INTRODUCTION.

The term farrier is probably a corruption of ferrier, Fr. ferrans, from the verb ferrer, io shoe a horse; all these words being derived from the Latin ferrum, "iron." There is no doubt that the word farrier was at first used to denote a person who shod horses, but as these persons were for a long period the only horse-doctors, the term was soon used in the more extensive sense of horse doctor or horse-leech; and hence farriery came to signify the art of curing the diseases of horses.

There can be little doubt that the word farrier was originally spelt ferrier or ferrer; as we meet with this latter orthography in some of our older writers. Thus Blundeville, who wrote in the time of Queen Elizabeth, in his "Address to the Gentlemen of England," book iv. has the following sentence.

"All horses, for the most part, do come into their decay, sooner than they should do, by one of these four ways; that is to say, either for lacke of being well bred, or through the rashness of the rider, the negligence of the keeper, or else through the unskillfulness of the ferrer."

Again, the same author mentions "Martin Ghelly of Aston, called Martin Alman, chief ferrer to the queen's majesty."

the usual acceptation of the word, forms only a part of that more general art, which has been commonly called the veterinary art; by which is understood the art of medicine as applied to the inferior animals, which has been long called by the French l'art veterinaire, or medicinae veterinarie. This word veterinary is of very ancient date, being derived from the Latin veterinarius, which is used by Columella to denote a horse-doctor or cattle-doctor. The term veterinary, being derived from veterinus, qu. veheterrimus, à vehendo, carrying, is properly applicable only to beasts of burden; but veterinary medicine is now commonly employed in a more comprehensive sense, to denote the art of curing the diseases of domestic animals in general.

The French, who appear to have first used the term in this general sense, usually distinguish that part of the art which we call farriery, by the appellation of Hippiatrique from ἵππος, a horse, and ἰατρός, physician. Thus, they have a Cour d'Hippiatrique, a Dictionnaire d'Hippiatrique, &c.

As there are considerable advantages attending the consideration of the diseases of the several domestic animals in the same treatise, we propose, in the present article, not to confine ourselves to the medical treatment of the horse, but to extend our views to the diseases of such other of the domestic animals, as are of the most importance to man, particularly the ox, sheep, and dog.

The diseases of the horse, as they are better known, and more interesting, than those of the other domestic animals, will of course occupy the greatest share of our attention. The diseases of the dog have been as yet too little investigated for us to give a very satisfactory account of them; but as the subject of veterinary medicine has of late been much cultivated, it is probable that these, as well as some other obscure diseases of animals, may ere long receive some elucidation. If any considerable improvements or discoveries shall be made before the completion of our work, we shall notice them under Veterinary medicine.

It may be thought, that, considering veterinary medicine in this extensive point of view, it would have been answered more correctly to defer the subject to the article Veterinary; but most of our readers who have been accustomed to see in our dictionary the article Farriery, will expect an account of, at least, the diseases of the horse, under this article, and would probably not be pleased to have this delayed till nearly the end of the work; besides, it is of little importance under which article the diseases of animals are treated of, as, when we have once defined our terms, we cannot be misunderstood, provided we always employ them in the sense of the definition. Again, as the term veterinary has departed from its original signification, there can be no objection to our employing the word farriery, a term that is more familiar, in the same general sense. In fact, it has been so employed by a late writer on the subject, Mr Feron, who has entitled his work, "A new System of Farriery," though he professes to treat in it of the horse, ox, and sheep.

In this article, then, we shall use farriery as synonymous with veterinary art, and shall consider both as the art of preserving the health and curing the diseases of domestic animals.

The study of veterinary medicine must be an interesting object to every person, whose profession, or situation in society, requires him to attend to the comforts and diseases of domestic animals.

To the veterinary practitioner, the study of the principles of his art, the history of the diseases which he is called on to relieve, and the methods of treating them that have been found most successful, are as essential as the study of the human economy, and the diseases to which it is exposed, are to the medical practitioner. A farrier who has studied his art scientifically, is as much superior to the ignorant empiric, to whose mercy the lives and limbs of horses and cattle are usually intrusted; as the regular physician to the illiterate quack, who puff's off his pernicious nostrums in every newspaper, and enriches himself, by imposing on the credulity and folly of the public. The necessity of a regular education to the farrier, as well as to the surgeon or physician, which had long been seen, has led to the institution of veterinary schools; at first in France, and within these few years in England. Of these we shall presently give an account.

To the farmer and country gentleman this subject must be highly interesting. They will find their account in being able themselves to superintend the management of their horses, dogs, sheep, and cattle, so as best to preserve their health, and relieve their diseases, without relying implicitly on their grooms, huntsmen, and farriers, herdsmen and cattle-doctors, who are probably either notoriously ignorant, or are induced from interested views, or a fellow-feeling, to prolong the cure, and pick the pockets of their masters (A). These gentlemen therefore cannot employ a part of their leisure time to greater advantage than in acquiring a knowledge of the diseases of domestic animals.

The medical practitioner who wishes to derive an advantage from analogy in some of the obscure diseases to which the human frame is subject, and which would probably receive considerable elucidation from a comparison with similar diseases that affect the inferior animals, must engage with peculiar interest, in a research that promises so well to repay his labour. "It is not a little remarkable, (say the editors of a well-conducted medical journal), that the diseases of horses, cattle, and sheep, which occur so frequently, and are so seriously lamented, should be so imperfectly understood. No greater benefit could be conferred on phycial science than a complete history of the diseases of our domestic animals, especially if given by any one endowed by nature with superior acuteness, and a talent for observation, improved by habit and experience; who could describe the symptoms and appearances of the different disorders, point out the analogies with those incident to the human body, detect those minute circumstances which serve to distinguish them, class them under their proper heads, and correct all the confusion in which they now lie involved. Veterinary medicine has lately occupied some share of attention, chiefly as relating to horses, and as a distinct pursuit from the general study of all the diseases of animals, but considered apart from any relation or inquiry concerning the treatment of the morbid states of the human system. It is in this last point of view, that comparative pathology seems to offer Med. and to many subjects worthy investigation; and, when looked upon in this light, it strikes us as one of those studies qvae ad nos pertinent, et qvae necesse malum est.*

We shall see, from the historical sketch of farriery, Farriery which will immediately be given, that the art never much increased any considerable progress, or assumed anything like a scientific form, till it attracted the attention of medical men who had made the human economy their study. Almost the only rational improvements, that have been made in the art, were either suggested or carried into effect by medical men; and nothing will contribute so much to its perfection as the interest which the profession has lately shewed to it, and the attention that has of late been paid to the study of comparative anatomy and pathology.

The healing art in general must profit by this. Analogy There is not only an intimate connection between the structure of man and that of the inferior animals; but, of man and especially in those that have been domesticated, the difference of both are nearly allied.

The murrains, that in the early part of the last century so frequently attacked the horned cattle throughout almost all Europe, nearly depopulating most of the farms, are very analogous to some of the epidemic diseases of man; and pestilential diseases among cattle, have not unfrequently been the forerunners of similar epidemics among the human race. Homer, in describing the plague that harassed the Grecian camp, in consequence of the affront given by Agamemnon to the priest of Apollo, says that the domestic animals were first affected.

Ωὐραῖς μὲν πτερύγων ἐπάγχειο, καὶ κυνῶν ἀγγύς, Αὐλίδα δὲ τελεῖ ἀνθρώπων βίους ἐκτυπεῖ ἔθνες, Βαλλά— II. i. 50.

"On mules and dogs th' infection first began, And last the vengeful arrows fix'd in man."

POPE.

The plague of boils that raged among the Egyptians (Exod. ix. 10.) affected both man and beast. Similar instances are related both by sacred and profane historians.

Almost the whole tribe of inflammations, even the gout (according to Van Swieten), are found to affect the domestic animals, are produced by the same causes,

(A) It may be thought by some, that we have gone too far in accusing the farriers and grooms, &c. of having a fellow-feeling; but, when it is known, that "a part of every shilling paid to common farriers, is in some shape returned to the groom, as a fee or perquisite;" that "the servant receives at least five per cent. from the farrier on every bill paid by his master;" and that "if a horse dies under the care of a farrier, he generally becomes the property of the groom;" (See Veterinary Transactions, No. 1. Introduction); it will be allowed that there is some ground for the surmise. Domestic animals are subject to eruptive diseases, both chronic, and such as are attended with fever; and both are very similar to those by which man is affected. It is pretty certain that the smallpox sometimes rages among sheep, as we shall see hereafter; and a complaint very like the measles often attacks swine. Some of them are transferable to man; and to this transference in the case of the cowpox, a bleffing which will render immortal the name of Jenner, we owe the probable annihilation of one of the most dreadful pests that ever affected the human race.

Scrofula and consumption attack monkeys. Apoplexy, epilepsy, and many others of what are called nervous diseases, indigestion, and even mental derangement, are not uncommon among domestic animals; spasmodic affections are very frequent among them; and it is said, that for one case of tetanus or locked jaw among the human species in these climates, there are ten or twenty among horses.

The analogy might be pursued much farther; but what has been stated is sufficient to show the advantages that medical men may derive from the study of veterinary medicine. Many obscure and dangerous diseases may thus in time be illustrated or mitigated; and the effect of doubtful remedies may be ascertained by experiments on the inferior animals. For, though there are a few instances of different effects following the exhibition of the same medicines in man and animals; yet, on the whole, the analogy is nearly as complete with respect to remedies as diseases (B).

It will appear, from what has been said, that the reasoning, and much of the treatment, in the diseases of animals must be nearly the same as in man, and, of course, that the veterinary practitioner will gain much by acquiring a knowledge of human medicine. Were the practitioners in farriery generally instructed in the principles of medicine, little more would be required in a treatise on farriery, than to point out the difference in the structure and functions of domestic animals, to describe the diseases peculiar to these, and to mark the varieties that it is necessary to observe in the treatment of disease and the administration of remedies. But, as many of these gentlemen have not the opportunity of attending medical lectures, and most of them have not received an education that would enable them to understand the language in which medical writings are usually composed; it becomes necessary in a treatise of this kind to accommodate the language to the taste and capacity of general readers, and to introduce much that will be found in other articles on subjects connected with medicine. To prevent repetition, as much as possible, and to avoid swelling this article to a greater length than is necessary, we shall, however, where the similarity of the subject will admit of it, occasionally refer to some of the medical articles in this dictionary.

The successful practice of farriery, like that of medicine in general, requires that the practitioner should possess a considerable share of knowledge. It is not sufficient for him to have been long in the habit of managing the veterinary horses and cattle; this indeed, to a person of a strong mind, and attentive observation, will furnish a considerable number of facts, with respect to the symptoms and progress of the diseases to which domestic animals are subject. But, to mark the minute differences between such as resemble each other, to investigate their causes, and to contrive a rational mode of treatment, requires a much greater share of abilities, and much more extensive information, than we can expect to find among grooms and shepherds, or falls to the lot of most of those who call themselves farriers and cattle-doctors.

It must be obvious to every thinking mind, that no Anatomy practice either in medicine or farriery can be rational, and such as is founded on a comprehensive knowledge of the structure and functions of those animals, the treatment of whose diseases is the object of that practice. The first thing, therefore, necessary to the veterinary practitioner is, to acquire some idea of the anatomical structure of the domestic animals. We have already, in the second part of the article ANATOMY, given a general account of the structure of quadrupeds; and in exemplifying this, in the chapter on the anatomy of a dog, we pointed out the most striking peculiarities that are to be found in this animal; as we have done with respect to ruminating animals, viz., the cow and sheep, in the succeeding chapter of that part. To that article we must refer our readers for the anatomical part of our subject, as far as relates to the ox, the sheep, and the dog. It will naturally be expected, that a description of the structure of the horse should be given in this article; but this description must, in general, be concise, as the nature of our plan prevents us from enlarging on the subject, excepting in those parts where a pretty minute knowledge appears to be necessary.

Those who wish to study the anatomy of the horse minutely, may consult Vitre's Medicine Veterinaire, tom. i.; Blaine's Outlines, and Stubb's elegant work on the anatomy of the horse.

The practitioner should take every opportunity of inspecting the bodies of those animals that die of diseases, which are very important, or which are not very well understood. Morbid affections often throw considerable light on the nature and treatment of diseases; and it fortunately happens, that with respect to domestic animals, these affections are very easy, and are not obstructed by those absurd prejudices which, especially in this country, are opposed to the affections of human bodies. In treating of the diseases of domestic animals, ia

(b) One of the most remarkable cases of anomaly in the effect of remedies is that of arsenic, which, in the quantity of a few grains will prove a deadly poison to man and most animals, but may be given with impunity to horses to the amount of two drams or more. The story of the different effects of antimony, on hogs and monkeys, is well known. See Antimony. As to the example of white vitriol (sulphate of zinc), which proves emetic in the human subject, but produces no such effect in the horse; it is owing to the different structure of the stomach in this animal, by which he is incapable of vomiting. Colocynth, or bitter apple, is well known to be a most violent purgative to man, but in the horse it has produced no effect, in the enormous dose of four ounces. a future part of this article, we shall give a concise view of the appearances on dissection, as far as they have been ascertained, whenever they tend to illustrate the nature, causes, or treatment of the disease under consideration.

The study of the functions of domestic animals ought to go hand in hand with that of their structure; and the student will find it of considerable advantage, to compare the functions of these animals with those of man. This comparative view will be given in some future article. In the present treatise, we can only speak of the functions of domestic animals, as far as it is necessary to illustrate the nature or the treatment of their diseases.

The natural history of these animals ought to form a part of the studies of the veterinary practitioner. It is a subject that is not only highly curious and interesting, but extremely useful. We find, that these animals, in their native fields, enjoy a state of health and vigour, which is interrupted only by those accidents to which a life of liberty and wildness may expose them. It is only when they are received under the protection of man, that they become subject to disease. It is therefore an interesting inquiry, to examine into their native habits; as, in our endeavours to preserve their health, we should, as nearly as is compatible with convenience and economy, imitate the habits that are found to prevail amongst these animals in a state of nature. It is the province of the naturalist to describe the external conformation of these animals, and the advantages, and defects dependant on it, that fit or disqualify them for the various purposes, for which they are defined under the service of man; it is his business to describe the methods of breeding these animals in a state of nature, and how far this may be improved for the purposes of domestication, and to detail the method of training and managing them. Many of these circumstances are treated of by some of the writers on the veterinary art, in a complete system of which they ought not properly to be omitted. We shall, however, not treat of them in this article, as, according to the plan of our work, they more properly fall to be considered under the article Mammalia, in which will be given the natural history of all quadrupeds.

Chemistry must form a necessary part of the studies of every man who engages in the practice of medicine, whether human or veterinary, as, without a knowledge of its principles, neither the functions of the animal economy, the intimate structure of its component parts, nor the action of many remedies, can be properly understood. In the article Chemistry, we have prepared abundant matter for the reader to make himself acquainted with the elements of that admirable science.

The practitioner, whether of human or veterinary medicine, who is a proficient in anatomy, wants but a little manual dexterity, and some practical experience, to make him a tolerable surgeon. The operations to be performed on brutes are few, and these are in general very clumsily executed. Humanity, however, as well as prudence, will readily point out to the farrier the necessity of learning the best methods of performing these operations with dexterity and despatch, so as to give the least pain to the unfortunate animals that are placed under his care. We shall describe the usual operations immediately after treating of the anatomy of the horse.

It is of considerable consequence, that the person who undertakes the management of domestic animals, should make himself acquainted with those circumstances which experience has shown to be most favourable to the preservation of their health, and the prevention of their diseases. This subject forms what may be called veterinary hygiene; and will be considered at some length in the fourth part of this article.

Before the practitioner can attempt to remove or alleviate the diseases to which domestic animals are subjected, he must acquire a competent knowledge of the remedies employed for that purpose, their nature, uses, and doses, as adapted to the different animals, in various situations, and various diseases; with the methods of preparing and compounding them into the several forms that are usually employed; and with the best means of administering them. This comprehends what is called the veterinary materia medica, and will form the subject of our fifth part.

With this previous knowledge, the veterinary practitioner is prepared to enter on the consideration of the diseases, which will be treated of in the sixth part of our article. He must be particularly attentive to the symptoms of each disease, as, on an accurate knowledge of these, will depend the means of distinguishing those complaints, which upon a superficial view bear considerable resemblance to each other, but which require a very different, and perhaps opposite mode of treatment. He must attend to the greater or less violence of these symptoms, to the nature of the part which they attack, and to the greater or less rapidity of their progress; as these circumstances must considerably influence the judgment he is to form of the danger, and probable termination, of the disease. He must, as far as possible, investigate the causes, that appear to have produced the disease in question, or which seem to aggravate or keep up the morbid symptoms; as on the removal or mitigation of these causes, must depend the only rational and scientific method of cure. Lastly, he must make himself acquainted with the treatment that experience has found most successful in the cure of each particular disease, as well as with that which has been found to be attended with little or no advantage.

As the proper means of attaining the best information is of the greatest importance, we shall here give Mr Blaine's instructions on this point.

"The mode in which any art is attained, must be in a great measure directed by the future views of the learners. It appears to me that there are three distinct classes of persons, who are likely to study this branch of useful knowledge. The first are persons of enlarged minds, and extended fortunes. The second are surgeons, whose situation in country villages may render their services in this art highly useful, upon occasions when no farrier is at hand, or, in the end, in cases in which farriers of the common class are unable to judge. The third are farriers themselves, or persons intending to profess veterinary medicine.

"Gentlemen and amateurs, who wish to accumulate information on this curious and interesting subject, within the reach of the veterinary college, will find their account in attending a course of lectures there; if not, not, they should apply themselves to the study of the more general parts of the body, both of the human and animal; the latter, I hope, they may attain by the following sheets. They may direct the collar-maker, huntsman, or tanner, to cut up their dead horses in their presence. They may study physiology in a pleasant and interesting manner, from the ingenious work on this subject by Mr Saumarez. The lighter parts of the veterinary art may be acquired with pleasure, from the elegant publication of Mr Richard Lawrence of Birmingham, and a course of chemistry will amply reward them for their pains in acquiring it.

"A good surgeon has travelled three-fourths of the road towards making a good veterinarian, but he must diligently travel the remainder to arrive at excellence. He must by no means sit down contented with the analogy between the human and brute; which, if he does, will lead him into very great error; for though this analogy is in some cases very striking, yet there are others in which the similarity fails, and he is left to act upon other principles. Hence in those diseases that are conquered or mitigated by vomiting in the human; in the horse he must pursue another mode of treatment. In acute diseases removed by purging in the human, his attempts on the horse would probably fail; as before the effects were produced, the animal might be past relief. It must be remembered that the operations of medicines are very different in the one, and the other. It is not sufficient that a surgeon has an intimate acquaintance with the human frame; he must be equally conversant with the animal he treats, or he will treat in vain; particularly those diseases originating in a peculiarity of form from the human, as all the diseases of the feet. He should make himself particularly conversant with the specific diseases of the horse, which bear no analogy to anything in the human body; as farcy, glanders, strangles, grease, &c. From the great strength of the arterial system, he must ever be aware how prone the diseases of the horse are to a rapid termination, and hence that his treatment must be decisive and energetic; therefore, in all cases, he must be very attentive to diagnosis. But what will much embarrass a surgeon in practicing the veterinary art, will be a want of knowledge of the general usages, nomenclature, and idiom, if I may so express it, among grooms and farriers; without an acquaintance with which, these people at once detect and despise the practitioner. It should be the business therefore of the surgeon, with his other acquisitions, to learn their manners, and to make himself acquainted with their terms. The third class of persons, either farriers already practising, or persons intending to practise, will easily gain that. When it is in their power, I would advise their taking the advantage of the veterinary college; but when they cannot, I would recommend the prosecution of their studies in a regular manner. Begin by first reading some general description of the human body, such as Symond's Anatomy, or the anatomical part of the present work, carefully; let them pay attention to the functions and uses of the parts, particularly where the same uses are brought about by a variation in structure; this enlarges the mind, and prepares it to receive the benefits of dissection, which should now be proceeded to. Any small animal may be first dissected, to enable the learner to use his instruments properly. He may then proceed to dissect the horse with some authorities by him, which will assist him at first to make out parts, but too scrupulous an attention to numerous descriptions will only bewilder. The necessary instructions for dissection, and the preservation of parts, may be gained, by a recourse to Poole's Anatomical Instructor, which is professedly written to instruct the pupil in these particulars. When he is well acquainted with the appearance of the animal in health, he should take every opportunity of examining diseased appearances, which are seldom wanting at the tan-yard or the kennel. He should now make himself acquainted more intimately with physiology, for which purpose he may read Haller's works; there is at present a translation of Cuvier's Treatise on Comparative Anatomy, which he may likewise avail himself of. When he has become acquainted with pathology, as at present received, he may peruse the older authors on farriery; to this should succeed a knowledge in chemistry, preceded by an acquaintance with the materia medica; the proper works for which he may see by a reference to that article, and nothing will now be wanting, but experience and practice to perfect him."

Since the establishment of a veterinary school in Britain, little is wanting to promote the progress and improvement of the veterinary art, as far as relates to the diseases of horses. But the art, with respect to the medical treatment of other animals, is still in the most deplorable state of imperfection. Proposals have been made for improving cattle medicine; and among these we think the following of Mr John Lawrence, entitled to attention; though, probably the proposer's list of works may be much improved and enlarged, by referring to the account of authors which will be immediately given.

Mr Lawrence's proposal is simply, "that the affair of Mr Lawrence providing the country with regular-bred surgeons, for the practice of cattle medicine, be immediately undertaken by the agricultural societies; at least, that the experiment be made by some of the most considerable, each society engaging a gentleman of that description, at a sufficient and respectable annual stipend. The contract may run in such form, that should the surgeon's annual emolument from practice come short of the stipulated sum, the deficiency should annually be made up by his patrons the society. No person to be engaged on any pretence, but who shall have received the usual education of a surgeon, and have attended the hospitals the usual length of time. A selection of Veterinary text-books to be made, and the books purchased for the use of the surgeon, but to remain the property of the society. This may consist of Gibson's last edition, two vols. Bracken, Bartlett, Ofmer, Layard, with our late writers; and Lafoffe and Bourgelat from the French, with whatever may have been published since their time, by authority of the French veterinary schools. All the members of the society and their connections, as far as their influence may extend, to entrust the care of their diseased animals to the surgeon appointed, at a fair and liberal charge for his attendance and medicines. The surgeon to keep a regular history of all the cases which shall come under his inspection, including the presumed causes and symptoms of the disease, with the probable methods of prevention, his mode of treatment, a particular detail of the medicines prescribed, their operation, with every relative and useful remark which may occur." A clear written copy of such veterinary transactions, to be delivered annually, and on a certain day, to the society, to remain at their disposal.*

It is of considerable consequence for the practitioner to be informed of the rise and progress of the art which he professes, and to be acquainted with the principal authors that have written on the subject. We shall therefore, give a brief sketch of the history of Farriery, with a concise view of the writings that have appeared from the earliest authentic records to the present time (1806).

Though we shall enumerate all the authors that have written professedly on this subject, who appear deserving of notice, we shall here characterize only the general treatises, reserving our remarks on such works as have appeared on individual diseases, &c., to that part of our treatise, in which we shall consider these subjects.

PART I. HISTORY.

THE early history of farriery, as of every other art and science, is involved in great obscurity. We shall not attempt to penetrate the cloud that hangs over the ancient state of the art, or to supply the want of facts, by conjectures, which, however rational, can lead to no certain or useful conclusions.

There seems no doubt that in the time of Hippocrates, and probably long before, the medical practitioner exercised his office in favour of the domestic animals, as well as of man; and Galen seems to have been well skilled in the knowledge and treatment of some of the diseases of animals.

Perhaps the earliest authentic writings on the subject of the veterinary art, now extant, are to be found in the works of Columella, the celebrated Roman author on husbandry, who, in his work De Re Rustica, has given many sensible directions for the management of horses and cattle. Columella lived about the second century, under the reign of the Roman emperor Tiberius, or, as some say, of Claudius Caesar.

It is understood that Celsus, the elegant imitator of Hippocrates, who lived some time before Columella, wrote much on the diseases of animals; but none of his writings on this subject have survived the general wreck of science and literature that accompanied the fall of the Roman empire.

We have no certain accounts of any author who wrote expressly on this subject earlier than Vegetius, who flourished, as is supposed, some time in the fourth century, and probably during the reign of the emperor Valentinian the third. The work of Vegetius, De Arte Veterinaria, is still considered as extremely valuable, as it has handed down to us the only certain account of the opinions and practice of the early practitioners in this art. The body of the work appears to have been compiled from the most celebrated Greek writers on the subject. It is divided into four books; the prefaces or introductory chapters to which are written in very elegant language.

An edition of Vegetius was published at Basil, in 1574; and the work has been translated into several modern languages. Such of our readers as wish for a particular account of the contents of Vegetius's treatise, will find a copious analysis of it, in the third volume of M. Vitet's Medicine Veterinaire.

A collection of fragments of ancient writers on the veterinary art, was made by Ruellius, physician to Francis I, king of France. It was first published in Latin, in the year 1539; and afterwards, in 1637, the original Greek was published. The writers who contributed to this collection were chiefly Aburytus, Eumelus, Hierocles, Petagonius, and Theomectus. Some part of this collection is tolerably good; but, on the whole, it appears to be a strange jumble of good, bad, and indifferent, collected without judgment, and arranged without taste.

It is said that Xenophon, who lived three or four hundred years before the Christian era, wrote a small treatise in twelve chapters, on the training, management, and external figure of horses; but, as he lays little or nothing with respect to their diseases, he cannot properly be ranked among the writers on veterinary medicine.

A blank of more than a thousand years now occurs Dark ages, in the history of farriery. During this long period of darkness, ignorance, and barbarity, the veterinary art, like most others, rather went back than advanced. During some part of this gloom, however, the art of shoeing horses with iron appears to have been invented; an art which seems to have contributed not a little to throw the management of this noble animal into the hands of a set of errant blockheads, who were now first called farriers. We cannot here enter on a discussion of the medical pretensions of these guardians of the health of horses. They have been amply commented on, by some of the best writers on the subject of farriery, as Gibson, Brecken, Lafoile, and particularly Mr John Lawrence, to whose useful and humane treatise on horses we refer our readers for some very spirited remarks on the subject.

The first modern writer on farriery, whom we can mention, is Carlo Ruini, an Italian, who, in 1618, published at Venice his Anatomia del Cavallo. This work, of which very few copies are now to be found, is embellished with many copperplates, which, for the time when they were engraved, are very elegant. It is said that many succeeding writers on the anatomy of the horse have been indebted to them for most of their figures.

We now come to a period at which the veterinary art began to assume something of a scientific form. Farriery in France and England, countries which have been the most distinguished for their attention to the management and diseases of domestic animals. As the French writers were the first who did anything considerable towards the improvement of farriery, we shall trace the progress of the art in that country, before we examine the improvements it has received in England.

In 1698 Solleyel published his grand work, "Le Solleyel parfait." M. Solleyfel was principal riding-master in France, and this situation led him to pay much attention to the diseases of horses; and being a man of considerable abilities, and enlightened understanding, he saw the errors that prevailed in his time; and his genius and experience led him to expose and correct them. His practical observations and remarks, which it would be out of place to particularize in this early part of our article, in general merit considerable attention. His observations on the external figure of the horse, and of his blemishes and defects, are also very valuable. It is much to be regretted that this ingenious author had not studied the anatomy of the horse, as he would then have avoided many errors and much false reasoning, into which his ignorance of anatomy betrayed him. Solleyfel's work passed through many editions, and was translated into most of the modern languages. A version of it into English was executed by Sir William Hope, one of his pupils, early in the 18th century.

The dreadful havoc committed by the murrains or the epidemic diseases among horned cattle, that ravaged Europe during the first half of the 18th century, attracted the attention of medical men, and thus led the way to a greater improvement in the veterinary art, than it had ever before experienced. These epidemics were first described by two Italian physicians, Ramazzini, in a treatise De Contagione Epidemica; and Lancisi, physician to the pope, in a treatise De Bovina Pestis. But the most celebrated works on the prevailing epidemic seem to have been written by the faculty in France. Among the first appeared a memoir by M. Hermant, physician to the king.

In 1746 was published a memoir Sur la Maladie Épidémique des Boeufs du Vivarais, by the celebrated zoologist Sauvages.

About the middle of this century, the first steps were taken towards the establishment of schools for the public instruction of practitioners in farriery. One of the most celebrated of these was the veterinary college of Lyons.

Over this institution presided the famous Bourgelat, a name that will be ever respectable in the history of farriery. Besides his office of professor at Lyons, he was inspector general of the veterinary schools in France; commissary general to the royal stables; honorary member of the Royal Academy of Paris, and member of the Royal Academy of Berlin. M. Bourgelat was a voluminous writer, and most of his works are still in much repute. In 1752, he published Elements d'Hippiatrique, "Elements of Farriery," in 3 vols. The first volume is divided into eight chapters, comprehending the knowledge of the horse, as far as regards his external form. The first chapter treats of the denomination and division of the parts that compose the body of this animal; the second treats of the beauties and defects of the fore part of the horse, or what the French writers call l'Avant Main; the third treats of the beauties and defects of the several parts of the body; the fourth of the beauties and defects of the hind part of the horse, or l'Arrière Main; the fifth, of the different marks of horses; the sixth, of the means of ascertaining the age of horses; the seventh, of the geometrical proportions of the horse; and the eighth, of shoeing.

The second volume describes the anatomy of the horse, as far as relates to the bones, the integuments, the muscles, and blood vessels; and the third volume concludes the anatomy with a description of the parts that compose the head and chest.

In 1765, M. Bourgelat's materia medica, for the use of the veterinary pupils, came out. Soon after was published his Elementary Treatise on the Anatomy of the Horse, which is the most complete work of the kind that has ever yet appeared. In 1766 he published his Elementary Botanical Demonstrations, for the use of the pupils of the veterinary college. He likewise gave to the world a treatise on bandages applicable to the horse.

M. Bourgelat also furnished many of the best articles on farriery for the French Encyclopédie.

About this time appeared a number of works on the Buffon and manege, and on natural history, particularly a work by Daubenton, M. de la Guérinère, entitled École de Cavalerie, and the celebrated natural history by M. de Buffon and Daubenton; but as these works have little connection with the diseases of animals, which they mention only incidentally, we shall not here particularize their contents.

Contemporary with Bourgelat, and equal to him in Lafoffe the celebrity, flourished Lafoffe the Elder, a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, and farrier to the king of France. He made many discoveries, and introduced several valuable improvements in the art of farriery, particularly an improved method of shoeing, and a treatise on the glanders. These were at first communicated in the form of memoirs to the French academy, and published in their annals. They were afterwards collected in 1754 into one volume, under the title of Observations et Découvertes Faites sur des Chevaux; "Observations and Discoveries on Horses." We shall have occasion, in future parts of our article, to consider the merits of these memoirs, which were well received, and have contributed much to the advancement of farriery.

The elder Lafoffe also wrote some of the articles on farriery in the Encyclopédie.

He was soon followed by his son Lafoffe the Younger, who occupied the same post as his father, and has acquired much reputation, by following his steps, and extending his improvements. He published in 1766, his Guide de Marechal; or "Farrier's Guide;" a work well known in this country, though it has never, we believe, appeared in an English dress. It is divided into five parts, treating, 1st, Of the means of ascertaining the age of horses, and a succinct enumeration of the several parts; 2nd, Of the blunders and tricks of farriers; 3rd, Of the internal diseases of the horse; 4th, Of the external diseases, and the most important operations; and, 5th, Of shoeing. This work is characterized by M. Vitet, as one of the most accurate, simplest, and most precise, that had ever appeared. The anatomical part of the work is short, but comprehensive, and is illustrated by some tolerably good plates. It appears to have been a sort of text-book to a course of lectures on farriery, which were afterwards, in 1772, published in a superb form, with 65 coloured plates, under the title of Cours de Hippiatrique; or "Course of This work is extremely scarce in Britain, where, according to Mr Blaine, there are only three copies of it; one of which belongs to the Medical Society of Woolwich; another is in the hands of a Mr Mathaisa, ci-devant pupil of the Veterinary College; and he believes Mr Morecroft has a third.

But the principal work of the younger Lafoffe is his Dictionnaire d'Hippiatrique, in four volumes, which is little known in this country, and which we have not seen. Mr Blaine calls it "the best practical system of farriery that had ever appeared."

In 1803 was published an abridgement of M. Lafoffe's Guide, of which an English translation has lately appeared under the title of The Veterinarian's Pocket Manual. It is a useful little book, but it is a pity that the author or translator had not observed a more methodical arrangement.

Though, for the sake of uniformity, we have mentioned the younger Lafoffe immediately after his father; there were many works published in France between the Memoirs and the Guide.

In 1755, M. Garfaud published his Nouveau parfait Marechal, an improvement on the Parfait Marechal de Solleylef. It is divided into seven treatises; on the Conformation of the Horse; on Haras, or on the Method of Breeding; on Stables; on the Diseases of Horses; on Operations; on Shoeing; and on Horse Medicines. This work is not without defects, but, for the most part, it is very good, and by no means deserves the brief character given of it by Mr Blaine in his History of the Veterinary Art, that it "does not seem to merit any distinction in this place."

The articles on farriery in the Encyclopédie that had been written by Bourgelat and Genlon, called forth a work from M. Ronden, senior, farrier to the larger stables of the king; who, in 1759, published Observations sur les Articles de l'Encyclopédie concernant la Marechallerie. They appear to be ingenious, and contain much practical information.

In 1763 there appeared at Paris a work on agriculture in two volumes 4to, entitled La Nouvelle Maison Rustique, which contains much useful matter respecting the breeding, management, and diseases of domestic animals, as well as fowls as quadrupeds.

The contagious epidemics among horned cattle still appeared occasionally in France and other parts of Europe; and many essays were written on them by various physicians, particularly by M. Bovand of Belançon, in 1766; by M. Leclerc and M. Barbaret, of Paris, in the same year.

In 1768 Daubenton, the celebrated naturalist, already mentioned, published a memoir on the mechanism of rumination in sheep; and in 1769, appeared a small volume entitled La Médecine des Bêtes à Laine; "the Medical Treatment of Sheep."

Between 1776 and 1782, M. Vitet, a physician at Lyons, published his Medicine Veterinaire, in 3 vols 8vo, of which the first contains a pretty full account of the anatomy of the horse and ox, with some judicious remarks on the beauties and defects of both, and on some of the more important operations to which they are exposed; the second treats of the diseases of horses, sheep, and cattle; and the third gives an account of the remedies employed in veterinary medicine; and ends with a copious analysis of most of the continental writings, and a few English, that had happened on the subject, from Vegetius to 1770.

M. Vitet's work is, for the most part, a compilation from the best writers who have gone before him; but as he had read much, and appears to have selected with judgment, his book is one of those which may be consulted with advantage. We know that it bears a high character in France, and is often quoted with respect. We are therefore disposed to rate it at a higher value than a late writer has done; and are inclined to suspect that some of those who affect to think lightly of it are indebted to it for much more than the "names of many of those who have written on this subject."

Much about this time, but in what precise year we cannot say, the abbé Rozier, well known as the editor of the early volumes of the Journal de Physique, published his Cours d'Agriculture et de Medicine Veterinaire; a work of much reputation in France, but, we believe, little known on this side the water.

Another work appeared about this time on the epidemics among cattle, entitled Recherches Historiques et Physiques sur les Maladies Epizootiques; "Historical and Philosophical Researches respecting Epizootic Diseases," by M. Paulet. It contains an abridgment of almost all that had been written on the subject, and is particularly valuable for the account of the morbid appearances that were discovered on dissection.

We shall finish our account of French writers with the words of Mr Blaine.

