DRAWING (1815) — Encyclopaedia Britannica Historical Editions

DRAWING

Volume 7 · 8,289 words · 1815 Edition

in general, denotes the action of pulling out, or hauling along; thus we read of tooth-drawing, wire-drawing, &c.

THE art of representing the appearances of objects upon a plane surface, by means of lines, shades, and shadows, formed with certain materials adapted to the purpose.

§ 1. Of the proper Materials for Drawing, and the manner of using them.

The first thing necessary for a beginner is to furnish himself with proper materials, such as black lead pencils, crayons of black, white, or red chalk, crow quill pens, a rule and compasses, camels hair pencils, and Indian ink. He must accustom himself to hold the pencil farther from the point than one does a pen in writing; which will give him a better command of it, and contribute to render the strokes more free and bold. The use of the pencil is to draw the first sketches or outlines of the piece, as any stroke or line that is amiss may in this be more easily rubbed out than in any other thing; and when he has made the sketch as correct as he can with the pencil, he may then draw carefully the best outline he has got, with his crow-quill pen and ink (A); after which he may discharge the pencil lines, by rubbing the piece gently with the crumb of stale bread or Indian rubber. Having thus got the outline clear, his next work is to shade the piece properly, either by drawing fine strokes with his pen where it requires to be shaded, or by washing it with his pencil and the Indian ink. As to his rule and compasses, they are never, or very rarely to be used, except in measuring the proportions of figures after he has drawn them, to prove whether they are right or not: or in houses, fortifications, and other pieces of architecture.

§ 2. Of Drawing Lines, Squares, Circles, and other regular and irregular Figures.

Having got all these implements in readiness, the first practice must be to draw straight and curve lines, with ease and freedom, upwards and downwards, side-wise to the right or left, or in any direction whatsoever. He must also learn to draw, by command of hand, squares, circles, ovals, and other geometrical figures: for, as the alphabet, or a knowledge of the letters, is an introduction to grammar; so is geometry to drawing. The practice of drawing these simple figures till he is master of them, will enable him to imitate, with greater ease and accuracy, many things both in nature and art. And here it is proper to admonish him, never to be in a hurry: but to make himself perfectly master of one figure before he proceeds to another: the advantage, and even necessity, of this, will appear as he proceeds. Two observations more may be added: 1. That he accustom himself to draw all his figures very large, which is the only way of acquiring a free bold manner of designing. 2. That he practice drawing till he has gained a tolerable mastery of his pencil, before he attempts to shadow any figure or object of any kind whatever.

§ 3. Of Drawing Eyes, Ears, Legs, Arms, Hands, Feet, &c.

As to the drawing of eyes and ears, legs and arms, the learner will have very little more to do than to copy carefully the examples given in Plate CLXXVII. and CLXXVIII. taken from Sebastian le Clerc's drawing book. But the actions and postures of the hands are so many and various, that no certain rules can be given for drawing them, that will universally hold good. Yet as the hands and feet are difficult members to draw, it is very necessary, and well worth while, to bestow some time and pains about them, carefully imitating their various postures and actions, so as not only to avoid all lameness and imperfection, but also to give them life and spirit. To arrive at this, great care, study, and practice, are requisite; particularly in imitating the best prints or drawings that can be got of hands and feet (some good examples of which are given in Plate CLXXVIII.); for, as to the mechanical rules of drawing them by lines and measures, they are not only perplexed and difficult, but also contrary to the practice of the best masters. One general rule, however, may be given (which is universally to be observed in all subjects), and that is, Not to finish perfectly at first any single part, but to sketch out faintly, and with light strokes of the pencil, the shape and proportion of the whole hand, with the action and turn of it; and after considering carefully whether this first sketch be perfect, and altering it wherever it is amis, you may then proceed to the bending of the joints, the knuckles, the veins, and other small particulars, which, when the learner has got the whole shape and proportion of the hand or foot, will not only be more easily but also more perfectly designed.

§ 4. Of Drawing Faces.

The head is usually divided into four equal parts, (1.) From the crown of the head to the top of the forehead. (2.) From the top of the forehead to the eyebrows. (3.) From the eyebrows to the bottom of the nose. (4.) From thence to the bottom of the chin. But this proportion is not constant; those features in different men being often very different as to length and shape. In a well-proportioned face, however, they are nearly right. To direct the learner therefore in forming a perfect face, his first business is to draw an oval, or rather the form of an egg; in the middle of which, from the top to the bottom, draw a perpendicular line. Through the centre or middle of this line draw a diameter line, directly across from one side to the other of your oval. On these two lines all the features of your face are to be placed as follows: Divide your perpendicular line into four equal parts; the first must be allotted to the hair of the head; the second is from the top of the forehead to the top of the nose between the eyebrows; the third is from thence to the bottom of the nose; and the fourth includes the lips and chin. Your diameter line, or the breadth of the face, is always supposed to be the length of five eyes; you must therefore divide it into five equal parts, and place the eyes upon it so as to leave exactly the length of one eye betwixt them. This is to be understood only of a full front face, Plate CLXXVII. fig. a; for if it turn to either side, then the distances are to be lessened on that side which turns from you, lest or more in proportion to its turning (fig. b b b). The top of the ear is to rise parallel to the eyebrows, at the end of the diameter line; and the bottom of it must be equal to the bottom of the nose. The nostrils ought not to come out farther than the corner of the eye in any face; and the middle of the mouth must always be placed upon the perpendicular line.

