or GENTOOS, the inhabitants of that part of India known by the name of Hindoostan or the Mogul's empire, who profess the religion of the Bramins, supposed to be the same with that of the ancient Gymnosophists of Ethiopia.

From the earliest period of history these people seem to have maintained the same religion, laws, and customs, which they do at this day; and indeed they and the Chinese are examples of perseverance in these respects altogether unknown in the western world. In the time of Diodorus Siculus they are said to have been divided into seven castes or tribes; but the intercourse betwixt Europe and India was in his time so small, that we may well suppose the historian to have been mistaken, and that the same tenacity for which they are so remarkable in other respects has manifested itself also in this. At present they are divided only into four tribes; 1. The Bramin; 2. The Khattri; 3. The Bhyfe; and, 4. The Soodera. All these have distinct and separate offices, and cannot, according to their laws, intermingle with each other; but for certain offences they are subject to the loss of their caste, which is reckoned the highest punishment they can suffer; and hence is formed a kind of fifth caste named Pariars on the coast of Coromandel, but in the Shan-ti or sacred language Chandalas. These are esteemed the dregs of the people, and are never employed but in the meanest offices. There is besides a general division which pervades the four castes indiscriminately and which is taken from the worship of their gods Vijnou and Sheevah; the worshippers of the former being named Vijnou-bukht; of the latter Sheevah-bukht.

Of these four castes the Bramins are accounted the foremost in every respect; and all the laws have such an evident partiality towards them, as cannot but induce us to suppose that they have had the principal hand in framing them. They are not, however, allowed to assume the sovereignty; the religious ceremonies and the instruction of the people being their peculiar province. They alone are allowed to read the Veda or sacred books; the Khattries, or cast next in dignity, being only allowed to hear them read; while the other two can only read the Safras or commentaries upon them. As for the poor Chandals, they dare not enter a temple, or be present at any religious ceremony.

In point of precedence the Bramins claim a superiority even to the princes; the latter being chosen out of the Khattri or second cast. A rajah will receive with respect the food that is prepared by a Bramin, but the latter will eat nothing that has been prepared by any member of an inferior cast. The punishment of a Bramin for any crime is much milder than if he had belonged to another tribe; and the greatest crime that can be committed is the murder of a Bramin. No magistrate must desire the death of one of these sacred persons, or cut off one of their limbs. They must be readily admitted into the presence even of princes whenever they please: when passengers in a boat, they must be the first to enter and to go out; and the waterman must besides carry them for nothing; every one who meets them on the road being likewise obliged to give place to them.

All the priests are chosen from among this order, such as are not admitted to the facerdotal function being employed as secretaries and accountants. These can never afterwards become priests, but continue to be greatly reverenced by the other castes.

The Khattri or second cast are those from among whom the sovereigns are chosen.—The Bhyfe or Banians, who constitute the third cast, have the charge of commercial affairs; and the Soodera, or fourth cast, the most numerous of all, comprehend the labourers and artisans. These last are divided into as many classes as there are followers of different arts; all the children being invariably brought up to the profession of their fathers, and it being absolutely unlawful for them ever to alter it afterwards.

No Hindoo is allowed to quit the cast in which he was born upon any account. All of them are very scrupulous with regard to their diet; but the Bramins much more so than any of the rest. They eat no flesh, nor shed blood; which we are informed by Porphyry and Clemens Alexandrinus was the case in their time. Their ordinary food is rice and other vegetables, dressed with ghee (a kind of butter melted and refined so as to be capable of being kept for a long time), and seasoned with ginger and other spices. The food which they most esteem, however, is milk, as coming from the cow; an animal for which they have the most extravagant veneration, insomuch that it is enacted in the code of Gentoo laws, that any one who exacts labour from a bullock that is hungry or thirsty, or that shall oblige him to labour when fatigued or out of season, is liable to be fined by the magistrates. The other castes, though less rigid, abstain very religiously from what is forbidden them; nor will they eat any thing provided by a person of an inferior cast, or by one of a different religion. Though they may eat some kinds of flesh and fish, yet it is counted a virtue to abstain from them all. None of them are allowed to taste intoxicating liquor of any kind. Quintus Curtius indeed mentions a sort of wine made use of by the Indians in his time; but this is supposed to have been no other than toddy, or the unfermented juice of the cocoa nut. This when fermented affords a spirit of a very unwholesome quality; but it is drunk only by the Chandals and the lower class of Europeans in the country. So exceedingly bigotted and superstitious are they in their absurd maxims with regard to meat and drink, that some sepoys in a British ship having HINDOOS expended all the water appropriated to their use, would have suffered themselves to perish for thirst rather than taste a drop of that which was used by the ship's company.