"After the death of Bourgelat and Lafoffe, we hear Huzard of no character of any great eminence for some years; and Chabert appears, that since the revolution, the subject has been again been more diligently studied, and the names of Chabert and Huzard stand forward. Soon after, or about the time above alluded to, there appeared a considerable work, called, The Rational Dictionary of Medicine, Surgery, and Farriery, in six volumes; and very soon after, a Veterinary Dictionary, by Buchon; but it has no merit superior to that of Lafoffe. In 1787, M. Chabert published a Treatise on the Mange of Horses; since which he has likewise published upon the peripneumonia of black cattle. There has also appeared an Essay on the Gout of Horses, which gained the prize medal of the society for the promoting the health of animals; to which is joined a report on thick wind and on broken wind; but we are not aware who is the author. In 1788, there came out a treatise on the Haras, with the method of shoeing, cutting, and all the lesser operations, translated from the Spanish of Hartmann, by Huzard. Likewise "Instructions and Observations on Domestic Animals," with remarks on the breeding, rearing, buying and selling; with an analysis of previous authors, by Chabert, Handrin, and Huzard. The above authors have also published, conjointly, a Veterinary Almanack, containing the history and progress of animal medicine, since the establishment of the veterinary schools. In 1791, M. Lampagieu Lapole, veterinary surgeon, published observations on the health of the animals of St Domingo, dedicated to the veterinary college at Alfort. In 1797, M. Chabert and Mr Blaine, M. Huzard published, by order of government, a treatise Outline, on ascertaining the existence of the glanders, the means used of preventing it, and destroying the infection."

Before we detail what has been done in Britain for farriery on the advancement of the art, we must take a cursory view of the conti- view of the principal writings that appeared during the 18th century in the rest of Europe.

In 1730, Goelcke, a German, published a treatise in 4to, *De Lue Contagiofa Bovium*; "On the Contagious Disease of Cattle;" in which the symptoms of the murrain that raged in Flanders about that time are well described; and there are added the appearances on dissection.

In 1734, appeared at the Hague a work entitled *La parfaite Connoissance des Chevaux*; "The Complete Knowledge of Horses;" by John Saunier, and Gafpard his son. The latter boasts of this work, that it was drawn up from the lectures of his father, an experienced man; and that it contains the result of numerous experiments on subjects of every description, and diseases of every species; that it is the labour of the life of two men, the offspring of their continual application and study. After all their boasting, however, the work of Mynheers Saunier is little worth.

In 1745 and 1746, appeared two other treatises on the epidemic of cattle by Mauchard and Ens.

In 1749, the illustrious and indefatigable Linné published at Upsal his *Pan Suecicus*, in which there is little that relates to our subject, if we except a table of such plants as are eaten or refused by the domestic animals, which is curious and useful.

Some time before 1756, Frederic Haftfer, a Swede, published instructions for Improving the Breed of Sheep, which was in much repute, and was translated into French.

In 1762, M. Reynier of Lausanne published a treatise on a contagious inflammatory disorder that raged among horses and cattle, and which the Genevele called *la louver*. This will be considered hereafter.

In the same year there appeared at Vienna a work on the epidemic of cattle by Dr Pleneiz; and in 1765 Mich. Sagard of the same city published a work on a contagious distemper that the year before attacked the cattle in the circle of Iglaw in Moravia; and was attended with an appearance of aphthous crusts in the mouth.

Of late veterinary medicine has been much cultivated in Spain, where the works of Hartmann are held in much esteem. In that country, it is said, a work on farriery in nine volumes has been lately published; but of this we know nothing.

We must not close our account of continental writers without mentioning the name of the illustrious Camper, whose works were lately collected and published at Paris. Besides a long description of the structure of the cranial region, and some lesser essays on comparative anatomy, these volumes contain an elaborate history of the epizootic disease that raged among the cattle on the continent in the middle of last century, in the form of lectures. We shall speak of this work hereafter.

We have thus brought the history of this art on the continent, in a concise manner, down to the present time; and from it may be learned what improvements have originated there, and at what periods. It would appear, that when the science began to command attention, from the exertions of Francis the first, and Vegetius became studied, had it progressively improved in the degree it might be supposed to be placed by a conversation with this author, it would ere this have been more approximating to perfection; but instead of proceeding on the rational system of Vegetius, it dwindled again into ignorance of barbarity; and the recipes of mangle-masters, and the operations of blacksmiths, were the only offensive marks of its affluence. From this state the practitioner became in some degree roused by the improved system of Solleyfel; but he could only combat present errors, he could not point the way to future improvement, for he was ignorant of the groundwork whereon to build it, i.e. the anatomy of the animal. This defect was only in a small degree supplied by the labours of Ruini, and in some measure farther assisted by the demonstrations of Bourgelat. Many of the remaining errors were combated by Lafosse with great advantage; and his experiments and discoveries on glanders, the rationality and improvements of his mode of fencing, entitle him to great merit. Yet, though by these exertions, and by the establishment of veterinary seminaries, the art assumed a more regular and scientific form, its attainments were by no means adequate to its opportunities; which was almost wholly owing to an obstinate adherence to the humoral pathology, by which the treatment of internal and acute diseases continued inert and unsuccessful. Their prescriptions were filled with decoctions of simples, and they were utterly unacquainted with the medicinal virtues of the more active remedies in use among us. Under an opinion that the blood and humours were the constant seat of disease, they were continually washing them sweet with correctors; entirely ignorant or unmindful of the derangement of the solids, and of the connections between living blood and living vessels. Nor did this influence only their treatment of internal and acute diseases; but even of local and chronic affections: hence their mode of treating farcy, gout, and other complaints of a similar nature, were equally inert, and all evinced an erroneous pathology. Upon a careful and unprejudiced review of the state of farriery among ourselves, and on the continent of Europe, we are not inclined to think it had any advantages of moment at the beginning of the war in their favour; though it must be allowed, we are indebted to them for many improvements, and for the first hints towards the establishment of a regular school of the art among us. Since the war, our means of communication are so few, that we are not aware of what is doing among our neighbours. But though farriery, as a branch of veterinary medicine here, has kept nearly equal pace with its continental improvements, I do not think (says Mr Blaine), the treatment of other animals, particularly of oxen, cows, and sheep, has been equally attended to; and, in this particular, I am disposed to think we are behind hand with them. Their severe visitations of the epizootic distemper have made them more attentive to this branch of the art.*

In taking a review of the history of farriery, or veterinary medicine in general, in our own country, it will be seen, that we are much longer in improving the art, and reducing it under a rational and scientific form, than our neighbours on the continent. Our earliest writers on the diseases of horses and cattle, were deplorably ignorant, not only of all principles of general medicine and sound practice, but even frequently of the common appearances of the diseases, which they professed to cure.

Our first writers on the treatment of the diseases of Blundell's horses, horses, were, as in France, chiefly riding-masters; and of these, the first that seems worthy of notice is Blundeville, who lived, as we have already observed, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. His work appears to have been principally compiled from the writings of Vegetius, and other ancient writers; and it contains little that can entitle it to any distinction, as a work of utility. It may, however, be perused as a literary curiosity.

The names of many writers, after Blundeville, are mentioned by those who have written on the history of farriery; but they are still inferior to Blundeville, except perhaps Burdon, on whose work, notes were written by Dr Bracken.

About the end of the 17th century, lived Gervase Markham, a name in high repute amongst grooms and farriers even to this day. He published a work on Farriery, which is called his Maister Preece, and which is one of the strangest compounds of nonsense and absurdity that has ever appeared on the subject.

In the opinion of Mr Lawrence, Markham was nothing more than a mere vulgar and illiterate compiler; and his works, some few things excepted, are stuffed with all the execrable trash that had ever been invented by any writer, or practised by any farrier, ancient or modern, on the subject of horses. It is necessary, however, that we do justice to the character of Gervase Markham; he certainly possessed a species of merit which has not descended to all his successors, the copyists and plagiarists; he very honestly gives the names of those authors from whom he derives his knowledge.

Some years after Markham, Michael Baret published a book, which he called the Vineyard of Horsemanship. This we have never seen, but it appears to be of some repute. The next writer on this subject, is the duke of Newcastle, who gave to the world a most superb work on an improved method of breeding and managing horses. This work bears a very high character, not only from the name of the illustrious person by whom it was composed, but from its own intrinsic merit. The duke is quoted with respect by most succeeding writers; and his work has been translated into French, German, Dutch, and Italian. It chiefly relates to horsemanship, but as it contains some excellent observations and maxims on the breeding of horses, it naturally comes to be considered here.

In the latter end of the 17th century, Andrew Snape, who was farrier to Charles II., published a large work on the anatomy of the horse, illustrated with many copperplates. These plates appear not to have been taken from his own dissection, but are mostly copied from preceding authors, especially from Ruini. Mr Blaine, however, is mistaken in afflicting that some of them are copied from Saunier, as Snape's work was published in 1683, whereas Saunier's did not appear (according to Vitet) before 1734. It is said that Snape had projected a larger work on the diseases of horses, but this he did not live to execute.

Early in the 18th century, farriery experienced a considerable improvement from the writings of Mr William Gibson. This gentleman had been a surgeon in the army, but relinquished that situation for the practice of farriery, which he probably expected to find more profitable. Mr Blaine places this writer in the middle of the last century; but his first work entitled "The Farrier's New Guide," was certainly published previous to the year 1721, as we have seen a second edition of it advertised in that year. This was the most scientific work on the diseases of horses, that had then appeared in the English, or perhaps any language. The detail of symptoms is in general just, accurate, and the plan of treatment advised is for the most part very judicious. The anatomical part of Mr Gibson's work is not so valuable, being frequently incorrect, and evidently not the result of his own observation. The Farriers Guide was soon followed by The Farriers Dispensatory, containing an account of the remedies employed in farriery, and the means of preparing and exhibiting them. This work is far inferior to the former, and is now of little use. In 1721, Mr Gibson published a small work on The True Method of Dieting Horses, which contains some judicious remarks on the means of preserving the health of this useful animal; as also on the breeding of horses: with some observations on their external form, their sagacity, and habits. This book must have been very valuable at the time of its publication, but is now in a great measure superseded by Clark and other later writers.

About 1750, Mr Gibson published a larger work, On the Diseases of Horses, in which he has brought together the substance of his former works on farriery, with some improvements. There is, we believe, a later edition of it in two vols. Mr Gibson must be considered as one of those to whom farriery is most indebted for its improvements. He was almost the first, at least in this country, to rescue the art from the hands of the illiterate empirics, to point out their blunders, and correct their errors. Mr John Lawrence, who has given a very full account of Mr Gibson in the first volume of his treatise on horses, perhaps goes too far in ranking him on an equality with some of our present writers; while these again have erred as much on the other side, in detracting from the merits of a man to whom they are all more or less indebted for much of their most valuable matter.

Gibson was followed in his plan for the improvement of farriery by Dr Bracken, a physician at Lancaster, and a pupil of Boerhaave, who published a work called Farriery Improved. "Bracken (says Mr Blaine) was a physician of great abilities and extensive knowledge in his profession; a man of considerable erudition, a sportsman, and a wit of a peculiar cast. His works have by some been as much admired and read for the peculiar style in which they are written, and that peculiar freedom and non-obsequiousness of rule or form, as for the real information they contain.

"Though there is great ingenuity in his writings, and though in many respects he improved upon Gibson, yet as a practical work it was much inferior; nor was his information given in a way that could benefit the generality of his readers: independent of his style being too peculiar, and his reasoning too abstruse for farriers, his manner of pursuing his subject was so defective, that few readers had patience to follow him. Nevertheless his works, which were several, and passed through many editions, have raised him a fame that can only die with the science."

These two writers may justly be considered as the fathers of English farriery; they established their system on the only sure foundation, the analogy which prevailed between the structure, economy, and diseases of man and of brutes. The best practice in this country has been derived from their instructions; and their works formed an example, by following which, later writers have greatly improved the art.

The next writer of reputation was Mr John Bartlet, also a medical man, who about the middle of the last century published his Gentleman's Farriery, and afterwards his Veterinary Pharmacopoeia. Bartlet had formed himself on the model of Gibbon and Brecken, the best parts of whose writings he has given in his farriery, condensed into a more compendious view. He also enriched his work by the most material improvements of Laflèche, whose memoirs on shoeing and on glanders, he translated into English.

Soon after Bartlet, appeared Mr William Osmer, a surgeon and a sportsman, who practised farriery in Oxford-street, London. He was the principal means of introducing into this country the French mode of shoeing, which, in his treatise on the lameness of horses, he adapted to the English manners, so as to render it serviceable. Mr Osmer's mode of shoeing will be mentioned hereafter. From the above works many compilations were soon made; these were generally below mediocrity, amongst which, one called the Farrier's Dictionary, though a very wretched composition, met with a very rapid sale. We must except from these a small treatise by a Mr Blount, surgeon, which is above the common class, and worthy of notice, from an ingenious contrivance, illustrated by a plate, for securing a fractured limb.

In the year 1746, Dr Richard Brocklesby, a friend of Dr Mead, published a pamphlet on the disorder that just before raged among horned cattle. It should seem that this book is very little known beyond the circle of medical men, as we have not seen it referred to by any writer on the diseases of cattle.

Brocklesby was followed on the same subject by Dr Layard. We shall speak particularly of these two authors, when we come to treat of the murrains.

About 32 years ago, Mr James Clark, farrier to his majesty for Scotland, published an ingenious Treatise on Shoeing, and on the Diseases of the Feet of Horses. This was soon followed by his Treatise on the Prevention of Diseases Incidental to Horses. By this latter work Mr Clark has acquired much reputation as a scientific farrier, and a sensible writer. It contains some judicious observations on stables, diet, and exercise, on blood-letting, rowels, and fetons; with remarks on the uses and administration of the more common remedies. Mr Clark's book is in general well calculated to produce a more judicious and humane method of treating horses, than usually prevails. But it would have been more useful, had the author omitted much of the theoretic discussion, into which he has entered on some parts of the animal economy, on the nature of disease, and on the action of remedies. Mr Clark is a good practical writer, but his theory is often very lame, or very obscure. He had an easy opportunity of attending the medical lectures, which were taught at Edinburgh in his youth, when the humoral pathology and the theory of Boerhaave were in full vogue. Mr Clark has here and there interspersed among his practical remarks much of this old leaven. But as he probably had not received such a previous liberal education as might fit him for the judicious application of what he heard, he is often deficient in that theoretical knowledge which he takes so much pains to display.

Some years before the publication of Mr Clark's last Lord Pembroke mentioned treatise, viz. in 1778, Lord Pembroke favoured the public with his excellent dissertation on the management of dragoon horses, with some remarks on shoeing. This work is entitled, Military Equitation, or a Method of Breaking Horses. Though the observations contained in his lordship's work were intended for the use of the British cavalry, they are for the most part applicable to horses in general, and well merit the attention of farriers and others concerned in the management of horses. We do not well understand what Mr Blaine means by asserting that Lord Pembroke derived the principle of his medical hints from Mr Clark. If he means that his lordship borrowed any thing from Mr Clark's treatise on preventing the diseases of horses, he is certainly mistaken, as the first edition of this treatise, which we believe has not been reprinted, appeared in 1783, and in it Mr Clark often quotes Lord Pembroke's work (c).

Much about this time Mr Stubbs published his elegant plates of the anatomy of the horse, of which work, as the production of an artist, we cannot speak too highly. Mr Stubbs is a very eminent painter of animals, and to much professional excellence in this capacity, he has added a considerable share of anatomical knowledge. Hence his figures are in general extremely correct, and will be found very useful to those who have not the opportunity of availing themselves of real subjects.

One of the latest writers on the subject of farriery is Mr Taplin, who for some time enjoyed a considerable reputation, both as a practitioner and as a writer. But this reputation has been materially falsified, since it was discovered, that Mr Taplin is not only ignorant of the anatomy of the horse, but has liberally copied from those very writers whom he takes every opportunity to vilify and abuse. As from his flagrant plagiarism and arrogance, Mr Taplin has well deserved the dressing which he has recently received from several late writers, we shall turn him over into the hands of one of his rivals, who does not seem disposed to show him any mercy.

"This gentleman likewise began his career as a surgeon, but turned aside to the then more profitable track of farriery. Mr Taplin set out by decrying all that had gone before him, all that were in practice with him, and in fact every thing that has been done by any one since. Yet Mr Taplin's works are said to be compilations from those very authors whom he abuses; and, in some instances, after abusing egregiously, he copies literally.

(c) We find that Lord Pembroke's work was first published about 1761. The edition mentioned in the text is, we believe, the second. Unfortunately for this gentleman, from some late improvements, the people of this country have learned to distinguish in this art, as well as in others, between scientific investigation and verbose quackery. Had Mr Taplin set out by studying the structure and economy of the animal, he might, and undoubtedly would, have proved an ornament to the profession; but when he permits his works to go through so many editions, in the face of criticism from all quarters, with a chapter on diseases of a part that has no existence in the horse, i.e., the gall bladder, we must be aware that he is entirely ignorant of that, upon which every pretension to professional merit must be grounded. Mr Taplin indulges himself in the most unrestrained freedoms in speaking of those who have gone before him, yet copies verbatim from them; he cannot wonder, therefore, that he has been treated with considerable severity by later writers; nor can he be surprised that a practice so begun and so continued has ended as it has.*

Mr Taplin is the author of several works on farriery; His first publication was, we believe, The Stable Dictionary, which had a great sale. He next published a larger work, in two volumes; and lately he has sent out a small pamphlet called Multum in parvo, which is supposed to be merely intended to advance the sale of his prepared horse medicines.

The end of the 18th century will ever be memorable in the history of farriery, for the establishment of an institution for the public teaching of the veterinary art in England, in imitation of those schools in France of which we have already spoken.

The veterinary college owes its origin to M. St Bel, a French gentleman, born at Lyons, and who was first junior assistant to the professor of the Royal Veterinary College there, and afterwards professor of anatomy at the veterinary college of Montpelier. This gentleman came to Britain in 1788, and published proposals for establishing a veterinary school in this kingdom. These proposals did not, at that time, meet with encouragement; but two years after, when M. St Bel, driven from his native country by the horrors of the revolution, again visited England, his proposals were taken again into consideration by an agricultural society at Ockham in Hampshire. It had been the intention of this society, to send two young men to France, to study the veterinary art scientifically; but on hearing the proposals of M. St Bel, they abandoned this idea, and appointed a committee to consult with him on the best means of forming a school for teaching the art in this kingdom. To this school they gave the name of the Veterinary College of London; and M. St Bel was appointed the first professor.

The following gentlemen were appointed to the management of this institution.

His Grace the Duke of Northumberland, President. Earl Grosvenor, Earl Morton, Earl of Oxford, Lord Rivers, Sir George Baker, Bart., Sir T. C. Bunbury, Bart., M. P., Sir W. Fordyce, John Hunter, Esq., Sir John Ingleby, Bart., M. P., Sir H. P. St John Mildmay, Bart., G. M. Afcough, Esq., Mr John Baynes, Mr J. Burgess, Rev. T. Burgess, Rev. J. Cook, Dr Adair Crawford, John Gretton, Esq., Dr Hamilton, Mr Rennet, Dr D. Mapleton, Granville Penn, Esq., Mr William Stone, Richard Tophane, Esq., Dr Williams, J. Wollaston, Esq., Messrs. Ranford, Moreland, and Hammerly,

A house was taken, for the purpose of the institution, and pupils were admitted to board in the house.

The success of this institution, at first, by no means answered the expectations of the founders. It appears that M. St Bel was prevented, by the embarrassed state of his circumstances, from executing the office of professor, with that ardour and activity which was necessary to the reputation of the infant school; and indeed it seems, from the specimen he has left us of his professional abilities, that these were not adequate to the office he had undertaken. He possessed considerable industry, and it is probable that, had he lived, he would have succeeded better than his outset had promised. But, in the year 1793, he was attacked with an illness, which proved fatal in about fortnight.

M. St Bel left behind him several works, viz. An Essay on the Geometrical proportions of Eclipse. Lectures on the Elements of Farriery. The Art of Horsefencing, with Observations on the Diseases of the Feet. And a volume of posthumous works.

We do not pretend to give our own opinion as to the merits of these works, as we have not seen them. But it is said that the Essay is merely an application of the proportions long ago laid down by Bourgelat in his Elements d'Hippiatrique, to a particular case; and that many of his measurements are incorrect. Mr Blaine roundly taxes him with translating Laforse to furnish matter for his Elements, and refers for proof of this to the description and treatment of quittor in St Bel's Elements; and Laforse's Dictionnaire d'Hippiatrique.

Mr Blaine brings many other instances of M. St Bel's want of information and science, for which we must refer our readers to Mr Blaine's Outlines of the Veterinary Art.

On the death of M. St Bel, there appears to have been a competition for the vacant chair, between two gentlemen, who were both well qualified to fill it, Mr Edward Coleman and Mr Morecroft. Both of these gentlemen had been bred to surgery; and the former had acquired much reputation by an ingenious Essay on Suspended Respiration. The latter was lately returned from France, where he had been studying the veterinary art. We are not acquainted with the particulars. culars of this competition; but the choice of the subscribers fixed on Mr Coleman, under whose management the college has acquired considerable reputation.

The election of Mr Coleman was followed by some new regulations. An anatomical theatre was fitted up, with dissecting rooms for the use of the students. A medical committee was also appointed for the purpose of examining the pupils, who had completed their education at the college, previously to their receiving a diploma as veterinary surgeons. This committee, in 1801, was composed of the following gentlemen:

Dr Fordyce, senior physician to St Thomas's hospital. Dr Relph, physician to Guy's hospital. Dr Babington, Do. Dr Bailie, physician to St George's hospital. Mr Cline, surgeon to St Thomas hospital. Mr Home, surgeon to St George's hospital. Mr Astley Cooper, surgeon to Guy's hospital. Mr Abernethy, surgeon to Bartholomew's hospital. Mr Wilson, lecturer on anatomy and surgery, and Mr Coleman, professor of the college.

The following are the regulations of this useful institution as published in the year 1801.

The subscribers of the veterinary college pay two guineas per annum, or twenty guineas for life. For this subscription each subscriber, is entitled to send, when sick or lame, any number of horses to the veterinary stables, where no charges are made for medicines, attendance, or operations. The subscriber pays only for the keeping and shoeing of his horse, which is generally less than the actual expense incurred by the college. A committee of stablemen is appointed to examine the quality of the forage, and to regulate the price of the keep of horses. For some years past, the subscribers paid only 2s. 6d. per night; but in consequence of the great advance in hay, corn, and straw, and the college, by this moderate charge, having sustained a considerable loss, the keep of horses is now fixed at 3s. per night. A separate committee inspects the accounts of the college, and three times in the year reports to the general meeting the state of the finances of the college. No horses but those the property of subscribers are admitted into the veterinary stables; but the professor is allowed private practice, and horses not belonging to subscribers may be sent to the college for the professor's opinion.

The horses not intended to be left in the stables of the college may be sent for the professor's advice on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, from twelve to two o'clock. Where medicines are requisite, they are prepared for subscribers' horses at very reduced prices; and the college receives all emoluments which may arise from the sale of horse medicines.

The expenses incurred by subscribers, for shoeing, for the keep of horses, or for medicines, must be paid for before the animal be taken from the college. And as some losses have been sustained from the strict letter of this regulation not having been always attended to, the clerk has now received positive orders from the committee, not to allow any horse, before all the expenses are paid, to be taken from the college. The horses are placed under the direction of the professor, who resides on the spot, and the medicines he prescribes are compounded by a proper person employed for that purpose.

As the great object of the veterinary establishment is to form a national school for the improvement of farriery, pupils paying twenty guineas are admitted into the college to learn the veterinary art.

Lectures are given by the professor on the formation, economy, and diseases of horses, and other domestic animals; and most of the eminent medical teachers in London, with a liberality peculiar to themselves, have allowed the veterinary pupils to hear their lectures without any fee or reward. The veterinary students attend lectures on human anatomy and physiology, on the principles and practice of surgery, on the materia medica, and chemistry, and practice of physic.

The period requisite for obtaining a competent knowledge of the veterinary art, is regulated by the talents, previous information, and industry of the individual pupil. The students continue to attend the college until they are examined and approved by the medical committee. Those pupils who are duly qualified receive a diploma; but those who are found on examination to be deficient, are rejected. There are four general examinations in the year. When examined and approved, if no objections are made to their conduct, during their study at the veterinary college, they may be recommended to any regiment of cavalry, not already provided with a veterinary surgeon.

No fees of any kind are allowed by the college to any of the servants of subscribers; neither are the servants of the college permitted to receive any perquisites from the subscribers.

A veterinary college has also been established near Birmingham, and it is said that others are in contemplation in other parts of the empire.

The advantages that have already accrued from this establishment, to veterinary medicine in general, and to our national cavalry in particular, are very considerable. Almost every regiment of cavalry has been supplied from the college, with a veterinary surgeon; and many of these gentlemen have published works which, for the most part, do much credit to themselves and their academy.

In 1798, Mr Coleman published the first volume, and in 1802, the second, of Observations on the Structure, Economy, and Diseases of the Foot of the Horse. This is a most useful and valuable work, but it is too splendid and costly, especially the second volume, for general circulation. The first volume contains a very full account of the method of shoeing practised at the veterinary college, of which we shall give an abstract hereafter.

About this period, appeared also a pamphlet by Mr Coleman, On the Formation and Uses of the natural Frog of the Horse, with the description of an artificial Frog.

In 1801, appeared the first number of the Veterinary Transactions, published by order of the subscribers. This pamphlet commences with a long introduction, stating the object of the institution, the progress which it had made, and the causes that tended to prevent its complete success. These originate partly in the party opposition of the common farriers, who deem it their interest to do all in their power to circumvent the views of the subscribers; but they have still more been derived from the underhand malice of grooms and servants, with whose interest the institution, from the liberal manner in which which it is conducted, must certainly clash. The body of the pamphlet is occupied with a very neat view of the consequences and treatment of wounds of joints, and other circumscribed cavities, and it is concluded by an account of the regulations of the college (see No. 77), the list of the medical committee, a list of the examined and approved veterinary surgeons that had at that time passed at the college, and lists of the then managers and subscribers to the institution.

The first pupil of the college, as we believe, who distinguished himself as an author, was Mr. Bracey Clarke; who, in the third volume of the Linnean Transactions, published a very ingenious paper on the boots in horses and cattle, of which we shall speak hereafter.

About the same time appeared a small volume on Veterinary Pathology, by Mr. Riding, veterinary surgeon to the 18th regiment of dragoons.

In 1802, Mr. John Denny of the 10th dragoons published a small volume on the Diseases of Horses. In this work Mr. Denny has in general given the principles and practice of the veterinary college, and has illustrated and confirmed these by his own attentive observations and long experience.

In the same year appeared a very neat Compendium of the Veterinary Art, by Mr. James White, of the 1st dragoons. This is only a pocket volume, and of course is very concise; but the author has given a very comprehensive view of the nature and treatment of diseases, and of the late improvement in the art of shoeing introduced in the veterinary college; and the work will be found an useful companion to the young practitioner. This volume also contains the substance of a former work, by the same author, on the Anatomy and Physiology of the Horse's Foot. In the year 1824, Mr. White published the Veterinary Materia Medica, containing a brief description of the various substances employed in farriery, with an account of their particular effects on the body of the horse. He occasionally introduces some pertinent remarks on the diseases of the horse; and in the latter part of the volume, comprising the veterinary pharmacopoeia, he has given a number of the best and most scientific recipes that he had seen. This work may be considered as the second volume of Mr. White's compendium; and the author considered the two volumes as forming a complete system of the veterinary medicine. Though we are disposed to think very favourably of these volumes, as a practical compendium, we cannot help thinking that Mr. White might have contented himself with that modest title without afflicting the more pompous one of a system. We must also remark, that the materia medica, which is not large, is unnecessarily swelled by the admission of many articles that seem to have been introduced merely to tell us, that they are never used in the veterinary practice.

Mr. White is also the author of an Address to the Royal First Devon Yeoman Cavalry reflecting the management of their horses, when employed on actual service.

In the year 1822, or we believe a little earlier, a work of considerable elegance was published by Mr. Richard Lawrence, veterinary surgeon at Birmingham. As we have not seen this work, we must copy the following account of it from Mr. Blaine. "It is much to be regretted that a gentleman who possesses so much ingenuity, should pass over subjects of such importance in such a light cursory manner. The description and treatment of some diseases occupy fewer lines than (to treat the subject in such a manner as to prove useful) they would require pages. The plates are elegant, and extremely well designed, particularly those that regard the proportions and paces of the horse; those that regard the internal structure and diseases are not so happy. The diction is very superior. As a cabinet work, it is most certainly elegant and interesting; but as a useful assistant to the art itself, it does not rank so high."

In the same year was published the first part of a Boardman dictionary of the veterinary art by Mr. Thomas Boardman of the third regiment of dragoons. This work was intended to be completed in fifteen parts. The author seems to have availed himself of the latest and best information on the several articles that compose his work; and he has introduced into it a variety of subjects on the principles of general medicine.

One of the latest publications by pupils of the veterinary college, is a new system of farriery by Mr. John Feron, veterinary surgeon to the thirteenth regiment of light dragoons. This work is printed in quarto, and affords a good instance to what extent a small quantity of matter may be carried by the modern typographical improvements of large type, broad margins, wide spaces, and frequent breaks. The work is indeed very elegant both in type and in plates. It also contains some useful information on the external structure of the horse, with a view to point out and illustrate what appeared to the author to be the most perfect form of a blood horse, with the blemishes and defects which appeared most likely to impede its velocity. This appears to be the best part of the work, and is well illustrated by the plates. The latter half of the book is occupied with the consideration of diseases; and here we are led, from the author's title page, to expect an account not only of the diseases of horses, but of the principal epidemics to which cattle, sheep, &c., are subject. These epidemics are however discussed in the course of seventeen pages; but we are given to understand that the author intends in a future publication to give a full comparative description, with the proper mode of treatment of every disease that affects domestic animals. Mr. Feron's observations are rendered of less utility than they would otherwise have been, by the want of a table of contents prefixed to the work.

These are, we believe, the principal publications that have proceeded from the pupils of the veterinary college. A few other works on veterinary medicine still remain to be considered. In 1796, a very elegant work on horses was published by S. Freeman, Esq., whose character is given by Mr. Blaine as an amateur in the manege, and a gentleman of fortune, learning, and great ingenuity. This publication consists in a description of the structure and economy of the foot, accompanied with a set of plates highly finished in Skelton's best style. The subjects were dissected under the inspection of Mr. Home, or an assistant; and except some slight errors in the ligaments of the navicular bone, appear very correct. This publication, for the elegance of its engravings, and the general spirit of the whole, will be long without a competitor. It recommends a very ingeni-

About the same time Mr John Lawrence published a small volume on horses, chiefly composed of extracts from St Bel, Ofner, Clarke, and Lord Pembroke; and in 1798, this gentleman brought forward his philosophical and practical treatise on horses, a work which is as remarkable for the good sense and humanity of the author, as for the whimsical eccentricity and angry irritability which he occasionally displays. The work embraces a great variety of subjects. It commences with an account of the principal former writers on farriery, in which high eulogies are paid to the memory of Gibbon and Bracken, and a very violent attack is made on the ill-starred Mr Taplin. The latter part of the work contains Mr Lawrence's system of veterinary practice, which is chiefly taken from his favourite authors, as Mr Lawrence seems at that time not to have had much practical experience. The work also contains some remarks on the diseases of horned cattle, on the treatment of cows, and on calving.

Mr Lawrence has since, in 1805, published a separate treatise on cattle, in which the management of neat cattle, sheep, and swine, are handled in a masterly manner; and a much fuller account of diseases and their treatment is given than could be expected in his former treatise. We venture to recommend Mr Lawrence's works as amongst the most instructive and most entertaining we have met with.

Some years ago there appeared a work on the description and treatment of the diseases of cattle, by a Mr Downing, a professor of cattle medicine; which, though very expensive, sold very fast, and was very generally esteemed amongst farmers and graziers. We have not seen this work; but from the account of it that is given by Mr Blaine in his outlines, it should seem that it abounds with important errors, and frequently inculcates a dangerous mode of practice. We cannot here enumerate the particular examples brought by Mr Blaine in proof of his assertions, but we shall notice the most important of them under their proper heads.

Perhaps no part of veterinary medicine has been so little cultivated in this country, as that which considers the diseases of cattle. There is scarcely a work on this subject in the English language that is worth perusal. We cannot give a better idea of the little value that must be placed on these works than by the following extract from Mr Lawrence's treatise on cattle.

"I have never yet seen any of these cattle-doctoring books, which appeared to me to be written bona fide. Well-intentioned ignorance, if not entitled to respect, is at least venial; but the slightest examination of most of these printed guardians of the health of cattle, by a person qualified to judge, will evince, that they are premeditated impostures, goods merely varnished up for sale. They have either the names of living men attached to them, who, in the strongest probability, never either did, or could write a line of them, or they are published in the name of some one of the mighty dead, among cow-doctors, who most unfortunately died at last, after sixty years practice. One would expect to find something original and valuable, from this long-continued and extensive practice; but the disappointment is always complete. The chief of that which we meet with, consists of transcriptions from former writers, interlarded with learned, medical, and physical dissertations, perhaps found and good enough in their place, to which are loofily and clumsily tacked the most nonsensical and burlesque appendages by Mr Editor. The medicinal forms in these books, are frequently the strangest jumble that imagination can conceive. Articles of a directly opposite nature and intention, are blended in one mass, which must inevitably act upon the animal system with an effect similar to that of two men pulling at opposite ends of a cord. We find balsam of Peru and Glauber's salts married together, the intent of which, no doubt must be, as a Suffolk farrier once described to the late Mr Ruff, "a kind of heater, and a kind of cooler." Indeed the far greater number of the prescriptions wear rather the appearance of having been fabricated for the use of the book, than of having ever been used and approved in real practice. One truly laughable custom was introduced by the book published under the name of Topham's old one. It was to submit to every prescription of note, a set character, conceived in the most high sounding terms of panegyric, at the same time, with a choice of words, at once so droll, and so gravely professional, with so formal an arrangement, that he must be a man far surpassing me in gravity, grave as I naturally am, who can peruse them without bursting into laughter. It must not be denied, however, that these books contain a number of useful hints, relative to the management and dieting of cattle, whether or not such may have originated with the doctor, or have been introduced by the editor. They may also, to a certain degree, be consulted as to the symptoms of diseases, although by no means to be implicitly relied on even in that respect. So far they have their use. With regard to doctoring, as it is termed, or prescribing medicines to cattle, they are most truly blind guides; and when, unfortunately, they are let to lead the blind, the fate of both parties may be very readily anticipated. I am speaking of books, which have been published within the last half century. As to the ancient veterinary writers, none of them, not even the celebrated Vegetius, were medical men, and their medical practice is utterly beneath modern notice. The same kind of books of our old English writers, consist of a strange medley of ancient practice with various sage additions of their own. A rational man cannot read over some of their prescriptions without amazement, nor a humane one without extreme pity for the harassed victim of such monstrous practice. By the way, they who, for interested purposes, fabricate pretended cattle medicines, of the effects of which they are careless or ignorant, commit an act of gross inhumanity and crime, in too probably adding to the load of sufferings of a helpless animal already tortured by disease. One of the greatest curiosities we meet with in the old books, is their grand universal specific. It seems as though they judged by a kind of compound arithmetic-medicinal logic, that all medicines being conjoined and multiplied one into the other, the product must necessarily be the prevention or cure of all diseases."

Mr Lawrence has excepted from the above general censure, a work lately published by Mr Culley, of Northumberland, which, he says, ought to be in the hands of every farmer in Great Britain. He considers it as the only original work in our language, and, as containing in a small compass, a most valuable fund of information, In the year 1800, Mr Morecroft, the rival candidate with Mr Coleman for the professorship of the veterinary college, published a small pamphlet containing a cursory account of the various methods of shoeing horses, with incidental observations. This work displays considerable ingenuity. We shall notice Mr Morecroft's method of shoeing by and by.

