oot long and about three-eighths of an inch square, joined together by three brafs joints; by which means the rod is rendered four feet long when the four rules are quite opened, and but one foot when they are all folded together. On the first face of this rod, marked ed 4, are placed two diagonal lines: one for beer and the other for wine: by means of which the content of any common vessel in beer or wine gallons may be readily found, by putting the rod in at the bung hole of the vessel till it meets the intersection of the head of the vessel with the staves opposite to the bung hole. For distinction of this line, there is written thereon, beer and wine gallons. On the second face, 5, are a line of inches and the gauge-line; which is a line expressing the areas of circles, whose diameters are the correspondent inches in ale gallons. At the beginning is written, ale area. On the third face, 6, are three scales of lines; the first, at the end of which is written hog/heard, is for finding how many gallons there are in Gauging a hoghead when it is not full, lying with its axis parallel to the horizon. The second line, at the end of which is written B. L. signifying a butt lying is for the same use as that for the hoghead. The third line is to find how much liquor is wanting to fill up a butt when it is standing: at the end of it is written B. S. signifying a butt standing. In the half of the fourth face of the gauging rod, 7, there are the three scales of lines, to find the wants in a firkin, kilderkin, and barrel, lying with their areas parallel to the horizon. They are distinguished by letters F. K. B. signifying a firkin, kilderkin, and barrel.

Use of the diagonal lines on this rod. To find the content of a vessel in beer or wine gallons, put the braided end of the gauging rod into the bung hole of the cask, with the diagonal lines upwards, and thrust this braided end to the meeting of the head and flaves; then with chalk make a mark at the middle of the bung hole of the vessel, and also on the diagonal lines of the rod, right against, over one another, when the braided end is thrust home to the head and flaves: then turn the gauging rod to the other end of the vessel, and thrust the braided end home to the end, as before. Lastly, See if the mark made on the gauging rod come even with the mark made on the bung hole, when the rod was thrust to the other end; which if it be, the mark made on the diagonal lines will, on the same lines, show the whole content of the cask in beer or wine gallons.

If the mark made on the bung hole be not right against that made on the rod when you put it the other way, then right against the mark made on the bung hole make another on the diagonal line; and the division on the diagonal line between the two chalks will show the vessel's whole contents in beer or wine gallons. Thus, e. gr. if the diagonal line of the vessel be 28 inches four-tenths, its contents in beer gallons will be near 51, and in wine gallons 62.

If a vessel be open, as a half barrel, tun, or copper, and the measure from the middle of one side to the head and flaves be 38 inches, the diagonal line gives 122 beer gallons; half of which, viz. 61, is the content of the open half tub.

If you have a large vessel, as a tun or copper, and the diagonal line taken by a long rule proves 70 inches; the content of that vessel may be found thus: Every inch at the beginning end of the diagonal line call ten inches. Thus ten inches becomes 100 inches; and every tenth of a gallon call 100 gallons; and every whole gallon call 1000 gallons.

Example. At 44.8 inches on the diagonal beer line is 200 gallons; so that 4 inches 48 parts, now called 4.4 inches 8 tenths, is just two-tenths of a gallon, now called 200 gallons; so also if the diagonal line be 76 inches and 7-tenths, a close cask of such diagonal will hold 1000 beer gallons: but an open cask but half so much, viz. 500 beer gallons.

Use of the GAUGE Line. To find the content of any cylindrical vessel in ale gallons; seek the diameter of the vessel in inches, and just against it on the gauge line is the quantity of ale gallons contained in one inch deep: this multiplied by the length of the cylinder will give its content in ale gallons.

For example, suppose the length of the vessel 32.06, and the diameter of its base 25 inches; to find what is the content in ale gallons? Right against 25 inches on the gauge line is one gallon and .745 of a gallon; which multiplied by 32.06, the length, gives 55.9447 gallons for the content of the vessel.