§ 5. Of Drawing Human Figures.

When the learner is tolerably perfect in drawing faces, heads, hands, and feet, he may next attempt to draw the human figure at length. In order to which, let him first sketch the head; then draw a perpendicular

(a) The ink made use of for this purpose must not be common, but Indian ink; which is much softer than the other, and does not run: by mixing it with water, it may be made to any degree of strength, and used in a pen like common ink. lar line from the bottom of the head seven times its length (for the length of the head is about one-eighth part of the length of the figure).

The best proportioned figures of the ancients are 7 1/2 heads in height. If, therefore, the figure stands upright, (as fig. a, Plate CLXXXIX.) draw a perpendicular line from the top of the head to the heel, which must be divided into two equal parts. The bottom of the belly is exactly the centre. Divide the lower part into two equal parts again, the middle of which is the middle of the knee. For the upper part of the figure, the matter must be varied. Take off with your compasses the length of the face (which is three parts in four of the length of the head); from the throat pit to the pit of the stomach is one face, from thence to the navel is another, and from thence to the lower rim of the belly is a third. The line must be divided into seven equal parts. Against the end of the first division, place the breasts; the second comes down to the navel; the third to the privities; the fourth to the middle of the thigh; the fifth to the lower part of the knee; the sixth to the lower part of the calf; and the seventh to the bottom of the heel, the heel of the bearing leg being always exactly under the pit of the throat. But as the essence of all drawing consists in making at first a good sketch, the learner must in this particular be very careful and accurate; he ought to draw no one part perfect or exact till he see whether the whole draught be good; and when he has altered that to his mind, he may then finish one part after another as perfectly as he can.

There are some who, having a statue to copy, begin with the head, which they finish, and then proceed in the same manner to the other parts of the body, finishing as they go; but this method generally succeeds ill; for if the head be made in the least too big or too little, the consequence is a disproportion between all the parts, occasioned by their not having sketched the whole proportionably at first. Let the learner remember, therefore, in whatever he intends to draw, first to sketch its several parts, measuring the distances and proportions between each with his finger or pencil, without using the compasses; and then judge of them by the eye, which by degrees will be able to judge of truth and proportion, and will become his best and principal guide. And let him observe, as a general rule, always to begin with the right side of the piece he is copying: for by that means he will always have what he has done before his eyes; and the rest will follow more naturally, and with greater ease; whereas if he begin with the left side, his hand and arm will cover what he does first, and deprive him of the sight of it; by which means he will not be able to proceed with so much ease, pleasure, or certainty.

As to the order and manner of proceeding in drawing the human body, he must first sketch the head; then the shoulders in the exact breadth; then draw the trunk of the body, beginning with the armpits (leaving the arms till afterwards), and to draw down to the hips on both sides; and be sure he observe the exact breadth of the waist. When he has done this, let him then draw that leg which the body stands upon; and afterwards the other which stands loose; then the arms; and last of all the hands.

He must take notice also of the bowings and bendings that are in the body; making the part which is opposite to that which bends correspond to it in bending with it. For instance: If one side of the body bend in, the other must stand out answerable to it; if the back bend in, the belly must stick out; if the knee bend out, the ham must fall in; and so of any other joint of the body. Finally, he must endeavour to form all parts of the figure with truth, and in just proportion; not one arm or one leg bigger or less than the other; nor broad Herculean shoulders, with a thin and slender waist; nor raw and bony arms, with thick and gouty legs: but let there be a kind of harmonious agreement amongst the members, and a beautiful symmetry throughout the whole figure.

Proportions and Measures of the Human Body. The centre or middle part, between the two extremes of the head and feet of a new born child, is in the navel, but that of an adult is in the os pubis; and the practice of dividing the measures of children into four, five, or fix parts, whereof the head is one, is made use of by painters and sculptors.

A child of two years old has about five heads in its whole length, but one of four or five years old has near six; about the fifteenth or sixteenth year, seven heads are the proportion or measure, and the centre inclines to the upper part of the pubis. Hence it appears, as the growth of the body advances, there is a gradual approach to the proportion of an adult of near eight heads in the whole length, of which, as mentioned above, the head makes one.