In 1802, appeared Mr Blaine's Outlines of the Veterinary Art, or the Principles of Medicine as applied to a knowledge of the structure, functions, and economy of the horse, the ox, the sheep, and the dog; and to a more scientific and successful manner of treating their various diseases; in two volumes. Mr Blaine is well known as a practitioner of veterinary medicine, and as the advertiser of a specific against the distemper in dogs. In his Outlines, Mr Blaine, after giving a sketch of the history of medicine in general, enters on the history of veterinary medicine in particular, which he details at considerable length; not, however, without several errors, some of which we have already pointed out. He next proceeds to lay down very briefly what he conceives to be the proper means for the attainment of the veterinary art. Then follows a long section on a subject which we should scarcely expect to find in a work of this kind, the history of chemistry. The first part concludes with a sketch of comparative anatomy, in which the structure and economy of the ox, sheep, and dog are passed over much too lightly. The second part, which occupies the rest of the first volume, and one-half of the second, is taken up with a very minute account of the anatomy of the horse, with some observations on the economy and uses of the several parts. We consider this as the best part of Mr Blaine's book; but we think that he has made it unnecessarily prolix, as by carrying it to such an extent, he has not left room for a satisfactory account of diseases, which occupy the rest of the second volume. Here we cannot but consider the author as very defective. Neither the symptoms nor the treatment are given with that accuracy or precision, which the public had a right to expect from a practitioner of Mr Blaine's long experience. Many of the diseases of cattle, sheep, and especially of dogs, are passed over in a manner that is by no means satisfactory. The work is written in a very flowery manner, and is everywhere filled with an ostentatious parade of medical phraseology that must render it nearly unintelligible to the generality of readers. In his receipts, Mr Blaine has for the most part adopted the new nomenclature, which, however we may approve in medical formulæ, we cannot think calculated for the meridian of farriers. We, however, by no means intend to insinuate that Mr Blaine's work is without merit: it certainly contains much valuable matter; but we must repeat that it is not what we should have expected from the advantages of information and experience which Mr Blaine appears to have possessed.

In the following year, Mr Blaine published a smaller work, which he calls a Domestic Treatise on the diseases of horses and dogs, which appears to be chiefly an abridgement of the Outlines, with a sort of advertisement for the sale of Mr Blaine's patent medicine.

In 1802 appeared a General View of the Agriculture of the county of Peebles, by the Rev. Charles Findlater, minister of the parish of Newlands, in that county. This work, though intended merely as a local survey of the state of agriculture and improvements in a small district, abounds with much excellent matter that must prove of general utility. Besides the observations which the ingenious author has made, on the general management of live stock, in the body of his work, he has added in one of his appendices some valuable information respecting some of the most important diseases of sheep, which are partly furnished from the communications of Dr Gillespie, late physician in Edinburgh, and Dr Coventry professor of agriculture in that university, and partly derived from his own experience.

In 1805 was published an elegant work on practical agriculture by Dr R. W. Dickson; the second volume of which contains much useful instruction respecting the choice, breeding, feeding, &c., of all the species of live stock employed on a farm; with a few very concise remarks on the diseases of each species. But as these are merely practical hints, they cannot be of much use, except to those who are already tolerably acquainted with the subject.

In the same year, the Rev. William Daniel performed a task, which, however ill suited to the character and avocation of a clergyman, must be highly grateful to every lover of the sports of the field, in the publication of his Rural Sports, which contains perhaps the most complete account of everything relating to dogs that is to be found in the English language. Among other subjects connected with the management of this favourite companion of man, the reverend author takes occasion to treat pretty fully of his diseases. On this subject, Mr Daniel has not only collected matter from what he conceives to be the best sources, but, what is more useful, as well as more to be depended on, he has added much from his own observation and experience.

One of the latest works on the diseases of domestic animals, which we have seen, is An Enquiry into the Rot in Sheep, and other animals, by Dr Edward Harrison, a respectable physician of Horn castle, in Lincolnshire. Of this pamphlet we shall speak at large, when we come to treat of the disease, whose nature and causes it is intended to illustrate.

PART II. ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE HORSE.

IN the sketch which we are to give of the anatomy of the horse, we must very lightly pass over such parts as appear not to be of immediate importance in the practice of farriery, in order to dwell more minutely on those organs that are of greater consequence. Thus we shall content ourselves with giving a tabular view of the bones and muscles; we shall entirely omit the brain and nerves; but we shall describe some of the other viscera, as the stomach, and the bowels, somewhat more minutely. We shall be most particular on the anatomy of the extremities, especially of the feet, as on an accurate knowledge of these parts depend the principles of shoeing; Anatomy ing; which, without such knowledge, cannot be properly understood, or rationally practised.

On the subject of the anatomy of the foot, we shall be particularly indebted to the writings of Mr Coleman; and we cannot shew the importance of the subject in shoeing better than by the following remarks of that gentleman.

"The organization and functions of the foot of the horse will be found rather complicated; but it is of considerable importance to those who wish to investigate anatomy of the principles, as well as the practice of shoeing, to be well acquainted with every part of that organ. The practical part of shoeing is often well executed, without an accurate knowledge of the contents of the hoof.

"But, in many cases, it is very necessary to be well acquainted with the structure and functions of the deeper seated parts, and is most particularly useful for the removal of many diseases incident to the foot. The immense weight supported by the feet of the horse, and the rapidity with which this great animal is conveyed from place to place, without violence to the external or internal parts of the foot, naturally excite a desire to ascertain the cause of so wonderful an effect. If the human foot supported the same weight as the foot of the horse, the sensible parts would be destroyed. Without springs, no external covering could effectually support the weight, and prevent the foot from being smashed. The physiologist will receive infinite satisfaction in the investigation of the functions of this complicated organ; he will find as much order and beauty, as much wisdom and utility, in the formation and economy of the foot, as ever was displayed in the structure and uses of any animal. It will be seen in many instances, that the same part performs various functions, and all of these functions well."

In our description of the structure of the horse, we shall, as far as possible, employ English names to denote the parts described or enumerated, as we think the writers on the subject have done wrong in giving to the parts of the horse the Latin names that are employed in the human anatomy; and we have no doubt that the generality of veterinary students must, from this circumstance alone, be in a great measure deterred from paying the necessary attention to so important a subject. But, that we may avoid affectation, we shall, wherever it appears necessary, add the corresponding Latin name, and some synonyms of the more respectable writers on the anatomy of the horse.

**Chap. I. A Sketch of the Bones of the Horse.**

When we take a general view of the skeleton of the horse, supposed to stand before us, we shall observe that, excepting the head and fore part of the neck, the skeleton forms nearly a square, and approaches more nearly to this form, as the body of the animal is more exactly proportional. We remark this for the sake of painters and sculptors, who commonly err considerably with respect to their proportion of length and breadth in their figures of the horse.

We shall divide the skeleton into the head, the spine, the trunk, and extremities. See Plate CCXI. fig. 1.

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**Bones of the Head. A.**

- **a, c**, Half of the frontal bone, which in the horse is always composed of two pieces. - **e, f**, One of the two parietal bones. - **g, h, i, k**, The occipital bone, with a process at k, that is peculiar to the horse. - **l, m**, The temple, or temporal bone, of one side; n, the cheek-bone of one side. - **o**, One of the small bones within the socket of the eye, that answers to the os unguis in man. - **p, p**, Bones of the nose. - **q, r, r**, The upper jaw-bone. - **t**, The internasal bone, or what is usually called by veterinary writers the inferior jaw-bone. This is not found in the human skeleton. - **u, v**, The posterior maxillary bone, which answers to the lower jaw-bone in man.

**Bones of the Spine. B.**

- **1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7**, The seven vertebrae of the neck. - **a**, The atlas; b, the second vertebra, called in human anatomy, dentata; d, e, f, its transverse processes; e, its oblique processes; f, its ridge, answering for a spinous process; g, h, i, k, l, m, n, third cervical vertebra; g, its body; above the letter is the hole for the transmission of the vertebral arteries and veins; t, k, anterior and posterior transverse processes; l, a protuberance in the fore part of the body. - **8—25**, The eighteen vertebrae of the back; a, the body of each; b, the transverse processes that articulate with the ribs; c, the oblique processes; d, the spinous processes. - **26 to 30**, The five vertebrae of the loins, which have very long transverse processes, though these are not very easily distinguished in the figure, from its having a side view. - **x, x**, The sacrum bone, composed of five pieces, as in man.

From 31 to 43, the 13 bones composing the tail, answering to the os coccygis in man.

**Bones of the Trunk. C.**

- **a, b, i, g**, The true ribs; 10 to 18 the false ribs; a, the head articulating with the transverse process of the first dorsal vertebra; under is seen the lower branch of the head that unites with the seventh cervical and first dorsal vertebra; c, the end that unites with the sternum or breast-bone; a, b, c, d, e, f, g, the two hip bones, answering to the os innominata in the human anatomy; a, b, c, the ilium, with its tuberosity a, forming the haunch or hip; e, f, the ischium; g, g, the pubis with its junction or symphysis between the two letters.

**Bones of the Fore Extremity. D. D.**

- **e, f, g, h, i, l, m**, The scapula or blade-bone; e, its neck, below which is seen its glenoid cavity; f, anterospinatus fossa; h, its spine, which in the human ends in the processus acromion, but as there is no clavicle in the horse, it ends by a tubercle; i, coracoid process; between m and i, the anterior coxa; l, between this and e, posterior coxa, between m and l, is its base, and the line above it marks the extent and situation of the cartilage of the scapula; n, o, p, q, humerus or arm; n, its neck, above which is seen its head; o, its anterior head, forming the point of the shoulder, as it is commonly called. called in the horse; \( p \), its tuberosity; \( q \), its lower head, behind is seen the cavity for the reception of the olecranon; \( r \), ulna; \( s \), the upper part forms the olecranon or elbow; the lower part is united by ligamentous fibres to the radius; \( t \), the radius; \( u \), pisiform; \( v \), capitate; \( w \), lunar; \( x \), unciform; \( y \), magnum; \( z \), cuneiform; \( a \), trapezoid; \( b \), metacarpus; \( c \), canon; \( d \), two small metacarpals; \( e \), phalanx or pastern; \( f \), sesamoids; \( g \), coronet-bone, or little pattern; \( h \), coffin; \( i \), navicular or nut-bone.

**Bones of the Hind Extremity. E. E.**

\( h \), \( i \), \( k \), \( l \), \( m \), Thigh-bone; \( n \), the neck, above which is the head received into the socket of the pelvis; \( o \), great trochanter; \( p \), the outer trochanter; \( q \), the inner trochanter; \( r \), anterior condyles; \( s \), posterior; \( t \), patella; \( u \), tibia or leg-bone, commonly called the thigh; \( v \), fibula; the tibia is seen terminating in its maleoli, to articulate with the tarbus; \( w \), \( x \), \( y \), \( z \), tarbus or hock; \( a \), \( b \), \( c \), calcis, forming the point of the hock, in man the heel; \( d \), astragalus; \( e \), \( f \), great cuneiform bone; \( g \), cuboid bone; \( h \), middle cuneiform bone; \( i \), \( j \), small cuneiform bone; \( k \), \( l \), \( m \), \( n \), metatarsus; \( o \), \( p \), canon or thorn; \( q \), \( r \), two small metatarsals; \( s \), pastern; \( t \), sesamoids; \( u \), coronet-bone or lesser pattern; \( v \), coffin bone; \( w \), navicular or nut-bone.

**Of the Teeth.**

A male horse has 40 teeth, when he has completed his full number. The mare has usually but 36. They are divided into three kinds; the cutting teeth or nippers; the cuspidate or tusks, and the molars or grinders. A knowledge of the horse's teeth and of the changes which they undergo, from their first appearance, is of the greatest consequence, as from it we derive the surest marks of the age of the horse; at least, till he is eight or nine years old.

Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8, show the appearance of the teeth from their first cutting to the age of eight years.

Fig. 2, shows the appearance of the colt's teeth at the age of three weeks; fig. 3, that of the colt's teeth at three months. Fig. 4, shows the state of the teeth from three months to about four or five years, where \( a \), \( b \), are the pincers or nippers; \( c \), \( d \), what are called the separators; \( e \), \( f \), the corners, or the last of the front teeth at that age; \( g \), \( h \), the tusks. Fig. 5, shows the appearance of the teeth at the age of five years, and figs. 6, 7, and 8, their appearance at the respective ages of six, seven, and eight years.

The age of a horse is easily known by his mouth, till he comes eight, after which the usual marks wear out. A horse, like many other brute animals, has his teeth divided into three ranks; viz., his fore-teeth which are flat and smooth, his tusks, and his back-teeth. His back-teeth or jaw-teeth are called his grinders, being those by which a horse chews and grinds his provender, and are 24 in number, 12 above and 12 below: they are strong double teeth, with sharp edges; but when a horse grows old they wear much smoother.

The first that grow are his foal-teeth, which begin to appear a few months after he is foaled: they are 12 in number, six above and six below; and are easily distinguished from the teeth that come afterwards by their smallness and whiteness, not unlike the fore-teeth of a man.

When the colt is about two years and a half old he casts the four middlemost of his foal-teeth, viz., two above and two below: but some do not cast any of their foal-teeth till they are near three years old. The new teeth are easily distinguished from the foal-teeth, being much stronger, and always twice their size, and are called the incisors or gatherers, being those by which a horse nips off the grass when he is feeding abroad in the fields, or in the house gathers his hay from the rack. When a horse has got these four teeth complete, he is reckoned three years old.

When he is about three and a half, or in the spring before he is four years old, he casts out four more of his foal-teeth, viz., two above and two below, one on each side the nippers or middle teeth: so that when you look into a horse's mouth, and see the two middle teeth full grown, and none of the foal-teeth except the common teeth remaining, you may conclude he is four that year about April or May. Some indeed are later colts, but that makes little alteration in the mouth.

The tusks appear near the same time with the four last-mentioned teeth, sometimes sooner than those, and sometimes not till after a horse is full four years old: they are curved like the tusks of other beasts; only in a young horse, they have a sharp edge all round the top and on both sides, the inside being somewhat grooved and flattened, inclined to a hollowness.

When a horse's tusks do not appear for some time after the foal teeth are cast and the new ones come in their room, it is generally owing to the foal-teeth having been pulled out before their time by the breeders or other dealers in horses, to make a colt of three years old appear like one of four, that he may be the more saleable; for when any of the foal-teeth have been pulled out, the others soon come in their places; but the tusks having none that go before them, can never make their appearance till their proper time, viz., when a horse is about four or coming four; and, therefore, one of the surest marks to know a four years old horse is by his tusks, which are then very small and sharp on the top and edges.

When a horse comes five, or rather in the spring before he is five, the corner teeth begin to appear, and at first but just equal with the gums, being filled with flesh in the middle. The tusks are also by this time grown to a more distinct size, though not very large; they likewise continue rough and sharp on the top and edges. But the corner teeth are now most to be remarked; they differ from the middle teeth in being more fleety on the inside, and the gums generally look rawish upon their first shooting out; whereas the others do not appear in this way. The middle teeth arrive at their full growth in less than three weeks; but the corner teeth grow leisurely, and are seldom much above the gums till a horse is full five: they differ also from the other fore-teeth, in this, that they somewhat resemble a shell; and thence are called the shell-teeth, because they environ the flesh in the middle half-way round: and as they grow, the flesh within disappears, leaving a distinct hollowness and openness on the inside. When a horse is full five, these teeth are generally about the thickness of a crown-piece about the gums. From five to five... Anatomy and a half they will grow about a quarter of an inch of the high, or more; and when a horse is full fix, they will be near half an inch, and in some large horses a full half inch, about the gums.

The corner teeth in the upper jaw fall out before those in the under, so that the upper corner teeth are seen before those below; on the contrary, the tusks in the under gums come on before those in the upper.

When a horse is full six years old, the hollowness on the inside begins visibly to fill up, and that which was at first fleety, grows into a brownish spot, not unlike the eye of a dried garden bean, and continues so till he is seven; with this difference only, that the tooth is more filled up, and the mark or spot becomes faint, and of a lighter colour. At eight, the mark in most horses is quite worn out, though some retain the vestiges of it a long time; and those who have not had a good deal of experience, may sometimes be deceived by taking a horse of nine or ten years old for one of eight. It is at this time only, when a horse is past mark, that one can easily err in knowing the age of a horse; for what practices are used to make a very young horse or colt appear older than he is, by pulling out the foal-teeth before their time, may be discovered by feeling along the edges where the tusks grow, for they may be felt in the gums before the corner teeth are put forth; whereas, if the corner teeth come in some months before the tusks rise in the gums, we may reasonably suspect that the foal-teeth have been pulled out at three years old.

It will, perhaps, be needless to mention the tricks that are used to make a false mark in a horse's mouth, by hollowing the tooth with a graver, and burning a mark with a small hot iron; because those who are acquainted with the true marks, will easily discover the cheat by the size and colour of the teeth, by the roundness and bluntness of the tusks, by the colour of the false marks, which is generally blacker, and more impressed than the true mark, and by many other visible tokens, which denote the advanced age of a horse.

After the horse has passed his sixth year, and sometimes at seven, nothing certain can be known by the mouth. It must, however, be remembered, that some horses have but indifferent mouths when they are young, and soon lose their mark; others have their mouths good for a long time, their teeth being white, even, and regular, till they are 16 years old and upwards, together with many other marks of freshness and vigour; but when a horse comes to be very old, it may be discovered by several indications, the constant attendants of age, viz. his gums wear away insensibly, leaving his teeth long and naked at their roots. The bars of the mouth, which, in a young horse are always fleety, and form so many distinct ridges, are, in an old horse, lean, dry, and smooth, with little or no rising. The eye-pits in a young horse (except those come of old stallions) are generally filled up with flesh, look plump and smooth; whereas in an old horse, they are sunk and hollow, and make them look ghastly, and with a melancholy aspect. There are also other marks which discover a horse to be very old, viz. gray horses turn very white, and many of them all over flea-bitten, except their joints. This, however, happens sometimes later and sometimes sooner, according to the variety of colour and constitution.

Black horses are apt to grow gray over their eye-brows, and very often over a good part of their face, especially those who have a star or blane fringed round with gray when they are young. All horses, when very old, fink more or less in their backs; and some horses, that are naturally long-backed, grow so hollow with age, that it is scarce possible to fit them with a saddle. Of this kind are several Spanish and Barbary horses, and many Danish and Flanders breed. The joints also grow stiff with old age, and their knees and hocks bend so, that they are apt to trip and stumble upon the least descent, though the way be smooth and nowadays rugged. After which they can be of little use to the owner.*

**CHAP. II. Principal Muscles of the Horse.**

We shall here only enumerate the muscles of the head, neck, and trunk, as being of less importance than those of the extremities. Of these latter we shall give a table, expressing, besides their usual names, their origin, insertion, and uses.

Muscles of the Eyelids and Eye.

- Orbicular of the eyelids. - Elevator of the upper eyelid, \(a, b\), fig. 10. - Elevator of the eye. - Depressor of the eye. - Adductor of the eye. - Abductor of the eye. - Trochlear muscle of the eye. - Obliquus major. - Lesser oblique. - Retractor of the eye.

Muscles of the Mouth and Jaws.

- Orbicular, \(g, i\), fig. 9, \(o\), fig. 10. - Buccinator, \(r\), fig. 9, \(s\), fig. 10. - Elevator of the corner of the mouth, \(m, n\), fig. 10. - Long nasal of the upper lip, \(l, m, n, o\), fig. 9. - Masseter, \(p, q\), fig. 9. - Ciliares, \(u, w\), fig. 9. - Temporal, \(2, 3\), fig. 9. - Canine, \(6, 7\), fig. 9, \(m, n\), fig. 10. - Depressor of the lower lip, \(9, 10\), fig. 9, \(p, q, r\), fig. 10. - Elevator of the chin, \(12\), fig. 9. - Dilatators of the nostrils, \(a, b, c, d, g, f\), fig. 9.

Muscles of the Neck.

- Sterno-mastoidei; \(a, b, c\), fig. 9. - Coraco-hyoideus; \(f, f\), fig. 9, and \(a, b, c, d, e\), fig. 10. - Sterno-hyoideus; \(g\), fig. 9, \(f, g\), fig. 10. - Sterno-thyroideus; \(h, i, k\), fig. 10. - Tranversals; \(h, i\), fig. 9, A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, fig. 10. - Trachelo-mastoidei; M, O, P, Q, S, fig. 10. - Rectus internus major capitis; \(m, n\), fig. 9, and \(w, x, y\), fig. 10. - Intertranversales minores colli; \(o\), fig. 9. **Table of the Muscles of the Extremities.**

### I. Muscles of the Fore-leg and Foot.

| Name | Origin and Insertion | Use | |-----------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------| | Trapezius | From the 4th, 5th, and 6th cervical vertebrae; from the first 12 or 13 dorsal vertebrae; and from the cervical ligament, into the spine of the blade-bone. | To raise and draw backwards the blade-bone. | | Larger rhomboid. | From the ligament of the neck, at about the 2nd vertebra, into the cartilage of the blade-bone. | To raise the blade-bone, and draw it a little forwards. | | Rhomboideus major. | From the lateral part of the breast-bone, into the upper and fore part of the blade-bone. | To draw the blade-bone forward when the neck is fixed, or vice versa. | | Triangulaire Vitet. | From the 4th and 5th vertebrae of the neck, into the upper and fore part of the blade-bone, above the pectoral. | To draw the blade-bone downwards. | | Levator scapulae. | From the true ribs, and from the 6th and 7th cervical vertebrae, into the last cervical vertebra. | To connect the blade-bone with the chest, and to draw it downwards, and sometimes to assist other muscles. | | Levator scapulae. | From the ante-spinatus fossa, by two tendons, into the two tuberosities of the head of the shoulder-bone. | To extend the fore-leg and move it forwards. | | Anterior serratus. | From a fossa, so called, into the outer-side of the shoulder-bone. | To move the fore-leg outward, and away from its fellow. | | Serratus anterior. | From the coracoid process of the blade-bone, into the whole of the capsular ligament. | To prevent the ligament from being pinched between the bones. | | Ante-spinatus. | From all the dorsal vertebrae connected with the muscles of the back, and with the fleshy pannicle, into the inner tuberosity of the shoulder-bone, below the blade-bone. | To draw the fore-leg backward, and towards the chest. | | Post-spinatus. | From the tuberosity of the temporal bone, and from the four first cervical vertebrae, into the upper and outward part of the arm. | To raise the arm, and when that is fixed, to draw the head and neck downwards. | | Extensor of the ligament. | From the hollow of the blade-bone, into the inner side of the shoulder-bone. | To move the arm towards its fellow. |

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**Muscles of the Trunk.**

- External oblique; I, K, L, M, fig. 9. - Obliquus internus; r, s, u, w, x, y, fig. 10. - Rectus abdominis; z, fig. 10. - Tranveralis abdominis; p, q, r, fig. 11. - External intercostals; i, 2, &c., fig. 11. - Internal ditto; 3, 4, &c., fig. 11. - Semispinalis and spinalis dorfi; a, b, c, d, e, f, fig. 11. - Longissimus dorfi; g, h, i, k, fig. 11. - Sacrolumbal; l, m, n, &c., fig. 11. - Elevators of the ribs; a, b, fig. 12. - Lateral of the tail; e, f, fig. 12. - Intertransversals of the tail; g, &c., fig. 12. - Elevator of the tail; i, fig. 12. - Depressor of the tail; k, fig. 12.

Origin and Insertion.

From the side of the breast-bone, and the cartilages of the six last true ribs, into the inner side of the shoulder bone.

From the fore part of the breast-bone, into the inner and lower part of the shoulder-bone, and connected by expansion with the radius.

From the coracoide process of the blade-bone into the lower and back part of the shoulder-bone.

From the upper part of the posterior edge of the blade bone, into the inside of the shoulder-bone.

From the posterior edge of the blade-bone into the outer tuberosity of the shoulder-bone.

Below the last muscle, between the last and the subscapula.

From the tuberosity of the blade-bone, above the glenoid cavity, into the inner tuberosity of the radius.

From the neck of the shoulder-bone into the inner tuberosity of the radius.

From the posterior edge of the blade-bone into the olecranon, or elbow.

From the whole length of the posterior edge of the blade-bone into the olecranon.

Below the inner side of the head of the shoulder-bone, into the inner and upper part of the olecranon.

From the neck and some part of the shoulder-bone, into the olecranon.

From the outer condyle, and tuberosity of the shoulder-bone, into the anterior tuberosity of the cannon-bone.

From the side of the radius downwards from the middle into the small inner metacarpal bone.

From the outer condyle of the shoulder-bone, at its back part, into the pisiform, and small outer metacarpal bones.

From the inner condyle of the shoulder-bone, into the back part of the cannon.

From the inner condyle of the shoulder-bone, at its back part, into the pisiform bone.

From the lower and outer head of the shoulder-bone, and upper part of the radius, into the anterior protuberance of the coffin-bone.

From the outer head of the radius, passing over the knee through an annular ligament, into the upper and back part of the bone down to the foot.

From the inner condyle of the shoulder-bone passing behind the knee, into the arch of the coffin-bone.

From the olecranon and the shoulder-bone at the back part, into the arch of the coffin-bone.

Use.

To draw the fore-leg downwards and backwards.

To draw the fore-legs together, and to assist the last in respiration, when the fore-leg is fixed.

To draw the arm forwards and outwards.

When the blade-bone is fixed, to draw the fore-leg upwards and inwards, and vice versa.

To draw the shoulder-bone upwards and outwards.

To turn the arm.

To bend the arm.

To turn the fore-arm, and assist the former in bending it.

To bind down the muscles, and assist in extending the arm.

To extend the arm.

To oppose the oblique flexor.

To assist in extending the arm.

To extend the cannon.

To assist the former, and turn the foot outwards.

To bend the cannon.

To assist the former.

To bend the carpus, and extricate the ligament.

To extend the foot.

To assist the former.

To bend the foot.

To assist the former. 2. Muscles of the Hind Leg or Foot.

Origin and Insertion.

From the interior and posterior angles of the ilium, into the little trochanter of the thigh-bone. To extend the thigh, and draw it outwards.

From the anterior angle of the ilium, into a tendinous expansion over the thigh. To stretch the fascia of the thigh, and draw it inwards.

From the tuberosity and lower angle of the ischium, into the fore part of the thigh-bone, and into the tibia. To draw the thigh outwards.

From the tuberosity of the ischium, and beginning of the tail, into the inner side of the spine of the tibia. To bend the leg, and draw it inwards.

Like the former, into the inner condyle of the thigh-bone and upper end of the tibia. To bend the leg.

From the vertebrae of the loins, and from the sacrum, into the great trochanter of the thigh-bone. To extend the thigh, and draw it backwards and outwards.

Rises from the brim of the acetabulum, into the outer side of the thigh-bone. To extricate the capular ligament.

From the pubis and ischium, into the fascia of the thigh and the inner side of the head of the tibia. To make one thigh approach its fellow.

From the inner edge of the brim of the pelvis, into the inner head of the tibia. To assist the former.

From the three last dorsal, and four first lumbar vertebrae, and from the two last false ribs, into the inner trochanter of the thigh-bone. To bend the thigh.

From the inner surface of the ilium, into the lesser trochanter of the thigh-bone. To assist the former.

From the inner surface of the ilium, into the lesser trochanter of the thigh-bone. To assist the former.

From the symphysis pubis, inserted below the last. To bend the thigh.

From the inner edge of the pubis, from the anterior branch of the ischium, and from its tuberosity, into the back of the thigh-bone, the upper and inner part of the tibia, and the tuberosity of the thigh bone. To draw one thigh towards its fellow.

From the great trochanter, and the outer side of the thigh-bone, into the side of the knee-pan. To extend the leg.

From the ilium above the socket, and from the upper part of the thigh-bone, into the upper part of the knee-pan. To extend the leg strongly.

From the neck, inner tuberosity, and whole inner part of the thigh-bone, into the inner side of the knee-pan. To assist the vastus externus, and last muscle.

From the fore part of the thigh-bone, into the inner side of the knee-pan. Ditto.

From the inner part of the ischium, into the hollow of the great trochanter. To roll the thigh-bone.

From the lower part of the tuberosity of the ischium, into the thigh-bone below the great trochanter. Assists the former.

From the ischium and pubis, one above the other, inserted into the thigh with the last. Oppose the last.

Name, &c.

Posterior gluteus. m, n, o, p, fig. 9.

Tensor vaginae femoris, Fascia lata. a, b, c, c, D, e, f, g, h, fig. 9.

Semimembranosus. 17, 18, 19, fig. 9.

Biceps flexor cruris. 3, 4, 5 ——11, fig. 9.

Posterior flexor of the leg.

The large gluteus. q, Q, r, s, t, fig. 9.

Capular. a, b, c, fig. 12.

Gracilis. e, f, fig. 9. u, w, fig. 11.

Sartorius.

Adductor longus. p, q, r, s, t, fig. 21. t, u, fig. 12.

Large psoas.

Larger internal iliac. e, fig. 10.

Lesser internal iliac.

Pectineus. s, fig. 12.

Triceps adductor femoris.

Vastus externus. n, o, p, r, s, t, fig. 10.

Straight muscle of the leg. Rutus cruris. g, h, i, k, fig. 10.

Vastus internus. b, c, fig. 10.

Crural. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. fig. 11.

External obturator.

Square muscle of the thigh. Quadratus femoris.

Gemini. f, g, fig. 10. FAR R I E R Y.

Name, &c.

Inner obturator. 1, 2, 3, fig. 12. Pyriform. Popliteus. 28, 29, fig. 11. Tibialis anticus. 14. Gastrocnemius. Plantar. 40, fig. 9. Perforated flexor of the foot. Larger perforating flexor of the foot. Lesser perforating flexor of the foot. The long extensor of the foot. Lateral extensor of the foot. Lesser extensor.

Origin and Insertion.

From the edge of the thyroid hole, into the thigh with the preceding. From the sacrum within the pelvis, inserted as the last. From the external condyle of the thigh-bone, into the tibia. From the fore part of the external condyle of the thigh-bone, into both canons by two portions. From each condyle of the thigh-bone, into the hock. From the upper part of the spine of the tibia, inserted as the former. From the hollow between the condyles of the thigh-bone, into each side of the pastern-bone. From the back and outer part of the head of the tibia, into the arch of the coffin-bone. From the back part of the head of the tibia, inserted with the preceding. From the tendon of the extensor of the cannon, in the anterior protuberance of the coffin bone. From the outer head of the thigh-bone, and from the head of the fibula, inserted with the last. From the tendon of the long extensor to the lateral extensor.

Use.

To assist the gemini. Ditto. To draw the leg inwards. To bend the leg strongly. To extend the canon. To bend the pastern and foot. To bend the foot. To assist the former. To extend the foot. Ditto. To draw the tendons of the long and lateral extensors together.

In the Hind Extremity.

Vena saphena; 21, fig. 9. Capular ligament of the knee; 3, 4, fig. 10. Sciatic artery; 34, fig. 11. Gluteal artery; 35, 35, fig. 11. Crural vein; 38, fig. 11. Popliteal artery; 39, 52, fig. 11. ——— vein; 53, fig. 11. Crural nerve; 35, fig. 12.

The four figures to which we have referred also represent the following parts.

The broad ligaments of the eyelids; s, t, fig. 9. Alae narium; z, fig. 9. Angular vein; 14, fig. 9. Angular artery; 15, fig. 9. Parotid gland; 26, fig. 9.

In the Neck.

Common jugular vein; 1, fig. 9. External anterior jugular; 2, fig. 9. Posterior external jugular; 3, fig. 9. Part of the carotid artery; 4, fig. 9. Branches of the cervical arteries and veins; 1, 2, fig. 10. Thyroid gland; o, fig. 11. Gullet; i, fig. 11. Windpipe; k, fig. 11. Cervical nerves; 2, fig. 11. Ligament of the neck; 5, fig. 11.; 7, 8, fig. 12. External carotid artery; 1, fig. 12.

In the Trunk.

Epigastric artery; w, fig. 11. External iliac; y, fig. 11. The diaphragm; m, m, fig. 12. Intercoffal artery; p, fig. 12.

In the Fore Extremity.

Internal plantar vein; s, fig. 9. Coronary ligament of the foot; 13, fig. 9. Cartilages of the coffin-bone; r, t, 11.

In the Horse there is but one stomach, which is very small in proportion to his general bulk; and is partly membranous, partly cuticular, and partly muscular. It is situated immediately behind the diaphragm, in the left hypochondrium, and in part of the epigastrium, with its expellent orifice extending across the spine to the right, which is the reason that lying on that side is judged more wholesome than sleeping on the left. It has two surfaces, which may be called its sides, though one is posterior, and the other anterior; and two extremities, a large and a small; the superior surface of which receives the gullet, and is called its cardiae orifice; while the former ends in the duodenum, and is termed the pyloric orifice; this extremity, when the stomach is distended, is the most posterior of the two. The hollow part situated superiorly, only forms its lesser curvature, as the lower portion forms its great curvature.

Thus when the stomach is moderately distended, it lies in an obliquely transverse direction, with its great extremity a little forwards, and its two orifices superi- or, but the *cardiac* the most so, with the lesser extremity rather posterior to the ether, and the great curvature inferior. It is evident that the situation of the stomach must vary much with its distention: the foregoing description answers to it when moderately distended only; but where it is very much filled, the left extremity will press upon the diaphragm, and the right will be carried more posteriorly. In oxen and sheep, where the first stomach is large, it is found, when distended, to have its left extremity carried quite into the left iliac region; in which part it is usually punctured, when they are hoved; but such an idea of the stomach of the horse would prove very erroneous; for this animal has a very small one, and therefore its situation can never be such.

From a distended stomach pressing upon the diaphragm, we are at no loss to understand, why breathing is impeded after a full meal, when a horse appears to labour for breath; for he is forced to use the intercostal muscles, and the muscles of the shoulder and fore extremities, to open the chest, the posterior enlargement being prevented from the diaphragm being fixed by the pressure of the stomach; hence we see the great impropriety of galloping horses after watering, to warm it in their bellies, as it is foolishly termed. Horses, when grazing, if they drink, are never observed to do this; if it was necessary, nature would dictate it to them. How hurtful it is likewise to ride hard, after a horse has been full fed, is equally evinced. The stomach has externally a covering from the peritoneum, which adheres closely to it, by means of its cellular portion; and which portion is dipping in between the muscular fibres. Its middle portion is made up of muscular fibres, which are more numerous in this animal, than in the ruminant; making this kind of stomach a medium between the membranous one of some animals, and the true muscular stomach of others. The direction of these fibres is various; but they may principally be referred to a longitudinal and a transverse order, though neither of them are regularly so, and are intermixed with others, whose direction is very oblique, and interlaced with each other. The longitudinal plane is the most external of the two, and appears a continuation of the external plane of the oesophagus, with some original fibres, which spread over the lesser curvature, being carried obliquely round, and likewise over the great extremity, forming themselves into a kind of vertex, whose centre is in the middle of that extremity. The inner plane is by much the larger, and is not quite circular, but slightly oblique, crossing the obliquity of the longitudinal plane. This circular plane is very thick and strong round the cardia, or that extremity into which the oesophagus terminates. They are here so very thick as to form a true sphincter; and to this it is in some measure owing, that a horse cannot vomit; for when the circular and longitudinal fibres are acting from the pylorus to the cardia, by any irritation that reverses the usual motion, producing an effort to vomit, the circular and longitudinal fibres of the cardia being infinitely stronger and more numerous, are contracting this orifice (especially the circular), as the others are contracting the other parts; for as the muscular fibres exist equally throughout the stomach, by which the motions are effected, it cannot be simply from the existence of the circular covering to the first portion of his stomach, that he cannot vomit; for it is reasonable to suppose the fibres act throughout the stomach by the common consent of parts; nor do they of actual necessity want an immediate stimulus to their surfaces; for were this the case, the fibres of the oesophagus would not by the presence of the masticated bolus be stimulated to contract through the cuticular coat, which equally here lies over the fibres; nevertheless, the cuticular coat of the stomach is probably assisting in this difficulty to regurgitate: it does it by lessening the liability to nausea, which seldom takes place in the horse; and as vomiting is only an effort to remove nausea or its cause, so nature not having given the cause, has not provided the means for its removal. As likewise vomiting appears to be a reverting of the peristaltic motion of the stomach; which motion, in its natural state, begins from the cardia, and ends at the pylorus; so in this reverting state, it commences at the pylorus, and ends at the cardia, thus regurgitating its contents; so it is very probable that the cuticular covering may lessen this inverted peristaltic motion in the upper portion, though it cannot wholly destroy it; and hence cannot be the only, or the principal reason of the impossibility, or rather of the difficulty with which this animal vomits; for instances have occurred where it has taken place. A horse in Suffolk was seen to regurgitate a large quantity of grains, and we have heard of one or two other instances; but these must be regarded as very rare occurrences.