The bung diameter of a hoghead being 25 inches, the head diameter 22 inches, and the length 32.06 inches; to find the quantity of ale gallons contained in it?—Seek 25, the bung diameter, on the line of inches, and right against it on the gauge line you will find 1.745: take one-third of it which is .580, and set it down twice; seek 22 inches in the head diameter, and against it you will find on the gauge line 1.356; one-third of which added to twice .580 gives 1.6096; which multiplied by the length 32.06, the product will be 51.63776, the content in ale gallons. Note, this operation supposes, that the aforesaid hoghead is in the figure of the middle frustum of a spheroid.

The use of the lines on the two other faces of the rod is very easy; you need only put it downright into the bung hole (if the vessel you desire to know the quantity of ale gallons contained therein be lying) to the opposite flaves; and then where the surface of the liquor cuts any one of the lines appropriated to that vessel, will be the number of gallons contained in that vessel.the name given by the Romans to the country that now forms the kingdom of France.—The original inhabitants were descended from the Celtes or Gomerians, by whom the greatest part of Europe was peopled; the name of Galli, or Gauls, being probably given them long after their settlement in that country. See GALLIA.

The ancient history of the Gauls is entirely wrapped up in obscurity and darkness; all we know concerning them for a long time is, that they multiplied so fast, that their country being unable to contain them, they poured forth in vast multitudes into other countries, which they generally subdued, and settled themselves in. It often happened, however, that these colonies were so molested by their neighbours, that they were obliged to send for affluence to their native country. This was always very easily obtained. The Gauls were upon every occasion, ready to lend forth great numbers of new adventurers; and as these spread deflation wherever they came, the very name of Gauls proved terrible to most of the neighbouring nations.—The Account of earliest excursion of these people, of which we have any distinct account, was into Italy, under a famed leader, named Bellovesus, about 622 years before Christ. He crossed the Rhone and the Alps, till then unattempted; defeated the Heturians; and seized upon that part of their country, since known by the names of Lombardy and Piedmont.—The second grand expedition was made by the Conomani, a people dwelling between the rivers Seine and Loire, under a general named Elitonis. They settled in those parts of Italy, now known by the names of Bresciano, the Cremonese, the Mantuan, Carniola, and the Venetian.—In a third excursion, two other Gaulish nations settled on both sides of the river Po; and in a fourth, the Boii and Lingones settled in the country between Ravenna and Bologna. The time of these three last expeditions is uncertain.

The third expedition of the Gauls was more remarkable than any of the former, and happened about 200 years after that of Bellovesus. The Senones settled GAU

Gaul between Paris and Meaux, were invited into Italy by a Heturian lord, and settled themselves in Umbria. Brennus their king laid siege to Clufium, a city in alliance with Rome; and this produced a war with the Romans, in which the latter were at first defeated, and their city taken and burnt; but at length the whole army was cut off by Camillus, insomuch, that not a single person escaped.

Some other expeditions the Gauls undertook against the Romans, in which, though they always proved unsuccessful, by reason of their want of military discipline; yet their fierceness and courage made them so formidable to the republic, that, on the first news of their march, extraordinary levies of troops were made, sacrifices and public supplications offered to the gods, and the law which granted an immunity from military service to priests and old men, was, for the time, abolished.