Agreeable to these principles, the following Table is constructed, exhibiting the proportions of the parts of a man and of a woman, as they were fixed by the ancients, and measured by M. Audran from the Apollo Pythius (Plate CLXXX.) in the garden of the Vatican at Rome, and the Venus Aphrodites (Plate CLXXI.) belonging to the family of the Medici's. Supposing the figures to stand upright and duly poised on both legs, the whole height of the former is divided into 31 1/2 parts, being 7 heads 3 parts and 6 minutes; and that of the latter into 31 parts, being 7 heads and 3 parts.

<table> <tr> <th colspan="4">LENGTH of the HEAD and TRUNK of the BODY.</th> <th colspan="2">Apollo</th> <th colspan="2">Venus.</th> </tr> <tr> <th></th> <th>Hds. Pts.</th> <th>Min.</th> <th>Hds. Pts.</th> <th>Min.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>From the top of the head to the bottom of the chin</td> <td>4</td> <td></td> <td>1</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> </tr> <tr> <td>the bottom of the chin to the top of the sternum or breast-bone</td> <td>0</td> <td>7</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>8</td> </tr> <tr> <td>the top of the sternum to the pit of the stomach</td> <td>0</td> <td>3</td> <td>10</td> <td>0</td> <td>3</td> <td>6</td> </tr> <tr> <td>the pit of the stomach to the navel</td> <td>0</td> <td>2</td> <td>10</td> <td>0</td> <td>2</td> <td>7</td> </tr> <tr> <td>the navel to the pubis</td> <td>0</td> <td>3</td> <td>6</td> <td>0</td> <td>3</td> <td>9</td> </tr> <tr> <th>Length of the head and trunk of the body</th> <td>3</td> <td>3</td> <td>9</td> <td>3</td> <td>3</td> <td>6</td> </tr> </table>

LENGTH LENGTH of the LOWER EXTREMITIES.

LENGTH of the FORE ARM or UPPER EXTREMITIES.

<table> <tr> <th></th> <th colspan="3">Apollo.</th> <th colspan="3">Venus.</th> </tr> <tr> <th></th> <th>Hds.</th> <th>Pts.</th> <th>Min.</th> <th>Hds.</th> <th>Pts.</th> <th>Min.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>From the top of the shoulder to the elbow</td> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>3</td> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>3</td> </tr> <tr> <td>the elbow to the hand</td> <td>1</td> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>1</td> <td>0</td> <td>6</td> </tr> <tr> <td>the joint of the hand to the root of the middle finger</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>8</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>6</td> </tr> <tr> <td>the root to the tip of the middle finger</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>10</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>7</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Length of the upper extremities</td> <td colspan="3">3 2 11</td> <td colspan="3">3 1 10</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Breadth between the outward angles of the eyes</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>6</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>7</td> </tr> <tr> <td>of the face at the temples</td> <td>0</td> <td>2</td> <td>2</td> <td>0</td> <td>2</td> <td>2</td> </tr> <tr> <td>of the upper part of the neck</td> <td>0</td> <td>2</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>11</td> </tr> <tr> <td>over the shoulders</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>3</td> <td>8</td> </tr> <tr> <td>of the body below the armpits</td> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>5</td> <td>1</td> <td>1</td> <td>8</td> </tr> <tr> <td>between the nipples</td> <td>2</td> <td>0</td> <td>7</td> <td>0</td> <td>3</td> <td>8</td> </tr> <tr> <td>from the bottom of the chin to the horizontal line of the nipples</td> <td>1</td> <td>0</td> <td>7</td> <td>1</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>of the body at the small of the waist</td> <td>1</td> <td>1</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>0</td> <td>8</td> </tr> <tr> <td>over the loins or os ilium</td> <td>1</td> <td>1</td> <td>3</td> <td>1</td> <td>1</td> <td>6</td> </tr> <tr> <td>over the haunches or tops of the thigh-bones</td> <td>1</td> <td>1</td> <td>5</td> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>3</td> </tr> <tr> <td>of the thigh at the top</td> <td>0</td> <td>3</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>3</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>of the thigh below the middle</td> <td>0</td> <td>2</td> <td>8</td> <td>0</td> <td>2</td> <td>7</td> </tr> <tr> <td>of the thigh above the knee</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>8</td> <td>0</td> <td>2</td> <td>0</td> </tr> <tr> <td>of the leg below the knee</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>6</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>10½</td> </tr> <tr> <td>at the calf of the leg</td> <td>0</td> <td>2</td> <td>4</td> <td>0</td> <td>2</td> <td>3</td> </tr> <tr> <td>below the calf</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>7</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>11½</td> </tr> <tr> <td>above the ankle</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> </tr> <tr> <td>of the ankle</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>4</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>3</td> </tr> <tr> <td>below the ankle</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>4</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>1</td> </tr> <tr> <td>middle of the foot</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>4</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>3</td> </tr> <tr> <td>at the roots of the toes</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>7</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>7</td> </tr> <tr> <td>of the arm over the biceps muscle</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>8</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>9</td> </tr> <tr> <td>of the arm over the elbow</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>6</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>5</td> </tr> <tr> <td>of the arm below the elbow over the long supinator</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>10</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>7</td> </tr> <tr> <td>at the wrist</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>1</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>0</td> </tr> <tr> <td>of the hand over the first joint of the thumb</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>9</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>8</td> </tr> <tr> <td>of the hand over the roots of the fingers</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>7</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>6</td> </tr> <tr> <td>over the heads of the scapulae or shoulder-blades</td> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>1</td> <td>4</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Length of both arms and hands, each of the Apollo's being 3h. 2p. 11m. and the Venus 3h. 1p. 5m.</td> <td colspan="3">7 1 10</td> <td colspan="3">6 2 10</td> </tr> <tr> <td>Breadth between the tips of the middle fingers of each hand when the arms are stretched out horizontally</td> <td colspan="3">8 3 10</td> <td colspan="3">8 0 2</td> </tr> </table>