It is not, therefore, that the stomach of the horse cannot be irritated to make an attempt to vomit, that no such effect generally takes place; for though it is but very seldom that nausea occurs, and perhaps never in a state of nature, yet it may be excited by means of aconite, heliobore, and some other substances, which have caused fruitless efforts to vomit. But the true and principal reason that a horse may be said, naturally not to be able to vomit, arises, in that nature has wisely so constructed the parts, that the very effort to it increases the resistance by the very strong sphincter placed at the mouth of the cardia. Had this resistance not been placed, and every means taken to increase the almost impossibility of vomiting in a horse, it is evident that from the curtain of the palate stopping the opening of the mouth, this action, had it taken place, would have occasioned suffocation. The inner coat of the stomach is composed of two portions, the one cuticular and the other villous. This species of cuticular covering to nearly one half of the stomach, is peculiar to such animals as appear destined to live on grain, as horses, asses, rats, and mice; and this forms a third species of stomach between the true membranous one of graminivorous animals, and the muscular of the carnivorous tribes, and it may be considered in a slight degree, as a species of gizzard, resembling the structure of those animals, as fowls, who have organs to make up for the want of teeth. For a horse has not the means of re-mastication, as in oxen or sheep, nor does he usually masticate his food at first sufficiently to comminute it; for the wants of the constitution stimulate him to a hasty deglutition of his food, which, if there was not some other structure than that common to stomachs in general, would not be sufficiently digested: for the food is solid, and the stomach small; therefore this cuticular coat may be useful, as its inflexibility allows it to press Anatomy in a small degree upon the food, and perform a slight trituration upon it. This cuticular coat is spread over the first portion of the stomach, taking in all the great extremity, and forming between a third and half of its extent. It is formed into folds at the cardia in the same manner as at the internal part of the oesophagus; but as soon as it has passed this orifice, these folds take an irregular direction, but are less than those formed on the villous surface.

The villous or sensible portion of the stomach, though it occupies more of the length of the stomach, yet perhaps in real extent is little more than half of its surface. It unites with or is connected to the cuticular. Its external surface is firm, and appears as it were a distinct portion, but is only dense cellular substance, which has given rise to the description of four tunics to the stomach. The tunica villosa is so called from its resemblance to the pile of velvet; its fine villi are probably the extreme fine ends of vessels secreting the gastric juice. The villous coat being much larger in extent than the muscular, is thrown into folds which are more considerable than those of the cuticular coat. These are largest at the portion toward the great extremity, and are irregularly waving: towards the duodenum they become less, and when at the pylorus they form a fold that makes a kind of valve to this part of the stomach, preventing the return of the food, and its too speedy passage out. The folds not only hinder the too speedy passage of the food, but by this means apply the gastric juice more certainly to all the parts; but the principal end is to increase the secreting surface, which is here more extensive than those of the human.*

The remainder of the alimentary canal is continued from the lower orifice of the stomach, to the anus, or end of the passage, forming a long canal of different dimensions, called intestines. They are usually divided into small and large. In some animals they hardly merit this distinction, there being but little difference in point of size: but in the horse, the proportion is very different; the small intestines being not much larger than the human, but the large of an immense bulk. This canal is connected through its whole extent to membranous productions of the peritoneum, especially to those called mesentery and mesocolon. The whole canal varies in point of length in different subjects; but is seldom less than 24 yards, and often more. The intestines are contained within a prolongation of the peritoneum, which arises in most instances from the mesentery: the two folds of this membrane separate and surround the intestines, forming their external coat. The next coat is muscular, and formed of two layers of fibres, a longitudinal and a circular; the latter are in greater proportion, and by the contraction of these the vermicular motion, called peristaltic, is performed, from the longitudinal fibres slightly shortening them, and the circular diminishing their size. Within this muscular coat there is a quantity of cellular membrane rather more dense than in some other parts; and this used to be regarded as a coat, and was called the nervous, but is only a layer of cellular membrane. The third and inner coat of the intestines is the villous, which is very vascular and sensible. There are no considerable folds of the inner tunic of the intestines, as in the human. In this animal these are rendered unnecessary by the great length of his intestines, and the slow passage of the aliment through them by this length and his position.

The first portion of the bowels, which answers to the duodenum in man, though in the horse it is nearer 20 inches than 12, is attached to the stomach, having its pyloric orifice ending in it; its course in the horde is rather different from that in the human, and by this it acquires a more complete covering from the peritoneum. It hangs loose and pendulous, being attached to the concave surface of the liver, where making a turn, it is fixed to the vertebrae: it then takes the name of jejunum. It appears rather larger in circumference than the other small intestines, and is remarkable for having the pancreatic and biliary ducts penetrating it, sometimes entering it obliquely close together, and sometimes at a distance from each other.

The jejunum and ilium differ very little from the same bowels in the human species.

The great intestines are very properly so called in large in the horse; and as they have very little resemblance to the human large intestines, they require a particular description.

The cæcum is situated in the back part of the belly, and is a very large canal, which is entered abruptly by the ilium. The fore part of this canal projects forward two or three feet, into a sort of bag of the same size of the colon; but the back part terminates in what is called a blind end. The cæcum usually occupies the right side of the belly, and appears immediately on opening the peritoneum, with its commencement from the colon and ilium in the right iliac region, extending forwards to the right side, with its blind end close to the diaphragm and liver. This termination is not furnished, as in some animals, with an appendix vermicularis, but terminates by a simple blind end. Through the peritoneal covering are seen four muscular longitudinal bands, extending from the extremity along the muscular coat, and dividing the gut into four longitudinal portions. One or two of these are usually covered with fat, and are not regularly longitudinal as the others. The internal membrane is folded up between the longitudinal bands, and by intersecting them forms numerous cavities called the cells.

On the slightest inspection we see a great peculiarity in the form of the cæcum of the horse; and in a more accurate view, are struck with the importance of the structure to this animal, and are led to consider the cæcum as little less than a second stomach. This is in fact the case; for the food coming in a macerated mass from the small intestines, is mixed in the cæcum, with the bile and pancreatic juice, and here undergoes a farther change, to which the structure of the cæcum is evidently favourable, as it is fitted to retain the mass for a considerable time within it, and to circulate it through all its parts. It has two blind ends, one forming its base, and near this enters the ilium; the other forming its point, and extending up towards the diaphragm. From one part of the base the colon commences by a very contracted portion, for the purpose of preventing the entrance of the contents of the ilium, till they have passed through the cæcum. In many animals the cæcum is a very inconsiderable part; in some it has one or more appendices; in others it is almost entirely wanting; The bones which compose the foot of the horse are fix in number, considering the foot as commencing at the fetlock joint. Of these six bones two are included within the hoof, viz. the coffin-bone, and the navicular-bone; and four are situated above the hoof, viz. the bones. Large pattern-bone, the small pattern-bone, and the two sesamoid bones.

We shall begin from above, with the large pattern-bone, as this contributes to form what is called the large pattern joint.

The large pattern-bone, (fig. 13, 14, and 15) is large part of an oblong cylindrical form, and, as is the case with tern-bone, all such bones, is smaller in the middle than at either extremity. It articulates above with the lower head of the canon-bone, and below with the upper head of the small pattern-bone. At its upper extremity there are three depressions, one on each side, large and superficial (a, c, fig. 13,) to receive the outer and inner convexity of the lower head of the canon-bone, and one in the middle, b, for receiving the middle narrow convexity of the same bone. The fore part of this bone is slightly rounded, and rough towards its upper extremity, as at d, d, for the firmer attachment of ligaments. Behind, at its back part, it is flatter; and here there is a rough depression (C, fig. 14,) also for the attachment of a ligament that is deep seated, and is fixed to the two sesamoid bones. At the lower extremity the large pattern-bone is convex on each side (D, E, fig. 14,) entering into two concavities of the small pattern-bone; and there is a depression (f, fig. 13,) for the attachment of a tendon. At the lower extremity there is also a roughness on each side at e e, for the insertion of ligaments. Both extremities are covered with very smooth elastic gristle, which is kept constantly moist by the synovia or joint oil.

At the upper end of the large pattern-bone, towards the back part, are placed the two sesamoid bones, A A bones (fig. 14). These are of an irregular wedge-like form, and are covered with cartilage, articulating both with the canon-bone, and on the back part they are very smooth to admit of a tendon readily sliding over them. The upper edges of these bones on each side have a rough irregular surface, into which is inserted a strong ligament that comes from the upper and back parts of the canon-bone, is fastened separately to each of the sesamoid bones, from which it proceeds downwards and obliquely forward to be inserted into the tendon of the large extensor muscles, (see a a a, fig. 16,) a little below the large pattern-joint. These sesamoid bones are of considerable use in the mechanism of the large pattern-joint. "In consequence of their forming the back part of the large pattern-joint, and articulating with the lower and posterior part of the canon, they contribute very essentially, by always receding whenever the foot comes in contact with the ground, to act as a spring to the animal, and to prevent concussion. All the weight received by the upper head of the large pattern-bone is conveyed to bones below; but a considerable portion of the burden is received by the sesamoid bones. While the animal is at rest, and also during motion, these bones sustain part of the weight; and where the pattern-bones are long and oblique, the sesamoids often receive so much of the weight as to put the ligaments violently on the stretch, and occasion lameness."

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**Chap. IV. Of the Foot.**

In our account of the anatomy of the horse's foot, it will be necessary to describe only one foot, as those belonging to both extremities are similar in structure. The small pattern-bone (2, fig. 13, 14, 15) is about half the length of the large one, and is as broad as it is long. Besides the two concave depressions, (h, h, fig. 13,) mentioned before, there is a ridge between them, i, that enters a correspondent depression, g, in the lower head of the large pattern-bone. The small pattern-bone has at the back and upper part (F, fig. 14.) a small projection, for the insertion of a long ligament, that comes from the sesamoid bones. The lower articulating surface is more extensive than the upper, as it is connected with the upper surface of two considerable bones, viz. the navicular and coffin-bone. It is of great consequence to understand the mechanism of the joints that are formed by this connection, as it is on this part that the principal stress of the animal falls. The union of the small pattern-bone with the navicular and coffin-bones, forming what is called the coffin-joint, is one of the principal methods provided by nature to prevent concussion.

The navicular-bone (3, fig. 13, 14, 15.) is connected above with the back part of the small pattern-bone, and the lower edge of this bone is attached by a large ligament to the back part of the coffin-bone. The navicular-bone is slightly concave, to receive the back part of the lower head of the small pattern-bone. The upper edge of the navicular-bone behind is rough (g, fig. 14.) and thick, for the attachment of the upper ligament; and the lower edge of the navicular-bone receives at the back part a strong flat ligament from the coffin-bone, immediately above the insertion of the flexor tendon. The lower surface of the navicular-bone is covered by cartilage, and has a small ridge in its centre, (l, fig. 13.) to be received into a corresponding depression in the long flexor-tendon. This bone may be considered as forming two distinct joints, one of which is composed by the connection of one part of the bone with the tendon of the flexor-muscle, and the other is formed by the connection of another surface of the navicular-bone.

The whole weight of the animal, supported by the small pattern-bone, is thrown upon the coffin and navicular bones. Of this weight the coffin bone receives the greater share; but the navicular-bone receives a considerable portion of it, though this bone does not contribute to prevent concussion so much as Mr Freeman has endeavoured to prove. The navicular-bone, when the hoof touches the ground, defends a little, and thus prevents that concussion which the horse's body would have received if this bone had been immovably fixed; and when the hoof is again raised from the ground, the elasticity of the parts below the navicular-bone lifts up this bone into its former position, thus acting as a spring in facilitating the motion of the animal. As the weight supported by the navicular-bone of the hind feet is less than that supported by the same bone of the fore feet, their descent in the former is less than in the latter. The organs connected with the navicular-bone of the hind feet are also less subject to disease.

The coffin-bone (4, fig. 13, 14, 15.) is so named from its being concealed, or as it were buried within the hoof. It is also sometimes called the foot-bone. On its fore part it is rounded, having very nearly the shape of the external hoof. Its upper surface is slightly hollowed (m, m, fig. 13.) to receive the lower end of the small pattern-bone, with the fore part of which it articulates, as it does behind with the fore edge of the navicular-bone. At the back part the coffin-bone ends in two processes on each side, the upper of which are tipped with cartilage. At the upper part of the front of the coffin-bone there is a small protuberance, (w, fig. 13.) extending upwards above the joint, and serving for the insertion of the tendon of the muscles that extend the foot. Below this the coffin-bone is extremely porous, for the passage of nerves and blood vessels; and towards the lower part in particular there are about 13 holes, for the transmission of considerable arteries, which go to supply the sensible sole. At the heels and quarters the coffin-bone is still more porous, and is supplied with a greater number of arteries, but these are proportionally smaller. The lower surface of the heels of this bone is also very porous, where it unites with the sensible sole, but the rest of the lower surface is generally smooth. There are here two hollow surfaces, which receive two corresponding rounded parts of the sensible sole. They are unequal, the foremost being the larger. Into the hollow on the back part, the tendon of the flexor-muscle is inserted. (A, fig. 16.)

There are seven ligaments belonging to the coffin-joint, of which there are three pairs, and one single. The first pair of ligaments take their origin from the heels of the coffin-bone on each side, and pass obliquely upwards as high as the middle, to which they are attached, and at which part of the small pattern-bone (B, fig. 16.) they are blended with the fibres of the lateral ligaments of the small pattern-joint. The second pair of ligaments on each side arise from the edge of the coffin bone, near the heels, and pass obliquely forward to be inserted into the middle of the small pattern-bone (C, fig. 16.) near the attachment of the extensor-tendon. The third pair take their origin from the lateral edges of the anterior process of the coffin-bone, and are inserted into the edges of the cartilages. The use of these ligaments is to unite the cartilages more firmly to the coffin-bone. The extensor-tendon being inserted into the upper edge of the anterior process of the coffin-bone, prevents the necessity of a ligament at this part. The single ligament of the coffin-bone is connected with the posterior and inferior concave surface of the coffin-bone, immediately above the insertion of the flexor-tendon, and also with the lower edge of the navicular-bone. Besides this ligament there is another attached to the whole of the upper and back part of the navicular-bone, by which means that bone is enabled to support a greater share of the weight that rests upon it. By means of these ligaments this important joint is rendered very strong, while by the elasticity of the cartilages, and the constant supply of lubricating fluid within the joint, all the motions of the animal are rendered safe and easy.

The small pattern-joint is also well secured by means of ligaments, and by the sheath of the flexor-tendon. There are also ligaments proceeding from the sesamoid bones, which enter the sheath of the flexor-tendon, and are attached to the small pattern-joint (a, a, a, fig. 16.).

"The weight which the sesamoid bones, by means of ligaments sustain, is very different in different horses; and bears no proportion to the bulk and weight of the animal. The pattern joints of large horses destined for slow motion, are constructed very differently from those of..." Part II.

Anatomy of blood horses. Their pastern bones are short, and the joints nearly straight; but thorough-bred horses of light weight have long and very oblique pastern joints; and, as in proportion to the obliquity of the large pattern, or fetlock joint, the canon conveys more of the weight to the sesamoid bones, the ligaments that support the sesamoids are necessarily put into motion, and more on the stretch, as the weight presses down the lower and back part of the canon on the sesamoid bones. Short pattern joints are as much adapted to the frame of heavy horses as longer joints are to that of lighter horses. The ligaments that support the sesamoids above also contribute to assist the flexor muscles and tendons in preserving when at rest, and in motion, the large pattern joint in its proper place.*

Before we proceed in describing the structure of the foot, it will be proper to shew how the hoof is formed, and how it is connected with the parts within.

The hoof of the horse forms a sort of organized shoe, which is adapted to the foot with the greatest nicety; so that every part of the cavity is completely filled, without the foot's being subjected to any unequal pressure.

A correct knowledge of the natural form and structure of this part of the horse's foot, and of the deformities produced in it by improper treatment, is of the utmost importance; as on this must depend the most advantageous method of shoeing, and the only rational means of correcting the unnatural deviations. It will be obvious, that in order to form a just idea of the original shape of the hoof, we must examine it before any shoe has been applied to it; for, unless this shoe has been so constructed and fitted to the foot, as to preserve unaltered the original form of the hoof, this will be so changed, that we cannot recognise from it what was the original shape. That the methods of shoeing usually employed are calculated rather to deform the hoof, than to preserve its original figure, will appear presently.

A vertical section of the hoof shows it to be nearly conical; the broadest part of the cone being next the ground. This inferior surface, in a hoof that has not been shod, especially in the fore feet, appears nearly circular; or the diameter, from side to side, is nearly equal to the diameter from toe to heel, (see fig. 17).

The hoof is composed of a horny substance that is entirely without sensation. It is divided into crust, sole, frog, and bars.

The crust surrounds the foot on the fore part, and on the sides, like a wall (A, A, fig. 17). It grows obliquely downwards from the coronet, and becomes broader as it approaches the ground. It is thicker at the toe than at the quarter; and the outer quarter is thicker than the inner. On the outside it is smooth and rounded, but within hollow and laminated (B, B, fig. 15.) to unite with the coffin-bone. The crust is the only part into which nails can with safety be driven in shoeing.

The horny sole (B, B, fig. 17.) unites with the lower part of the crust, and is situated below the coffin-bone; but between it and the coffin-bone, there is a vascular substance, to be presently described, called the sensitive sole, from the blood-vessels of which the horny sole is formed. On the outside next the ground, the horny sole is hollow, but rounded within next the coffin-bone. The horny sole protects the sensible sole from injury, and in the horse's motions it embraces the ground, acting as a stop. When the laminated substances of the hoof lengthen, the horny sole descends, and thus assists in preventing concussion.

The bars, or binders, (CC, fig. 17.) are two horny bars substances placed between the sole and the frog, and forming at the heels a close solid union with the crust. The small part of the bars called the toe, sometimes reaches almost as far as the toe of the frog. Within the frog, the bars are laminated like the inner part of the crust, and are closely united to the horny sole. The bars on the outside keep the horse's foot extended, and within, they tend to prevent the separation of the sensible sole from the horny sole. In the natural state of the hoof, there is a considerable cavity between the bars and the frog on each side.

The frog (DD, fig. 17.) is that hard rounded protuberance, which we observe in the middle of the lower part of the hoof, pointed towards the toes, and expanded towards the heel like a wedge. In the middle of this broad part, there is a fissure (E, fig. 17). The external frog is united within the hoof to a narrow substance of a similar shape, but of a more elastic structure, and possessing sensation, and therefore called the sensible frog. This substance is connected above with the navicular bone, towards the back part; and at the extremity of the heels, it is united with cartilages on each side. The toe of the sensible frog is united to the coffin-bone, but by far the greater part is behind this bone. The back part of the frogs being united with elastic and moveable substances, admit of considerable motion, the frog rising when the hoof touches the ground, and descending when the foot is raised. By the ascent of the frog, the heels are prevented from contracting, and the cartilages are expanded, so as to afford the horse a considerable spring, whilst the form of this part fits it for embracing the ground, and thus prevents the horse from slipping. The convex form of the frog clearly shows that it was always intended to touch the ground, and experience has fully proved, that, unless this contact takes place, the healthy state of this organ cannot be preserved. It has been supposed that the frog is intended to defend the principal tendon or back fines; but Mr Coleman has shown that this is a mistake.

The weight of the horse is chiefly supported by the weight of crust, and not by the sole or frog; for when these parts the horse have been removed, or by being diseased, become soft, thin, and fungous, and thus incapable of resistance, it is found that the crust is still competent to bear the whole of the frog's weight. If the sole and frog really supported the weight, it is evident that when these parts are removed or diseased, the foot would slip through the crust.

The union of the sensible frog with the horny frog, and the connection thus formed between the sides of the frog, prevents dislocation. When the horny frog touches the ground, both that and the sensible frog ascend; but when by any means the horny frog is prevented from pressing on the ground, its proper functions are suspended. The cartilages partake of the motion of the frog; and, in proportion as this receives pressure, they recede from each other, and allow the sensible frog to ascend between them. But when the cartilages are rendered immovable by becoming bony, or by contraction of the the foot, the sensible frog is much confined in its motion. By this immobility of the cartilages, the horse is deprived of a powerful spring. When the frog does not press on the ground, and consequently the cartilages are deprived of motion, the moisture of the crust evaporates; and hence the quarters and heels of the hoof become contracted much more than the fore part of the crust, and this contraction is increased by the frog not being allowed to rise between the cartilages. Thus, the natural circular shape of the hoof is destroyed by the frog not receiving pressure.

Fig. 18. represents the lower part of a horse's hoof, as it is usually lengthened or contracted by improper shoeing.

We have not yet described the sensible sole. This is situated between the horny sole and the coffin-bone, and is united to the lower cartilages immediately behind the latter (CC, fig. 15.). Its lower edge is firmly connected with the sensible laminae, at the lower edge of the coffin-bone; but at the extremity of the heels, the laminae are continued for about an inch, forming what are called the sensible bars. The sensible sole is well supplied with blood-vessels, but when these are emptied, it appears of a ligamentous texture. From the vessels of this part, the horny matter of the horny sole and bars is formed and renewed.

The only other part of the foot that we shall describe, is an important ligament, which surrounds the junction of the coffin-bone with the hoof, and is called the coronary ligament, (DD, fig. 16.) This ligament is attached at its upper part, to the anterior protuberance of the coffin-bone, and to the lateral cartilages; and extends a little above the coffin joint, being united on its outside to the skin. Below it is united to the sensible laminae, at their origin. On its outside it is convex, and is received into a correspondent hollow in the crust, called the coronary ring. It is ultimately inserted into the heels of the sensible frog. The uses of this ligament are very important. By its union with the sensible laminae, lateral cartilages, sensible frog, and coffin bone, it affords the action of all these parts, increasing their strength and connection; and in particular, preserves the proper situation of the cartilages, and prevents their being dislocated, to which they would otherwise be liable, by being separated by the rising of the sensible frog between them, when the horny frog touches the ground.

We have thus described the structure and functions of the foot and hoof, as far as appeared to us to be absolutely necessary for understanding the principles and practice of shoeing. The names, insertions, and uses of the muscles of the foot, have been already concisely given in the table of the muscles of the extremities (see page 437.). The blood-vessels, nerves, and absorbents are well described, and most beautifully figured in Mr Coleman's elegant work on the structure, economy, and diseases of the foot of the horse; to which, and to Mr Freeman's work on the same subject, we refer such of our readers as wish for a complete and accurate account of that curious and important piece of mechanism, the foot of the horse.

We shall conclude this chapter with a summary recapitulation of the more important circumstances that have been mentioned, as we shall immediately apply them in describing the most approved method of shoeing; and they will be the better understood, and the more easily remembered, by being brought together in a comprehensive point of view. It appears then,

"That the natural form of the hoof of the fore feet of horses, before any art has been employed, approaches to a circle; and,

"That the internal cavity of the hoof, when circular, is completely filled by the sensible parts of the foot.

"That the hoof is composed of horny insensible fibres, that take the names of crust, sole, bars, and frog.

"That the crust is united with the last bone of the foot, by a number of laminated elastic substances.

"That the uses of the laminae are to support the weight of the animal, and from their elasticity to prevent concussion.

"That the horny sole is externally concave, internally convex, and united by its edge with the inferior part of the crust.

"That the uses of the horny sole are to act as a spring, by deflecting at the heels; to preserve the sensible sole from pressure, and (with its concavity) to form a convexity of the earth.

"That the external bars are nothing more than a continuation of the crust, forming angles at the heels.

"That the internal bars are a continuation of the laminae of the crust, attached to the horny sole at the heels within the hoof; and that these insensible laminae are intimately united with sensible laminated bars, connected with the sensible sole.

"That the use of the external bars, is to preserve the heels expanded; and the use of the internal horny bars, to prevent separation and dislocation of the horny sole from the sensible sole.

"That the external frog is convex, and of an insensible horny elastic nature.

"That the internal sensible frog is of the same form, very highly elastic, and united with two elastic cartilages.

"That the frogs are not made to protect the tendon, as Mr St. Bel and other writers have supposed.

"That the use of the frog is to prevent the horse from slipping, by its convexity embracing the ground; * Coleman and from the elasticity of the sensible and horny frogs on the they act as a spring to the animal, and keep expanded feet, vol. 6. PART III. OF THE OPERATIONS USUALLY PERFORMED ON DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

CHAP. I. Of Shoeing.

The principles and practice of shoeing are usually explained at the end of treatises on the veterinary art, immediately after describing the usual surgical operations. We think it better, however, to treat on the subject of shoeing in this part of our article, immediately after having described the anatomy of the horse's foot; the necessity of understanding which has been fully explained in the last chapter.

It is very uncertain at what period mankind first began to shoe their horses with iron; but it is probable that this practice commenced as soon as they were sufficiently civilized, to have such roads as were composed of solid, hard materials, fitted for the purposes of constant traffic. In many countries where such kind of roads are not required, as in the deserts of Arabia, and in many eastern countries, we know that to this day the horses are not shod; and we have been assured, that some years ago, when the roads in most of the United Provinces of America were not so hard as they are at present, horses were shod only on the fore-feet (D).

We shall first briefly describe the mode of shoeing commonly practised by the smiths of this country, and shall then give a short account of the most important improvements that have been made in the art, from the time of Laflotte to the present method employed at the veterinary college.

In the common mode of shoeing, the bars are totally cut away, and the frog is considerably pared down, by means of a cutting instrument called a butteris. The shoeing reason assigned for cutting away the bars, or opening the heels, as it is called, is, that the heels may not contract, and that the shoe may not press upon the sole, and occasion corns. The hoof being thus prepared, the shoe is to be applied. The common form of this shoe is nearly elliptical, being broader at the fore part, and growing narrower towards the heels, where it is thicker than at the toe. It is convex on its outer surface where it is to touch the ground, and concave on its inner part, which is applied next the hoof. It is fastened to the hoof by means of eight nails, four in each quarter; and the heads of these nails are nearly cubical, standing out a little beyond the shoe. This shoe is commonly applied nearly red hot, in order, as we suppose,

(D) Attempts have been made to prove that the ancients understood the use of iron shoes, and passages have been quoted both from Greek and Roman writers to support this assertion. But we think that the learned Beckmann has fully demonstrated the fallacy of this opinion, and has shown, that although leathern shoes were sometimes employed on the feet of horses and other beasts of burden, the use of iron horse-shoes was entirely unknown both to the Greeks and Romans. Indeed, if such shoes were in use among them, the ancient authors who have treated on horsemanship, husbandry, and the veterinary art, as Xenophon, Julius Pollux, Columella, and Vegetius, could not possibly have omitted to notice them. It cannot be supposed that these writers would have been silent with respect to the shoeing of horses, when they treat so particularly of the breeding and rearing of these animals, and prescribe remedies for the accidents and diseases to which they are subject.

Beckmann is of opinion that iron horse-shoes were used in Europe as early as the ninth century, for in the works of the emperor Leo, who lived about that period, they are expressly mentioned by the name of σιδηρα τσιδηρα. The emperor also speaks of horse-shoe nails by the appellation of παρθεναι, and mentions that a certain number of pounds of iron should be given out from the imperial stores to make σιδηρα, and other horse furniture. The antiquity of horse-shoes is also confirmed by their being spoken of in the writings of Italian, French, and English authors of the same century. "When Boniface marquis of Tuscany, one of the richest princes of his time, went to meet Beatrice, his bride, mother of the well-known Matilda, about the year 1038, his whole train were so magnificently decorated, that his horses were not shod with iron, but with silver. The nails were even of the same metal; and when any of them dropped out, they belonged to those who found them. The marquis seems to have imitated Nero; but this anecdote may be only a fiction. It is related by a contemporary writer, but unfortunately, his account is in verse; and the author, perhaps, sensible of his inability to make his subject sufficiently interesting by poetical ornaments, availed himself of the licence claimed by poets to relate something singular and uncommon. However this may be, it is certain that the shoes of the horses must have been fastened on with nails, otherwise the author could not have mentioned them.

"Daniel the historian, seems to give us to understand, that in the ninth century, horses were not shod always, but only in the time of frost, and on other particular occasions. The practice of shoeing appears to have been introduced into England by William the Conqueror. We are informed that this sovereign gave the city of Northampton as a fief, to a certain person, in consideration of his paying a stated sum yearly for the shoeing of horses; and it is believed that Henry de Ferrers, or de Ferriers, who came over with William, and whose descendants still bear in their arms fix horse-shoes, received that surname, because he was entrusted with the inspection of the farriers. We may here observe, that horse-shoes have been found with other riding furniture, in the graves of some of the old Germans and Vandals in the northern countries; but the antiquity of them cannot be ascertained." Beckmann on Inventions, vol. ii. Operations suppose, to adapt it better, and make it fit closer to the hoof.

The consequences of this method of shoeing must be, 1. That the function of the bars, whatever it may be, (and we have shewn that they are intended to prevent contraction of the feet), must be destroyed. 2. That cutting away the frog, exposes this part to injury, and is productive of many diseases. 3. That the heels of the shoe being higher than the toe, will prevent the frogs from embracing the ground, for which we have shewn they were naturally intended. 4. That by making the shoe concave at the quarters, and placing the nails near the heels, the growth of the crust in these parts is impeded, and thus the foot is contracted, and its proper shape destroyed. 5. That by fastening the shoe near the infallible frog at the heels, the proper action of the frogs and sole, as a spring to assist the motions of the animal, is destroyed. 6. That by putting on the shoe hot, the moisture of the crusts is dried up, and thus the contraction of the foot is still further increased; and, 7. That by making the shoes rounded next the ground, the sure footing of the horse is greatly lessened, much to the danger of his rider.

The first modern writer who attempted to reform the common mode of shoeing, appears to have been Lafoffe. It is true that an excellent mode of shoeing was recommended about 300 years ago by Cæsar Fiaschi, an Italian writer on horse-manipulation; but his plan never came into general use, and Lafoffe appears to have all the merit of the improvement, as it is more than probable that he had never seen Fiaschi's work. The shoe recommended by Lafoffe was what he called the half-moon shoe, being nearly semicircular, and reaching little further than to the middle of the foot; the nails being placed round the toe. Lafoffe's shoe was never very generally employed in this country, even though the improvement was rendered familiar by Bracken and Bartlet, who, as we have said, translated Lafoffe's treatise into English. It has been considered as useful in some cases of diseased feet, and for strong feet which have begun to contract, or appear likely to do so, provided such horses are not employed on very hard, rough roads; but it is by no means applicable to the majority of our horses. Its principal disadvantages appear to be, that the heels wear too fast, and that in running, horses are apt to slip with it.

Mr William Ofner, whose work on shoeing we have mentioned in No. 65, improved considerably on the shoe of Lafoffe. He forbade the frogs and bars to be cut away, except when they were ragged. He, however, remarks, that the feet of all horses should be pared according to their length; the crust being made perfectly smooth by paring or rasping. His shoe was everywhere of an equal thickness, rather narrower behind than before, of a flat surface next the ground, and bevelled away from about the middle of its breadth inwards, leaving a flat surface for the crust to rest on.

The next improver of shoes was Lord Pembroke, though Mr Blaine most unaccountably places him after Mr Clark. Lord Pembroke's remarks on shoeing are exceedingly ingenious. He observed that the weight of shoes must, in a great measure, depend on the quality and hardness of the iron. If the iron be very good it will not bend, and in this case the shoes cannot possibly be too light; care, however, must be taken, that they be made of a thickness so as not to bend, for Operation bending would tear out the nails, and ruin the hoof. That part of the shoe which is next the horse's heel, must be narrower than anywhere else, that stones may be thereby prevented from getting under it, and sticking there, which otherwise would be the case, because the iron when it advances inwardly beyond the bearing of the foot, makes a cavity, wherein stones being lodged, would remain, and by pressing against the foot, lame the horse. The part of the shoe which the horse walks upon, should be quite flat, and the inside of it like-pan; and only just room enough should be left next the foot, to put in a picker, (which ought to be used every time the horse comes into the stable, and often on marches), and also to prevent the shoe's pressing upon the sole. Three, or at most four nails of a side, hold better than a greater number, and keep the hoof in a far better state. He advises that the toe of the horse be cut square and short, and that no nails be placed in that part. By these means narrow heels are prevented, and many good effects produced. His lordship advised the hinder feet to be shod in the same manner as the fore-feet, except in hilly and slippery countries, where the shoes on the hinder feet may be a little turned up behind.

The utmost severity, (says Lord Pembroke), ought to be inflicted on all those who clap shoes on hot. This unpardonable laziness of farriers in making feet fit shoes, instead of making shoes fitting feet, dries up the hoofs and utterly destroys them. Frequent removals of shoes are detrimental, and tear the foot, but sometimes they are very necessary. This is an inconvenience which half shoes are liable to (though excellent in several other respects), for the end of the shoe being very short, is apt to get soon into the foot, and consequently then must be moved.

The shoe recommended by Mr Clark did not differ very much from that of Ofner. He does not, however, recommend the hollowing of the surface of the shoe next the foot. Mr Clark recommended that the hoof and frog should not be pared or cut away without necessity, and was much against raising the heels with calkins; to the use of which he preferred that of an ice nail. He, however, admits, that sharp calkins may be necessary in hilly countries.

The shoe originally used at the veterinary college by Method of the first professor, was very similar to that of Ofner; the veterinary college, but when Mr Coleman succeeded to the professorship, he adopted the half-moon shoe introduced by Lafoffe. This was, however, soon given up, as experience showed that it was not adapted to the generality of horses in this country. Within these few years, a method of shoeing has been introduced by Mr Coleman, which appears in most instances preferable to any former method. We shall therefore consider it pretty much at large.

Mr Coleman has laid down two general principles, by which the practice of shoeing for all horses, in every country, must be invariably followed. "So long as nails and iron are employed to protect the hoof, the crust is the part that should receive the nails, and the pressure of the shoe; and the sole of every horse employed for every purpose, is a part that should not be in contact with the shoe." These are Mr Coleman's general rules, and to these it must be added, that the frog

Operations. Frog should, in almost every case, be allowed to come in contact with the ground, where this is practicable, whenever the horse sets down his foot.

Two general circumstances are to be observed in shoeing; the cutting of the hoof, and the application of the shoe. Some parts of the hoof require to be removed, before the shoe can be applied; while others must be carefully preserved. These circumstances are at least of as much consequence as the form of the shoe, but are not in general so fully attended to.

In Mr Coleman's method of shoeing, he first recommends that a part of the horny sole between the whole length of the bars and crutch, be pared away with a drawing knife, as the heels of the sole cannot receive the pressure of the shoe, without corns being produced. The sole must therefore be laid hollow, that it may not come in contact with the shoe. This he considers of the greatest consequence. The heels of the shoe must be made to rest on that part of the hoof where the bars unite with the crutch. See fig. 19. If the heels have been previously lowered by means of the butteris, there may perhaps not be left sufficient sole to admit of the application of the drawing knife, without penetrating to the sensitive sole; so that it is better, first to cut the sole, as it may then be easily determined how far the heels may be lowered, and the toe shortened, with propriety. When the hoof is cut in this way, the sole readily descends when the hoof touches the ground, without being obstructed by the shoe; and stones, or other foreign bodies that have got between the shoe and the hoof, are thus readily pushed out. It is found by experience, that the sole never suffers from stones and gravel, when there is sufficient space left between the bars and the crutch. The cavity between the sole and shoe, should also be left sufficiently wide after the shoe is applied, to admit of the introduction of a large horse-picker, especially between the bars and the crutch. If the sole should be naturally concave, a shoe that has a flat surface next the hoof will not touch any part of the sole when applied to the crutch; and even should the sole be flat, or rounded in the middle or towards the toe, yet the quarters and heels may generally be made sufficiently hollow by the drawing knife, to avoid pressure on a flat shoe.

If it is found that a shoe with its upper surface flat, does not leave a space large enough to admit the picker between it and the sole, it is necessary to make either the sole or the shoe a little hollow. Sometimes the sole appears ragged and in flakes, and of considerable thickness. It is then proper to make the whole of the sole hollow with the drawing knife, before attempting to lower the heels or shorten the toe. When the sole is made hollow, the shoe will rest only on the crutch; but if we cannot hollow the sole, we must, to prevent pressure, make the upper surface of the shoe hollow. As the hoof is always growing, and is preserved from friction by the shoe, it is necessary to pare the toe of the crutch about once in every month. The more we can remove from the toe of the crutch, in hoofs that are not well shaped, the sooner we shall be able to apply a shoe of the proper form and thickness.