Against the Greeks, the expeditions of the Gauls were very little more successful than against the Romans. The first of these we hear of was about 279 years before Christ, in the year after Pyrrhus had invaded Italy. At this time, the Gauls finding themselves greatly overstocked at home, sent out three great colonies to conquer new countries for themselves. One of these armies was commanded by Brennus, another by Cerethrius, and the third by Belgius. The first entered Pannonia or Hungary; the second Thrace; and the third marched into Illyricum and Macedonia. Here Belgius at first met with great success; and enriched himself by plunder to such a degree, that Brennus envying him, resolved to enter the same countries, in order to share the spoil. In a short time, however, Belgius met with such a total defeat, that his army was almost entirely destroyed; upon which Brennus hastened to the same place. His army at first consisted of 150,000 foot and 15,000 horse: but two of his principal officers revolted, and carried off 20,000 men, with whom they marched into Thrace; where, having joined Cerethrius, they feized on Byzantium and the western coast of the Propontis, making the adjacent parts tributary to them.—To retrieve this loss, Brennus sent for fresh supplies from Gaul; and having increased his army to 150,000 foot, and upwards of 60,000 horse, he entered Macedonia, defeated the general who opposed him, and ravaged the whole country. He next marched towards the straits of Thermopylae, with a design to invade Greece; but was stopped by the forces sent to defend that pass against him. He passed the mountains, however, as Xerxes had formerly done; upon which the guards retired, to avoid being surrounded. Brennus then having ordered Acichorius, the next to him in command, to follow at a distance with part of his army, marched with the bulk of the forces to Delphi, in order to plunder the rich temple there. This enterprise proved exceedingly unfortunate: a great number of his men were destroyed by a dreadful storm of hail, thunder, and lightning; another part of his army was destroyed by an earthquake; and the remainder, somehow or other, imagining themselves attacked by the enemy, fought against each other the whole night, so that in the morning scarcely one half of them remained. The Greek forces then poured in upon them from all parts; and that in such numbers, that though Acichorius came up in due time with his forces, Brennus found himself unable to make head against the Greeks, and was defeated with great slaughter. He himself was desperately wounded; and so disheartened by his misfortune, that, having assembled all his chiefs, he advised them to kill all the wounded and disabled, and to make the best retreat they could: after which he put an end to his own life. On this occasion, it is said that 20,000 of these unhappy people were executed by their own countrymen. Acichorius then set out with the remainder for Gaul; but, by being obliged to march through the country of their enemies, the calamities they met with by the way were so grievous, that not one of them reached their own country. A just judgment, say the Greek and Roman authors, for their sacrilegious intentions against Delphi.

The Romans having often felt the effects of the Gaulish ferocity and courage, thought proper at last, in order to humble them, to invade their country. Their first successful attempt was about 118 years before Christ, under the command of Quintus Marcus, furnamed Rex. He opened a way betwixt the Alps and the Pyrenees, which laid the foundation for conquering the whole country. This was a work of immense labour of itself, and rendered still more difficult by the opposition of the Gauls, especially those called the Steni, who lived at the foot of the Alps. These people, finding themselves overpowered by the consular army, set fire to their houles, killed their wives and children, and then threw themselves into the flames. After this Marcus built the city of Narbonne, which became the capital of a province. His successor Scaurus also conquered some Gaulish nations; and in order to facilitate the sending troops from Italy into that country, he made several excellent roads between them, which before were almost impassable. These successes gave rise to the invasion of the Cimbri and Teutones; an account of whose unfortunate expedition is given under the articles CIMBRI, ROME, TEUTONES, &c.

From this time, the Gauls ceased to be formidable to the Romans, and even seem to have been for some time on good terms with them. At last, however, the Helvetii kindled a war with the republic, which brought Caesar over the Alps, and ended in the total subjection of the country. Orgetorix was the first cause of it; who had engaged a vast number of his countrymen to burn their towns and villages, and to go in search of new conquests. Julius Caesar, to whose lot the whole country of Gaul had fallen, made such haste to come and suppress them, that he was got to the Rhone in eight days; broke down the bridge of Geneva, and, in a few days more, finished the famed wall between that city and Mount Jura, now St Claude, which extended seventeen miles in length, was sixteen feet high, fortified with towers and caisles at proper distances, and a ditch that ran the whole length of it. If his own account of it may be relied upon, he did not set out till the beginning of April; and yet this huge work was finished by the ides or 13th of the month: so that, subtracting the eight days he was a-coming, it must have been all done in about five days; a prodigious work, considering he had but one legion there, or even though the whole country had given him assistance. Whilst this was doing, and the reinforcements he wanted were coming, he amused the Helvetii, who had sent to demand a passage through the country of the Allobroges, till he had got his reinforcements; and then flatly refused it to them: whereupon a dreadful battle ensued; in which they lost one hundred and thirty thousand men, in spite of all their valour; besides a number of prisoners, among whom were the wife and daughter of Orgetorix, the leader of this unfortunate expedition. The rest submitted, and begged they might be permitted to go and settle among the Edui, from whom they originally sprung; and at the request of these last, were permitted to go.