SIDE VIEW.

Thickness from the fore to the back part of the skull from the wing of the nose to the tip of the ear of the upper part of the neck from the breast to the back over the nipples from the belly to the small of the back from the belly above the navel to the back of the loins from the bottom of the belly to the round of the hip from the fore part of the thigh to the bottom of the hip of the thigh at middle of the thigh above the knee at the middle of the knee below the patella of the leg below the knee of the leg at the calf of the leg at the ankle of the foot at the thickest part length of the foot from the fore part of the bend of the foot to the lower and back part of the heel of the arm over the biceps over the elbow below the elbow at the wrist below the joint of the wrist of the hand at the roots of the fingers at the roots of the nails

<table> <tr> <th></th> <th>Apollo.</th> <th>Venus.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>Hds. Pts. Min.</td> <td>Hds. Pts. Min.</td> </tr> <tr> <td>3</td> <td>6</td> <td>3</td> <td>4</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1</td> <td>8½</td> <td>1</td> <td>6</td> </tr> <tr> <td>2</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>11</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1</td> <td>6</td> <td>1</td> <td>6</td> </tr> <tr> <td>3</td> <td>6</td> <td>3</td> <td>7</td> </tr> <tr> <td>3</td> <td>9</td> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>5</td> </tr> <tr> <td>3</td> <td>2</td> <td>3</td> <td>7</td> </tr> <tr> <td>3</td> <td>3</td> <td>3</td> <td>6½</td> </tr> <tr> <td>2</td> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>3</td> </tr> <tr> <td>2</td> <td>1</td> <td>2</td> <td>2</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1</td> <td>9</td> <td>1</td> <td>11</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1</td> <td>8</td> <td>1</td> <td>9</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1</td> <td>5½</td> <td>1</td> <td>4</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>3</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1</td> <td>6</td> <td>1</td> <td>4½</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>2</td> <td>2</td> </tr> <tr> <td>2</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>9</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1</td> <td>6</td> <td>1</td> <td>6</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1</td> <td>5</td> <td>1</td> <td>7</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1</td> <td>0</td> <td>1</td> <td>11</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1</td> <td>0</td> <td>0</td> <td>10</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0</td> <td>5½</td> <td>0</td> <td>5</td> </tr> <tr> <td>0</td> <td>3½</td> <td>0</td> <td>3</td> </tr> </table>

The other most admired antique statues differ a little from these proportions, the Laocoon measuring 7 h. 2 p. 3 m. the Hercules 7 h. 3 p. 7 m. the Pyramus 7 h. 2 p. the Antinous 7 h. 2 p. the Grecian shepherd 7 h. 3 p. 6 m. and the Mirmillo 8 h. But all their other proportions are allowed to be harmonious and agreeable to the characters of the figures they represent.

The most remarkable differences of the symmetry or proportions of a man and of a woman to be observed from the Table are: First, The shoulders of a man are broader, measuring two heads, and the haunches narrower, measuring 1 h. 1 p. 5 m. whereas the shoulders of a woman measure only 1 h. 3 p. 8 m. and the haunches measure 1 h. 2 p. 3 m. The sternum or breast-bone of a man is longer, measuring 3 p. 8 m. and the sternum of the woman only 3 p. 3 m. On the contrary, the pelvis of a man is less, measuring from the top to bottom only 4 p. whereas the pelvis of a woman measures from the top to the bottom 4 p. 3 m.

