Natural Philosophy, a sudden and violent expansion of an aerial or other elastic fluid, by which it instantly throws off any obstacle that happens to be in the way, sometimes with incredible force, and in such a manner as to produce the most astonishing effects upon the neighbouring objects.

Explosion differs from expansion, in that the latter is a gradual and continued power, acting uniformly for some time, whereas the former is always sudden, and only of momentary duration. The expansions of solid substances do not terminate in violent explosions, on account of their slowness, and the small space through which the metal, or other expanding substance, moves; though their strength may be equally great with that of the most active aerial fluids. Thus we find, that though wedges of wood, when wetted, will cleave solid blocks of stone, they never throw them to any distance, as is the case with gunpowder. On the other hand, it is seldom that the expansion of any elastic fluid bursts a solid substance without throwing the fragments of it to a considerable distance, the effects of which are often very terrible. The reasons of this may be comprised in the two following particulars:

1. The immense velocity with which the aerial fluids expand, when affected by a considerable degree of heat; and,

2. Their celerity in acquiring heat and being affected by it, which is much superior to that of solid substances. Thus air, heated as much as iron when brought to a white heat, is expanded to four times its bulk; but the metal itself will not be expanded the sixtieth part of the space. In the case of gunpowder, which is a violent and well-known explosive substance, the velocity with which the flame moves is calculated by Mr Robins, in his Treatise upon Gunnery, to be no less than 7000 feet in a second, or little less than 79 miles per minute. Hence the impulse of the fluid is inconceivably great, and the obstacles on which it strikes are hurried off with vast velocity, though much less than that just mentioned; for a cannon bullet, with the greatest charge of powder that can be conveniently given, does not move at a greater rate than 2400 feet per second, or little more than 27 miles per minute. The velocity of the bullet again is promoted by the sudden propagation of the heat through the whole body of air, as soon as it is extricated from the materials of which the gunpowder is made; so that it is enabled to strike all at once, and thus greatly to augment the momentum of the ball. It is evident that this contributes very much to the force of the explosion, by what happens when powder is wetted or mixed with any substance, which prevents it from taking fire all at once. In this case the force of the explosion, even when the same quantity of powder is made use of, cannot be compared to that of dry powder.

Upon these principles we may conclude that the force of an explosion depends, 1. On the quantity of elastic fluid to be expanded; 2. On the velocity it acquires by a certain degree of heat; and, 3. On the celerity with which the degree of heat affects the whole of the expansive fluid. These three take place in the greatest perfection where the electric fluid is concerned; as in cases of lightning, earthquakes, and volcanoes. This fluid, as is shown in many parts of this work, differs not from elementary fire or the light of the sun; it pervades the whole system of nature; its expansion is nothing else than its motion from a centre towards a circumference, for it does not seem capable of any proper expansion by a separation of its parts like any other fluid. Hence, when it begins to expand in this manner, the motion is propagated through it with a velocity far exceeding that of any other fluid whatever. Thus, even when the quantity is excessively small, as when an electric spark is sent through a glass full of water or oil, the expansion is so violent as to dissipate the glass into innumerable fragments with great danger to the bystanders, as is observed under the article ELECTRICITY. In violent lightning, where the electric fluid collects itself into balls, the strength of the explosion is proportionate to the quantity. Every one has heard of the prodigious effects of lightning when it happens to strike buildings, trees, or even the most solid rocks; and in some cases, where the quantity of electricity is still greater than in any flail of lightning, we hear of still more tremendous consequences ensuing. Dr Priestley gives an instance of a large fire ball (undoubtedly a quantity of electric matter) rolling on the surface of the sea, which after rising up to the topmast of a ship of war, burst with such violence that the explosion resembled the discharge of hundreds of cannon fired at once. Great damage was done by it; but there is not the least doubt that most of its force was spent on the air, or carried down to the sea by the mast and iron work of the ship. Indeed, considering that in all cases a great part of the force of electric explosions is dissipated in this manner, it may justly be doubted whether they can be measured by any method applicable to the measurement of other forces. Even in artificial electricity the force is prodigiously great; inasmuch that Dr Van Marum calculated that of the great battery belonging to the machine in Teyler's museum to be upwards of 900 pounds.