The Gauls were constantly in a state of variance with one another; and Caesar, who knew how to make the most of these intestine broils, soon became the protector of the oppressed, a terror to the oppressor, and the umpire of all their contentions. Among those who applied to him for help, were his allies the Edui; against whom Ariovistus, king of the Germans, had joined with the Arverni, who inhabited the banks of the Loire, had taken the country of the Sequani from them, and obliged them to send hostages to him. Caesar forthwith lent to demand the restitution of both, and, in an interview which he soon after obtained of that haughty and treacherous prince, was like to have fallen a sacrifice to his perfidy: upon which he bent his whole power against him, forced him out of his strong intrenchments, and gave him a total overthrow. Ariovistus escaped, with difficulty, over the Rhine; but his two wives, and a daughter, with a great number of Germans of distinction, fell into the conqueror's hand. Caesar, after this signal victory, put his army into winter quarters, whilst he went over the Alps to make the necessary preparations for the next campaign. By this time all the Belgae in general were so terrified at his success, that they entered into a confederacy against the Romans as their common enemy. Of this, Labienus, who had been left in Gaul, sent Caesar notice; upon which he immediately left Rome, and made such dispatch, that he arrived upon their confines in about fifteen days. On his arrival, the Rhemi submitted to him; but the rest appointing Galba king of the Sueiones general of all their forces, which amounted to one hundred and fifty thousand men, marched directly against him. Caesar, who had seized on the bridge of the Axona, now Ainée, led his light horse and infantry over it: and whilst the others were encumbered in crossing that river, made such a terrible slaughter of them, that the river was filled with their dead, insomuch that their bodies served for a bridge to those who escaped. This new victory struck such terror into the rest, that they dispersed themselves; immediately after which, the Sueiones, Bellovaci, Ambiones, and some others, submitted to him. The Nervii, indeed, joined with the Atrebates and Veromandui against them; and having first secured their wives and children, made a vigorous resistance for some time; but were at length defeated, and the greatest part of them slain. The rest, with their wives and old men, surrendered themselves, and were allowed to live in their own cities and towns as formerly. The Aduatuci were next subdued; and, for their treachery to the conqueror, were sold for slaves, to the number of 50,000. Young Crassus, the son of the triumvir, subdued likewise seven other nations, and took possession of their cities; which not only completed the conquest of the Belgae, but brought several nations from beyond the Rhine to submit to the conqueror. The Veneti, or ancient inhabitants of Vannes in Brittany, who had been likewise obliged to send hostages to the conqueror, were, in the mean time, making great preparations by sea and land to recover their liberty. Caesar, then in Illyricum, was forced to equip a fleet on the Loire; and having given the command of it to Brutus, went and defeated them by land, as Brutus did by sea; and having put their chief men to death, sold the rest for slaves. The Unelli, with Veridorix their chief, together with the Lexovii and Aulerici, were about the same time subdued by Sabinus, and the Aquitani by Crassus, with the loss of 30,000 men. There remained nothing but the countries of the Morini and Menapii to be conquered of all Gaul. Caesar marched himself against them; but he found them so well intrenched in their inaccessible fortresses, that he contented himself with burning and ravaging their country; and having put his troops into winter quarters, again passed over the Alps, to have a more watchful eye on some of his rivals there. He was, however, soon after obliged to come to defend his Gaulish conquests against some nations of the Germans, who were coming to settle there, to the number of 400,000. These he totally defeated, and then resolved to carry his conquering arms into Germany; but for an account of his exploits there, see the article GERMANY.