It is a leading principle, in which every person conversant in designing has agreed, that without a perfect knowledge of the proportions, nothing can be produced but monstrous and extravagant figures; and it is also universally admitted, that the ancient Greek and Roman sculptors attained the highest success in producing the most perfect models.

The greatest of the modern artists who have examined their figures with attention admit, that several of the ancient sculptors in some degree have excelled nature, they never having found any man so perfect in all his parts as some of their figures are. Their opportunities indeed were great; Greece abounded with beauties; and Rome being mistress of the world, every thing that was curious and beautiful was brought to it from all parts. Their motives were also powerful; religion, glory, and interest. They considered it as a kind of religious worship to give the figures of their gods so much nobleness and beauty as to be able to attract the love and veneration of the people. Their own glory was also concerned, particular honours being bestowed on those who succeeded; and for their fortune they had no further care to take when they once arrived at a certain degree of merit.

Attitudes and Action of the Muscles. If a strong person is to be represented in a vigorous action, such as Hercules, &c. after a suitable proportion to such a figure and the action is designed, the parts or limbs employed in the chiefest force of the action ought to be considered. If the figure is standing, the foot must be placed in a right line, or perpendicular to the trunk or bulk of the body, where the centre of gravity may be placed in æquilibrio. This centre is determined by the heel: or, if the figure is upon tiptoe, then the ball of the great toe is in the centre. The muscles of the leg which supports the body ought to be swelled, and their tendons drawn more to extention than those of the other leg, which is only placed so as to receive the weight of the body towards that way to which the action inclines it. For example, suppose Hercules with a club striking at any thing before him towards the left side: Then let his right leg be placed so as to receive the whole weight of the body, and the left loosely touching the ground with his toes. Here the external muscles of the right leg ought to be expressed very strong; but those of the left scarcely appearing more than if it were in some sedentary posture, except in the present case. The foot being extended, the muscles which compose the calf of the leg are in action and appear very strong; though it is not meant that all the muscles of the right leg, which supports the weight of the body, ought to be expressed very strong or equally swelled, but those most tumefied which are chiefly concerned in the action or posture that the leg is then in. For example, if the leg or tibia is extended, then the extending muscles placed on the thigh are most swelled: if it is bended, then the bending muscles and their tendons appear most. The like may be observed of the whole body in general when it is put into vigorous action. The Laocoon formerly in the Vatican garden at Rome, now in the Louvre at Paris, furnishes an example of this muscular appearance through the whole; but in the Antinous, Apollo, also in the Louvre, and other figures of the ancients, in postures where no considerable actions are designed, we see their muscles expressed but faintly, or scarcely appearing.

The clavicles or collar-bones, and muscles in general, do not appear in women as in men; nor will any action in which a woman uses her utmost strength occasion such swellings or risings of the muscles to appear as they do in men, since the great quantity of fat placed under the skin of women so clothes their muscles, &c., as to prevent any such appearance.

Effects of the Exertion of the Muscles. The following are the most obvious effects of the exertion of several of the muscles; of those, to wit, which chiefly demand the attention of an artist.

If either of the mastoid muscles (Plate CLXXXII. 1. 1.) act, the head is turned to the contrary side, and the muscle which performs that action appears very plain under the skin.

If the arms are lifted up, the deltoid muscles placed on the shoulders, which perform that action, swell, and make the extremities of the spines of the shoulder-blades (Plate CLXXXIII. 3. 3.), called the tops of the shoulders, appear indented or hollow.

The shoulder-blades following the elevation of the arms, their bases (Plate CLXXXIII. 4. 4.) incline at that time obliquely downward.

If the arms are drawn down, put forwards, or pulled backwards, the shoulder-blades necessarily vary their positions accordingly. All these particulars are to be learned by consulting the life only; when being well acquainted with what then appears in every action, the artist will be able to form an adequate idea how it ought to be expressed. These circumstances are little known; hence seldom attended to in designing.

When the cubit or fore-arm is bent, the biceps (Plate CLXXXII. 5. 5.) has its belly very much raised, as appears in the left arm. The like may be observed of the triceps (Plate CLXXXIII. 6. 6.) when the arm is extended as observed in the right arm.

The straight muscles of the abdomen (Plate CLXXXII. 7. 7.) appear very strong when rising from a decumbent posture.

The parts of the great serratus muscle (ib. 8. 8.) which are received in the teeth or beginnings of the oblique descending muscle immediately below, are very much swelled when the shoulder on the same side is brought forwards; that serratus muscle then being in action in drawing the scapular forwards.

The long extending muscles of the trunk (Plate CLXXXIII. 9. 9.) act alternately in walking, after this manner: If the right leg bears the weight of the body, and the left is in translation as on tiptoe, the last-mentioned muscles of the back on the left side may be observed to be tumefied on the other side about the region of the loins, and so on the other side.