In those cases where the electrical matter acts like volcanic common fire, the force of the explosions, though exceedingly great, is capable of measurement by comparing the distances to which the bodies are thrown with their weight. This is most evident in volcanoes, where the projections or the burning rocks and lava manifest the greatness of the power, at the same time that they afford a method of measuring it. These explosions, as is shown under the article Volcano, are owing to extrication of aerial vapors, and their rarefaction by intense heat. In all of them the air is originally in a state of decomposition, viz., its invisible and solid part is joined with some terrestrial substances. Thus, when fixed air, for instance, is exposed to any pure earth which attracts it, as calcined magnesia, a decomposition instantly takes place. All these vapors are composed of elementary fire and some invisible substance capable of assuming a solid form. The decomposition just mentioned is therefore easily explained; the solid part of the air joins itself to the magnesia, while the elementary fire or latent heat is dissipated, and passes through the sides of the vessel. Were it now in our power suddenly to restore the latent heat to the whole of the fixed air, so that it would at once assume its former expansion, a violent explosion would follow. This seems to be precisely the case with the volcanic explosions. An immense quantity of the fixed part of different aerial fluids is united to the various substances found below the surface of the earth. By means of the electric fire which kindles the volcanoes, the aerial fluids are suddenly restored to their elastic state; and not only so, but their natural elasticity is greatly augmented, so that the explosions take place with great violence. The case is the same with gunpowder; only that the condensed air in this case is at first of the dephlogisticated kind, but is quickly phlogisticated by reason of the combustible matters mixed with the nitre, while the heat produced by the inflammation augments the elasticity of the generated air to four times what it usually is, so that the whole force of the explosion is calculated at 1000 times the pressure of the common atmosphere.

Thus the explosions of gunpowder and of volcanoes are essentially the same. The reason of the extreme quickness of those of gunpowder is, that it takes fire so readily by the intimate mixture and combustibility of all the materials. In volcanoes the explosions likewise follow one another very quickly, and are by no means inferior in strength to those of gunpowder; but here the quantity of vapor makes up for the comparative slowness with which it is affected by the heat. Thus, though we could not by any means contrive to fire cannon in quick succession by means of calcareous earth as we can do with gunpowder, yet in the huge furnace of a volcano the elastic matter is supplied in such quantities, that the explosions are in a manner unremitting; that even in ordinary experiments the confinement of aerial vapors has often occasioned violent explosions in chemical vessels. In one case too the extrication of fixed air adds excessively to the force of an explosion, viz., in that of pulvis fulminans. This is compounded of sulphur, saltpetre, and salt of tartar. The latter we know contains much fixed air; and it is probable that the violence of the explosion is occasioned by this air; for the greater quantity of it that the alkaline salt contains, the greater force does it explode with. Fulminating gold emits a quantity of phlogisticated air, to which its explosive power is supposed to be owing, as is explained under the article Chemistry; but that of fulminating silver is so extraordinary, that scarce any force of aerial vapor that can be extricated is likely to produce it, and it seems probable that electricity itself is concerned.

Next in strength to the aerial vapors are those of aqueous and other liquids. The most remarkable effects of these are observed in steam engines; but there is one particular case from which it has been inferred that aqueous steam is vastly stronger than the flame of gunpowder. This is when water is thrown upon melted copper; for here the explosion is so strong as almost to exceed imagination; and the most terrible accidents have been known to happen from such a flight cause as per. one of the workmen spitting in the furnace where copper was melting. Here, however, it is most probable that a decomposition of the water takes place. That owing to this element can be decomposed, or reformed into elastic fluid of the vapors, has been completely established by the most satisfactory experiments, and is now, we believe, universally admitted by chemical philosophers. See Water, Chemistry Index. The position is indeed denied by the phlogitists; but their arguments appear not to be conclusive; nor is it a fact which militates in the least against their principles. On the supposition that the water is decomposed in the present case, however, the phenomenon in question is easily solved. The water being thrown in substance upon the melted copper, is decomposed by the violent heat; and one part of it adheres to the metal, thus converting it into a calx, or oxide, while the other is converted into inflammable air, or hydrogen gas, which expanding suddenly, throws the melted metal all about with the greatest violence by means of its reaction.