"The bars and frog should never be removed. Where there are ragged and detached parts of the frog, it is better that they should be cut with any small knife, by the groom, than by the farrier; for if the latter is once allowed to touch the frog, the sound parts are generally destroyed. Where the frogs are not large and projecting, and the heels are higher than the frogs, then it is advisable to lower the heels, which may be done by a rasp, or the butteris; for in every case we are to endeavour to bring the frog in contact with the ground. We should never lose sight of this principle, that the frog must have pressure, or be diseased. If the frog does not touch the ground, it cannot perform its use; and no organ can be preserved in health, that does not perform the functions for which it was made. Nevertheless, where the frog has been disqualified for its functions for a considerable period, and becomes soft, it must be accustomed to pressure by degrees."

When it is necessary for the horse to work, though his frog is soft and diseased, it must be gradually accustomed to pressure, by cutting down the hoof about one-tenth of an inch at every fresh shoeing, that the frog may become hard, and equally protuberant with the heels. If the horse be not required to labour, much advantage will be derived from allowing him to stand in the stable without shoes.

The feet of most horses have been deformed by bad shoe management. It will therefore be necessary to use a particular shoe to each particular form of hoof. Any one form employed indiscriminately for all feet, cannot be alike successful for all. It is from not having sufficiently attended to this simple fact, that the shoe recommended by the veterinary college has not been more generally adopted. It is therefore necessary to vary the length, breadth, and thickness of the shoe, according to the form of the hoof to which it is to be applied. If the heels or fore-feet are two inches and a half or more in depth; if the frog be sound and prominent, and the roads dry, the toe of the hoof only requires to be shortened, and afterwards covered by a short shoe, which may be made of the usual thickness at the toe, but must be thinner gradually towards the heel. The proportional thickness of a shoe of this kind for a common saddle horse, as recommended by Mr Coleman, is three-eighths of an inch at the toe, and one-eighth at the heel. By means of such a shoe the frog is completely brought in contact with the ground; the heels are expanded; and corns, thrushes, and canker are prevented. The horse may continue to wear such a shoe as long as the weather is warm, and the ground dry.

Race-horses, who generally have the heels high, and the crutch thicker and stronger than heavy horses, may generally wear short shoes, at least on the fore-feet. But such as have weak legs, bent knees, long pasterns, or low heels, must not wear such a shoe.

A long shoe is necessary in wet weather, and even in summer, when the heels of the hoofs are low. In winter, when the heels are too high, they should be lowered gradually, by means of a rasp, rather than suffered to wear down, by being exposed to the ground with a short shoe; for moisture is very destructive to the hoof; and thus as great a part of it may be removed as is necessary. Besides, when a horse has been accustomed to high-heeled shoes, if he was suddenly made to wear those with thin heels, the frog might be bruised or inflamed, and the muscles and tendons of the leg considerably strained. It is therefore necessary to bring the heels of the shoe to the proper degree of thinness gradually, Operations, dually, observing that the heels of each succeeding shoe be made somewhat thinner than those of the last. In general, as much as possible of the horny part of the hoof next the toe is to be removed, and as little iron employed next the heels every time of shoeing, till the feet be brought as nearly as may be to their natural shape.

In horses that have been accustomed to wear shoes of an equal thickness all round, and where the frog is healthy, we may in general apply a shoe, much thicker at the toe than the heel, by paring down the toe, and taking nothing from the heel; and if a horse appear to suffer no inconvenience from a thin-heeled shoe, during the first month after it is applied, it may be continued with safety, and will greatly improve the hoof. In young horses, however, that have never been shod, and in horses just taken up from grazes, the toe seldom admits of being pared down, and a thin-heeled shoe cannot be applied at once.

In all cases where the frog does not embrace the ground with a thin shoe, the heels must be lowered; and if the horse has been accustomed to wear high-heeled shoes, both the shoe and the hoof must be gradually lowered, till the frog can safely and easily perform its proper function.

A few horses require to be shod in a manner different from that which we have described, but still dependant on the same principles.

Different weights of shoes are required for different horses. Mr Coleman lays down the following proportions, for horses of various descriptions.

A moderate-sized coach-horse will require a weight of shoes and nails, from eighteen to twenty ounces; an inch wide, and half an inch thick at the toe, and three-fourths of an inch wide, and one-sixth of an inch thick at the heels.

An ordinary saddle-horse will require only from 12 to 14 ounces; and the shoe may be three-fourths of an inch wide at the toe, and half an inch at the heel, and three-eighths of an inch thick on the outside of the toe, but only one-eighth at the inside of the toe, and at the heel.

The shoe most recommended by Mr Coleman, is concave on its upper surface, where the sole is flat or convex, but it is flat on the rest of the upper surface; but if the sole admits of being hollowed, the whole upper surface may be flat. It is regularly concave on its lower surface next the ground; and it is fastened to the crust by means of eight nails placed round from the toe backwards, so as to leave a part of the shoe about an inch and a half from the heel. Hunting-horses usually require an additional nail on each side, next the quarter. The nail-holes are made with a punch of a wedge-like form, and to correspond to this the heads of the nails are made conical, so that as long as any part of the head of the nail remains in the hole, the shoe cannot easily come off.

For hunters, and such horses as run in shafts, it is recommended by Mr Coleman to turn up the outer heel; but, as in this way there is often some inequality of position, the outer heel of the foot is to be lowered, while the inner heel of the shoe is somewhat thickened. By these means cutting is avoided.

In such horses as have weak low heels, Mr Coleman recommends the use of the bar-shoe, as the bar affords a support to the frogs, without wearing out the heels. When the bar-shoe has been employed long enough to admit of the heels growing to the proper size, the ordinary thin-heeled shoe may be adopted.

The method recommended by Mr Coleman, as described above, has been for some time followed with considerable success by the board of ordnance, whose horses, as well as those of the British cavalry in general, are now shod after this manner. The method has, however, met with considerable opposition, partly from such as do not understand the principles on which it is founded, and partly from its having been too hastily adopted, in cases to which, as Mr Coleman himself allows, is not generally applicable.

Fig. 19. and 20. illustrate Mr Coleman's method of shoeing.

Fig. 19. represents the hoof turned upwards to show the manner in which the shoe is applied. It may be seen from this figure that the web of the shoe is hollow; that the heels at a are narrower than the other parts of the shoe, and that the nails are placed all round from the toe backwards. Fig. 20. shows that the heels of the shoe are much thinner than the point, and also shows the manner in which the nails are riveted or clinched on the outside of the hoof round the toe and crust.

The only remaining method of shoeing that we shall here mention, is that of the ingenious Mr Morecroft. This gentleman has acquired much celebrity by his invention of calking shoes, by sinking them in dyes, by which means horses may be fitted with any shoes best adapted to their hoofs. Mr Morecroft's shoe differs from Oliver's, in being concave within for more than half its width. He condemns the use of calkins, on the principle that the public roads are now much more solid than when calkins were in general use; and consequently, that instead of sinking them into the ground, they rather tend to raise the heels above it, and thus the frog is prevented from receiving the necessary pressure. Mr Morecroft, however, allows calkins to heavy draught-horses, for whom he recommends two on each shoe; but in lighter horses of the same description, one on the outside of each shoe. The latter is also recommended for hunters, but for other riding horses he forbids the use of calkins. The number of nails in Mr Morecroft's shoe is usually eight, but in heavy draught horses they are not to be placed on the sides of the shoe, but all round at equal distances, leaving a space at the heels of about two inches or two inches and a half. In frosty weather, Mr Morecroft recommends nails with a lozenge head, or a double counterfink, terminating in an edge instead of coming to a point, which greater breadth of surface prevents its being rubbed away so fast as a point. The thickness in the middle gives it strength, and the regular taper to the shank causes it to apply exactly to the side of the hole in the shoe, by which it is equally supported, and prevented from bending or breaking.

Mr Coleman considering pressure as necessary to the healthy action of the frog, has contrived a method of artificial affording this pressure in those cases in which, from deficient feet, or bad management in shoeing, it cannot naturally receive it; and where, if the heels were lowered, in order to bring the frog in contact with the ground, there would be danger of straining the tendons. Mr Coleman's patent artificial frogs are intended to produce duce pressure on the natural frogs, while the horses are standing in the stable, and thus to give time for the growth of the heels, and to avoid the evils that would arise from lowering these too suddenly, or from allowing the frog to remain elevated above the ground. For the particulars of this ingenious invention, we must refer to Mr Coleman's pamphlet.

Where oxen are worked in farming business like horses, it is generally thought necessary to defend their hoofs in a similar manner by means of iron shoes. The form and manner of fitting these do not appear to be universally the same in all places; nor are we acquainted with the methods usually practised. We know that M. St Bel recommended the following methods; either to shoe the ox with a flat plate of iron, having six or seven nail holes on the outer edge, accompanied with a projection of four or five inches of iron at the toe, which passing the cleft of the foot, is bent over the hoof; or with eight shoes, one under each nail; otherwise with four, one under each internal nail; or only two, one under the external nail of each fore-foot.

**Chap. II. Of Cafting.**

There are several tedious and painful operations that we are sometimes obliged to perform, and which it would be difficult or impossible to execute, were the animal left at full liberty to refuse it. It is, therefore, necessary to render ourselves completely matters of him, by throwing him down on the ground, and in a convenient situation, so as not to expose him or ourselves to injury. This operation is called cafting, and is usually thus performed.

The first object is to prepare a thick bed of straw or litter, not less than eight feet square, to prevent the animal from being hurt in the fall. If the stable be sufficiently large to admit of the bed being made there, it is to be preferred, as, during the operation, to prepare for which cafting is necessary, the parts operated on will suffer less from exposure to the air in the stable, than without doors.

But, if there is not room in the stable, the bed must be made in the stable-yard, or rather, if possible, in some field or park adjoining.

The animal is now to be brought to one side of the bed; a strong leather strap, with a buckle at one end, and having an iron ring fixed to it, at a convenient distance from the buckle, is to be fixed round the pastern of each of the four legs, in such a way, that the rings of the straps that are round the fore-feet shall be directed backwards, and those of the straps on the hind-feet shall be opposite to these; while the buckles point outwards, to prevent hurting the animal. A pretty strong cord, ten or twelve feet long, is to be fastened to the ring of that strap that has been placed on the fore-foot on that side of the animal which is farthest from the bed: from this ring it is to pass through the ring on the hind foot, on the same side, from which it passes through the ring on the other hind-foot, then through the ring on the other fore-foot, and lastly, through that to which it was first fastened. The animal being thus fettered, a number of men are to place themselves beside him, so that he may be between them and the bed, while others are to stand on the opposite side of the litter. Now, the men that are beside the animal, laying hold of the end of the rope, are to pull gradually with considerable force, so as to bring the four feet of the animal as near as possible together. When this is done, the men on the other side, standing in a row, one at the head of the animal, another at his chest, a third at his haunches, a fourth at his tail, &c., pull the animal toward them and complete his fall.

It is necessary to observe that the men who pull the rope, and those who receive the animal on the bed, must not act at the same time; as in this case the shock would be so great and sudden, as probably to occasion some accident, either to the men or to the animal. It is also proper to remark, that the animal must be cast in such a manner, that the part to be operated on may be fully in the view and reach of the operator.

When the animal is once on the bed, his head must be held down by a man, and it will be proper to cover his eyes. Another assistant must stand by the cord, which for greater security, should be fastened with a knot at the first ring.

There are some little niceties to be observed in casting an animal, according to the operation that is intended to be performed on him; but of these we shall speak, when we describe the operations themselves.

**Chap. III. Of Bleeding.**

Bleeding is distinguished into general and local bleeding. General bleeding is performed for the purpose of taking away a quantity of blood from the general maws, and consists in opening some large vein, or some considerable branch of an artery. The vein usually opened, in horses and cattle, is the vein that runs along the neck, and which is called the jugular vein. This vein may be easily felt, as it is generally considerably raised above the muscles.

The vein is usually opened by means of a fleam, which is forced into the vein, by striking it with a small wooden mallet, called by farriers a blood-flick. There are many objections to this mode of bleeding. In the first place, it is extremely clumsy; and, if the vein happens to roll, which is very commonly the case, a large wound may be made in the skin, without drawing blood. Again, these animals, especially horses, are easily frightened by any sudden motion of the hand; and some persons have a way of shaking the blood-flick before they give the stroke; and, in doing this, they often use more exertion than is necessary. The animal alarmed at these strange motions, tosses up his head, and thus renders the stroke uncertain.

Many prefer the ordinary lancet used by surgeons; and, in several cases, particularly of local bleeding, this is the most convenient instrument. But in opening the jugular vein, we do not consider it as much superior to the common fleam. When this latter is employed, the back of it should be made of considerable thickness, as, when it is too narrow, as is commonly the case, when the instrument is struck with the flick, it sinks into the channel of the vein, which is often not opened, as the prominent muscles of the neck receive the stroke.

For most purposes of bleeding, we would recommend the spring-fleam, as being easily applied, and much more certain in its effect.

Danger of using a ligature about the neck of the animal, neck. Operations animal, previous to the bleeding in the jugular vein.

They do this from a supposition that the vein will thus swell the more readily, and that it will be opened with greater certainty. But this ligature is in most cases unnecessary, and will at some times be highly dangerous.

Where exercise is not improper before bleeding, it will be sufficient that the animal be gently trotted previous to the operation, as thus the circulation will be promoted, and the superficial veins will be sufficiently filled with blood. Where general exercise is improper or inadmissible, the filling of the vein may easily be promoted by briskly rubbing the neck for some time with a wisp of straw or hay; and just before applying the fleam, it will be proper to press with one finger upon that part of the vein that is between the shoulder and the place where the fleam is applied.

The danger of a ligature will appear both from reason and experience. When the ligature is fastened round the neck, it produces a swelling of the vein on each side; and thus the circulation being in a great measure impeded, and the return of much of the blood from the head prevented, an accumulation of blood takes place in the vessels of the brain. If the ligature be continued round the neck, which must happen when, by want of dexterity of the operator, or by the horse being frightened, the vein has not been opened at the first attempt, the stagnation of the blood in the head goes on to an alarming degree, and the horse not unfrequently falls down in an appulsive fit. "In such cases," says Mr Clark, "I have observed the operator greatly disconcerted, and desist from any further attempts to draw blood at that time, being prepossessed with the idea that the horse was vicious and unruly, although the very treatment the horse had just undergone rendered bleeding at this time the more necessary, in order to make a speedy revulsion from the vessels of the head; therefore a ligature or bandage ought never to be used till such time as the opening is made into the vein, and even then it will not be necessary at all times, if the horse can stand on his feet, as a moderate pressure with the finger on the vein will make the blood flow freely; but if the horse is lying on the ground, a ligature will be necessary."

But further, the concussion or shock the horse receives from his falling down, in the above situation, which will always happen if the ligature is too long continued, may cause a blood-vessel in the head to burst, and death may be the consequence.

The place where the vein is to be opened is of some consequence, as, when the opening is made too far from the head, where the vein lies deep among the muscles, both the vein is not so easily opened, and the wound is not so readily healed. The most proper place for opening the jugular vein is about an inch below the joining of the small branches that come from the lower jaw. This is generally about a hand-breadth from the head, but it may be easily seen by the swelling of the vein when pressure is made on its trunk.

Before opening the vein, it is usual to wet the hairs that lie above it, and to stroke them in the direction of the intended orifice. This is a good practice, as the instrument thus passes through the skin more readily, not having to overcome the resistance of the hair. In mentioning the direction of the orifice, it is worth while to remark, that this should neither be longitudinal nor directly across the vein, but rather oblique; as the flow of blood from an oblique orifice is most easily stopped.

When the vein is opened, it is highly proper in all cases to catch the blood in some convenient vessel. It is a very absurd practice, although it is commonly adopted, to allow the blood to flow at random on the ground or on a dunghill, by which means no precise estimate can be made of the quantity of blood taken away. This may either be so small, as to be of no advantage; or it may be so considerable as to produce fainting, before the operator thinks of stopping the orifice.

For the purpose of measuring the quantity of blood taken away, Mr White recommends a graduated tin vessel, capable of containing five quarts; every pint being marked on the inside of the vessel, so that the quantity of blood that is taken off may be exactly known. The blood should always be preserved, that we may judge from its appearance of the nature of the disease, and whether it is proper, or not, to repeat the operation. If the blood continues fluid for a considerable time, it shows that there is an inflammatory state of the body; and if a jelly-like substance, of a whitish or light buff colour, and rather firm consistence, appears on the surface after the blood has cooled, and especially if the surface is hollowed, we may be certain that the animal's complaint is of an inflammatory nature, that the bleeding has been proper, and must be repeated, if the symptoms continue or increase; but if the blood coagulates quickly, is uniformly of a dark liver colour, loose, and easily broken, with a considerable quantity of water upon its surface, it denotes debility, and shows that the disease arises from a weakness of the system; that instead of bleeding, tonic and cordial medicines are to be employed, with every thing that may tend to restore the animal's strength.

When a sufficient quantity of blood has been taken away, it is for the most part necessary to secure the orifice, in order to prevent future accidental bleeding. This is usually done by thrusting a common pin through the lips of the wound, and twining about it a little horse hair. As in this way the wound often rankles, and becomes a sore difficult to heal, which we are disposed to attribute to the brass pin employed, as often as to any other cause; we would recommend a pin of silver, or at least of polished steel. The pin need not pass through more than the skin, and in some cases when the horse can conveniently be fastened to the rack after bleeding, the pin may be entirely dispensed with.

As it is often required to bleed on either side of the neck, or on both sides, it is proper that the operator should be able to bleed with either hand. This is indeed not quite so necessary in bleeding horses and cattle, as in the human subject; but it will be often found very convenient in both.

In some cases, especially in inflammation of the brain, where a sudden and copious loss of blood is required, it becomes necessary to open the temporal artery. This is easily effected, as the artery is situated very superficially, about an inch and a half backwards from the upper and outer corner of the eye. It is most conveniently opened with a lancet, and when a sufficient quantity of blood has been drawn, the flow is in general very easily stopped by making continued pressure upon the artery; or, if this should not succeed, and a dangerous effusion of Topical bleeding is useful in several cases, as in inflammatory affections of the feet, which are often relieved by opening the coronary veins, or the vein that encircles the coffin-bone; in inflammations of the eyes, bleeding in which blood may be often drawn, from the angular veins, with considerable success; and in affections of the mouth, where it is sometimes useful to draw blood, by clarifying the bars of the mouth, or even, in some urgent cases, by opening the veins of the palate. Topical bleeding is best performed with a lancet.

Almost the only method that is practised for bleeding sheep, or dogs, is to cut off a joint or two of the tail; and this is certainly often productive of good consequences, as the flow of blood is sometimes pretty considerable. Unfortunately, however, we can seldom have recourse to this mode of bleeding more than once or twice, whereas cases often occur in which it is necessary to repeat the bleeding. It is also a cruel method, and we see no reason why the veins in these animals may not be opened like those of horses and cattle. In the sheep, indeed the thickness of the wool will commonly prevent bleeding in the neck, but the temporal artery and the veins of the foot may be opened without difficulty; and in most dogs we may bleed in the jugular-vein with nearly as much ease, as in the horse or cow.

**Chap. IV. Of making Rowels and Setons.**

Rowels in horses and cattle are much the same as rowelling issues in the human body. The operation consists in described opening the skin, so as to insert between it and the cellular membrane some foreign body, which is kept there, in order to produce and keep up a suppuration, or running of purulent matter. The operation is usually performed in the following manner. An incision is made through the skin by means of a very sharp pair of scissors, or, what appears better, a sharp knife. The finger is then introduced below the skin, so as to separate it from the flesh all round, as far as the finger will reach. A piece of leather about the size of a crown-piece, and of a circular form, with a hole cut in the middle, is then inserted between the skin and the muscles, having been first anointed with some stimulating ointment. A small piece of tow or caddice spread with the same ointment, is put over the hole in the centre of the leather; the skin is laid down over all, and the part is covered with a pledget, also covered with ointment, to keep out the external air.

The leather is left in this situation for two or three days, during which the parts adjoining the rowel swell, and at the end of the time there appears a discharge of a yellowish matter, which gradually becomes thicker and whiter. In three days at farthest the part must be examined, and the plug removed from the centre hole, to allow the matter to flow out. The rowel is now complete, and may be continued as long as shall be found necessary. The action of the rowel is easily explained; the leather introduced excites a degree of inflammation between the skin and the flesh, and no means being taken to check this, it goes on, like most other inflammations of fleshy parts, to suppuration. Thus a discharge is produced from the part, which is found to have considerable effect in checking inflammation of some more important organ near which the rowel... Operations. Rowel has been inserted. Thus, in inflammation of the lungs, after copious bleeding, a rowel in the chest, like a blister in the human body, is found to have considerable effect in checking the progress of the disease.

Rowels may be placed in most of the fleshy parts of the body; but they are most commonly inserted in the belly, the breast, the inside of the thighs, the outside of the shoulders, and the hips. They are sometimes placed between the jaw-bones, below the tongue; but this is very improper, as a good suppuration can seldom be brought on in this place.

It is sometimes found necessary to make several rowels at the same time; but they should always be placed, as nearly as possible, to the seat of the affection which they are intended to relieve.

Besides dangerous inflammations, rowels are found serviceable in large swellings of the hind legs, in obstinate cases of gout, and in strains of the shoulder.

Though rowels are thus found extremely useful in many cases, they are, like many other operations performed on brute animals, sometimes made where they are unnecessary or improper. Where there is considerable debility, the insertion of a rowel would be very injurious, as it would not suppurate kindly, and as the discharge produced would tend still farther to increase the debility. The discharge in these cases is usually thin and ichorous; sometimes they are perfectly dry, and not unfrequently a mortification is produced.

When a rowel is found to be attended with any of these effects, it must be immediately removed, and the parts must be fomented with a warm decoction of the chamomile-flowers, and some stimulating herbs; or must be bathed with spirit of wine or oil of turpentine. If gangrene should have come on, it will besides be necessary to administer cordial and strengthening remedies.

Setons are inserted through an opening made in two opposite parts of the skin, and the extraneous body introduced is a cord.

The opening is made by means of a sharp-pointed instrument with an eye at the other end for receiving the cord. The sides of the instrument must be proportioned to the opening to be made, and the size of the cord to be inserted.

Setons are particularly useful for the purpose of gradually draining off matter from abscesses or suppurating tumours, that are either so deeply seated as not to be easily opened in any other way, or so large that the sudden discharge of matter from them while opened by the knife, would be attended with bad consequences. They are best employed in large abscesses of the back withers, and the upper part of the neck behind the ears. Setons are also attended with the advantage of draining off the matter without exposing the inside of the abscess to the air.

The method of inserting the seton for the purpose of opening an abscess is this. When it is found that there is a considerable accumulation of matter, the needle, furnished with a cord of the proper size, is to be introduced at the highest part of the tumour, and brought out towards its lowest part, so that the matter may more easily drain off. The cord, which must previously be rubbed with stimulating ointment, is now to be cut from the eye of the needle, and then fastened together at both ends, to prevent its being pulled out; but if the cord should not admit of being thus tied, a small button of wood may be fastened on each end. It is better, however, if possible, to tie the ends together, as every time the sore is dressed, the seton requires to be drawn a little round. When the discharge appears to be nearly stopped, except what evidently arises from the presence of the cord, this may be gradually removed, by drawing out a single thread of it at every dressing.

In introducing the needle, great care must be taken to avoid large blood-vessels and nerves; and where there is a danger in encountering these, it is better to pass the needle through a sheath. This may easily be done, by first making a small opening with a lancet at the upper part of the tumour; and through this introducing the sheath, which is to be pushed down till it reaches the part at which the needle is intended to come out. The needle in this way will pass through the sheath without danger of wounding any important nerve or vessel.

**Char. V. Of Firing.**

This operation consists in applying to the skin, or firing, other parts of the body, a metallic instrument heated to a greater or lesser degree of redness. The instrument is called a cautery, and the operation was well known among the ancient surgeons, by the name of the actual cautery.

The instruments employed for firing are usually made of iron, sometimes of copper; but iron is to be preferred. They are of various forms, according to the part to which they are to be applied, and the purpose for which the operation is to be performed. These will be considered in describing the cases to which firing is applicable.

The operation is found of use on several occasions:

1st. In order to oppose the progress of mortification. With this view a cautery shaped like a knife, with a blunt edge and a thick back, is to be employed. This form will also answer for many other cases. There should be several instruments of the same kind, that when one becomes too cool, another may be ready of the proper degree of heat. The heat of the iron intended for the present case should be that of a cherry-red. In applying the iron, the parts adjoining to the mortified place are to be passed over with the edge of the instrument in successive parallel lines, so as the heat may penetrate to the living parts, and thus produce such a degree of healthy action as may enable them to throw off the mortified slough. When the iron has been applied for a sufficient time, which must be regulated by the nature of the part, and the extent of mortification, the wound is to be covered with a pledget spread with some stimulating ointment.

2d. Firing is employed to brace the skin, and to strengthen the finesse. The instrument above described is used on this occasion, but its heat must be somewhat greater. The mode of applying it is to pass the edge lightly and quickly over the skin, describing parallel lines from one end of the part to the other. When one iron has been used in this way, a fresh one is to be taken, and made to retrace the lines first formed, beginning where the last iron left off; and this is to be repeated as often as appears necessary, taking care not to destroy the texture of the skin. It is recommended by Operations by some to apply the hot iron, so as to burn away the hair, for some time previously to firing the skin; as much time is otherwise lost before the proper impression can be made by the iron. After firing, a blister is sometimes applied, as this is thought to increase the good effect produced by the iron. When firing is employed on the hind legs, or on any part where the operator would be exposed to danger from the horse's kicking, it is necessary to confine the legs by means of fetters.

3rd, This operation has been found useful in spaying, ring-bones, old callous swellings of the back finness, and in wind-galls. For this purpose the irons are used as already directed. It is the custom with some farriers to apply a blister in these cases before firing, in order to reduce the swelling; as they suppose that firing employed without this precaution would tend to fix the swelling, and render it incurable. There is probably little foundation for such an idea.

4th, Firing is very frequently had recourse to by way of a styptic in stopping or checking profuse bleedings, from accidental wounds, or surgical operations. The iron employed with this view has generally a rounded extremity, except in the operation of docking, where an iron in the form of a ring is generally employed.

5th, Another use of firing is in wounds of the joints, or other circumscribed cavities, where it is employed to promote a kindly circulation, and consequent granulation of healthy flesh. It has been employed in these cases by Mr Coleman, with considerable success.

6th, Firing has been found one of the most effectual remedies in those superficial ulcers that accompany farcy or glanders in the horse; and,

Lastly, the use of the hot iron has been found the only certain means of preventing the dreadful effects arising from the bite of a mad animal, when properly applied after cutting out the bitten part.

**Chap. VI. Of Docking.**

The honour of having introduced this most useful and humane practice, belongs, we believe, solely to this country. It appears that it was in use in England, so long ago as the end of the eighth century; for at a council held there about that time (concilium Calchute, or council of Calchute), there was a canon enacted, expressly forbidding this practice as indecent and abominable.

It does not appear that this operation is performed among the Arabians, or other eastern nations; or at least, if it be, it is not intended as an ornament to the animal, but either from necessity when the tail is diseased, or by way of mark, to distinguish some particular horse.

Docking has been practised in Germany for about 300 years; and probably much longer in France. It was certainly unknown to the Italians at the latter end of the fifteenth century; for we are told, that when the army of the emperor Maximilian was in Italy in 1497, the Italians were much surprized to see his cavalry mounted on docked horses.

It is strange that prejudice and false taste should lead mankind to deprive their horses of a part, which, to the eye of reason and unsophisticated nature, must appear not only an ornament to the animal, but as designed by the Creator as a protection against flies, gnats, and innumerable other winged enemies, which harass them in the summer months. It is true, indeed, that in Britain, where the summer heats are in general not so lasting, or so violent, as in the more southern countries of Europe, those insects are not always so troublesome as they are found in those climates. But even here they are sufficiently fo, to render the protection of the tail necessary; and when our cavalry are unhappily sent to the continent, the loss of the horses tails proves a very serious obstacle to the success of the troops. More than one instance of this has occurred. At the battle of Dettingen in 1743, great part of the British cavalry were absolutely dismounted, from the death of the horses, occasioned in a great measure by the torment which they experienced from the bite of gad-flies, and other insects; and at the battle of Minden, in the seven years war, the cavalry of the allies were thrown into so much disorder by these petty enemies, that they had nearly lost the battle. Lord Pembroke declares, that he has seen the cavalry horses belonging to our army, sweating, rushing against each other, refusing their food, and absolutely devoured by flies for want of their tails to brush them off; while those of the horses of the foreign cavalry that had not been deprived of this necessary defence, were cool, tranquil, fed well, and were in good condition. From the inconveniences which our cavalry have suffered from the want of the horses tails, it has been for some years the custom to employ long-tailed horses.

The principal reasons that have been assigned for this absurd practice, are, that a long tail is extremely inconvenient to both horse and rider, when travelling through dirty roads and bushy forests; and that when the tail is of its ordinary length, the animal cannot carry it in that fine, arched, cocked-tail direction, which seems to form one of the chief beauties of the modern racer.

We apprehend that few horses enjoy such an ample length of tail as that of the redoubted Hudibras; of whose horse we read, that

"His draggling tail hung in the dirt, Which on his rider he would flirt, Still as his tender side he prickt With arm'd heel, or with unarm'd kickt."

As to the beauty of a cocked-tailed horse, we profess ourselves not competent to judge; but with due deference to the gentlemen of the turf, and the respectable fraternity of jockeys, we should humbly conceive (we speak with submission) that a horse with a long tail is a much finer object than one that is perpetually perking and wriggling his tail in the air, and exposing his bare breech to the broad glare of open day.

Docking is usually performed on horses, by laying the mode of tail upon a block, and chopping off the part by means performing of a cleaver or hatchet struck with a mallet. Perhaps the operation would be rather less bungling to perform the operation by means of a knife, and it would not take up much more time. When this is done, the hair must be previously clipped away, that the knife may cut more easily; and previous to making the incision, the skin should be drawn up forcibly towards the rump. The incision may be made by beginning on one side, and cutting round from below upwards, so as to perform the whole. Operations whole as nearly as possible at one stroke. When the skin and muscles have been completely divided, the part of the tail is to be cut off at the joining of two of the bones as nearly as possible to the edges of the wound, still keeping the skin drawn up. When the part has been removed, the flesh is to be seared all round with a hot iron, to stop the effusion of blood. The iron employed in France for this purpose is formed like a ring, so that it is easily applied to the flesh without injuring the bone. The wound must be covered from the air, and the animal must live rather low to prevent inflammation.

The practice of nicking, or cutting across the muscles that draw down the tail, so that those which pull it upwards may exert their full power, is still more inhuman and absurd than that of docking; and as we will contribute nothing towards extending this abominable practice, we shall omit the operation altogether.

**Chap. VII. Of Cropping.**

Taste and fashion have introduced another operation, by which the ears of horses and dogs are changed from their natural shape and size, to those which are considered by their owners as more handsome or agreeable. The ears of the horse and dog are seldom of such a shape or size, as to render them inconvenient to the animals, or to unfit them for the purposes for which nature has designed them. This may, however, sometimes happen; and there are some cases of wounds or diseases that may render cropping necessary: but in performing this operation, it should always be kept in mind that no part of the animal is made in vain, no more of the ears should be taken away than what is absolutely necessary. We not unfrequently see horses and dogs cropped close to their head, a practice which is cruel and absurd, and which is always followed by more or less deafness, and exposes the animals to much inconvenience from the weather. In those dogs that are employed in rabbit warrens, or for similar purposes, where they are required to enter burrows, cropping is attended with the worst effects, as the ears of the dog are unavoidably exposed to the particles of sand and earth that he brushes away in his passage through the burrow.

The operation of cropping scarcely requires description. In the dog it is usually performed by means of a pair of scissors, but these should be very sharp. In the horse, more nicety is required; and a particular instrument called the cropping iron, is required, and a shape of the size of which it is intended the ear shall be, is applied to the ear, to mark the line of section. After the ear is cut, the skin and muscles recede considerably from the gristy part; but this seems of little consequence, and the wound heals in a few days without any other attention, than confining the animal within doors, and keeping him on a moderate, cooling diet. Horse's ears are sometimes trimmed, as the grooms call it; that is, they are deprived of the fine soft hair that lines the inside of the cavity. This practice is equally absurd with cropping, as will appear from the following observations of Mr Clark.

"The ears of horses, as of other animals, (says Mr of trimming Clark), are covered on the inside with a short down, intermixed with long hairs, which line the external cavity of the ear, which seems designed by nature to prevent harsh sounds from making too great an impression upon the brain, and likewise to prevent the cold air, rain, dust, flies, &c. from annoying the internal ear. The means commonly used to remove this down, &c. is by the scissors, the flame of a candle, or that of a burning torch. Both the latter are cruel and barbarous, and cause a deal of pain to the animal, not only from the blisters that sometimes rise on the ears after this manner of singeing them, but likewise from the means that are used to make horses stand with patience to undergo the operation, that is a twitch on the nose; and perhaps, if he is troublesome to the operator, one put on the ear. It is to be observed, that horses are very much guided or directed by the sense of hearing. This is obvious in those that hear distinctly, from the motion of their ears, and the direction they give them to whatever quarter any sound comes from, the attention they pay to what passes around them, or to what is spoke to them. Many of them, particularly the finest kind, as they only are liable to this kind of treatment, have the sense of hearing considerably blunted, if not rendered quite deaf from the above operation.

As this operation is generally first performed on young horses at the time they are breaking, it is the more hurtful; as the uncommon sounds, as the rattling of carriages, drums, &c. which are entirely new to them, and to which they are then more exposed on the roads or in streets, must make the greater impression on the sense of hearing; and perhaps it may be owing to the above cause only that many horses are timorous to pass carriages, and remain so ever afterwards.

Another disadvantage which attends this operation upon the ears of horses, is, that they will not go on cheerfully when travelling in opposition to the wind, more especially if it rains; for as the wind and rain get free access into the ears, they are continually shaking their heads and endeavouring to turn from it; and those who are of a more impatient temper, will wheel suddenly round, in order to avoid what gives them so much uneasiness. They are then said to be restive; the whip and spur are applied by way of chastisement for a supposed fault only.

From what has been said, it will be obvious, from the practice of taking away the natural covering from the inside of the ears, that the internal ear must be exposed to be considerably injured, particularly from cold, dust, &c. which blunts the sense of hearing, and perhaps causes deafness; for it is observed in those horses who have been much used to this treatment, that they lose that lively, active motion of the ears, and appear dull and inattentive to what passes around them, and even to the voice of their keeper."

**Chap. VIII. Of Castration.**

It is found of use to deprive the males of several of the domestic animals, especially of horses and cattle, of the means of propagation, either to render them more mild and tractable, or, in the case of cattle, to promote their fattening, and render their flesh less rank. It has been disputed whether the castration of the stallion is productive of such advantages as are not counterbalanced by the loss of strength and spirit, which the animals sustain. It is not our intention to discuss this point, and we shall here only describe the usual modes of performing the operation.

The most prudent mode of castrating an adult or grown horse, appears to be the following. Let him be thrown on some convenient spot, on the off side, and when down, let the off hind leg be drawn towards the neck, by which the scrotum will be fairly exposed. Holding the scrotum firmly, make a cut at once through it, not of too great length, but sufficient to admit the testicle being pressed out; this being done, apply the clamps or a pair of nippers on the cord within an inch of the testicle, and hold the clamps sufficiently tight to stop the flow of blood, but not to bruise the cord; the stone may then be cut off with a scalpel, or it may be seared off with a burning knife. If it is cut off with a scalpel, immediately before the clamps let go their hold, fear the end of the cord. Some apply a little powdered resin on it before searing, after which the clamps may be loosened. When this is finished, proceed to remove the other in the same manner.

After both are removed, a pledgit of lint, wetted in warmed spirits, may be introduced just within the edges of each wound; but no salt should by any means be introduced, as is the practice of some farriers; nor will any kind of bandage be easily retained, and if any thing of this kind is used, it should be very loosely applied, so as not to irritate.

When this operation is performed on a full grown horse, if he is at all fat, he should be previously bled, and kept rather low; and it will be prudent to choose mild weather for the operation; and the place likewise he is put into after the operation, should be of a moderate temperature.

Sometimes there is a considerable degree of inflammation, and when this happens, it is by no means proper to trot the horse about as is commonly done, but to bleed and purge, and apply a solution of sugar of lead to the parts. It will also be of advantage to insert a feton smeared with blistering ointment into the inside of the thigh.