The trochanters, or outward and uppermost heads of the thigh-bones (Plate CLXXXIII. 10. 10.), vary in their positions in such a manner as no precise observation can explain their several appearances; but the study after the life ought to be carefully attended to.

If the thigh is extended, as when the whole weight of the body rests on that side, the gluteus or buttock muscle (Plate CLXXXIII. 11. 11.) makes a very different appearance from what offers at another time; but if the thigh is drawn backwards, that muscle appears still more and more tumefied.

When the whole leg is drawn upwards forwards, and at the same time the foot is inclined inwards, the upper part of the sartorius muscle (Plate CLXXXII. 12. 12.) appears rising very strong; in other positions of the thigh, that muscle makes a furrowing appearance in its whole progress.

If a man is upon tiptoe, the extending muscles of the leg placed on the fore part of the thigh (Plate CLXXXII. 13. 13. 13.), and those of the foot that compose the calf of the leg (Plate CLXXXIII. 14. 14.) appear very strong, and the long peroneus (Plate CLXXXII. 15.) makes a considerable indentation or furrowing at that time in its progress on the outside of the leg.

Many other remarks might here be offered: but a due attention to nature will soon discover them.

§ 6. Of Light and Shade.

After the learner has made himself in some measure perfect in drawing outlines, his next endeavour must be to shade them properly. It is this which gives an appearance of substance, shape, distance, and distinction, to whatever body he endeavours to represent, whether animate or inanimate. The best rule for doing this is, to consider from what point, and in what direction, the light falls upon the objects which he is delineating, and to let all his lights and shades be placed according to that direction throughout the whole work. That part of the object must be lightest which hath the light most directly opposite to it; if the light falls sideways on the picture, he must make that side which is opposite to it lightest, and that side which is farthest from it darkest. If he is drawing the figure of a man, and the light be placed above the head, then the top of the head must be made lightest, the shoulders next lightest, and the lower parts darker by degrees. That part of the object, whether in naked figures or drapery, or buildings, that stands farthest out, must be made the lightest, because it comes nearest to the light; and the light lofeth so much of its brightness, by how much any part of the body bends inward, because those parts that stick out hinder the lustre and full brightness of the light from striking on those parts that fall in. Titian used to say, that he knew no better rule for the distributions of lights and shadows than his observations drawn from a bunch of grapes. Satins and silks, and all other shining stuffs, have certain glancing reflections, exceeding bright where the light falls strongest. The like is seen in armour, brafs pots, or any other glittering metal, where you see a sudden brightness in the middle or centre of the light, which discovers the shining nature of such things. Observe also, that a strong light requires a strong shade, a fainter light a fainter shade; and that an equal balance be preserved throughout the piece between the lights and shades. Those parts which must appear round require but one stroke in shading, and that sometimes but very faint; such parts as should appear deep or hollow, require two strokes across each other, or sometimes three, which is sufficient for the deepest shade. Care must be also taken to make the outlines faint and small in such parts as receive the light; but where the shades fall, the outline must be strong and bold. The learner must begin his shadings from the top, and proceed downward, and use his utmost endeavours both by practice and observation to learn how to vary the shadings properly; for in this consists a great deal of the beauty and elegance of drawing. Another thing to be observed is, that as the human sight is weakened by distances, so objects must seem more or less confused or clear according to the places they hold in the piece: Those that are very distant,—weak, faint, and confused; those that are near and on the foremost ground,—clear, strong, and accurately finished.

§ 7. Of Drapery.

In the art of clothing the figures, or casting the drapery properly and elegantly upon them, many things are to be observed. 1. The eye must never be in doubt of its object; but the shape and proportion of the part or limb, which the drapery is supposed to cover, must appear; at least so far as art and probability will permit: and this is so material a consideration, that many artists draw first the naked figure, and afterwards put the draperies upon it. 2. The drapery must not fit too close to the parts of the body; but let it seem to flow round, and as it were to embrace them; yet so as that the figure may be easy, and have a free motion. 3. The draperies which cover those parts that are exposed to great light must not be so deeply shaded as to seem to pierce them; nor should those members be crossed by folds that are too strong, lest by the too great darkness of the shades the members look as if they were broken. 4. The great folds must be drawn first, and then stroked into lesser ones; and great care must be taken that they do not cross one another improperly. 5. Folds in general should be large, and as few as possible. However, they must be greater or less according to the quantity and quality of the stuffs of which the drapery is supposed to be made. The quality of the person is also to be considered in the drapery. If they are magistrates, their draperies ought to be large and ample: if country clowns or slaves, they ought to be coarse and short; if ladies or nymphs, light and soft. 6. Suit the garments to the body, and make them bend with it, according as it stands in or out, straight or crooked; or as it bends one way or another; and the closer the garment fits to the body, the narrower and smaller must be the folds. 7. Folds well imagined give much spirit to any kind of action; because their motion implies a motion in the acting member, which seems to draw them forcibly, and makes them more or less stirring as the action is more or less violent. 8. An artful complication of folds in a circular manner greatly helps the effect of foreshortenings. 9. All folds consist of two shades, and no more; which you may turn with the garment at pleasure, shadowing the inner side deeper, and the outer more faintly. 10. The shades in silk and fine linen are very thick and small, requiring little folds and a light shadow. 11. Observe the motion of the air or wind, in order to draw the loose apparel all flying one way; and draw that part of the garment that adheres closest to the body before you draw the looser part that flies off from it; left, by drawing the loose part of the garment first, you should mistake the position of the figure, and place it awry. 12. Rich ornaments, when judiciously and sparingly used, may sometimes contribute to the beauty of draperies. But such ornaments are far below the dignity of angels or heavenly figures; the grandeur of whose draperies ought rather to consist in the boldness and nobleness of the folds, than in the quality of the stuff or the glitter of ornaments. 13. Light and flying draperies are properly only to figures in great motion, or in the wind: but when in a calm place, and free from violent action, their draperies should be large and flowing; that by their contrast and the fall of the folds, they may appear with grace and dignity. Thus much for draperies; an example or two of which are given in Plate CLXXXIX. But see farther the articles CRAYON and PAINTING.