The religion of the Hindoos, by which these maxims are inculcated, and by which they are made to differ so much from other nations, is contained in certain books named Veda, Vedams, or Beds, written in a language called Shanscrit, which is now known only to the learned among them. The books are supposed to have been the work not of the supreme God himself, but of an inferior deity named Brimha. They inform us, that Brahma, or Brahma, the supreme God, having created the world by the word of his mouth, formed a female deity named Basvancy, who in an enthusiasm of joy and praise brought forth three eggs. From these were produced three male deities, named Brimha, Vishnou, and Sheevah. Brimha was endowed with the power of creating the things of this world, Vishnou with that of cherishing them, and Sheevah with that of restraining and correcting them. Thus Brimha became the creator of man; and in this character he formed the four castes from different parts of his own body, the Bramins from his mouth, the Khatri from his arms, the Banians from his belly and thighs, and the Soodera from his feet. Hence, say they, these four different castes derive the different offices assigned them; the Bramins to teach; the Khatri to defend and govern; the Banians to enrich by commerce and agriculture; and the Soodera to labour, serve, and obey. Brahma himself endowed mankind with passions, and understanding to regulate them; while Brimha, having created the inferior beings, proceeded to write the Vedams, and delivered them to be read and explained by the Bramins.

The religion of the Hindoos, though involved in superstition and idolatry, seems to be originally pure; inculcating the belief of an eternal and omnipotent Being; their subordinate deities Brimha, Vishnou, and Sheevah, being only representative of the wisdom, goodness, and power, of the supreme God Brahma. All created things they suppose to be types of the attributes of Brahma, whom they call the principle of truth, the spirit of wisdom, and the supreme being; so that it is probable that all their idols were at first only designed to represent these attributes.

There are a variety of sects among the Hindoos: two great classes we have mentioned already, viz. the worshippers of Vishnou, and those of Sheevah; and these distinguish themselves, the former by painting their faces with an horizontal line, the latter by a perpendicular one. There is, however, very little difference in point of religion between these or any other Hindoo sects. All of them believe in the immortality of the soul, a state of future rewards and punishments, and transmigration. Charity and hospitality are inculcated in the strongest manner, and exist among them not only in theory but in practice. "Hospitality (say they) is commanded to be exercised even towards an enemy, when he cometh into thine house; the tree doth not withdraw its shade even from the wood-cutter. Good men extend their charity even to the vilest animals. The moon doth not withhold her light even from the Chandala." These pure doctrines, however, are intermixed with some of the vilest and most absurd superstitions; and along with the true God they worship a number of inferior ones, of whom the principal are:

1. Basvancy, the mother of the gods, already mentioned, and superior to all but Brahma himself; but all their other goddesses are reckoned inferior to their gods' principal deities.

2. Brimha, in the Shanscrit language said to mean "the wisdom of God;" and who is supposed to fly on the wings of the kanse or flamingo; an image of which is constantly kept near that of the god in the temple where he is worshipped. He has a crown on his head, and is represented with four hands. In one of these he holds a sceptre, in another the sacred books or Vedam, in the third a ring or circle as the emblem of eternity, supposed to be employed in affixing and protecting his works.

3. Seravatej, the goddess or wife of Brimha, presides over music, harmony, eloquence, and invention. She is also said to be the inventress of the letters called Devanagry, by which the divine will was first promulgated among mankind. In the argument of an hymn addressed to this goddess, she is supposed to have a number of inferior deities acting in subordination to her. These are called Rags, and predile over each mode, and likewise over each of the seasons. These seasons in Hindostan are fix in number; viz. 1. The Seefar, or dewy season. 2. Heenat, or the cold season. 3. Vafant, the mild season or spring. 4. Greshma, or the hot season. 5. Varfu, the rainy season. 6. Sarat, the breaking up or end of the rains.