Some operators separate the epididymis from the testicle and suffer it to remain, by which means they think that a portion of the animal's spirit is retained. A similar custom is said to prevail in France; but the French operators object to it, on the idea that it produces fitful fores in the part. The fact is, that when any portion of the testicle is suffered to remain, though it cannot secrete semen, yet it has some action going on within, by which it produces some influence both on the mind and form; and as such, the future growth of the animal may perhaps be slightly affected by it, and perhaps his temper too, but the addition to the latter may probably not be a very favourable one.

Where the operation is to be performed, the best time is probably when the foal is about three months old, though some prefer a much more advanced age, as six, or even twelve months, and more in some cases. In all animals there is, however, the least danger of inflammation while they are young, in performing such operations. Besides, it is better to cut colts before they have any propensity to hangler after mares, and get bad habits. When the foals are early, and the weather is not too hot, the latter end of May or beginning of June may be a good and proper season.

Some of the Yorkshire breeders, however, think that they find advantage in deferring the operation till the horses are two years old, as they suppose they become the stronger and handomer for it. And where the operation is performed at one year old, they find that the foals have not recovered the check they sustained by weaning before they experience another in this operation. They experience no greater difference in their recovery at two years old than one. The foals should be kept up some time before the gelding is to be performed.

The castrating of male lambs is performed at different periods in different districts; but it seems the most proper to be done in the first fortnight in the stronger sort of lambs, and in those of the weaker kind from a fortnight to three weeks, or a month old, according to circumstances. Some, however, advise its being done at a much later period. When done early, there is, however, the least danger of too much inflammation coming on, if the lambs be in a healthy condition. When performed while very young, on tender, delicate lambs, mortification may sometimes be apt to come on and destroy them.

CHAP. IX. Of Spaying.

Spaying is an operation performed on the females, chiefly on cattle and dogs, to prevent their producing young. It consists in taking away the ovaries, or those appendages to the womb in which are formed the rudiments of the young. It is supposed that it is attended with considerable advantage, in cows or heifers, as it greatly promotes their fattening. In bitches, it is generally employed to prevent the unpleasant circumstances that often occur in the time they are in heat.

Spaying is usually performed after the animal has been newly impregnated, as at that time the ovaries are larger than before impregnation, and are of course more easily discovered. In performing the operation, a cut is made through the integuments of the belly, between the haunch-bone and the last ribs, and through this opening the fingers are to be introduced. If the animal has not been impregnated, a roundish hard substance will be felt attached to the loins. This is to be drawn out and cut off, and that on the other side is now to be felt for, drawn out, and cut away. The ovaries, as has been said, will be much more readily found, especially the inmost one, when the animal is impregnated, as the young within the horns of the womb afford a good direction to the finger. It is sometimes necessary, when the animal is not in a state of impregnation, to make an opening on each side of the belly, one for the extraction of each ovary; but when this is found requisite, it will be better to delay the second operation till the animal is in some measure recovered from the first. When the ovaries have been cut away, the openings must be closed by means of a stitch through the integuments of the belly, and must be carefully covered with sticking plaster, to prevent the admittance of external air.

Mr. Daniel remarks, that this operation does not always succeed in bitches, unless done by a skilful person, who can be relied upon. If it be ill done, although the bitches can have no puppies, they will notwithstanding go to heat, which defeats the purpose. There is a difference of opinion, whether a bitch should be spayed. Mr Daniel, however, has tried, and found both periods to answer. The best time is 14 or 15 days after she has taken the dog, and when the puppies just begin to be knotted within her. All the roots of the veins should not be taken away; her strength and swiftness will be injured by so doing. They should be kept low for several days before the operation is performed, and fed on thin meat for some time after.

**Chap. X. Of Delivery in Difficult Labours.**

In general, Nature is all-sufficient for bringing forth the young of domestic animals, and man has little to do, except to take care that the females be not in such a situation as may expose themselves or their young to injury. It is proper always to watch a mare, or a cow, that is near the time of bringing forth; and to be at hand, to afford assistance where necessary. Mares do not often require assistance, as with them, difficult labour is uncommon. Where this does occur, the directions we are about to give for the cow, will in general answer for the mare.

Cows, particularly the short-horned species, often need the assistance of the accoucheur. The natural presentation of the calf, is with its head and fore-feet, the nose between the feet, and the back upwards. Downing enumerates seven preternatural positions: namely, 1st, Reverie presentation, or tail first. 2nd, Fore-feet, no head appearing. 3rd, Side-belly upwards, head reversed over one shoulder, legs appearing. 4th, Fore-feet, with head under the brisket. 5th, Head alone, or one fore-leg only with it. 6th, Head and one leg, or head alone. 7th, Calf lying on its back, its four legs folded nearly together, and close up to the cow's back; the head appearing, or doubled back, even with the ribs, on one side or other; one hind-leg, perhaps, appearing.

The following general rules are given by Mr Lawrence.—Timely assistance before the cow is exhausted. Extraction never to be attempted in an improper position. Supple the hand and arm with warm water and fresh lard. Examination best made, the cow standing, and in the interval of pains. In pulling at the feet, inclose the claws in the hand, that the horn may not bruise the cow. Navel string bursting, and the usual flux of blood, of no consequence. Instruments to be used only in the last resort, and by experienced and steady persons only. The proper hook is of hard iron, four inches long, with a loop for the cord at the straight end.

In a natural position, if the cow should want help, the position of the calf may be ascertained after the waters have been seen. A cord ought to be in readiness, to attach to the fore-legs of the calf, in order to assist each natural exertion. The head to be kept clear of obstruction.

Preternatural position. No 1. as above. No attempt to turn the calf (this position being favourable for extraction), but use expedition, for fear it be suffocated. Press the haunches back with the palm of the hand, take hold of the bend of the hough of one leg, pull at it, and reach the foot; both feet may thus be brought forth. No 2. Reduce the head to its proper situation, between the fore-legs, either by hold of the nose, or the face-bone. A long arm is needful, which must be kept to the full extent in the body, that instant advantage may be taken of every throw, the fingers being properly fixed. No 3. Gently move the calf back, and bring the head forth to the legs. No 4. Push the calf back to find the head; pull at the nose: this requires adroits, but it is useless to employ force, until the head be in its proper place. No 5. and 6. Push the calf back against the shoulders and brisket; the feet will be found folded under the belly; bring the feet forward, one at a time, the head being gently placed on the bend of the knee. Should the head be too much swelled and bruised, to be returned, it must be skinned and amputated. Differ in a straight line from the poll to the nose, force the skin back over the first joint of the neck, divide the head from the body, pushing the latter back to obtain hold of the knees. The loose skin must be previously wrapped over the ragged bone, and an assistant should have fast hold, in order to guide it clear of the haunch-bones of the cow; should it hitch there, put back instantly. No 7. If one hind-leg appear, put it back; the calf cannot be brought forth with a hinder and fore-leg together, and the difference between the knee and hough will be immediately discovered. The head being doubled back, must of course be reduced to its proper place. The cow being strong and quiet, the buffaloes may be effected with care and patience; but should the hook be positively necessary, hold must be taken either in the sockets of the eyes, cavity of the ears, or in the jaw. The case of dropy in the calf will be sufficiently apparent by its preternatural size; use the knife carefully, should that be necessary, to pierce the belly of the calf.

There is a very material obstruction which frequently happens to the calving of cows. It is called a horn-contracting contraction of the lye or calf-bed, when the passage of it is contracted into a very small circumference, inomuch, that age, at the full time of gestation, it will not admit so much as the smallest hand, and grows so finely or horned, as renders it utterly impossible for the cow to calve without assistance, and many cattle have died under this dreadful inconvenience, when it might have been easily prevented; but so little has been known hitherto of the diseases peculiar to black cattle, that many thousands have fallen victims to untimely death, that a simple remedy or operation might have saved.

In the case before observed, it must take a considerable length of time, before it is contracted, as it is often found; but no suspicion or dread can reasonably take place, until near the time, when the beast has arrived at the end of nine months, her full time of bearing young; when they generally make a regular preparation, or failing of the parts of generation, for a few days or weeks before calving; but in cases of this hornedness of the calf-bed, it is observed that they are backward in making these necessary alterations, preparatory to the approaching change; and when this is noticed, more than usual observation ought to be taken, for when they do not prepare in a regular manner, they seldom have the efforts of nature in due course, for the delivery of their burthen.—But when the beast is observed fickle for calving, and has reached the end of her time, and any dread of this is apprehended, there is no danger or impropriety in searching with the hand, in order to be satisfied, whether that part is open, or grown. grown up, as previously described; yet the greatest care is necessary, that the inquiry be made with judgment, and the hand that is introduced must be well lathered with soap and water, or greased with tallow, fresh butter or some such thing, that will not cause irritation in the neck of the womb.

Now, if it be found in the state described in any degree, and a certainty of the beast being at its full time, with the common sicknesses and symptoms for calving, no time should be lost until the animal be relieved. The difficulty greatly depends on knowing to what degree it is grown up; it is sometimes so strait as not to admit the end of a finger, but with some exertion, it may give so much way as that a small knife may be introduced, whose blade should not be above an inch and a half in length, and very sharp, with a hollow on the back part of the point, for the end of the forefinger to guide the knife when cutting, and to cover the point and edge, when introduced, which must be covered as much as possible with the hand. Its handle ought to be short, and the forefinger of the operator should always be kept forward on the knife, to prevent any danger that might arise from the edge of it. The horny circle is sometimes so hard and gritty, that it takes more exertion than may have been expected from the nature of the place; but as soon as it is cut through, the beast will find a very material difference, and strive to void her burden, if possible, when every exertion of art ought to be used for her relief. Many people have suffered the beast, so disordered, to die a miserable death before their eyes, without offering to render her any assistance, and some have attempted to take the calf out at the side of the animal, a practice commonly known by the name of the Caesarean operation; but the other method is to be preferred, when the obstruction is the result of horniness. But operations of this kind in general fail, from neglecting the attempt until every natural hope is gone, and the patient so much weakened, as to die under the hands of the person who has undertaken the task. It is therefore recommended, that no time be lost in ascertaining the cause of any delay in calving, and that every exertion be used, while the animal has strength to undergo the operation, and to second the attempt. When the business is happily over, the wounded parts within must be taken care of, by providing one pint of rectified spirit of wine camphorated, to anoint the wound, and any other parts which may have been exposed to the air, bruised, or over diffused. This may be conveyed up the neck of the womb by a syringe, sponge, or linen rag filled with it, and carried thither by a small hand, well fomented with some of the foregoing articles for that purpose. Let the beast be kept moderately warm, and in a comfortable situation, allowing her at all times a plentiful supply of good, dry, and sweet litter. We have taken the above from Rowlinson's Complete Cow-doctor.

PART IV. HYGEIOLOGY; OR, THE MEANS OF PRESERVING THE HEALTH OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

BEFORE we enter on the consideration of the diseases, that affect domestic animals, whose medical treatment is to form the subject of the remaining part of this article; it will be proper to lay down some instructions for the management of these animals in a state of health, with a view to that most important object, the avoiding of the causes of disease. The preservation of health must ever be considered as one of the principal objects of the medical practitioner, and has exercised the pens of some of the most eminent physicians in all ages. But the consideration of this subject is still more necessary in the treatment of the inferior animals, than in that of man. In the former the cure of disease is rendered much more difficult and precarious, on account of the obscurity in which the symptoms are often hid, and the difficulty which we frequently experience in investigating the causes of morbid affections.

The management of domestic animals in a state of health, chiefly respects the habitations in which they are placed, when taken from their native fields; their food and drink; cleanliness, and exercise.

CHAP. I. Of Stables, Cow-houses and Kennels.

In a state of nature, all the animals at present under our consideration, are constantly exposed to the open air, and only seek for shelter from the inclemencies of the weather under woods and thickets. The young of all these animals when domesticated, except the dog, are for a long time left in a similar state, till, for the convenience of their masters, it is found necessary to place them in habitations. The structure of these, that is of stables, cow-houses, and kennels, and the method of treating the animals confined in them, is of the utmost consequence; as on these the animals' health and comfort must in a great measure depend.

1. Of Stables.

Stables should be built on a dry soil, that is some should be what elevated; or, at least, they must not be built in a built on a hollow, or in the neighbourhood of boggy or marshy elevated land. The damp cold air, arising from moist, low situations, is extremely prejudicial to the health of all animals, particularly horses, and, as we shall see hereafter, to sheep. It renders them subject to colds, rheumatism, and not unfrequently to fever. Stables built in these situations are therefore always dangerous; and more particularly so, when the animals return to them after having been heated by violent exercise or labour.

Stables should be roomy in proportion to the number of horses that it is proposed they should contain. Per-roomy, haps no stable should be made to hold more than five or six horses, as many inconveniences arise from keeping too many of these animals in the same apartment. Not only is the air thereby much more vitiated, but the rest and sleep, so necessary to repair the fatigues of the day, are thus prevented or disturbed. Some horses will not sleep, or even lie down, if not perfectly at their ease; and hence, in large stables, that are made to contain a dozen or more horses, as is often the case in livery sta- bles, and such as are attached to large inns, the frequent entrance of grooms, offiers, and other persons with lights, into the stable, and even the restless noise of some of the horses, who are more watchful, or have been less fatigued than others, must be a great disturbance to these latter. Where necessity requires a long range of stables, it is better to have them divided, by thick partition walls, into separate apartments, each made to contain not more than six horses. The additional expense of this would be trifling, compared to the greater ease and comfort of the animals.

It is usual in large stables, for the sake of keeping more horses conveniently under the same roof, to make them double headed, as it is termed; that is, to have a range of stalls along each wall, with a space between, for persons to pass to and fro. Stables of this kind are very improper; the space between the two ranges is often so narrow, that when the opposite stalls are occupied at the same time, the horses can reach each other with their hind feet, especially when standing, as they often do, at the full length of their halter. Hence, in the contests that often arise between quarrelsome or troublesome horses, very severe bruises, and even lameness, are not unfrequently the consequences of the animals being within each other's reach. The danger that threatens passengers in these narrow spaces is also not small; we have often trembled when obliged to pass between two rows of horses, kicking and wincing under the currycombs, where the intermediate space did not exceed three or four feet. If double-headed stables must be used, the space between the ranges of stalls should be at least eight feet.

The roof of stables should not be low; for, as the foul and vitiated air, generated by respiration and the exhalations of animal bodies, naturally ascends to the highest parts, the horses, who usually carry their heads very high, are, when the ceiling of the stable is low, fully exposed to the noxious influence of this vitiated atmosphere. This is not the place to enlarge on the vitiation that the air undergoes from the action of the animals that are confined in it; this subject has been already fully considered in the article Chemistry when speaking of respiration; and, from what has been there delivered, the reader will see the necessity of pure air to horses and other animals as well as man, and will be able to judge of the propriety of the above maxim, and some others which we shall presently lay down.

The walls of the stable should be of stone or brick, and by no means of wood; they should also be left bare, or at least only covered with plaster. The temperature of the air, in buildings of stone or brick, is much more equable than in those built of wood, they are not so easily penetrated by the heat of summer, or the cold of winter, and they are also attended with another important advantage, that they resist the spreading of fire.

The stalls in which the horses are to stand should be divided from each other by strong wooden partitions, that should rise sufficiently high to prevent the horse from stepping over, but not so high as to impede the free circulation of air, and admission of light from one stall to another. The breadth of each stall should be such as will freely admit of the horse turning himself, and stretching at his full length when he lies down; but they should not be so wide as to allow of his kicking against the partition. The floor of the stall should have a gentle declivity, from the manger backwards. This allows the urine and water to run easily off; it also relieves the fore quarters of the horse, and adds much to the grace of his appearance behind. Too great a slope, however, must be avoided, as when the declivity is too rapid, all the weight of the horse is thrown on his hind legs; and, as it is extremely uneasy for the animal to remain long in this position, he is obliged to press his body forward, which he cannot accomplish, without keeping the hind legs always on the stretch; the sternum joint, from its situation, receives the whole additional weight, and the ligament which connects it is invariably strained in all horses which are kept in this sort of stable for any length of time.

A slope of one inch in five feet will be sufficient to answer every purpose.

This declivity should terminate in a hollow space a few inches from the end of the stall, forming a sort of gutter, extending the whole length of the stable, and passing out through the wall at each end, where iron bars should be placed, to admit of the water, &c., passing out of the stable, which is the intention of this gutter, but preventing the intrusion of rats, and other noxious animals.

The floor of stables is commonly paved with stone, or hard bricks made for that purpose. This kind of flooring has the advantage of being more durable than any other; but it is not without its inconveniences. The stones or bricks become smooth by wearing, and, when the stable is wet, the horse, especially if he be very frisky, is apt to slip, and endanger straining or otherwise injuring his limbs. Again, by the pawing, or stamping, to which these animals are often subject, the pavement may be loosened or broken. For these reasons, it would perhaps be better that at least the stalls should be floored with strong oaken planks well seasoned, and laid across the stall, with their extremities below the partitions, and having their joining edges accurately adapted to each other. A flooring of this kind has the advantage of being more elastic, and of preserving a more equable temperature than pavement; and it is not liable to the inconveniences which we have mentioned, as attending this latter. A wooden flooring is indeed expensive, but this is more than counterbalanced by the advantages to the horse. It is of little consequence how the rest of the stable is covered; some gentlemen floor their stables with a sort of cement, which in course of time becomes as hard as stone, and has the advantage of being perfectly smooth and even. The gutter should of course be well paved.

The manger for receiving the horses' corn should be about a foot broad, and five or six inches deep. The manger is usually made of wood, and when this is the case, the boards composing it should be closely joined, that the corn cannot get through between them. The front of the manger should rise about three feet, or a little more from the ground; should slope a little, and should terminate above by a strong rounded border. This, if the manger be made of wood, should be covered with tin plate, or white iron, as horses are very apt, when without food, or when allowed to remain long in the stall, to bite the front of the manger, and thus acquire a very bad habit, which farriers call crib-biting. Some choose to make the manger of stone, which which has the advantage of wood in being more durable and cleanly, wood acquiring by use an unpleasant smell, and being soon rotted by the moisture of the food, which it often receives. The bottom of the manger should slope a little forward.

The manger is sometimes made to extend the whole length of the stable, when it is in general divided into several cavities, one for each horse. It is of little consequence whether it be one continued cavity, or whether there be a separate manger for each stall; but the manger should by no means be supported on legs, so as to make it moveable, as is sometimes done; as this prevents the litter from being conveniently flowed below the manger, and exposes the horse or the manger to accidents. It should therefore be firmly fixed at the back to the wall of the stable, and to each partition of the stall. Sometimes a hollow is made at one end of the manger, or at one end of each division of it, for the purpose of holding water. When this is done, there should be a hole in the bottom of this cavity fitted with a plug, to draw off the water when the horse has done drinking, or when the manger has been washed.

In the middle of the front of the manger, in its thick edge, there is usually fixed an iron ring, turning easily in an eye bolt, for the purpose of passing through the halter, by which the horse is fastened. Sometimes, instead of this ring, a hole is made through the border of the manger for the halter to pass through; but as the halter does not slip backwards and forwards easily through such a hole, and wears very fast by rubbing against the wood, the iron ring is to be preferred. The horse should always be fastened in such a way, as that the halter shall slide backwards and forwards with every motion of the horse's head; and he should on no account be tied by the halter, as this exposes him to accidents, by twisting the halter about his neck or legs.

The rack should be placed at such a height above the manger, as that the horse can easily reach it, to pull out the hay; it should be very strong and firmly fixed, and should incline a little outwards from the wall of the stable. The bars of which it is composed, should not be above four or five inches asunder, that the hay may not fall out and be wasted.

One circumstance particularly to be attended to in the construction of stables is, to preserve a free circulation of air.

The generality of stables are by much too close and warm; not a chink is left for the free admittance of air; the door and windows (if there are any), are made so close, as perfectly to exclude the air; or, if this is not the case, the crevices are frequently stopped with hay, under the idea that the horses cannot be kept too warm. This is a most absurd and mistaken notion; and is contradicted both by reason and daily experience. When we consider that horses in a state of nature, or even in their usual pastures, are perpetually exposed to the open air, and that, under these circumstances, they are more vigorous and active than under the most attentive care of their masters, we must be convinced of the impropriety of keeping them for hours together in the foul and heated atmosphere of the ordinary close stables. Whoever enters one of these stables when the door is first opened in the morning, after it has been closely shut up all night, will be able to judge from his own sensations, whether such an atmosphere can be wholesome to the animals that breathe it. Besides the great heat of the stable, which, if many horses have been shut up in it all night is nearly intolerable, the air will be found highly impure from the continued respiration of so many animals, and the steam arising from the exhalations of their bodies, which have probably sweated profusely from having been so long confined in an atmosphere so foul and heated. Add to this the impregnation of the air by the effluvia arising from the litter, &c.; and it is not easy to conceive a more unhealthy situation for an animal, who, to perform the offices required of him with activity and vigour, should be in the full possession of all his strength. Now it may easily be supposed, that such an air as we have described, cannot be calculated to strengthen the body of the horses. On the contrary, it must be in a high degree weakening and relaxing. In this relaxed state, the horse is probably taken out immediately into the open air, whatever may be the season or weather, and made to enter on his daily task. The effect which such a sudden change must have on the constitution of the strongest horse, need not be described. The sudden action of the cold and probably moist air on a body that has been exposed for so many hours to the heated air of the stable, must be productive of the worst consequences to the health and vigour of the animal. Accordingly, fevers, colds, rheumatism, asthma, and a number of other formidable diseases, may be traced to this debilitating source.

We should think, that the analogy of nature would have taught men to avoid such absurdities. We learn from those authors who have written on the natural history of the horse, that the Arabians, who live in tents, and are extremely careful in the management of their horses, allow them to stand all day, when not employed, at the door of the tent; and at night bring them within the tent, where they lie down in the same apartment with their master and family, sheltered indeed from the dew of the night, but freely exposed to the circulation of air that must constantly prevail in these temporary dwellings.

To avoid the inconveniences arising from confined Mode of air, the stable should be made high and roomy; the ventilator-door and windows should not be made too close; and the stable should be provided with proper ventilators. Perhaps a good method of preserving a free circulation of air in the stable at all times, would be to carry up a flue diagonally through the wall at each extremity, terminating above in a sort of chimney; and below, within the stable, in an opening sufficiently wide in any part of the wall that is not immediately within the stall.

The free admittance of light into stables is nearly of as much consequence as that of air. It is a very erroneous opinion which is maintained by some grooms and stable-keepers, that horses feed best in the dark. These animals naturally love the light, and are much more cheerful and spirited in stables where this is freely admitted, than in the dark and dismal hovels that we sometimes find attached to inns and farm houses. There is one bad consequence that follows keeping horses in a dark stable, which does not appear to be sufficiently attended to. By being kept too long excluded from the light, the horse's eyes become weak, and unable to support the full glare of open day. The pupils being so long... long habituated to an unusual degree of dilatation, do not readily contract when the animal is brought out into the open air; hence his eyes being offended with the strong light, to which he is so little accustomed, are perpetually winking and watering; the horse appears as if half blind, and starts and stumbles at almost every step.

The stable should, therefore, be furnished with glazed windows, in number proportioned to the size of the building. In general, no stables should have fewer than two windows; and they should be placed in such a situation, as that the horses may not receive the rays of light too directly on their eyes. Where the stable has only one range of stalls, this point can be easily effected, and in such stables, the windows should always be placed at the back of the horses. But in double stables it is not easy to place the windows so as not to inconvenience some of the horses, since, on whichever side of the stable they are made, the horses on that side are exposed to the full glare of the light; another argument against double stables. The windows should by all means be fitted; and should be made to draw down from the top, as well as to be thrown up from below. They should not be made too small, and should be carried up as near the ceiling of the stable, as is compatible with the strength and symmetry of the building. Windows constructed in this way not only add much to the appearance of the stables and to the comfort of the horses; but they afford one of the best means of promoting a free circulation of fresh air through the stable. For by throwing one of them up, and drawing another down, the ventilation becomes nearly as complete as possible.

Nothing has astonished us more, when viewing the handsome offices attached to some of the gentlemen's houses in this country, than to see the deficiency of the stables in the article of windows. When viewing them from without, we have congratulated the animals confined in them on the comfort of light and air, which they must enjoy from the fine sash-windows, which we saw on each side of the stable door. How great has been our astonishment on entering the building, to find all gloomy and dark within; and that the fine sash-windows which we thought to have seen at a distance, were nothing but efforts of the painter to deceive our senses, and to present an appearance of what certainly ought to have been a reality!

We must be permitted here to draw what we hope will not be considered as an invidious comparison between the Scotch and English method of lodging their horses. In England we have rarely seen such miserable hovels as, in many parts of Scotland, are used to supply the place of stables. We have indeed in the former country seen the stables sometimes very small, or even consisting of a thatched building not very well defended from the weather; but they are for the most part tolerably well ventilated, and we believe scarcely ever without windows.

It is a common practice to build stables of two stories, the upper story forming a loft for the purpose of keeping the horse's hay and corn; and in gentlemen's stables, where the building is sufficiently large, it is usual to have apartments on the upper story for the grooms and other servants employed about the stables to sleep in.

The apartment employed as a hay loft has usually a vacancy in that part of the flooring which is immediately over the rack, for the purpose of more conveniently supplying the horses with hay. This mode of building stables has its convenience in an economical point of view, and these apartments in the upper story add much to the showy appearance of the building; but there are several material objections to this construction.

1. The hay and corn being kept immediately over the stable, are constantly exposed to the foul and heated air and putrid steams rising up from the stalls through the rack, and are thus rendered liable to be heated and mildewed; while the dust rising from the shaking of the hay into the rack is very prejudicial to the lungs of the horses. On this account it is much better, where this can be conveniently done, to keep the hay and corn in some place distinct from the stable, and bring from time to time a sufficient quantity of hay nearly to fill the rack, into which it might be put while the horse is abroad.

2. Another serious objection to having lofts and chambers above the stable, is that the building is thus much more exposed to accidents from fire, owing to the carelessness of the servants. And,

3. These apartments above the stable render the latter much too close and warm.

Where, from convenience or fancy, a gentleman chooses to build his stables in the manner which we have just described, it will be advisable to have the flooring above the stable made as close as possible, and covered with thin bricks or stones for the purpose of checking the progress of fire; and for preserving the hay and corn as much as may be from the fleas of the stable, a partition wall may be raised from the extremity of the flooring immediately over the rack all the way to the roof of the loft, with a door opening over the rack in each stall. The entrance to the hay loft or chambers above the stable should be without, and by no means, as is generally the case, by a trap door and ladder within the stable. If, as we frequently see in gentlemen's offices, the stables are built on each side of the coach-house, the entrance to the rooms above may be conveniently made by a stair from the coach-house.

The building of which the stable forms a part, should be as much as possible detached from other buildings, so as to admit of a free circulation of air all around.

It is a vile practice, which is common on many farms and in some inns, to have the dung-hill or midden placed close to the stable. This nuisance should be removed as far as possible from the door and windows of the stable, as the heat and noisome vapors arising from the fermenting dung impregnate the air to a considerable extent.

It is of great consequence that the stable be kept swept and cleaned. It should therefore be regularly cleaned every morning, and every part of the litter that is wet and dirty should be removed to the dunghill, while what is clean and dry should be put up close below the manger, unless where the horse is lame, or has any affection of the feet or limbs, which renders it necessary for him to stand upon soft litter. Where the horse is perfectly healthy, no litter should be allowed in the daytime, much less should the stall be crammed with litter, as is often done, and is suffered to remain in this situation for many days, for the purpose of increasing the quantity of manure. feet of horses more, or more frequently produces softness of the hoof, canker, and greasy heels, than allowing them to stand night and day on hot fermenting dung. It is also impossible for the horse to lie down in comfort in such a hot bed; and if the poor animal is obliged to recline himself for a time, he is soon compelled to rise again, and repeatedly making the same attempt to rest, and finding it impracticable, he is forced at length to stand altogether, perhaps shifting his legs from one part of the stall to another, to avoid the heat of the dung.

Lord Pembroke is of opinion that after working, and at night of course, as also in lamenesses and sicknesses, it is good for horses to stand on litter; it also promotes itching, &c. At other times it is a bad custom; the constant use of it heats and makes the feet tender, and causes swollen legs. Moreover it renders the animal delicate. Swelled legs may frequently be reduced to their proper natural size by taking away the litter only, which, in some stables, where ignorant grooms and farriers govern, would be a great favoring of physic and bleeding, besides straw. "I have seen," (says he), "by repeated experiments, legs swell and unswell, by leaving litter, or taking it away, like mercury in a weather-glass."

It is a very common practice to keep horses, while in the stable, covered up with warm clothing. This is in some cases necessary, especially when they are under a course of physic, or are otherwise too delicate, so that they would be liable to injury from too much exposure to the air. But its indiscriminate use is highly improper, as it tends to render the horse too delicate, and exposes him to the danger of catching cold whenever he goes out into the air. While a horse is in complete health, and stands idle, he requires very little, if any covering, unless the stable be extremely cold, or ill sheltered. When indeed he comes into the stable, much heated by violent exercise or hard labour, it may be proper to throw over him a single cloth, that he may cool gradually. Some grooms think it necessary, besides enveloping the horse with body clothes, to gird them fast round the belly with tight rollers; and this is done with the view of taking up the horse's belly, as they term it. The practice is exceedingly absurd, for these tight rollers impede the circulation in the superficial veins, produce difficult breathing, and if they be applied, as is often the case, after eating, they greatly obstruct digestion.

To finish the subject of stable economy, we have only to make a few remarks on currying, or dressing horses.

Friction employed on the horse's skin is not only necessary to keep him clean, and to promote the insensible perspiration, by freeing the skin and hair from impurities, but it is exceedingly useful when considered as a kind of exercise. It promotes the free circulation of the blood, which is much impeded by the horse standing long idle in the stable; and it much improves the appearance of the horse's coat. Horses should therefore be regularly dressed, at least twice a day.

There are, however, some cases in which general friction ought not to be employed; such are cases of internal inflammation, especially of the bowels; or when there is a discharge of sharp ichorous matter from any part, especially the legs and heels. In these cases the affected parts should not be rubbed, as it would tend to increase the pain and distress arising from the inflammation.

2. Of Cow-houses, or Byres.

After what we have said on the construction of stables, we need not here enlarge on that of cow-houses or byres, or cattle byres, as these buildings, so far at least as respects their outsides, are constructed on similar principles. We shall take occasion, when treating on the manner of feeding cattle, to describe a byre that appears to us to afford a good model for buildings of this kind.

It is of material importance in the wintering of young stock, to keep them more warm, and sheltered from wet, than is usually done, as by this means they thrive faster, with less consumption of food, than in the contrary circumstances. This may be effected, either by tying them up in stalls, in houses for the purpose, or by keeping them in good sheds in well inclosed yards.

The question of feeding the cattle tied up, or loose in the yards, in winter, has not been yet decided. Each method has probably advantages. In the first case, the cattle thrive better than when left at liberty to run about the yards. Mr Marshall found that in Yorkshire, cattle kept tied up, and regularly fed with straw in a moderate proportion, did better than in the southern parts of the island, where left loose in the midst of greater plenty. Whether this effect is to be ascribed to the greater warmth, the resting better, or the being fed more regularly, and eating with an appetite, he cannot determine. Some experiments of Mr Young's also lead to the conclusion that cattle stock thrive better when tied up. They likewise show that the practice of tying up is the only one that can be had recourse to, where straw is not in great plenty, and the quantity of the stock very inadequate to its consumption.

In the latter method there is the advantage of a large supply of manure, especially where the farmer has the convenience of litter. Where however the farmer has convenience, the former method is probably in general the most beneficial. In either mode of management much attention is necessary to keeping the stock constantly supplied in an evenly proportioned manner, as in this way there will be great advantage, both in the saving of food, and the condition of the animals.*

The necessity of providing shelter for cattle in bad weather, is now we believe pretty well understood by every intelligent farmer; and experience has proved that proper buildings erected for winter feeding are attended with considerable advantages. The erection for this purpose at Hafod in Wales, the residence of Thomas Johnes, Esq., M.P., for the county of Cardigan, and one of the most eminent improvers of the present time, seems to be calculated upon a moderate scale. The whole length of the building is fifty feet, the roof shelving, its chief height being fourteen feet, the lower extremities, one seven and a half, the other six feet. A stone wall running up to the summit, parts the feeding-house from the other and smaller apartment, which is a receptacle for dung. Width of the feeding-house, nineteen feet within-side. Stalls each twelve feet long by four feet two inches wide. Gangway three feet and a half, at the heels and tails of the cattle, leading from the doors, the first door being for the cattle, the other for... for the attendants. Similar doors at the opposite ends of the building. Running water in troughs, with racks, and mangers. The cattle lie on wooden platforms, perforated for the passage of the urine. The urine runs, and the dung is pushed through apertures in the wall, each of which is two feet square, and one between every two stalls. There are 12 wooden flaps or windows to give light and air, to each stall. The dung pit is about twelve feet wide, sunk some feet deep in the earth, extending the whole length of the building. The walls are built partly with stone, and in part with wood, the roof with larch wood, as an experiment of its durability in that exposure.

According to Mr Lawrence, the round or quadrangular form might perhaps, either of them, be more economical as to space and materials for a building to contain a considerable number. The oxen would most conveniently stand around with their tails toward the wall, contrary to the usual practice, for the more easy throwing out the dung from a gangway, through apertures purposely made in the wall, into a pit, under cover, sunk around the building. The area within would, of course, be for feeding, and every necessary purpose of attendance. A store-chamber above completes the building, the chief objection to the form of which, is the greater expense attendant upon the reversed position of the cattle, which perhaps is compensated by the great saving of labour, in the more easily getting rid of the dung. The gangway will in course be sufficiently wide to admit the beasts to and from their stalls; the dung aperture in the wall may be closed in cold weather.*

*Lawrence on Cattle.

Sheep-cots.

Of all domestic animals, sheep are the most exposed to the inclemencies of the weather. This arises chiefly from their numbers, which renders complete shelter very difficult; but even in the case of a small flock, the prejudices of many feeders have prevented their procuring proper shelter for their sheep, under the idea that it would render them too lazy to provide for themselves. These prejudices, however, are gradually wearing away, and few sheep-farms are at present unprovided with shelter, either of trees or buildings. Mr Findlater, in his able survey of Peebles, strongly recommends shelter for sheep. "It would be (says this gentleman) for the interest of every proprietor of sheep-farms, to encourage the farmer to rear shelter of trees, by allowing him the weedings of the plantation, and becoming bound to pay the farmer, at the rate of perhaps eight-pence or ten-pence a piece, for every tree left standing at specified distances, at the expiry of his lease; such interest communicated to the farmer, would give the most effectual security for the protection of the trees. Shelters are also procured by building, enclosing a square open area in the middle, furnished with shades, on every side. Stells (that is circular spaces of area, proportioned to the size of the flock, enclosed by a five or six feet wall of stone, or sod, without any roof) were the primeval shelters invented by our forefathers. The circular figure of the building causes the drifting wind in snow storms to wheel round it, without rising over it, and depositing the snow in the calm region within. The sheep are fed, in winter storms, with such provision as can be procured, under the trees, in the sheds, and within the circles. Even where no feeding is administered, much advantage results to the animals, from mere defence against the weather; and they are much the more alert in searching for natural food, so soon as the storm ceases. The mode of feeding of the sheep gives a pretty certain indication of the weather to be expected: Upon the near approach of a storm, those accustomed to shelters are observed to make for their shelters. Upon the near approach of thaw, their premonition leads them to be less industrious in digging the snow for food, as if conscious that such labour was no longer necessary.*"

According to Mordaunt, who wrote about the middle of last century, sheep pens and houses, were then not uncommon in Essex and Gloucestershire. He directs the pens to be made at some convenient corner of a pasture, or where several fields, commons, or pastures meet, so as to be common to them all. They should also be erected on a dry spot of ground, and stones laid at the bottom to keep the sheep dry and clean, whilst under examination. The pens to be divided into partitions to hold about forty sheep.

"The sheep house, for warmth in the winter season, are made low, and a third part longer than broad, and rather large, the sides lined with furze or boards, for warmth; the bottom laid with large stone slabs, and very level, that the urine run not away, but soak into the litter. It would be proper to have the sunny side well lined with moveable hurdles, that when the sun shines it may be laid open to give the sheep a refreshment, by letting them into some close or croft, wherein the sheep-house stands: the house to be well covered."