To understand the manner in which this is accomplished, we must consider some of the principles of Gunnery laid down by Mr Robins, and related under that article. One of these is, that though the air, in cases of ordinary velocity, makes no great resistance, it is far otherwise where the velocity of the moving body becomes very great. In all cases of explosion also there is in the first instance a resisting vacuum made by the exploding fluid; and consequently the weight of the atmosphere is to be overcome, which amounts to about 14 pounds on every square inch of surface. Supposing the surface of the exploding fluid, then, on that of melted copper, to contain an area of 4 square inches, it meets with a resistance of 60 pounds from the atmosphere, and consequently communicates an equal pressure to the fluid metal. Even this must of consequence throw it about, unless the same pressure was exactly diffused over every part of the surface. But much more must this effect be increased by the immense velocity with which the fluid moves, and by which the resistance of the atmosphere is augmented in a prodigious degree, as is explained under the article Gunnery. The elastic fluid generated is then confined not only by the fluid metal and sides of the furnace, but by the air itself, which cannot get out of the way; so that the whole resembles a cannon closed at the mouth, and filled with inflamed gunpowder. Hence not only the melted metal, but the furnace itself and the adjacent walls of the building, are hurried off as they would be by the firing of a great quantity of gunpowder in a small space, and which is well known to produce analogous effects.

In explaining the phenomenon in question, Dr Black supposes that the mere heat of the metal applied to the Explosion. aqueous steam produces the explosion; and in proof of this alleges, that copper imbibes a greater quantity of heat during fusion than any other metal. Aqueous steam, however, seems to be too slow for producing such sudden and violent effects. Explosions, it is true, will be occasioned by it, but then it must be confined for a very considerable time; whereas the effects of water thrown upon melted copper are instantaneous.

It may now be asked, Why such explosions do not take place with any other metal, iron for instance, when water is thrown upon its surface in fusion? In answer to this we must observe, That though water is decomposed by being applied to red-hot iron in the form of steam, yet there is a possibility, that when the same element is applied in substance to the fluid metal, no decomposition may ensue. Something like this indeed happens with copper itself; for notwithstanding the violent effects which take place on the contact of water in substance with the melted metal, no explosion happens though aqueous steam be blown upon its surface. On the contrary, the upper part of the metal is thus cooled, and forms itself into cakes, which are afterwards taken off, and new ones formed in the same manner; neither does aqueous steam affect red-hot copper in the manner that it does iron in the same state.

A decisive proof that the explosion is not occasioned by the mere heat of the aqueous steam may be deduced from the example of melted glass, which produces no explosion though we pour water upon it in that state; and yet the heat of melted glass is undoubtedly equal at least to that of melted copper. It must be observed, however, that in all cases where a very hot body is thrown upon a small quantity of water in substance, an explosion will follow; but here the water is confined and suddenly rarefied into steam, which cannot get away without throwing off the body which confines it. Examples of this kind frequently occur where masons or other mechanics are employed in fastening cramps of iron into stones where, if there happens to be a little water in the hole into which the lead is poured, the latter will fly out in such a manner as sometimes to burn them severely. Terrible accidents of this kind have sometimes happened in foundries, when large quantities of melted metal have been poured into wet moulds. In these cases, the sudden expansion of the aqueous steam has thrown out the metal with violence; and if any decomposition has taken place at the same time, so as to convert the aqueous into an aerial vapour, the explosion must be still greater.