The Rags, in their musical capacity, are accompanied each with five Ragmies, a kind of female deities or nymphs of harmony. Each of these has eight sons or genii; and a distinct season is appointed for the music of each rag, during which only it can be sung or played; and this at distinct or stated hours of the day or night. A seventh mode of music belonging to Devpec, or Cupid the influencer, is said once to have existed, but now to be lost; and a musician, who attempted to restore it, to have been consumed with fire from heaven.

4. Vishnou, the most celebrated of all the Indian deities, is supposed to fly or ride on the garroa, a kind of large brown kite, which is found in plenty in the neighbourhood; and on which Vishnou is sometimes represented as sitting; though at others he is represented on a serpent with a great number of different heads. At some of his temples the Bramins accustom all the birds they can find, of the species above mentioned, to come and be fed; calling them by striking upon a bra's plate. This deity is said to have had ten different incarnations to destroy the giants with which the earth was infested; and in these he is represented in as many different figures, all of which are to the last degree fantastic and monstrous. His common form is that of a man with four hands, and a number of heads set round in a circle, supposed to be emblems of omniscience and omnipotence. In his first incarnation he is represented as coming out of the mouth of a fish, with several hands containing words, &c. In another he has the head of a boar with monstrous tusks, bearing a city in the air, and stands upon a vanquished giant with horns on his head. In others of his incarnations, he has the head of a horse or other animals, animals, with a great number of arms brandishing swords, &c.

In some parts of his character this deity is represented not as a destroyer, but a preserver of mankind; and he is then distinguished by the name of Hary. Bishop Wilkins describes an image of him in this character at a place name Jehan-query, a small rocky island of the Ganges in the province of Bahar. This image is of a gigantic size, recumbent on a coiled serpent, whose numerous heads are twitted by the artist into a kind of canopy over the sleeping god, and from each of its mouths issues a forked tongue, as threatening destruction to those who should dare to approach.

5. Sheevah is represented under a human form, though frequently varied, as is also his name; but he is most frequently called Sheevah and Mahadeg. In his destroying character he is represented as a man with a fierce look, and with a snake twitted round his neck. He is thought to preside over good and evil fortune, in token of which he is represented with a crescent on his head. He rides upon an ox.

6. Viverama, the god of victory, is said to have had a particular kind of sacrifice offered to him, somewhat like the scape-goat of the Jews, viz. by letting a horse loose in the forest, and not employing him again.

7. Yam Rajah, or Darham Rajah, is represented as the judge of the dead, and ruler of the infernal regions, in a manner similar to the Minos and Pluto of the ancient Greeks. He is the son of Sour, "the fun," by Bifookama daughter of the great architect of the heavenly mansions, and patron of artificers. He rides upon a buffalo, with a sceptre in his hand, having two attendants, Chiter and Gopt; the former of whom reports the good, and the latter the bad actions of men. These are attended by two genii, who watch every individual of the human race; Chiter's spy being on the right, and Gopt's on the left. The souls of deceased persons are carried by the Jambouts or messengers of death into the presence of Darham, where their actions are instantly proclaimed, and sentence passed accordingly. The infernal mansions are named by the Hindus Narekha, and are divided into a great number of places, according to the degrees of punishment to be endured by the criminal; but eternal punishment for any offence is supposed to be inconsistent with the goodness of God. Instead of this, the Hindus suppose that after the souls of the wicked have been punished long enough in Narekha, they are sent back into the world to animate other bodies either of men or beasts, according to circumstances. Those who have lived a life partly good and partly bad, are likewise sent back to this world; and these trials and transmigrations are repeated till they be thoroughly purged of all inclination to sin. But as for those holy men who have spent their lives in piety and devotion, they are instantly conveyed by the genii to the mansions of celestial bliss, where they are absorbed into the universal spirit; a state, according to every idea we can form, equivalent to annihilation!

8. Kri/ken and the nine Gopia, among the Hindus, correspond with Apollo and the nine muses of the Greeks. This deity is represented as a young man sometimes playing on a flute. He has a variety of names, and is supposed to be of a very amorous complexion, having once resided in a district named Birge, where he embraced almost all the women in the country. From his residence here, or from these amorous exploits, he is sometimes called Birge-pur.