3. Of Dog-kennels.

It is usually recommended to erect a particular building, for the sole purpose of a kennel; and certainly where the proprietor's fortune will admit of it, such an appropriate building is to be preferred. A common barn has, however, often been employed as a kennel: and Mr Daniel says, that the excellence of the hounds kept in such a building has been rivalled by few that were lodged in the most sumptuous edifices.

Whatever may be the form or original intention of the building, cleanliness is absolutely necessary, both to the nose of the hound and the preservation of his health. The fence of smelling is so exquisite in a hound, that every stench must be supposed injurious to it; upon that faculty all our hopes depend, and nostrils clogged with the effluvia of a dirty kennel, are ill adapted to carry the scent over greasy fallows, or guide one through the foil of deer, or over ground tainted by sheep. Dogs are by nature cleanly; where they lie, if they can avoid it, they seldom dung. Air and fresh straw are essential to preserve them healthy. They are subject to the mange; neatness very much contributes to this, and although at the first appearance it may be easily checked, the remedies that are used are in themselves strong in their operation, and will do no good to the hounds constitution. Let the cleanliness of the kennel, therefore, be carefully attended to; a resort to these remedies will then be unnecessary, and all injury to hounds from this source will be prevented.

On the presumption that a kennel is to be erected, its site is strongly pointed out by Somerville.

"Upon Upon some little eminence erect And fronting to the ruddy dawn, its courts On either hand wide opening to receive The sun's all-cheering beams, when mild he shines And gilds the mountain tops."

But this selection of a high situation is incompatible with a running brook; and as these two advantages cannot be united, water is to be preferred, with the aspect to the morning sun as much attended to as possible.

The number of its inmates must determine the size of the kennel; and the architecture should be neat, without being uselessly expensive. The most magnificent is the duke of Richmond's at Goodwood, which cost Duke of Richmond's 19,000l., and is sufficiently extensive for two packs of hounds. The building comprises five kennels, two 36 by 15, three 30 by 15, and two feeding rooms 20 by 15 feet, with stoves to warm the air, when too cold. The huntman and whipper-in have each a parlour, kitchen, and sleeping-room.

The nearer to the house the kennel is placed the better. There are reasons against its too close approach, but they yield to others which forbid a great distance. To mention one, derived indeed from a vulgar saying, "that the master's eye makes the horse fat," recollect that the inspection of the kennel is even more needful than that of the stable; for in both, cleanliness is no less essential than food.

The kennel should be of sufficient dimensions at its first building; room for two kennels should be under the same roof; when there is but one it is seldom sweet; and when washed out, the hounds, particularly in winter, not only suffer during the time of cleaning, but as long afterwards as it remains wet. The second kennel affords opportunity for drafting the hounds intended to hunt the next morning. In a few days they will be drafted with little trouble, will readily answer to their names; and with equal ease as a shepherd numbers his sheep, you may count your hounds into the hunting kennel.

In a morning, upon the feeder's first entering the kennel, he should let the hounds into the outer court; the door of the hunting kennel, when not occupied by the drafted hounds for that day's hunting, should be opened in bad weather to shelter them; the lodging-room should then be thoroughly cleaned, the windows and doors opened, the litter well shaken, and the kennel made sweet, before the hounds are again shut into it. Every omission prejudicial to the hounds should be immediately pointed out to the feeder, who must be made to remedy it; and also observe that the great court and the other kennels are equally objects of his attention.

The lodging-room should be bricked, and flopped on both sides to the centre, where should be a gutter to carry off the water, that when washed, the floor may be equally dried: but flag-stones, or large square bricks termed pummonds, are far preferable; there are fewer interstices, and consequently less filth or water can there accumulate, and the surface is sooner dry. Let the floor be kept in thorough repair, that no water may remain in any cavity, until the malon can be had, when at any time wanted; let the stagnant water be carefully flopped up; for nothing is more hurtful to hounds, than damp, or more refreshing than warmth after hard work.

The kennel should have three doors; two in front and one behind; that in the back to have a lattice window in it, with a wooden shutter, which is to be kept always close, except in summer, when it should be left open the whole of the day. This door has a twofold utility, it serves to carry out the dirty straw, and being opposite to the window, will admit a thorough air, when the lodging-room is cleaned, which will much contribute to render it sweet and wholesome. The front doors will be useful in drying the room when the hounds are out; and as one is to be shut and the other hooked back, so as to allow a single dog to pass, they are not liable to any objection. The large centre window should have a folding shutter, which at night, according to the weather, may be wholly or partially closed; and thus the warmth of the kennel may be regulated as is judged most salutary. The two great lodging rooms are exactly similar, and having a court belonging to each, are distinct kennels situated at the opposite ends of the building. In the centre of the boiling-house and feeding-yard, a lesser kennel, either for hounds that are drafted off, hounds that are sick and lame, or for any other required purpose, is on each side; at the back of which, it being but half the depth of the two larger kennels, are places for coals, &c., for the use of the kennel. There is also a small building in the rear for hot bitches.

The inner court floor should be bricked or flagged, Inner court, and flopped towards the centre like those of the lodging-room; and water brought in by a leaden pipe, should run through the channel in the middle. In the centre of each court is a well sufficiently large to dip a bucket for the purpose of cleaning the kennel. To keep these from wanting repair, they should be faced with stone, and to that of the feeding-yard a wooden cover should be fixed. The benches, which must be open to let the urine through, should have hinges and hooks in them all, that they may fold up when the kennel is washed. They should be made as low as possible, that when a hound is tired, he may have no difficulty in jumping up, and at no time be able to creep under them. Recollect that if, owing to the smallness of the hound, as in beagles, it should be difficult to make the benches sufficiently low, it will be proper to nail a lodging projecting downwards in the edge, or the benches may be faced with boards at the bottom, to prevent hounds from creeping under.

A large bricked court in front, having a grass court adjoining, and a brook running through the middle of it, completes the kennel. This court should be planted round, and also have some lime trees and some horse chestnuts near the centre for shade. Some pools bound round with straw, rubbed with galbanum, may be placed so as to prevent the hounds from making water against the trees. The brook may be used as a cold bath for hounds lamed, in the stifles, in strains, or for other purposes for which the cold bath is required. A high palings should inclose the whole, and which, to the height of four feet, should be close, the remainder being open, with an interval of two inches between the pales. At the back of the kennel should be a thatched house, fenced at the sides, to contain at least a load of straw, a pit for receiving the dung, and a gallows for the thistles. If a piece of ground adjoining to the kennel can conveniently be enclosed, for keeping such horses as may be brought alive for the use of the hounds, it would be of great service, as the disorders of condemned horses are not always ascertained; and an opportunity may thus be offered of investigating their nature and progress, which may prove advantageous in future similar cases. The hounds may also be brought into this field, to empty themselves after feeding; and the draught for the next day's hunt can be here made with greater accuracy than when they are confined to the kennel.

Stoves are used in some kennels; but a good feeder, and the mop properly applied, render them unnecessary. Should ticks prove troublesome at any time, the walls of the kennel should be well washed; and if that should fail to destroy the ticks, they must be white-washed with lime.

When the hunting season is over, one kennel will be sufficient, and the other with the grass-yard adjoining to it may be allowed to the young hounds. This separation, which should continue till the season commences, is necessary for preventing many accidents that might otherwise happen at this time of the year. Should there be conveniences, it will be proper to keep the dogs separate from the bitches during the summer months. When hounds are very riotous, the feeder may sleep in a cot in an adjoining kennel; if the dogs are well chastised at the first quarter, his voice will afterwards be sufficient to keep them quiet.*

* Daniel's Rural Sports, vol. i.

** Diet.

In preserving the health of domestic animals, much will depend on the quantity and quality of their food, and on the manner in which they are supplied with it. This subject, therefore, requires some share of our attention. We have already, in the article AGRICULTURE, treated pretty much at large on the different kinds of food that are most proper for horses, sheep, and cattle; and have here little to add on that head. Our principal object in this chapter will be, to consider the best means of dispensing food to the different classes of domestic animals, and to describe what are considered the most beneficial methods of preparing the food in those cases where its preparation appears to be necessary.

The natural food of the horse is the simple herbage of the field, and on it alone he can be constantly kept in a high state of health and vigour, so long as he shall not be required to labour; and whilst he is employed in labour, grass in some form, either dried or green, seems absolutely necessary to his maintenance in a healthy state. Hay, straw, and corn of various kinds have been, from the earliest time, the common food of horses; but in Britain, and indeed in France and Germany, during the later periods especially, they have rejected all other species of horse corn, from a well-grounded preference in favour of oats and beans; the latter for draught horses chiefly, or as substantial auxiliaries to the oats, imparting as strong a nourishment as the constitution of the horse will properly bear, and at the same time of a cleansing nature; and are, moreover, the best and cheapest in-door fattening for almost all domestic animals.

The species of corn usually given to horses in many countries is barley, the bulky provender is straw, both of which in warm climates, are said to be nearly equal in nutriment to our oats and hay. With us, barley is apt to scour horses, and make their urine red, especially at its first being given. Wheat is often given to horses of the great upon the continent; it is said when Philip of Spain was in this country, his jennets were fed upon wheat during the time of scarcity, and this gave great umbrage to the people.

There seems to exist no particular difference of quality between the white and the black oats, they being equal in weight and thinness of husk; these criteria, and their being short, are the best marks of their goodness. It is equally well known that they should be some months old when used, as new oats are apt to fowel the belly and produce gripes.

New beans are improper for horses, for the same reason. The best remedy is to dry them in a kiln. Old beans should be split, and given either with bran or chaff; or the best way would be to break them in a mill. Mr Lawrence fed cart-horses with beans for nearly seven years, without experiencing any ill effect from such food; but the horses laboured very hard. Beans contain more solid nourishment than oats, but of a less salubrious nature.

Grains constantly loosen a horse, and impoverish his blood; bran scours and weakens the entrails; both of them are good occasional dietetic alternatives.

Carrots are said to purify and sweeten the blood, to amend the wind, and to replenish after the wastings occasioned by disease or inordinate labour. Mr Lawrence informs us that he has been accustomed to use them for years in all forms, and to all descriptions of horses. They are either given in spring or autumn to high-fed horses, as a change of diet, at the rate of one feed per day, in lieu of a feed of corn, or as full subsistence to others. They ought to be washed clean, and, if large, cut into flat and sizeable pieces. The quantity of carrots for a feed is from half a peck to a peck.

The usual periods of feeding with corn are in this country, morning, noon, and night. The quantities feeding, each time either a quarter or half a peck, with or without about two handfuls of beans, according to the horse's state of body. Much greater care than is common ought to be taken in sifting the oats clean from dust, and the dung of mice. Water should be allowed without fail twice a day. There is an error not unfrequent among liable people, who suppose water to be at best but a kind of necessary evil to horses, and therefore think it a point gained whenever they can find an opportunity to abridge the quantity. But how well soever a horse may shift with little or no water while in the field, and while feeding on succulent meat, much mischief may ensue from its being withheld; and this may produce coliciveness, gripes, inflammation of the bowels, perpetual longing, and a danger of drinking to excess on every opportunity.

The well known use of hay is to dilate the body of the horse, to satisfy his appetite with bulk and quantity, as corn does with compact and solid nourishment. British hay, the best in the world, contains great nourishment, nourishment, and will keep a horse and even fatten him; but he is unable to labour upon hay alone, and experience has shewn that Bracken's observation of the constant use of hay injuring the flight of horses, particularly if suddenly put on such food after good keeping, is very just. Hard upland hay is the best for race and coach horses; and it should be of a fine greenish colour, fragrant scent, and full of flower. It is said that horses and cattle prefer such hay as has been sweated, or which has undergone a partial fermentation; and it is even thought that they grow much sooner fat on heated hay than on such as has been gotten up dry and cool. There can be no doubt that sweated hay contains a considerable quantity of sugar, formed during its state of fermentation; this may render the hay more palatable to the beasts, but we have some doubt whether it be so wholesome as fresh well-coloured hay. Clover-hay, and hay of artificial grasses, from its goodness, is appropriated to cart-horses. Without attempting to ascertain the precise quantity, it may be said that hay should be given as often as a horse has a keen appetite for it; but great care should be taken that so much be never allowed at once, as that he shall leave it, and blow upon it. At night a considerable quantity of hay is usually left in the rack, and this is no doubt absolutely necessary for horses who are hard worked during the day, as night is their most leisure time for feeding; but it admits of doubt whether horses who live in a state of luxury, and are but little worked, should be indulged in much hay at night.

It will obviously occur to most people, that the quantity and quality of a horse's food should be proportioned to his labour; that horses who are lightly worked, will not in general require so much or so nourishing food, as those who are constantly kept to hard labour. It is evident that when horses stand idle, and are at the same time high fed, they are exposed to many dangerous diseases, as inflammation, flaggers, arising from too full habit of body; and these diseases will be more likely to come on when a horse that has been thus fed is suddenly put to hard labour, or obliged to make any unusual or violent exertion. But this must not be carried too far. Horses should not, because they have little work at the time, be entirely confined to grass, or grass and hay, unless they are at pasture, and are never worked. For while a horse stands in the stable, and is liable to be called upon any emergency, his diet should be so regulated, as that he shall neither be so fat and full of blood, as not to perform occasional work without difficulty and danger, nor on the other hand, so poor and weak, as to be incapable of supporting exertion without injury to himself or rider. All horses that are fed on grass and hay alone, are too weak to perform a good day's journey without stumbling. A moderate quantity of corn or other hard food, should therefore be allowed to such horses as stand constantly in the stable, or who, while at pasture, are occasionally worked.

Mr Clark observes, that throwing great quantities of clean grain before horses at one time is very improper; as they eat it too greedily, and swallow whole mouthfuls of it almost dry. The moisture in the stomach, or water drunk immediately after eating, causes the grain to swell, and thus the stomach is greatly distended, and loses its contracting power on the food. By the pressure of the full stomach on the intestines, the passage of the food backwards is obstructed, and the confined air, arising from the indigested food, not having a ready passage backwards, and horses not possessing the power of belching, the air becomes rarefied to a great degree, the horse is seized with colic pains; as these increase he becomes convulsed, and in many cases the stomach bursts. Out of a number of cases where the above was discovered on dissecting the bodies, Mr Clark mentions the two following.

"A young draught-horse was fed in the morning with too great a quantity of barley mixed with peas, and had been allowed to drink water immediately thereafter. He was yoked to a two-wheeled chaise, in order to travel a few miles, and was observed about the middle of the day to be very uneasy, frequently attempting to lie down. As soon as he was unyoked he lay down and tumbled about, frequently lying on his back, starting up suddenly and turning his head towards his belly. He continued thus in great agony till towards next morning, when he died. Upon opening his body, the stomach was found burst, the barley and peas mostly entire, only greatly swollen, and the whole contents of the stomach spread through the abdomen.

"The other case was a horse who had been fed with too great a quantity of oats and barley, and had been allowed to drink water freely afterwards. He was seized with griping pains, so that he frequently lay down and tumbled, seemingly tortured with the most acute pains. He died next day. Upon opening his body, the stomach was found distended to an enormous size, but was not burst. Its coats were so very thin, from the great distention it had undergone, that its cohesion was almost destroyed, and had more the appearance of a coat of mucus or slime, than the stomach. The oats and barley were for the most part entire as they were swallowed, only greatly swelled from the moisture they had imbibed.

"From the cases now related, it will appear how necessary it is not to allow horses to eat too great a quantity of clean grain at a time, but to give it in small quantities, and repeated the more frequently. At the same time, it will show the propriety of mixing with it a little chopped straw, or hay, in order to make them chew it the more thoroughly before they swallow it. This process also prepares the food for being properly digested, and not a single grain of it is lost."

The method of feeding horses with bruised grain and cut straw is recommended by the earl of Pembroke, in his excellent treatise on horses, as exceedingly proper. "Every grain (says he) goes to nourishment; none is cut straw to be found in the dung; and three seeds of it go further than four as commonly given which have not been in the mill. But wheaten straw, and a little hay sometimes mixed with it, is excellent food. To a quantity of corn, put the same quantity of straw. It obliges them to chew their meat, and is many other ways of use."

Mr Lawrence disapproves of the use of straw, as containing no nourishment. In this he probably goes too far, as both horses and cattle are in straw-yards often fed with little else. He prefers chaff, or cut clover hay to mix with the corn, especially for cart-horses. Mr Lawrence, however, allows that cutting up unthrashed oats for food is a good practice, particularly when hay is scarce; as thrashing and dressing of the oats are thus saved, and it is an economical expenditure of the oats, which are moreover very fresh, and agreeable to the horse.

It has of late been recommended to bruise the corn in a mill, before giving it to the horse, and it is certainly a good practice, as there is thus little danger of its passing through the bowels undigested. It is usual only to bruise the corn, but Mr Lawrence thinks that it is better to grind them as fine as possible. Whole corn, with whatever it may be mixed, will, much of it, be swallowed in that state; a great deal only half masticated, which will elude the digestive powers of the animal, and be ejected from his body crude and unbroken. This is particularly the case with brood-mares and young stock, the bellies of which are full of slippery grubs; such should ever have ground corn, and maizes should always be made with it. Ground buck-wheat agrees well enough with horses, but that species of corn is the least substantial.

Mr Lawton, a merchant of London, has lately published an essay, on the use of Mixed and Compressed Cattle Fodder, intended as food and fattening for horses, oxen, sheep, and hogs. His plan is, to grind, cut, mix, and compress, all the articles in present use, as food for cattle, with some additional ones of his own recommending; and to keep the mass flowed in casks, or other close storage. He gives a detailed account of all the instruments necessary in the process, the most commodious methods according to his practice, and various tables of expense and quantities.

With respect to the drink of horses, we have little to remark. Their water should be as pure as possible, as muddy and hard water is not only very unpleasant to the horse, but probably lays the foundation of gravelly complaints. It is a very absurd custom, which is however very prevalent, to gallop the horse after watering, with the view, according to the groom's idea, of warming the water in his belly; for if the horse has drunk heartily, as he is very often improperly allowed to do, any violent exertion immediately after cannot but occasion great uneasiness. It is, however, a good practice to ride the horse moderately before watering; but care should be taken, not to throw him into a perspiration, as drinking cold water in this state is attended with considerable danger.

The feeding of cattle is of considerable importance to the farmer, and has of late been much improved. Both the food and the manner of administering it must be different according to the age of the cattle, the season of the year, and the purposes for which the cattle are fed.

It has been well observed in a late useful practical work, that in the winter the yearlings should "be fed with hay and roots, either turnips, carrots, or potatoes; and they should be thoroughly well fed, and be kept perfectly clean by means of litter. At this age it is a matter of great consequence to keep such young cattle as well as possible; for the contrary practice will inevitably stop their growth, which cannot be recovered by the best summer food. If hay is not to be had, good straw must be substituted; but then the roots should be given in greater plenty, and with more attention. To steers and horses two years old, the proper food is hay, if cheap, or straw, with baits of turnips, cabbages, &c.*

Mr Donaldson thinks the advantages of green winter food for live stock, so great, that there is no way in which it can be applied with greater benefit than by giving the young cattle a daily allowance during the first two or three winters." Whenever straw is employed as fodder for young stock, without the above sorts of food, if it be not very good, or slightly mixed with some grassy material, a little hay should always be blended with it, in order that it may be preserved in proper condition. It is also of consequence that the animals be served with this sort of fodder, in a regular manner, as where too much is given at a time, Mr Marshall has remarked, that they do not thrive so well.

The following observations of Sir John Sinclair merit every attention.

"Some intelligent graziers recommend the following mode of feeding and fattening cattle. Suppose there are four inclosures of from six to ten acres each, one of them should be kept quite free from stock till the grass has got up; and then the prime or falling cattle, should be put into it, that they may get the best of the food; the second best should then follow; and the young store after all, making the whole feed over the four inclosures in succession, as follows.

1st Inclosure. Free from stock, till ready for the best cattle.

2nd ditto. For the best cattle till sent to No. 1.

3rd ditto. For the second best till sent to No. 2.

4th ditto. For the young cattle till sent to No. 3.

No. 4. is then kept free from stock till the grass gets up, and it is ready for the prime cattle. The proper size of inclosures has never yet been ascertained by experiment; probably from 10 to 30 acres is the best; but the size should be various, as small ones are better calculated for grass, and large ones for corn. Probably the best plan to adopt is to feed cattle entirely in the house, or folding them as it is technically called. In that case, small inclosures must be preferred, as the shelter they afford is extremely favourable to the growth of the herbage.

The larger a bullock is, he must take the more food to support him. It is desirable to change his food often, and to give him frequently, but little at a time, which makes him more eager to eat. After his kidneys are covered with fat, he will take less meat every week. It is better, therefore, to ascertain the quantity he eats, by the week, than by the day.

Fattening cattle, to be sold immediately from the farmer's house, and not sent to market, should be kept moderately warm. If kept too hot it makes them perspire, and their skins to itch: this vexes them, and they rub themselves against any wall or post within their reach, which is much against quick feeding. Currying and combing them are useful practices; and washing them at least once a week, is of great service. Bleeding is now exploded as an old and unnecessary practice.

In some parts of the kingdom, the whole attention of the farmer is dedicated to fuddling, or, in other words, to feeding calves, for supplying the market with veal. In Essex, this plan is reckoned more profitable than the dairy, and next to grazing. But the profit there must depend much upon the immediate neighbourhood. The particulars connected with this branch of rural economy, will, it is probable, be fully detailed, in the improved Agricultural Survey of Essex, in so far as regards that and the neighbouring districts. But as the mode of fucelling, adopted in some parts of Scotland, is extremely different, it may not be improper to give a short account of it in this place. As soon as the calf is dropped, it is put into a box made of coarse boards, four feet and a half or five feet long, and four feet, or four feet and a half high, and about two feet wide, according to the size of the calf. The boards are not put so close but that a sufficient quantity of air is admitted; light is, however, carefully excluded; and the box has a cover for that purpose. The box stands on four feet, which, at one end, are four inches high, but at the other, only two inches; and, as there are holes at the bottom, all wetness is drained off. The bottom is also covered with straw or hay, which is changed twice a week. For seven or eight days, milk is but cautiously given, for unless a calf is fed moderately at first, it is apt to take a loathing to its food. It should be bled in about ten days; and afterwards, as much milk given it fresh from the cow, either twice or thrice a day, as it will take. The bleeding should be repeated once a week; and at all times when a calf loathes its milk, and does not feed well, bleeding ought to be repeated. These frequent bleedings prevent diseases from plethora, to which calves are subject, even when not fed too high, and still more so when they are. A large piece of chalk should be hung up in the box, which the calf will lick occasionally: this contributes nothing to the whiteness of the veal; but it amuses the animal, and corrects that acidity in the stomach which might otherwise be engendered, and which certainly often takes place. A cow calf is reckoned the best veal; if a bull calf is fucelled, he ought to be cut when about a week old, otherwise the veal will neither be so good nor so white.

By this mode of treatment calves are kept clean, quiet, warm, and dry; the veal they furnish is excellent, and they are soon ready for the market; and, on the whole, it seems to be preferable to the practice of stupifying them with spirits, or with laudanum, so common in other places where a different system is pursued.

The supposed necessity of beginning to feed oxen at an early age, is a great objection to their being generally used, as they are hardly trained properly to work, before it is thought necessary to fatten them, after which they do very little work; but, in consequence of the improved mode of fattening by oil-cake, &c., there is no difficulty to fatten oxen, even at twelve years of age, which is a material circumstance in their favour.*

It is now very generally understood, that the more cleanly and comfortable cattle are kept, and the cleaner and better the order in which their food is presented to them, the better they will thrive, and consequently the sooner they will fatten, and the heavier they will be. With these views, and with the additional view of saving a greater proportion of the dung and urine of the cattle than is usually done, so as to increase the quantity of manure as much as possible, a byre has been constructed by Mr Hunter of Blacknest in Forfarshire, which has been found, on trial, completely to answer the ends proposed. The byre consists of two apartments, an inner apartment or byre for feeding the cattle, and an outer apartment or barn for containing the turnips and fodder.

At the proper season when the turnips are completely ripened, and the turnip feeding commences, the turnips are gathered together on the field in large quantities, and two or three men with coarse turnip knives made from old scythes, cut off the whole of the roots, carefully cleaning the turnips at the same time, from any earth which may adhere to them. The turnips are then carted to the turnip barn, the door of which is wide enough to allow the carts to back in, and throw them down. Here the men with their turnip knives are again ready immediately to cut off the whole green tops or shaws of the turnips, and these green tops are immediately given to cows, young winterling cattle, sheep, &c., who readily eat them when fresh. The turnips, now quite clean, are piled up in one end of the barn like cannon balls, and will keep in excellent order for months together. Should the winter storm set in, a small quantity of clean dry straw laid over them, will effectually preserve them from being injured by the frosts. The other end of the barn receives the straw and litter for the use of the byre. The advantages proposed to be derived from this method of treating the turnips are, 1. The preservation of a great many of the bed turnips, which, if allowed to remain on the field during winter, are unavoidably spoiled by the effects of the weather, and the alternate operations of snow, rain, and frost. 2. The green tops being cut off fresh and good, are immediately consumed, in place of being entirely lost if allowed to remain on the field. 3. It saves much labour and trouble, both to men and horses, to lay in a stock of turnips at once, in place of going to the field every day, whether good or bad, and where, as the fields are necessarily wet and soft, the horses, carts, and harness, are severely strained, and the fields poached and cut up.

Lastly, By having a couple of months supply of turnips in the barn, you are never under the necessity of using frosted turnips, which are often little better than lumps of ice. And even if you should not incline, or find it convenient, to lay in so large a stock of turnips at once, still you can take the advantage of any good fresh day, as it occurs, to add to your stock of turnips in the barn.

At right angles to the turnip barn, stands the feeding byre, constructed as follows. At the distance of about three feet and a half from the great side wall of the byre, there are constructed on the ground, in a straight line, ten troughs for feeding ten large cattle; these are of hewn pavement on all sides, and at the bottom; and they are divided from each other by divisions or bridges, likewise of hewn pavement. These troughs are so constructed, that there is a small and gradual declivity from the first or innermost, to the last and outermost one; and the bridges separating them, being made with a small arch at the bottom, a pail or bucket of water poured in at the uppermost, runs out at the undermost one, through a stone spout, falling through the wall, and a sweep with a broom, carries off the whole remains of the turnips, &c., rendering the whole troughs quite clean and sweet. The whole food of the cattle is thus kept perfectly clean at all times.

In a line with the feeding troughs, and immediately over them, runs a large strong beam of wood, from one end of the byre to the other, which is strengthened by two strong upright supporters to the roof, placed at equal distances from the ends of the byre, and the main beam is again subdivided by the cattle stakes and chains, so as to keep each of the ten oxen opposite to his own feeding trough and stall.

The three and a half feet of space betwixt the feeding troughs and outer wall of the byre, lighted at the farther end by a glazed window, is the cattle-feeder's walk, who passes along it in front of the cattle; and, with a basket, deposits before each of the cattle the turnips into the feeding trough of each.

To prevent any of the cattle from choking on small turnips, or pieces of large ones, as they are very apt to do, the chains at the stakes are contrived of such a length, that no ox can raise his head too high when eating; for in this way, it is observed, cattle are generally choked. However, in case it still should happen, that an ox chokes on a turnip, the cattle-man, or feeder is provided with a ramrod, made of a piece of strong stiff rope, with a small round polished wooden head at the end of it; this he introduces into the mouth of the ox, and so gently knocks the turnip down his throat without either difficulty or danger to the animal. That the cattle-feeder may be always at hand to attend his cattle, a small apartment with a window in it, in which his bed is placed, is constructed immediately off the corner of the byre, so that he is ready, even in the night-time, in case of any accident happening, to give assistance.

At the distance of about six feet eight inches from the feeding troughs, and parallel to them, is the dung groop and urine gutter, neatly and substantially built with hewn stone. Here too, like the troughs, there is a gradual declivity from the inner and upper to the outer and lower end; so that the moment the urine passes from the cattle, it runs to the lowest end of the gutter, whence it is conveyed through the outer wall of the byre in a large stone spout, and deposited in the urinaria outside of the wall. At this place is a large inclosed space, occupied as a compost dung-court. Here, all sorts of stuff are collected for increasing the manure; such as, fat earth, cleanings of roads, ditches, ponds, &c., rotten vegetables, &c.; and the urine from the byre being caused to run over all these collected together, which is done very easily by a couple of wooden spouts moved backwards and forwards to the urinaria at pleasure, renders the whole mass, in a short time, a rich compost dunghill; and this is done by the urine alone, which in general is totally lost. The dung of the byre again is cleaned out several times each day, at the two front doors of the byre opposite to the groop, and deposited in the dung-court; so that in this way, too, the byre is kept in as good order as any stable, and the cattle as clean as horses. Along the edge of the dung-court, a few low sheds are constructed, in which young beasts, sheep, or swine, &c., are kept; and these consume the refuse and remains of the turnips from the great feeding byre.

In the side wall of the byre, and opposite to the heads of the cattle, there are constructed three vents, or ventilators; these are placed at the distance of about two feet four inches from the ground in the inside of the byre, and come out immediately under the eaves of the slates on the outside. The inside openings of these are about 13 inches in length, seven in breadth, and nine in depth in the wall; and they serve two good purposes. The breath of cattle being specifically lighter than atmospheric air; the consequence is, that in some byres, the cattle are kept in a constant heat and sweat, because their breath and heat have no way to escape; whereas, by means of the ventilators, the air of the byre is kept in proper circulation, which conduces as much to the health of the cattle as to the preservation of the walls and timber of the byre, by drying up the moisture produced from the breath and sweat of the cattle, which is found to injure those parts of the building.

The method of giving cows their food by the milk-farmers in the vicinity of the metropolis, where this buffe-feeding mode is carried on upon the most extensive scale, is thus stated in the valuable Agricultural Survey of that district. "During the night, the cows are confined in stalls; about three o'clock in the morning, each cow has a half-bushel basket of grains; when the milking is finished, a bushel basket of turnips is given to each cow; and very soon afterwards they have an allotment, in the proportion of one bushel to ten cows, of the most grassy and soft meadow hay, which had been the most early mown, and cured of the greenest colour. These several feedings are generally made before eight o'clock in the morning, at which time the cows are turned into the cow-yard. About twelve o'clock they are again confined to their stalls, and served with the same quantity as they had in the morning. When the afternoon milking, which continues till near three, is finished, the cows are again served with the same quantity of turnips, and about an hour afterwards with the same distribution of hay, as before described. This mode of feeding generally continues during the turnip season, which is from the month of September to the month of May. During the other months of the year they are fed with grains, cabbages, tares, and the other foregoing proportion of second-cut meadow hay, and are continued to be fed with the same regularity until they are turned out to graze, when they continue in the field all night; and even during this season they are frequently fed with grains."

As the grains employed in feeding cattle cannot always be procured fresh as they are wanted, it becomes a desirable object to preserve them for a length of time. They are preserved in some places by putting them into pits dug in the earth, into which they are trodden down, and afterwards covered to a moderate depth with dry earth. In this way being defended from the action of the air, and thus prevented from fermenting, they may be kept for a considerable time during the months of summer, when brewing is not carrying on; they may also be kept by pressing them down into casks placed upon stands, so as to elevate them a little from the ground, and having their bottoms pierced with holes, to carry off the superabundant moisture.

Food of Dogs.

A good feeder is very essential. He should be of young, active, industrious, and good tempered, for the sake of the animals entrusted to his care, who, however they may be treated by him, cannot complain. He must strictly obey any orders that his master may give, both both with regard to the management and to the breeding of the hounds, and he must not consider himself as solely under the direction of the huntman. This is a necessary hint, as it has sometimes happened that a pack of hounds apparently belonged entirely to the huntman, when the master had little more authority over them than if he were a perfect stranger.

On the exquisite sense of smelling, so peculiar to the hound, our sport entirely depends; care must therefore be taken to preserve it, and the surest method of doing so is, to observe the utmost cleanliness; to keep the kennel sweet, is a point that cannot be too much recommended, and which must on no account be neglected. This must therefore be inculcated on the feeder, and the proprietor should see that his orders in this respect are carefully observed.

Oat meal is by far the heartiest and best food; for hounds will run more stoutly with that, than on any other meal, or than even on oat meal mixed with any other. In point of expense, as well as for the greatest benefit of the hounds, the most advantageous method is to grow one's own oats, and have them properly dried, and broken at the mill into meal that is not too fine. A sufficient quantity should be ground, to serve for 12 or 18 months consumption; the older the meal, so much the better; but unless it is kept by one, there is scarcely any mode of procuring it sufficiently old. It should be kept in bins, in a dry granary, and the meal should be trodden into the bins as closely as possible. Should there be no granary near, sugar hogheads will answer the purpose, but the meal must be pressed into them very firmly, and it must be kept dry. These hogheads should be placed upon stands, like beer stands, by which means vermin will be prevented from getting at the meal unobserved.

Barley meal is used in many kennels, being cheaper than oat meal, but it is said to be much more heating and less nourishing; or as the huntmen express themselves, there is less proof in it.

It is well known that the principal animal food given to hounds, is the flesh of horses, which should be boiled. The boiler employed for this purpose should be made of cast iron, and its size should be in proportion to the number of hounds in the kennel. The flesh must be thoroughly boiled, and must then be taken out of the broth with the skimmer, and a proper quantity of oat meal must be put into the broth. When this has been boiled sufficiently, which will require from three quarters of an hour to an hour, the fire may be withdrawn. As it cools, it thickens into a pretty firm jelly, and for hunting hounds it cannot be too strong. Five or six pecks of good oat meal will be sufficient to make a boiler of broth that will furnish 30 couples of hounds for two feeds sufficiently thick. Some are of opinion that oat meal and barley meal in equal quantities make the best food for hounds. The oat meal is to be first boiled for half an hour, the fire is then to be extinguished, and the barley meal put into the copper, and both mixed together. The reason for not putting both kinds of meal into the boiler at the same time is, that the boiling which thickens the oat meal, makes the barley meal thin. When barley meal alone is used, it should not be put into the boiler at all, but should be scalded with the hot liquor, and mixed up in a large tub, capable of containing at least half a hoghead.

We must however remark, that barley meal should never be given by itself to hunting hounds during the hunting season, as its heating quality renders them exceedingly thirsty; and when out, they take every opportunity to lap water.

The meat should never be given to the dogs too hot, and should be mixed up to as thick a consistence as may be. The feeding troughs should be wide at the bottom, and have wooden covers, and they should not be made too long; five or six troughs that are easily moved, are better than two or three that are unwieldy.

The boiling for the hounds, mixing of the meat, and preparing it for them at proper hours, will of course be taken care of by the huntman. He must constantly attend the feeding of the hounds, who should be draughted according to the state they are in at the time. Some hounds are better feeders than others, and some require less meat than others; a nice eye and great attention are required to keep them all in equal flesh. This is what constitutes the merit of the huntman, and shews him to be well qualified for his office; but few are sufficiently attentive to this. The hounds are fed in a hurry, without examining them before they begin. To ascertain properly the condition of a pack of hounds requires no small circumspection.

The huntman should call each hound by name, letting him in to his food as he is called; this uses them to administer their name, and teaches them obedience. A hound ing it, should always approach him who calls on him; and if he touches him with a stick, he should follow wherever he is led.

The thin and tender feeding hounds being first turned out to the feeding room, will have the opportunity of picking where they choose. Such hounds as are in low condition, had better be drafted off into a separate kennel. Thus selecting those that are poor, we proceed to the feeding of the rest with less trouble and more accuracy; but those that are drafted off, when more flesh is mixed with the meat, must be let in to feed one by one as they answer to their names; or they may be better fed than taught. Thus the hounds who want flesh, will all have a share of it; and if any of them be much poorer than the rest, they should be fed again, as such hounds cannot be fed too often. Unless peculiarly good, a soft waxy constituted hound will scarcely ever be worth the attention that is given him; and after a hard day is frequently unferviceable for some time. It must be recollected, however, that such hounds as are tender, or lean feeders, cannot be fed too late, or with too rich meat. Should any hounds appear to get too fat, they must not be suffered to eat their fill, but the rest may eat as much of the meat as they please.