Upon his return into Gaul, he found it labouring under a great famine, which had caused a kind of universal revolt, but was suppressed. Cotta and Sabinus, who were left in the sub-country of the Eburones, now Liege, were betrayed into an ambush by Ambiorix, one of the Gaulish chiefs, and had most of their men cut off. The Aduatuci had fallen upon Q. Cicero, who was left there with one legion, and had reduced him to great straits: at the same time Labienus, with his legion, was attacked by Indutiomarus, at the head of the Rhemi and Senones; but had better luck than the rest, and by one bold fall upon them, put them to flight, and killed their general. Caesar acquired no small credit by quelling all these revolts; but each victory cost the lives of so many of his troops, that he was forced to have recourse to Pompey for a fresh supply, who readily granted him two of his own legions to secure his Gaulish conquests.

But it was not long before the Gauls, ever restless under a foreign yoke, raised up a new revolt, and obliged him to return thither. His fear lest Pompey should gain the affections of the Roman people, had obliged him to strip the Gauls of their gold and silver, to bribe them over to his interest; and this gave no small handle to those frequent revolts which happened during his absence. He quickly, however, reduced the Nervii, Aduatuci, Menapii, and Treviri; the last of whom had raised the revolt, under the command of Ambiorix: but he found the flame spread much farther, even to the greatest part of the Gauls, who had chosen Vercingetorix their generalissimo. Caesar was forced to leave Insubria, whither he had retired to watch the motions of Pompey, and, in the midst of winter and snow, to repass the Alps into the province of Narbonne. Here he gathered his scattered troops with all possible speed; and, in spite of the hard weather, besieged and took Noviodunum, now Noyons; and defeated Vercingetorix, who was come to the relief of that place. He Gaul next took the city of Avaricum, now Bourges, one of the strongest in Gaul, and which had a garrison of 40,000 men; of whom he made such a dreadful slaughter, that hardly 800 escaped. Whilst he was besieging Gergovia, the capital of the Arverni, he was informed that the Nitiobriges, or Agenois, were in arms; and that the Aedui were sending to Vercingetorix 10,000 men, which they were to have sent to reinforce Caesar. Upon this news, he left Fabius to carry on the siege, and marched against the Aedui. These, upon his approach, submitted, in appearance, and were pardoned; but soon after that whole nation rose up in arms, and murdered all the Italian troops in their capital. Caesar, at this, was in great straits what measures to take; but resolved at length to raise the siege of Gergovia, and at once attack the enemy's camp, which he did with some success; but when he thought to have gone to Noviodunum, or Noyons, where his baggage, military chief, &c. were left, he heard that the Aedui had carried it off, and burnt the place. Labienus, justly thinking that Caesar would want his assistance in the condition he now was, went to join him, and in his way defeated a Gaulish general named Camulogenus, who came to oppose his march; but this did not hinder the revolt from spreading itself all over Celtic Gaul, whither Vercingetorix had sent for fresh supplies, and, in the mean time, attacked Caesar; but was defeated, and forced to retire to Alefa, a strong place, now Alise in Burgundy, as is supposed. Hither Caesar hastened, and besieged him; and having drawn a double circumvallation, with a design to starve him in it, as he was likely to have done, upon that account refused all offers of a surrender from him. At length, the long expected reinforcement came, consisting of 16,000 men, under four generals: these made several fruitless attacks on Caesar's trenches, but were defeated in three several battles, which at length obliged Vercingetorix to surrender at discretion. Caesar used all his prisoners with great severity, except the Aedui and Arverni, by whose means he hoped to gain their nations, which were the most potent of Celtic Gaul: nor was he disappointed; for both of them submitted to him, and the former received him into the capital, where he spent the winter, after he put his army into winter quarters. This campaign, as it proved one of the hardest he ever had, fo he gained more glory by it than any Roman general had done before: yet could not at all by this procure from the servile senate, now wholly dedicated to his rival, a prolongation of his proconsulship; upon which he is reported to have laid his hand upon his sword, and said, that that should do it.