9. Kame-deva, the god of love, is said to be the son of Maya, or the general attractive power; married to Retty, or Affection. He is represented as a beautiful youth, sometimes conversing with his mother or confiding in his temples or gardens; at other times riding on a parrot by moonlight. And Mr Forster informs us, that on the taking of Tanjore by the English, a curious picture was found, representing him riding on an elephant, the body of which was composed of seven young women twitted together in such a manner as to represent that enormous animal. This is supposed to be a device of a familiar nature with that of the Greeks, who placed their Eros upon a lion; thus intimating, that love is capable of taming the fiercest of animals. The bow of this deity is said to be of sugar-cane, or of flowers, and the string of bees: he has five arrows, each of them tipped with an Indian blossom of an heating nature. His ensign is a fish on a red ground, carried by the foremost of his attendant nymphs or dancing girls.

10. Lingam, corresponding to the Priapus or Phallus of the ancients, is worshipped by the Hindus in order to obtain fecundity. This deity is adored the more fervently, as they depend on their children for performing certain ceremonies to their manes, which they imagine will mitigate their punishment in the next world. The devotees of the god go naked, but are supposed to be such sanctified persons, that women may approach them without any danger. They vow perpetual chastity; and death is the consequence of a breach of their vow. Husbands whose wives are barren invite them to their houses, where certain ceremonies, generally thought to be effectual, are performed.

Besides these, there is a number of other gods whose character is less eminent; though it seems not to be ascertained distinctly, even by the Hindus themselves, what particular rank each deity holds with respect to another. Some of these deities are, 11. Nared, the son of Brimha, and inventor of a fretted instrument named Vene. 12. Lechmy, the goddess of plenty, and wife of Vishnou. 13. Govry, Kaly, from Kala, "time;" the wife of Sheevah, and goddess of destruction. 14. Varoona, the god of the seas and waters, riding on a crocodile. 15. Vayoo, the god of the winds, riding on an antelope with a sabre in his hand. 16. Agnee, the god of fire, riding on a ram. 17. Vafodka, a goddess representing the earth. 18. Pakreety, or nature, represented by a beautiful young woman. 19. Sour or Shan, the fun; called also the king of the stars and planets, represented as sitting in a chariot drawn by one horse, sometimes with seven and sometimes with twelve heads. 20. Sangia, the mother of the river Jumna, and wife of the sun. 21. Chandava, the moon, in a chariot drawn by antelopes, and holding a rabbit in her right hand. 22. Vreekapaty, the god of learning, attended by beautiful young nymphs, named Veedyaadhares, or professors of science. 23. Ganer, the god of prudence and policy, worshipped before the undertaking of any thing of consequence. 24. Fame, represented by a serpent with a great number of tongues; and known by several names. 25. Darma-deva, the god of virtue, sometimes represented by a white bull. 26. Viravana or Cobhair, the god of riches, represented by a man riding on a white horse. 27. Dhan-wantary, the god of medicine.

Besides the supreme deities the Hindoos have a number of demigods, who are supposed to inhabit the air, the earth, and the waters, and in short the whole world; so that every mountain, river, wood, town, village, &c. has one of these tutelar deities, as was the case among the western heathens. By nature these demigods are subject to death, but are supposed to obtain immortality by the use of a certain drink named Amrut. Their exploits in many instances resemble those of Bacchus, Hercules, Theseus, &c. and in a beautiful epic poem named Rancyan, we have an account of the wars of Ram, one of the demigods, with Ravana tyrant of Ceylon.

All these deities are worshipped, as in other countries, by going to their temples, fasting, prayers, and the performance of ceremonies to their honour. They pray thrice a day, at morning, noon, and evening, turning their faces towards the east. They use many ablutions, and, like the Pharisees of old, they always wash before meals. Running water is always preferred for this purpose to such as stagnates. Fruits, flowers, incense, and money, are offered in sacrifice to their idols; but for the dead they offer a kind of cake named Peendo; and offerings of this kind always take place on the day of the full moon. Nothing sanguinary is known in the worship of the Hindoos at present, though there is a tradition that it was formerly of this kind; nay, that even human sacrifices were made use of: but if such a custom ever did exist, it must have been at a very distant period. Their sacred writings indeed make mention of bloody sacrifices of various kinds, not excepting even those of the human race: but so many peculiarities are mentioned with regard to the proper victims, that it is almost impossible to find them. The only instance of bloody sacrifices we find on record among the Hindoos is that of the buffalo to Bawaney, the mother of the gods.