§ 8. On the Passions.

The passions, says M. le Brun, are motions of the soul, either upon her pursuing what she judges to be for her good, or thumping what she thinks hurtful to her; and commonly, whatever causes emotion or passion in the soul, creates also some action in the body. It is therefore necessary for a painter to know which are the different actions in the body that express the several passions of the soul, and how to delineate them. M. le Brun has been extremely happy in expressing many of the passions, and the learner cannot study any thing better than the examples which he has left us of them. However, as M. de Piles justly observes, it is absurd as well as impossible to pretend to give such particular demonstrations of them as to fix their expression to certain strokes, which the painter should be obliged to make use of as essential and invariable rules. This (says he) would be depriving the art of that excellent variety of expression which has no other principle than diversity of imagination, the number of which is infinite. The same passion may be finely expressed several ways, each yielding more or less pleasure in proportion to the painter's understanding and the spectator's discernment.

Though every part of the face contributes towards expressing the sentiments of the heart, yet the eyebrow, according to M. le Brun, is the principal seat of expression, and where the passions best make themselves known. It is certain, says he, that the pupil of the eye, by its fire and motion, very well shows the agitation of the soul, but then it does not express the kind or nature of such an agitation; whereas the motion of the eyebrow differs according as the passions change their nature. To express a simple passion, the motion is simple; to express a mixed passion, the motion is compound: if the passion be gentle, the motion is gentle; and if it be violent, the motion is so too. We may observe farther, says he, that there are two kinds of elevation in the eyebrows. One, in which the eyebrows rise up in the middle; this elevation expresses agreeable sensations, and it is to be observed that then the mouth rises at the corners: Another, in which the eyebrows rise up at the ends, and fall in the middle; this motion denotes bodily pain, and then the mouth falls at the corners. In laughter, all the parts agree; for the eyebrows, which fall toward the middle of the forehead, make the nose, the mouth, and the eyes, follow the same motion. In weeping, the motions are compound and contrary; for the eyebrows fall toward the nose and over the eyes, and the mouth rises that way. It is to be observed also, that the mouth is the part of the face which more particularly expresses the emotions of the heart: for when the heart complains, the mouth falls at the corners; when it is at ease, the corners of the mouth are elevated; and when it has an aversion, the mouth throuths forward, and rises in the middle.

"The head (says M. de Piles) contributes more to the expression of the passions than all the other parts of the body put together. Those separately can only show some few passions, but the head expresses them all. Some, however, are more peculiarly expressed by it than others: as humility, by hanging it down; arrogance, by lifting it up; languishment, by inclining it to one side; and obstinacy, when with a stiff and resolute air it stands upright, fixed, and stiff between the two shoulders. The head also best shows our supplications, threats, mildness, pride, love, hatred, joy, and grief. The whole face, and every feature, contributes something; especially the eyes; which, as Cicero says, are the windows of the soul. The passions they more particularly discover are, pleasure, languishing, scorn, severity, mildness, admiration, and anger; to which one might add joy and grief, if they did not proceed more particularly from the eyebrows and mouth; but when those two passions fall in also with the language of the eyes, the harmony will be wonderful. But though the passions of the soul are most visible in the lines and features of the face, they often require the assistance also of the other parts of the body. Without the hands, for instance, all action is weak and imperfect; their motions, which are almost infinite, create numberless expressions: it is by them that we desire, hope, promise, call, send back; they are the instruments of threatening, prayer, horror, and praise: by them we approve, condemn, refuse, admit, fear, ask; express our joy and grief, our doubts, regrets, pain, and admiration. In a word, it may be said, as they are the language of the dumb, that they contribute not a little to speak a language common to all nations, which is the language of painting. But to say how these parts must be disposed for expressing the various passions, is impossible; nor can any exact rules be given for it, both because the talk would be infinite, and because every one must be guided in this by his own genius and the particular turn of his own studies." See the article Passions, and the Plate there referred to.