Once a week, or fortnight at most, during the hunting season, the hounds should have a pound of sulphur given them in their meat; and when the season is over, they should have half a pound of antimony added to the sulphur, and well mixed with the meat. On these days, the hounds should all be let in to feed together, and such as require flesh, have it given to them afterwards. Greens boiled in their meat once a-week, is likewise proper. A horse killed and given to hounds whilst warm, after a very hard day's hunting, will make an excellent meal, but they should not hunt again till three days after it. The bones broken are good food for poor hounds, as there is considerable nourishment in them. Sheeps trotters are also very sweet food, and in a scarcity of horse flesh, bullocks paunches may be employed with advantage.

It is customary with some to shut up the hounds for two hours after they have returned from hunting, before they are fed, and the other hounds are shut up with them to lick them clean; but probably this practice does more harm than good, as the idle hounds will disturb the tired dogs more by their licking, than this will make amends for. Besides, hounds shut up on their return from hunting, will not afterwards readily quit their benches, as, if much fatigued, they will seek repose rather than food. It is therefore a better way when the hunt is nearly over, to send forward a servant to see the meat prepared, that the dogs may be fed immediately on their return. If they have had a fever day, they should be fed again afterwards. When hounds are fed twice, they should be kept separate from the hounds that were left at home, till after the second feeding, and it will be still better if they are not put together till the next morning. It is the best plan to feed the hounds that have been out twice. Some hounds will feed better the second time than the first, and besides, the turning them out from the lodging house refreshes them, and allows them to stretch their limbs; and if the kennel is cleaned out, and the litter well shaken up, they will afterwards settle themselves better on their benches.

It is at all times proper, after feeding, to turn out the dogs into the grass court, as this contributes very much to the cleanliness of the kennel.

**Chap. III. Of Exercise.**

Nature dictates the necessity of exercise to almost every animal, and a greater or less proportion of it is necessary to enable them to perform their functions with health and activity. The proportion requisite for this purpose is, however, not the same in all animals. Sheep and cattle require but little exercise, much of which, indeed, appears to be incompatible with the manner of their eating; for, as they require a second mastication of their food by rumination, a considerable time is necessary for this process, which cannot be properly performed unless the animal be entirely at its ease. It is found, however, that such of these animals as are kept without exercise, or are wholly cooped up in houses, for the purpose of fattening them more speedily, are neither so healthy, nor afford such fine and wholesome meat, as those which are permitted to rove at large in their native pastures. It is to the horse and dog that exercise seems the most essential. These animals require the greatest proportion, and are most injured by the want of it. The observations we are about to make will chiefly apply to the horse.

Such horses as are constantly employed in active labour have, of course, sufficient exercise; but it often happens that those which are kept by gentlemen, for their pleasure or convenience, are, when their labour is not required, permitted to stand whole days in the stable, without any other exercise than being ridden perhaps twice a-day to a neighbouring pond. In cities and large towns, even this exercise is often not permitted them. They are in the mean time plentifully fed with rich hard food, and thus pampered, they are rendered liable to the attacks of many acute diseases; and when their exertions are required, they cannot perform their usual labour with their usual ease. It is therefore necessary that such horses as are not regularly worked should receive daily a moderate proportion of exercise, and should be accustomed to such a degree of labour as may counterbalance the effect of high feeding, and enable them to undergo occasional exertion. A horse who is kept in the flate of regular labour, is said to be in wind. The exercise of a horse that is not constantly worked should not, however, be excessive, or be carried beyond the commencement of fatigue, as this would wear out the horse without necessity. It is an absurd practice which some people pursue, to send out their horses every day to be galloped and rattled along the roads, or perhaps over the streets, for the purpose of keeping them in wind. This is wrong, even where the horse is in good health and sound condition; but when it is practised with fine-worn, or founded horses, as is not uncommon, it must be productive of considerable mischief.

In general, two hours a-day will be sufficient for the purpose of preserving the health of the horse, and this may be taken at once or twice in the day, as may be most convenient. If possible, the owner should ride his own horse on these exercising jaunts, for the groom will probably do the horse more injury than benefit.

Some horses require more exercise than others. Gentlemen's horses that are merely kept for light riding, will do with but little; but hunters and racers require a greater proportion, and should seldom have less than three hours a-day. This, however, must depend in a great measure on the quantity and quality of their food, as the food and exercise must in general be proportioned to each other; but in all cases care must be taken that the horse's labour do not exceed his strength. Young horses are not equal to much exertion, and should therefore be exercised but lightly. Many horses have been destroyed by the neglect of this precaution, especially in the army, where it is not unusual to receive horses as recruits of four or even three years of age. These horses, when they reach the regiment, to which they are probably brought from a considerable distance, are in general weak and in low condition, and are probably suffering from some acute disease, brought on them by exposure to cold and wet during their journey. They are of course very unfit for labour, and require at least three or four weeks rest, before they can with propriety be brought to go through their exercises in the riding school. According to Mr White, however, they are seldom allowed the half of that time, but are brought too hastily into the school, without reflecting that, as they are unaccustomed to such exercises, or indeed at that early age to any kind of work, it must become exceedingly fatiguing to them; and to young horses in a state of debility, especially if they are not immediately attended to, when brought sweating from the riding school, such labour must often be followed by the worst consequences.

Where a horse cannot be conveniently taken out to the fields or roads, for the purpose of exercise, expedients have been thought on to exercise them within the stable, or in a yard adjoining. The stable can answer for this purpose only when it is very large, and he may then be made to trot backwards and forwards till till he begins to sweat, with some advantage. We have heard of the governor of a certain town, who fell on a good expedient to exercise the horses of a large body of cavalry that had been received into the town, just before the enemy laid siege to it. As there was no possibility of riding out the horses, he caused a number of the troopers to stand about the horses, two or three at each horse, and whip them so as to make them fly from one side of the stall to the other, till both men and horses were sufficiently heated. It is said that by this means the horses were kept in a pretty good state of health, whereas they would otherwise have been much diseased.

When a horse comes in from work in a profuse perspiration, he should not be suffered to stand to cool at the stable door, but should rather be walked gently about if the weather will permit of it, or else be tied up in his stall with a cloth thrown over him. If he is in a violent sweat, it is a good practice to stroke off the sweat with a sharp-edged stick, as is usually performed on race horses immediately after running the course. If he is much fatigued, it will also be not amiss to give him a little strong beer, a small draught of which will considerably refresh him. The French commonly give wine in these cases; but their wine is very weak, and is probably not so wholesome for horses as our ale.

It is very common with the drivers of coaches, and many grooms, to throw cold water over the legs of horses, when they come to the end of their journey, sweating and fatigued. Some even ride them into the water on these occasions, or throw it over a great part of their body. This is a very dangerous practice, and gives occasion to several diseases of the legs, joints, and feet. It is more especially to be avoided when the horse has been long sweating, as when in this state he is too much weakened to bear the shock of the cold water with impunity. When a horse is overheated without much sweating or fatigue, the practice would probably not be attended with danger, and bathing him with cold water at that time would perhaps be even beneficial, especially if he were immediately rubbed dry, and covered with a light cloth. But as it is difficult to hit this nice point, this practice must be employed with caution, and should never be trusted to the indiscriminate prudence of a groom or coachman. The instances of horses having been plunged into cold water when overheated, without sustaining any injury, are easily explained from the above remark.

M. Lafoffe makes the following remarks on the exercise of horses. "A horse on a journey may travel five hours at a time, if not hurried onwards; a manege horse one hour; a cavalry horse may manoeuvre two hours; a coach horse, at a slow pace, six hours. But it is proper that saddle horses should not be overloaded, and that the load of a horse in harness should be in proportion to his strength, in order to perform those proportions of labour, to establish which is a difficult point; all depends on quickness. We will say generally, that a saddle horse, well formed, and muscular, may thus carry at a slow rate, two-thirds of his own weight, and run in a chaise, with double and one-half of his weight. It is easy to see from this, that the load of a saddle horse should be less if he is put on the trot, and less still if he is made to gallop. The draught horse, on the contrary, lightens his load by speed, which, however, he cannot long continue without tiring, and being out of breath.

"The disorders which proceed from hard work, founder, fret, and most inflammatory diseases. There are others that proceed from sudden transitions from heat to cold, or, on the contrary, such as inflammation of the lungs, colds, glanders, rheumatism, and dropsy of the breast. These are particularly frequent and dangerous to cavalry horses. They have existed at all times; but the present system of manoeuvres renders them much more common than formerly; they are a species of endemic disorders, which alarm many regiments, and make them dread the consequences. But there can be no doubt they may be avoided in a great degree,

1. By taking no horse into a regiment under four years old, and those only which are well formed. 2. By giving them forage of good quality. 3. By airing them in the stable, and 4. By avoiding to put them in a sweat, which is a state contrary to nature. This forced perspiration dries up and impoverishes the blood, spoils the finer fibres, the vessels lose their reaction; hence the stagnation of the humours, which produce tumours and farcy. It would be advisable then to avoid accidents after a repetition of military exercises by walking the horses quick, and afterwards slowly, until they have regained their natural warmth. By this means a repercussion of the humours may be avoided. For the same reason, a horse should neither be watered, fed, or dressed while sweating; on the contrary, if he must be put into the stable, take off the saddle, rub him down with straw, and cover him with a cloth."

PART V. VETERINARY MATERIA MEDICA.

IN treating of the substances employed in the cure of the diseases that affect domestic animals, we shall first describe the usual forms in which they are administered, with the most approved methods of exhibiting each, in the various cases to which they are applicable. We shall then enumerate the remedies themselves, arranged under certain heads or classes, as is usually done by writers on the materia medica; for the sake of bringing together under one view, those articles which are suited to the same purposes. We shall not at present, however, describe the articles made use of, as most of them are employed in general medicine, and a particular account will be given of them in the article Materia Medica. Our object here will be to point out the doses required for the animals of whose diseases we are about to treat; and the particular cases to which they are adapted. To each class we shall subjoin a number of receipts to which we shall have occasion to refer, when we come to the treatment of the diseases. The most usual forms in which medicine is exhibited, to horses and cattle, are those of powder, ball, drench, clyster, ointment, poultice, and fomentation.

**Powders.**

There are not many substances which admit of being administered in form of powders; for as it is necessary to mix these with the food of the animal, they must of course be composed of such articles as do not impart to the food any very strong or disagreeable taste. These substances chiefly given in the form of powders are antimony, sulphur, nitre, and some of the aromatic seeds, &c. They should be reduced to the finest powder, and should be thoroughly mixed with the corn or bran that is placed before the animal. Those powders which do not readily dissolve in water, such as antimony, sulphur, and the powder of seeds, should be moistened before mixing with the food, as in this way less of the medicine will be wasted. Emetic tartar, and all articles that require to be given in a small determinate dose, cannot properly be administered in this form.

In giving powders mixed with the food of horses, much will depend on the delicacy of the animal's taste, and on the state of his stomach at the time. Some horses will readily take their food mixed with medicinal powders, while others refuse every article offered to them in this form. When this is the case, or when the medicine thus administered appears to disagree with the animal's stomach, this mode of giving it must not be repeated; but the medicine must be administered in some other form.

Powders are also sometimes used externally either to sores and ulcers, or blown into the eyes.

**Balls.**

The form of ball or bolus is one of the most common in which internal medicines are administered in farriery. It is extremely convenient, as there are very few articles that do not admit of being given when mixed up into a ball; as they are, from the peculiar conformation of the animal's throat, more easily administered than any other form that can be given by the mouth. Some articles, however, especially such as easily evaporate at the usual temperature of the air, as ether and volatile alkali, and such as speedily liquefy or deliquesce by exposure to a moist atmosphere, are not so properly given in the form of balls. Substances, too, which require a very large dose, do not easily admit of this form, and are best given in infusion, or mixed with water in the form of a drench.

It is best to prepare balls as they are required, or at least not many days before they are needed, as by exposure to the air they become hard, and do not easily dissolve in the stomach; they may even pass through the bowels nearly unchanged. But what is of still more consequence, giving a hard ball may endanger the animal's life, by its sticking in his throat. Mr White says, that he has known several instances of horses being destroyed in this way. Sometimes the horse's jaws are so narrow as not to admit of introducing the hand between them. In this case, the ball may be fixed lightly on the end of a stick or cane, moderately pointed; or, what is still better, placed loosely in a kind of cup fixed on such a stick or cane; and thus thrust to the back of the throat.

The ball should be made not round, but nearly of the shape of an egg, and rather less in size. The mode of administering balls to horses requires some dexterity. To give a ball with ease, the operator should extend his fingers so as to surround one end of it, while the whole hand and the thumb opposite to the finger that surround the ball must be contracted into as small a space as possible, as the smaller the hand the greater will be the ease with which the operation is performed, both to the farrier and the horse. The animal's mouth is usually kept open by means of an instrument called a *balling iron*, that is formed like a ring, with an opening sufficiently large to admit the hand, and which is covered with cloth, and placed between the horse's jaws; thus preventing him from shutting his mouth, or hurting the operator with his teeth. When the ball is held in this way, in the right hand, the tongue of the animal is to be drawn out with the left hand towards the left side, and the ball is to be adroitly placed beyond the root of the tongue, and immediately on quitting the ball, the tongue is to be let go, and the horse allowed to raise his head. The ball is now in such a situation that it cannot be thrown back, and will be gradually swallowed. In holding the tongue, it is proper to keep it pretty firmly against the lower jaw, as this position greatly facilitates the operation. Balls are usually wrapped up lightly in paper, to prevent their disagreeable taste, but the paper should be very thin and delicate, that it may easily give way when the ball enters the stomach. Wafer paper, which is employed for administering boluses in the human subject, would be an improvement in farriery, which may be easily adopted, as it is by no means expensive.

When the balls are composed of very hot or stimulating ingredients, it is proper to give the horse drink before administering them. It is best to give the drink first, as horses in particular will not readily drink after receiving a ball. If the ball has been composed of any medicine that possesses a corrosive quality, or is otherwise very irritating, as arsenic, corrosive sublimate, blue vitriol, or the like, it is necessary to give the animal, previous to the operation, a considerable quantity of some mucilaginous drink, as of water-gruel, or linseed tea.

When a ball is properly administered, it gives the animal very little fatigue, and may be repeated much more frequently than any other form of medicine. It is therefore extremely convenient.

The ingredients composing a ball should be mixed up with some sugary substance, as molasses, honey, or extract of liquorice softened in water, rather than with any gummy or mucilaginous substance, as these latter soon become hard by exposure to the air.

When a number of balls of the same kind are made at once, great care should be taken in mixing the ingredients in the most accurate manner, otherwise a much greater quantity of the active part of the medicine will be found in some of the balls than in others.

Though we have mentioned the use of the balling iron, in administering balls to horses, some grooms and farriers are very expert in giving the ball without this instrument. Drenches.

This form is chiefly suited to those remedies that are easily soluble in water, or which readily mix with that fluid, and which have not any very disagreeable taste. Hence all mucilaginous substances, some resins, and many of the aromatics, may be given in this form. It is proper, in compounding a drench, that the substances composing it be thoroughly mixed with each other. It not unfrequently happens, that oils or balsams are given by way of drench, without any pains having been taken to combine them fully with the watery part of the medicine; and when substances that would admit of being finely powdered, are administered in this way, the carelessness of grooms or farriers is too often such as to give them in a very coarse state. In the former case the oil or balsam swimming in the liquid hangs about the mouth and throat of the animal, and by its unpleasant taste renders him averse to the repetition of the medicine; in the latter case, it is evident that the remedy is not reduced to that state in which it is capable of exerting its full effect.

Drenches are usually administered by means of a horn, which is that of an ox or cow, with the larger end cut into the form of a spout. Sometimes when a horn is not at hand, a bottle is employed; but this is very improper, as in the horse's struggling, which often happens in administering a drench, the neck of the bottle may be broken, and occasion much mischief.

In giving a drench by means of the horn, the animal's tongue is to be held down with the left hand, as in giving a ball; and when his head is sufficiently raised, the drench is to be poured cautiously into his mouth. Every stable should be provided with a drenching horn.

In preparing drenches, farriers almost always make use of ale or beer, as the menstruum or diluent; but this is often very absurd, and can be proper only in the preparation of cordial drenches. Those of a cooling nature should be mixed, either with common water, or with some mucilaginous infusion.

Drenches are seldom given with dexterity, and thus a considerable quantity of the medicine is frequently spilt. This circumstance renders them often very inconvenient, particularly in cases where there is any swelling or painful affection either of the mouth or throat. Under such circumstances it is scarcely advisable to administer medicine in the form of a drench; as, independently of the resistance given by the horse, which will certainly waste much of the medicine, the forcing of a drench down his throat, when it is in an inflamed or irritable state, may be followed by very unpleasant consequences. Mr Clark says that he has frequently observed a simple solution of nitre in water, sweetened with honey or molasses, when given in cases such as we have described, to occasion violent coughing, trembling and panting, inasmuch that the poor animal was like to drop down, merely from the acute pain he suffered, from a medicine being administered to him in the form of a drench at such a critical period.

Even the position in which the horse's head is placed to receive a drench may, in these cases, excite the most violent pain, from the distention which the muscles of the throat undergo, when the head and tongue are held in an awkward situation.

The great advantage of a drench is, that remedies exhibited in this form produce their effect much more speedily than when given in the form of a ball, which may take a considerable time to be dissolved in the juices of the stomach. Drenches are therefore particularly suited to urgent cases, in which it is necessary to give immediate relief.

Clysters.

This form is suited to a great variety of purposes, Of Clysters, and is not administered so often as with propriety it might be given. Not only purges, which are very commonly administered in this way, but also every class of remedies, may be exhibited in the form of a clyster. The clyster should be composed of no substances that are not either entirely soluble in water, or may be so thoroughly mixed with any watery fluid, as to pass readily through a slender tube.

The instrument employed for administering a clyster is, as in the human subject, a pipe and bladder, but the bladder should be that of an ox, and of the largest size; to the extremity of which must be fitted a pewter pipe about a foot long, and about half an inch in diameter, having the extremity which is to enter the gut made completely smooth, that it may not injure the internal coat of the bowel.

Previous to administering a clyster, it is often necessary to free the great gut from a quantity of hardened ingesta which it may contain. This is best performed by means of the hand, and the operation is called raking, or back-raking. The hand is easily introduced, as the diameter of the great gut is in the horse very large. Care must be taken before introducing the hand, to grease it well with oil or hogs lard, and to have the nails cut perfectly close, for fear of injuring the gut. This mode of extracting the hardened excrement is frequently required, and will succeed when medicine would probably only serve to increase the animal's distress.

Large syringes are frequently employed for the purpose of administering clysters; but such instruments are exceedingly improper, as their tubes are very short, and they are very difficult to manage, especially if the animal should prove restless from pain, as frequently happens in cases of colic; where, as we shall see, clysters are very frequently required.

Clysters are peculiarly requisite in those cases where medicine cannot be conveniently given by the mouth; as in locked jaw, or when there is any obstruction in the throat, or wound of the tongue. In such circumstances horses may frequently be kept alive for many weeks, by the frequent exhibition of nourishing clysters.

Ointments.

Ointments are employed in farriery, merely as an application to sores, or in some cases of eruptions of the skin. They cannot be employed as in the human body, to introduce remedies into the system; as on account of the hair that covers the body of quadrupeds, Poultices.

Poultices are frequently employed, either for the purpose of maintaining a long-continued heat and moisture about a part in which we are desirous to produce suppuration, or for correcting the unpleasant smell that sometimes arises from foul ill-conditioned ulcers; or lastly, they are applied to check inflammation. In the first case they are always applied warm, and should be renewed repeatedly, till the proper effect is produced; as if old poultices are suffered to remain long on a suppurating part, they tend to check the suppuration instead of afflicting it. In the two latter cases poultices are usually applied cold.

Poultices should always be composed of such substances, as admit of being reduced to a soft mass, either by boiling or pounding, as otherwise they would fret and irritate the parts to which they are applied. This must be particularly attended to in such poultices as are laid over large open ulcers, or any part that is highly sensible.

Fomentations.

These are intended to relax and soften the parts to which they are applied, and in this circumstance they nearly resemble the first kind of poultices, only that fomentations are always in a liquid form, being composed of some infusion or decoction of herbs. The mode of applying a fomentation is, by wetting a large flannel cloth in the warm liquor, wringing it slightly, and then applying it as warm as can easily be borne over the part to be fomented.

In the following list of the articles of the veterinary materia medica, we shall call the substances by those names by which they are usually known to the common people; but we shall add by way of synonyms the scientific names, as derived from the modern systems of natural history and chemistry. In fixing the doses of each article, we shall, unless particularly mentioned to the contrary, only specify the dose proper for horses and cattle; but it would be proper for the reader to keep in remembrance, that the dose for a sheep or a dog will be about one-half or one-third of that for a horse or cow.

In clasping the remedies we shall adapt the arrangement given in a late compendium of the materia medica. Most writers on the materia medica of horses, have arranged their articles in alphabetical order. Mr White has done this, in his excellent veterinary materia medica and pharmacopeia. Such an arrangement does very well, if intended to answer the purpose of a dictionary; but for practice, it is better to have the articles classified according to the sensible effects which they appear to produce in the system; as in this way the practitioner has before him all those remedies that are of the same nature, and may select from among them such as he thinks will best suit the particular case that he has in hand.

It may be necessary to observe, that the weight intended in this part is troy weight divided according to the apothecaries, and the measure English wine measure.

Emetics.

It will have appeared from our description of the stomach of the horse, that this animal is in general incapable of vomiting. Emetics, therefore, as calculated for him, form no part of the veterinary materia medica. We do not know that emetics are given either to sheep or cattle, but to dogs they may be often given with advantage. A few substances, however, will answer this purpose, as in general a little galls, or a little mustard mixed with warm water, will be sufficient to vomit a dog. The following substances may be ranked in this class for dogs.

a. Antimony. Sulphuret of Antimony. Emetic Tartar. Tartrate of Antimony and Potash.

Dose from two to four grains.

b. Antimonial Powder. Oxide of Antimony with Phosphate of Lime. James's Powder.

Said to have been given with success in the distemper.

Dose from eight to ten grains, repeated every three or four hours, according to the evacuation produced.

c. Mercury. Turbith Mineral. Yellow Sulphate of Mercury.

Used also for the distemper, and in cases of recent poisoning.

Dose about half a drachm. Also recommended in canine madness.

Receipt.

1. Take of turbith mineral, five grains; And emetic tartar, one grain. Give in a little milk after bleeding.

Expectorants.

These are remedies that are calculated to produce or keep up a discharge of mucus from the lungs, or wind-pipe, and are thus suited to relieve coughs and thicknefs of wind or asthma.

a. Ammoniac. Gum Ammoniac.

A gum resin. Dose from three to five drachms, in the form of a ball. Commonly combined with iquill, or some other powerful expectorant, preceded by a purging medicine. Particularly suited to chronic coughs.

b. Asafoetida. Ferula Asafoetida. Lin.

A gum resin; dose about half a drachm, in a ball.

c. Balsam of Peru. Myroxylon Peruiferum. Lin.

Dose from one to two drachms in combination in a ball, assisted with other expectorants. In chronic coughs.

d. Balsam of Copaiva. Copaifera balsamum. Lin.

Dose about an ounce, in the same form and cafes as the last.

e. Balsam of Sulphur.

Dose from half an ounce to an ounce.

f. Barbadoes f. BARBADOE'S TAR. Petroleum Barbadoense. Lin. Employed sometimes in chronic cough; but not so good as other expectorants.

g. GARLIC. Allium sativum. Lin. The cloves of the root beaten to a paste; dose from one to two ounces; made into a ball with liquorice powder, or boiled in water into a drench. In similar cases.

h. SQUILL. Scilla maritima. Lin. Dried root powdered; dose about a drachm, in a ball, with other mild expectorants.

i. STORAX. Styrax officinale. Lin. Strained storax. Dose two drachms, in a ball. As a substitute for balsam of Tolu, in obstinate coughs.

Receipts for Expectorants.

2. Take of gum ammoniac, three drachms; Castile soap, two drachms; Powdered squill, a drachm. Mix with honey or molasses into a ball.

3. Take of camphor, powdered squill, each a drachm; Balsam of copaiva, half an ounce; Aromatic powder, two drachms. With honey, mix into a ball.

4. Take of balsam of sulphur, 4 ounces; Barbadoes tar, two ounces; Oil of aniseed, two drachms; Powdered liquorice root, enough to make a mass, to be divided into balls, each weighing about an ounce and a half, for a dose.

5. Take asafetida, half an ounce; Powdered ginger, a drachm and a half; Prepared ammonia, half a drachm; Honey, &c. enough to make a ball.

3. SUDORIFICS. These are such medicines as are intended, either to keep up or bring back the insensible perspiration, or to excite profuse sweating. They are also called diaphoretics. See Materia Medica.

Few medicines are employed in farriery with a view to excite sweat. In the dog, it is well known that this effect can scarcely be produced by any means; and in the horse it is found extremely difficult to produce any sensible sudorific effect by means of medicine. This may indeed be excited by violent exercise and warm clothing; but these are ill suited to the cases in which sweating would be most desirable. The insensible perspiration may, however, be gently encouraged by some powerful sweating medicines; and in cattle these may not unfrequently be given with advantage.

a. AMMONIA.

Acetate of Ammonia. Recommended by Mr White as a gentle diaphoretic. Dose from eight to ten ounces in form of a drench. In febrile complaints.

b. CAMPHOR. Laurus camphora. Lin. Dose from one to two drachms, in form of a ball. In fevers.

c. ANTIMONY. Sulphuret of Antimony. Very commonly given to horses for the purpose of improving the fineness of their coat. Dose about an ounce, in powder, mixed with the food.

d. EMETIC TARTAR. Tartrate of Antimony and Potash. Dose from one to two drachms; in a ball or drench.

ANTIMONIAL POWDER. Oxide of Antimony with Phosphate of Lime. Dose about two drachms.

e. UNWASHED CALX OR OXIDE OF ANTIMONY. Dose two or three drachms; in composition as below.

f. NITRE. Nitrate of Potash. Dose about one ounce in a ball, with one or two drachms of camphor; or alone in a drench.

g. OPIUM. Papaver somniferum. Lin. Seldom given alone, though it might probably be administered with great propriety, in doses of two scruples to a drachm.

Receipts for Sudorifics.

6. Take of nitre, half an ounce; Camphor, a drachm and a half; Calomel, powdered opium, a scruple; Molasses, enough to make a ball. In fever.

7. Take of unwashed calx of antimony, two drachms; Camphor, a drachm; Opium, half a drachm; Compound powder of tragacanth, two drachms; Honey enough to make a ball. In fever. To be repeated occasionally.

8. Take of emetic tartar, from one drachm to two; Compound powder of tragacanth, three drachms; Honey enough to make a ball.

9. Take of emetic tartar, a drachm and a half; Ginger, two drachms; Camphor, half a drachm; Opium, a scruple; Oil of caraway, ten drops. Molasses enough to make a ball. For horses that are hide-bound, and have unhealthy looking coats.

10. Take of antimonial powder, two drachms; Caraway seeds powdered, half an ounce; Ginger, a drachm; Oil of aniseeds, twenty drops; Honey enough to make a ball.

11. Take of unwashed calx or oxide of antimony, two drachms; Prepared ammonia, ginger, of each a drachm; Opium, half a drachm; Powdered aniseeds, half an ounce; Molasses, enough to make a ball.

4. DIURETICS. These are remedies that are intended to produce a Diuretic more than ordinary discharge of urine. See Materia Medica. Diuretics are frequently given to horses, not only in cases of dropsical swellings, especially of the legs, but in gout, and in many eruptive diseases; in running sores, crack, or ulcers about the heels; in baldness of different parts of the body; and in some cases where there appears to be a difficulty in flaking.

They are usually given in the form of balls, but some of them by way of powder mixed with the food. Before exhibiting diuretics, bleeding is sometimes requisite. These cases will be stated in their proper place. It is also proper, during the use of diuretics, that the animal should take regular exercise; and occasional drink should be given to promote their operation. The use of them should not be continued too long, as they are found to produce considerable weakness.

a. Balsam of Copaiva. See Expectorants. This medicine, when given as directed under expectorants, frequently acts as a diuretic.

b. Camphor. See Sudorifics. Dose about two drachms, mixed with nitre in a ball. In spasmodic difficulty of flaking.

c. Nitre. Nitrate of Potash. Dose about one ounce, in the form of powder, ball, or drench. In fevers and strangury.

d. Potash. Subcarbonate of Potash, or Vegetable Alkali. Dose a drachm or two.

e. Rosin. Dose from two to four drachms repeated occasionally, in the form of powder, with the food. Rosin is a good diuretic in cases of swelled legs and greasy heels, but is seldom given, except to cart-horses.

f. Soap. Castile Soap. Dose from two to six drachms, in composition.

g. Tobacco. Nicotiana tabacum. Lin. Sometimes given by grooms for fining a horse's coat.

h. Turpentine. a. Common turpentine. b. Venice turpentine. Dose from half an ounce to an ounce; in the form of emulsion.

i. Oil or Spirit of Turpentine. Dose from one ounce to two.

Receipts for Diuretics.

12. Take of Castile soap, powdered rosin, of each three drachms; Nitre, half an ounce; Oil of juniper, a drachm. First beat the soap and oil of juniper together, and then add the other ingredients, to make a ball.

13. Take of nitre in powder, half an ounce; Camphor, oil of juniper, of each one drachm; Castile soap, three drachms. Rub the camphor and oil together, then add the soap and nitre, and as much flour as is sufficient to make it into a ball.

Take of rosin and nitre, each half an ounce. Mix into a powder, to be taken with the food.

5. Purges.

These medicines are well known. They are generally considered of two kinds; laxatives, or such as gently move the bowels, and are intended merely to empty them of excrement; and purges, or such as, besides this effect, are intended to stimulate the salivary vessels of the intestines, and produce a considerable discharge of liquid stools, (see Materia Medica). As either order may in general be given so as to produce either of these effects, according to the quantity in which it is administered, we shall consider them together.

Purgative medicines are given with considerable advantage to all the domestic animals, in many cases of disease, which will be pointed out hereafter. They are very commonly, however, given to horses, by grooms and ordinary farriers, by way of alternative or preventive of disease; or in order, as they think, the better to prepare them for some unusual exertion. The reason given for this practice is, that the horse is foul in the body, or full of humours, and the purgatives are given to expel this morbid accumulation of humours.

"This sort of evacuation (says Dr. Breckin, who is improperly one of the first that pointed out the absurdity of this indolent practice), seems very much to quadruple with the ordinary ward fences, and makes the ignorant part of mankind, purging in horse, whose heads are fuller of humours than their horses, imagine that purging medicines carry off the offending matter in most disorders; never considering the general use, which ought still to be kept in mind, viz. that in proportion to any one evacuation being heightened or increased, most or all of the natural evacuations are proportionally diminished.

It must be remembered that the intestines of the horse are exceedingly long, and the large intestines are so constructed as in many cases to retain the food or excrement for a very considerable time. Purgative medicines given to a horse are often retained for 24 or 30 hours; and if these have been of an irritating quality, it is evident that the unnecessary exhibition of them may often produce considerable mischief. Mr. Blaine says, that when horses die after the exhibition of strong purges, which according to him is not unfrequently the case, he has always found the large intestines more or less inflamed.

It is found that after giving a horse a strong purge, he is often incapable of returning to his usual work for many days; it is even said for a month. Hence it will easily appear how absurd is the practice of those who physic their horses without necessity. Mr. John Lawrence is, however, still an advocate for purging horses now and then, and is of opinion that the mischief done by purges is to be attributed to the coarseness of the medicine, rather than to its purging effect. He declares, that after 30 years experience, he has never known purging do harm, if the aloe employed was of the finer sort.

Veterinary practitioners differ with respect to the time of administering a purge. Mr. Blaine recommends it to be given in the morning, when the horse is to be allowed to fast from 9 or 10 o'clock to 12 or 1. Then a lock or two of hay, or about two handfuls, is to be given him, and after this he is to have the ball, with a horn horn full of warm ale, or water-gruel, immediately after it. He is then to fast for another hour, when he is to be allowed the moderate use of hay. He should have all his drink a little warm; should be walked about gently during the remainder of the day, and should have a warm mash at night. Next day he is to be again moderately exercised at intervals, till the purge begins to operate; but if the weather is severe, he must be covered with body clothes, and care must be taken not to have the stable too warm when he returns. Mr Clark recommends a mash of bran to be given about an hour before the ball, and says that in this way he has always found the medicine to operate in a gentle and easy manner.

It is a common practice with many people to ride their horses very hard before giving them a purging medicine, with the view, as they term it, to stir up the humours, which being thus set afire, will more easily be carried off by the purge. To say no more with respect to the absurdity of the doctrine, we may remark that the practice itself is highly dangerous, as a purge administered after such violent exercise, will seldom fail to produce inflammation in the bowels, fevers, or some other disorder, which, though it may not at the time prove fatal, may lay the foundation of blindness, incurable lameness, or some other disorder that may render the horse useless. Violent exercise, after administering a purge, is equally to be avoided, as it may produce sweating, and thus counteract the purgative effect; or, what is as bad, it will tend to increase the weakness that seldom fails to be brought on by purging.

We have been the more particular in our observations on purging horses, as it is a matter of considerable consequence, and as the effect of indiscriminate purging in this animal is little understood.

a. Aloes. *Aloe perfoliata*. Lin. - Socotrine aloes. Dose from five to nine drachms. - Barbadoes aloes. Dose from half an ounce to an ounce.

Of these the latter is commonly employed for horses. It is best given in form of a ball, mixed with soap, as prescribed at present. In most cases where purges are required.

b. Castor Oil. *Ricinus communis*. Lin. Dose from a pound to a pound and a half. In fevers and worms. Though Mr White says, he has given it in the latter case without effect.

c. Epsom Salt. See Sulphate of Magnesia.

d. Gamboge. *Stigmatica gambogioides*. Lin. Seldom employed in horses, though recommended by Mr White as a useful medicine in worms. Dose from two to three drachms, in a ball with Cattle soap.

e. Jalap. *Convolvulus jalapa*. Dose in the dog twenty to thirty grains.

f. Common Salt. *Muricate of Soda*. Dose from four to six ounces in a drench, or in a larger dose by way of clyster.

g. Soap.

Chiefly used to combine aloes and other purgatives into a ball.

h. Mercury, or Quicksilver.

i. Calomel. Sub-muriate or mild muriate of mercury. Dose from one to two drachms, usually mixed with other purgatives. In liver complaints, obstinate cases of gout, chronic inflammation of the eyes, and dropsical swellings of the hind-legs.

k. Glauber's Salt. *Sulphate of Soda*. Dose about a pound. Best given in the form of a clyster. In fevers, and inflammatory complaints.

l. Epsom Salt. *Sulphate of Magnesia*. As the last.

Receipts for Purges.

14. Take of Socotrine aloes, five drachms; Cattle soap, half an ounce; Oil of caraway, ten drops; Molasses enough to make a ball. A moderate dose for young or delicate horses.

15. Take of Socotrine aloes, an ounce; Cattle soap, half an ounce; Calomel, a drachm and a half; Oil of mint, twenty drops; Molasses enough to make a ball.

16. Take of Barbadoes aloes, half an ounce; Compound powder of tragacanth, two drachms; Salt of tartar, a drachm and a half; Syrup enough to make a ball. This is given as a laxative by Mr White, who declares that he never saw any ill result from giving Barbadoes aloes, though Mr Blaine and Mr Lawrence are of opinion, that Socotrine aloes is always to be preferred.

17. Take of water-gruel, a gallon; Glauber's salt, half a pound; Oil of olives, or linseed oil, a pint. To be given warm by way of clyster. In fevers and inflammation of the bowels.

18. Take of powdered jalap, a drachm; Powdered ginger, half a drachm; Syrup of buckthorn, enough to make a ball. For dogs.

6. Errhines.

These remedies are suited to produce a considerable discharge from the nostrils, and with this view are sometimes preferred to horses in cases of staggers or violent headaches. They must, however, be given with caution, and not till after bleeding and other evacuating means have been used. They are always administered in the form of powder, which is blown up the nostrils, usually through a quill.

a. Asarabacca. *Asarum Europaeum*. Lin. The dried leaves in powder. The snuff, usually sold by the name of cephalic snuff, is chiefly composed of asarabacca mixed with some aromatic.