Among the Hindoos there are two kinds of worship, distinguished by the name of the worship of the invisible God and of idols. The worshippers of the invisible God are, strictly speaking, deists: the idolaters perform many absurd and unmeaning ceremonies, too tedious to mention, all of which are conducted by a bramin; and during the performance of these rites, the dancing women occasionally perform in the court, singing the praises of the deity in concert with various instruments. All the Hindus seem to worship the fire; at least they certainly pay a great veneration to it. Bishop Wilkins inform us, that they are enjoined to light up a fire at certain times, which must be produced by the friction of two pieces of wood of a particular kind; and the fire thus produced is made use of for consuming their sacrifices, burning the dead, and in the ceremonies of marriage.

Great numbers of devotees are to be met with everywhere through Hindostan. Every cast is allowed to assume this way of life excepting the Chandalas, who are excluded. Those held most in esteem are named Seniasses and Jogeys. The former are allowed no other clothing but what suffices for covering their nakedness, nor have they any worldly goods besides a pitcher and staff; but though they are strictly enjoined to meditate on the truths contained in the sacred writings, they are expressly forbidden to argue about them. They must eat but once a day, and that very sparingly, of rice or other vegetables; they must also shew the most perfect indifference about hunger, thirst, heat, cold, or any thing whatever relative to this world; looking forward with continual desire to the separation of the soul from the body. Should any of them fail in this extravagant self-denial, he is rendered so much more criminal by the attempt, as he neglected the duties of ordinary life for those of another which he was not able to accomplish. The Jogeys are bound to much the same rules, and both subject themselves to the most extravagant penances. Some will keep their arms constantly stretched over their heads till they become quite withered and incapable of motion; others keep them crooked over their breast during life; while others, by keeping their hands constantly shut, have them quite pierced through by the growth of their nails. Some chain themselves to trees or particular spots of ground, which they never quit; others resolve never to lie down, but sleep leaning against a tree: but the most curious penance perhaps on record is that of a Joge, who measured the distance between Benares and Jaggernaut with the length of his body, lying down and rising alternately. Many of these enthusiasts will throw themselves in the way of the chariots of Vishnu or Sheevah, which are sometimes brought forth in procession to celebrate the feast of a temple, and drawn by several hundreds of men. Thus the wretched devotees are in an instant crushed to pieces. Others devote themselves to the flames, in order to show their regard to some of their idols, or to appease the wrath of one whom they suppose to be offended.

A certain set of devotees are named Pandarams; and another on the coast of Coromandel are named Cary-Patri Pandarams. The former rub themselves all over with cow-dung, running about the country singing the praises of the god Sheevah, whom they worship. The latter go about asking charity at doors by striking their hands together, for they never speak. They accept of nothing but rice; and when they have got as much as will satisfy their hunger, never give themselves any trouble about more, but pass the rest of the day in the shade, in a state of such supine indolence as scarcely to look at any object whatever. The Tadimuns are another set of mendicants, who sing the incarnations of Vishnu. They have hollow bras rings round their ankles, which they fill with pebbles; so that they make a considerable noise as they walk; they beat likewise a kind of tabor.

The greatest singularity in the Hindoo religion however, is, that so far from persecuting those of a contrary persuasion, which is too often the case with other professors, they absolutely refuse even to admit of a profelyte. They believe all religions to be equally acceptable to the Supreme Being; assigning as a reason, that if the Author of the universe preferred one to another, it would have been impossible for any other to have prevailed than that which he approved. Every religion, therefore, they conclude to be adapted to the country where it is established; and that all in their original purity are equally acceptable.

Among the Hindoos, marriage is considered as a religious duty; and parents are strictly commanded to marry their children by the time they arrive at eleven years of age at farthest. Polygamy is allowed; but this licence is seldom made use of unless there should be no children by the first wife. In case the second wife also proves barren, they commonly adopt a son from among their relations.