To this last kind of explosion we must refer that which takes place on pouring cold water into boiling oil or burning oil or tallow. Here the case is much the same whether we pour the oil on the water, or the water on the oil. In the former case, the water which lies at the bottom is rarefied into steam, and explodes; in the latter, it sinks down through the oil by its superior specific gravity, and explodes as it passes along. In either case, however, the quantity of aqueous fluid must be but small in proportion to that of the oil: a very great quantity would put out the flame, or destroy the heat, in whatever way we applied it.

Another kind of explosion is that which takes place in solid substances, where we can scarcely suppose either aqueous or aerial vapours to be concerned. The most remarkable of these are the volcanic bombs mentioned by Sir William Hamilton in the great eruption of Vesuvius in 1779. They were large pieces of lava which burst in pieces like bombs as they fell to the ground; but he does not inform us whether their bursting was attended with any great violence or not. Indeed, amidst such scenes of horror, and the continual tremendous explosions of the volcano, smaller phenomena of this kind would probably be overlooked. Other examples are the Glass Tears, of which an account is given under that article; the bursting of electrical globes, when put in motion; of other glass vessels spontaneously, and seemingly without any cause; and lastly, the bursting of large cast metal vessels in the act of cooling. These are all so similar to one another, that it is probable they depend on one general cause. All of them agree in this respect, that the extreme parts of them are considerably cooled, while the internal remain very hot. Thus, in the volcanic bombs, the current of air, formed by their swift passage through it in falling, necessarily carries off a great quantity of heat from the parts which are in contact with it, while the rest are scarce at all cooled. The glass tears are artificially cooled on the outside by dropping them upon water; and in consequence of this, their explosion is probably more violent in proportion to their bulk than that of the volcanic bombs. Glass vessels only burst spontaneously when they have not been well annealed; and we know that this bad annealing consists only in applying cold too suddenly to the outside. Something like this probably takes place when cast-iron vessels explode; and we are certain it does so with electrical globes, for these last are not apt to burst if they have been well annealed. In all cases, therefore, there is a remarkable contraction of the outward surface by the cold, while the internal parts remain as much expanded as ever. In this case there must be a continual effort of that subtle fluid called elementary fire, from the internal to the external part, as the contraction gradually proceeds the contrary way. Thus, when a volcanic bomb, for instance, is cooled on the outside, its parts are consolidated so that the internal fluid has not such an easy passage through it as is necessary. In consequence of this it makes a greater effort, which is still farther augmented by the cooling and contraction of the internal parts squeezing the fluid out from among themselves, and forcing it to recoil upon that in the centre, as well as to exert itself against the external part; from which united operation the effect already mentioned at last takes place. This explanation, however, does not hold with respect to electrical globes, glass tears, or ill annealed glass: but in order to accommodate it to all these, we have only to remember, that fire, and the electric fluid acting from a centre to a circumference, are not in the least different; so that from whatever cause the electric matter is disposed to act in this manner, the same effect will follow, i.e., an explosion will take place if the substance does not afford an equally ready passage through all its parts, and that whether any sensible heat is felt in it or not.

The only other kind of explosion we have to take notice of is that produced by inflammable and dephlogisticated air, or oxygen and hydrogen gases, when mixed together and set on fire. This differs from any of those hitherto considered, because in reality there is an absolute Explosion. Iute condensation rather than an expansion throughout the whole of the operation; and the result is the formation of water; and could the airs be made to take fire throughout their whole substance absolutely at the same instant, there would be no explosion, but only a sudden production of heat. From this cause also is derived a very singular phenomenon taken notice of by Dr Priestley in his experiments on that subject, recorded in the Phil. Transl. Having enclosed several quantities of inflammable and dephlogisticated air in a copper vessel, firing them afterwards by the electric sparks, he found that the force of the explosion was directed more towards one part of the vessel than another; least on that part where the electrical discharge was made, and most upon that which was farthest from it. This inequality was very considerable; insomuch that he could not repeat his experiment any number of times without injuring the vessel in that part which was farthest from the discharge. The reason he gives for this is, that the mixture was not fired at the same instant, but first at the place where the discharge was made. This first explosion would have acted equally upon all parts of the vessel, had it not been for the intervention of the air. By the first momentary explosion, however, the air in the farthest part of the vessel was condensed, so that the next explosion was made stronger, while the copper in the forcible part of the vessel had the whole of this strong explosion to resist, the hinder part being but little concerned, as the air in it was condensed and reduced almost to a vacuum.