He was as good as his word; and the Gauls, upon their former ill successes, resolving to have as many separate armies as provinces, in order to embarrass him the more, Caesar, and his generals Labienus and Fabius, were forced to fight them one after another; which they did, however, with such success, that notwithstanding the hardnesh of the season, they subdued the Bituriges, Carnutes, Rheni, and Bellovaci, with their general Corros, by which he at once quieted all the Belgic provinces bordering on Celtic Gaul. The next who followed were the Treviri, the Eburones, and the Andes, under their general Dummacus. The last place which held out against him was Uxellodunum; which was defended by the two last acting generals of the Gauls, Drapes the Senonian, and Luterius the Cadurcean. The place being strong and well garrisoned, Caesar was obliged to march thither from the farthest part of Belgic Gaul; and soon after reduced it, for want of water. Here again he cauled the right hands of all that were fit to bear arms to be cut off, to deter the rest from revolting afresh. Thus was the conquest of Gaul finished from the Alps and Pyrenes to the Rhine, all which vast tract was now reduced to a Roman province under the government of a praetor. During his several expeditions into Gaul, Caesar is said to have taken 800 cities; to have subdued 300 different nations; and to have defeated, in several battles, three millions of men, of whom one million were killed, and another taken prisoners.—The history of the country, from the time of its conquest by the Romans to the present, is given under the articles ROME and FRANCE.

The Gauls were anciently divided into a great number of different nations, which were continually at war &c. of the one another, and at variance among themselves, ancient Caesar tells us, that not only all their cities, cantons, Gauls, and districts, but even almost all families, were divided and torn by factions; and this undoubtedly facilitated the conquest of the whole. The general character of all these people was an excessive ferocity and love of liberty. This last they carried to such an extreme, that either on the appearance of servitude, or incapacity of action through old age, wounds, or chronic diseases, they put an end to their own lives, or prevailed upon their friends to kill them. In cities, when they found themselves so straitly besieged that they could hold out no longer, instead of thinking how to obtain honourable terms of capitulation, their chief care very often was to put their wives and children to death, and then to kill one another, to avoid being led into slavery. Their excessive love of liberty and contempt of death, according to Strabo, very much facilitated their conquest by Caesar; for pouring their numerous forces upon such an experienced enemy as Caesar, their want of conduct very soon proved the ruin of the whole.

The chief diversion of the Gauls was hunting; and indeed, considering the vast forests with which their country abounded, and the multitude of wild beasts which lodged in them, they were under an absolute necessity to hunt and destroy them, to prevent the country from being rendered totally uninhabitable. Besides this, however, they had also their hippodromes, horse and chariot races, tilts and tournaments; at all of which the bards assisted with their poems, songs, and musical instruments.—For an account of their religion, see the article DRUID.

The Gauls were excessively fond of feasting, in which they were very profuse; as, like all other northern nations, they were great lovers of good eating and drinking. Their chief liquors were beer and wine. Their tables were very low. They ate but little bread, which was baked flat and hard, and easily broken in pieces; but devoured a great deal of flesh, boiled, roasted, or broiled; and this they did in a very slovenly manner, holding the piece in their hands, and tearing it with their teeth. What they could not part by this way, they cut with a little knife which hung at their girdle. When the company was numerous, the Coryphees phee, or chief of the feast, who was either one of the richest, or noblest, or bravest, fat in the middle, with the matter of the house by his side; the rest took their places next according to their rank, having their servants holding their shields behind them. These feasts seldom ended without bloodshed; but if by chance the feast proved a peaceable one, it was generally accompanied not only with music and songs, but likewise with dances, in which the dancers were armed cap-a-pie, and beat time with their swords upon their shields. On certain festivals they were wont to dress themselves in the skins of beasts, and in that accompany the processions in honour of their deities or heroes. Others dressed themselves in masquerade habits, some of them very indecent, and played several antic and immodest tricks. This last custom continued long after their conversion to Christianity.