§ 9. Of drawing Flowers, Fruits, Birds, Beasts, &c.

The learner may proceed now to make some attempts at drawing flowers, fruits, birds, beasts, and the like; not only as it will be a more pleasing employment, but as it is an easier task, than the drawing of hands and feet, and other parts of the human body, which require not only more care, but greater exactness and nicer judgment. Very few rules or instructions are requisite upon this head: the best thing the learner can do is, to furnish himself with good prints or drawings by way of examples, and with great care and exactness to copy them. If it is the figure of a beast, begin with the forehead, and draw the nose, the upper and under jaw, and stop at the throat. Then go to the top of the head, and form the ears, neck, back, and continue the line till you have given the full shape of the buttock. Then form the breast, and mark out the legs and feet, and all the smaller parts. And, last of all, finish it with the proper shadows. It is not amiss, by way of ornament, to give a small sketch of landscape; and let it be suitable and natural to the place or country of the beast you draw. Much the same may be said with regard to birds. Of these, as well as beasts and other objects, the learner will find many examples among the plates given in this work.

§ 10. Of drawing Landscapes, Buildings, &c.

Of all the parts of drawing, this is the most useful and necessary, as it is what every man may have occasion for at one time or another. To be able, on the spot, to take the sketch of a fine building, or a beautiful prospect; of any curious production of art, or uncommon appearance in nature; is not only a very desirable accomplishment, but a very agreeable amusement. Rocks, mountains, fields, woods, rivers, cataracts, cities, towns, castles, houses, fortifications, ruins, or whatsoever else may present itself to view on our journeys or travels in our own or foreign countries, may be thus brought home, and preserved for our future use either in business or conversation. On this part, therefore, more than ordinary pains should be bestowed.

All drawing consists in nicely measuring the distances of each part of the piece by the eye. In order to facilitate this, let the learner imagine in his own mind, that the piece he copies is divided into squares. For example: Suppose or imagine a perpendicular and a horizontal line crossing each other in the centre of the picture you are drawing from; then suppose also two such lines crossing your own copy. Observe in the original what parts of the design those lines intersect, and let them fall on the same parts of the supposed lines in the copy: We say, the supposed lines; because though engravers, and others who copy with great exactness, divide both the copy and original into many squares, as below; yet this is a method not to be recommended, as it will be apt to deceive the learner, who will fancy himself a tolerable proficient, till he comes to draw after nature, where these helps are not to be had, when he will find himself miserably defective and utterly at a loss.

If he is to draw a landscape from nature, let him take take his station on a rising ground, where he will have a large horizon; and mark his tablet into three divisions, downwards from the top to the bottom; and divide in his own mind the landscape he is to take, into three divisions also. Then let him turn his face directly opposite to the midst of the horizon, keeping his body fixed, and draw what is directly before his eyes upon the middle division of the tablet; then turn his head, but not his body, to the left hand, and delineate what he views there, joining it properly to what he had done before; and, lastly, do the fame by what is to be seen upon his right hand, laying down every thing exactly both with respect to distance and proportion. One example is given on Plate CLXXIX.

The best artists, in drawing their landscapes, make them shoot away one part lower than another. Those who make their landscapes mount up higher and higher, as if they stood at the bottom of a hill to take the prospect, commit a great error: the best way is to get upon a rising ground, make the nearest objects in the piece the highest, and those that are farther off to shoot away lower and lower till they come almost level with the line of the horizon, lessening every thing proportionally to its distance, and observing also to make the objects fainter and less distinct the farther they are removed from the eye. He must make all his lights and shades fall one way, and let every thing have its proper motion: as trees shaken by the wind, the small boughs bending more, and the large ones less: water agitated by the wind, and dashing against ships or boats, or falling from a precipice upon rocks and stones, and spitting up again into the air, and sprinkling all about: clouds also in the air, now gathered with the winds; now violently condensed into hail, rain, and the like: Always remembering, that whatever motions are caused by the wind must be made all to move the same way, because the wind can blow but one way at once.

Finally, It must be observed, that in order to attain any considerable proficiency in drawing, a knowledge of PERSPECTIVE is absolutely necessary: see that article.

DRAY, a kind of cart used by brewers for carrying barrels of beer or ale; also a sledge drawn without wheels.

DRAY, among sportsmen, denotes squirrel nests built in the tops of trees.