Though the phenomena of explosions are sometimes very destructive, they are likewise of considerable use in life, by removing obstacles which could scarcely be got the better of by any mechanical power whatever. The principal of these are the blowing up of rocks, the separating of stones in quarries, and other purposes of that kind. The destruction occasioned by them in times of war, and the machines formed upon the principle of explosion for the destruction of the human race, are well known; and if we cannot call these useless, we must allow them at least to be necessary evils. For the production of explosions, gunpowder is the only substance that has yet been found to answer; nevertheless, as its use is attended with considerable expense, several attempts have been made to find out a cheap substitute for it. One of the most remarkable of these was by mixing small quantities of water, enclosed in little bladders or some easily destructible vehicles, along with a charge of powder. By this contrivance it was hoped that the water being converted into vapour when the powder was inflamed, would augment the force of the explosion; but instead of this, it was found greatly to diminish it. The reason was evident, viz. that the conversion of the water into steam required much of the latent heat of the inflamed gunpowder, that enough was not left to give the necessary expansion to the aerial fluid produced. A mixture of hydrogen and oxygen gases has also been tried; but the explosion here has always been found too weak. In mines, indeed, very terrible effects are produced by such a mixture, but in these the quantity is immense; so that the comparative weakness of the mixture cannot be discovered. Electricity therefore seems to be the only resource we have; except by adding ingredients to gunpowder which may increase the strength of it. There can be no doubt indeed that the electric fluid is possessed of sufficient strength to perform every thing we could desire; and electricians have supposed, perhaps justly enough, that a cannon charged with water might, by means of electricity, become more dangerous than one charged with gunpowder; but this fluid is so exceedingly capricious, so imperceptible and unmanageable, that the use of it cannot as yet be thought practicable, nor in all probability ever will be so.

The effects of explosions, when violent, are felt at a considerable distance, by reason of the concussions they give to the atmosphere; for, as has been already hinted, all of them act upon the atmospherical fluid with extraordinary force, which they exert upon terrestrial substances subjected to their action. Sir William Hamilton relates, that at the explosions of Vesuvius in 1767, the doors and windows of the houses at Naples flew open if unbolted, and one door was burst open though it had been locked. A great quantity of gunpowder being put into the ditch of a fortified city, and set on fire, destroyed part of the wall, and broke down one of the gates. The blowing up of powder magazines or powder mills will destroy buildings and kill people, though certainly without the reach of the flame, and untouched by any part of the shattered magazine or mill. But the most curious effect is, that they electrify the air, and even glass windows, at a considerable distance. This is always observable in firing the guns of the Tower at London; and some years ago, after an explosion of some powder mills in the neighbourhood of that city, a great number of people were alarmed by a rattling and breaking of their china ware; which by the vulgar was taken for a supernatural phenomenon, but undoubtedly was owing to some commotion in the electrical fluid from the violent concussion of the atmosphere. In this respect, however, the effects of electrical explosions themselves are most remarkable, though not in the uncommon way just mentioned; but it is certain, that the influence of a flash of lightning is diffused for a great way round the place where the explosion happens, producing many very perceptible changes both on the animal and vegetable creation.

**EXPO**NENT, in Algebra, the same with index. See **ALGEBRA**.

Exponential is also used in arithmetic, in the same sense as index or logarithm.