiful, 127 Tubercles on shells, formation of, 116 Turbo, species of, 56

U. Umbilicus, formation of, 111 Univalves, terms of, defined, 19 generic character of, 23

V. Valve, lower, of shells, colourless, 109 Venus, species of, 33 Voluta, species of, 51 Volute, see Voluta, ib.

W. Wedge-shell, see Donax, 32 Whelk, see Buccinum, 52 Wreath, see Turbo, 56