The Hindoos receive no dower with their wives; but, on the contrary, the intended husband makes a present to the father of his bride. Nevertheless, in many cases, a rich man will choose a poor relation for his daughter; in which case the bride's father is at the expense of the wedding, receives his son-in-law into his house, or gives him a part of his fortune. The bridegroom then quits the dwelling of his parents with certain ceremonies, and lives with his father-in-law. Many formalities take place between the parties even after the match is fully agreed upon; and the celebration of the marriage is attended with much expense; magnificent processions are made, the bride and bridegroom fitting in the same palankeen, attended by their friends and relations; some riding in palankeens, some on horses, and others on elephants. So great is their vanity indeed on this occasion, that they will borrow or hire numbers of these expensive animals to do honour to the ceremony. The rejoicings last several days; during the evenings of which, fire-works and illuminations are displayed, and dancing-women perform their feats; the whole concluding with alms to the poor, and presents to the bramins and principal guests, generally consisting of flaws, pieces of muslin, and other cloths. A number of other ceremonies are performed when the parties come of age, and are allowed to cohabit together. The same are repeated when the young wife becomes pregnant; when she passes the seventh month without any accident; and when she is delivered of her child. The relations assemble on the tenth day after the birth, to assist at the ceremony of naming the child; but if the bramins be of opinion that the aspect of the planets is at that time unfavourable, the ceremony is delayed, and prayers offered up to avert the misfortune. When the lucky moment is discovered, they fill as many pots with water as there are planets, and offer a sacrifice to them; afterwards they sprinkle the head of the child with water, and the bramin gives it such a name as he thinks best adapted to the time and circumstances; and the ceremony concludes with prayers, presents to the bramins, and alms to the poor. Mothers are obliged to suckle their own children; nor can this duty be dispensed with except in case of sickness. New ceremonies, with presents to the bramins, take place, when a boy comes of age to receive the string which the three first cast wear round their waist.

Boys are taught to read and write by the bramins, who keep schools for that purpose throughout the country. They use leaves instead of books, and write with a pointed iron instrument. The leaves are generally chosen of the palm-tree, which being smooth and hard, and having a thick substance, may be kept for almost any length of time, and the letters are not subject to grow faint or be effaced. The leaves are cut into slips about an inch broad, and their books consist of a number of these tied together by means of a hole in one end. Sometimes the letters are rubbed over with a black powder, to render them more legible. When they write upon paper, they make use of a small reed. Sometimes they are initiated in writing by making letters upon sand strewn on the floor; and they are taught arithmetic by means of a number of small pebbles. The education of the girls is much more limited; seldom extending farther than the articles of their religion.

Among these people the custom of burning the dead barbarous prevails universally; and the horrid practice of wives custom of burning themselves along with their deceased husbands burning was formerly very common, though now much less so, themselves. At present it is totally prohibited in the British dominions; and even the Mohammedans endeavour to dis- countenance a practice so barbarous, though many of their governors are accused of conniving at it through motives of avarice. At present it is most common in the country of the Rajahs, and among women of high rank.

This piece of barbarity is not enjoined by any law existing among the Hindoos; it is only said to be proper, and rewards are promised in the next world to those who do so. But though a wife chooses to outlive her husband, she is in no case whatever permitted to marry again, even though the marriage with the former had never been completed. It is unlawful for a woman to burn herself if she be with child at the time of her husband's decease, or if he died at a distance from her. In the latter case, however, she may do so if she can procure his girdle or turban to be put on the funeral pile along with her. These miserable enthusiasts, who devote themselves to this dreadful death, suffer with the greatest constancy; and Mr Hulwel gives an account of one who, being told of the pain she must suffer (with a view to dissuade her), put her finger into the fire and kept it there for a considerable time; after which the put fire on the palm of her hand, with incense upon it, and fumigated the bramins who were present. Sometimes a chapel is erected on the place where one of these sacrifices has been performed; sometimes it is inclosed, flowers planted upon it, and images set up.—In some few places the Hindoos bury their dead; and some women have been known to suffer themselves to be buried alive with their deceased husbands: but the instances of this are still more rare than those of burning.—No woman is allowed any inheritance among the Hindoos; so that if a man dies without male issue, his estate goes to his adopted son or to his nearest relation.

The Hindoos, though naturally mild and timid, will Instances of on many occasions meet death with the most heroic in heroism trepidity. An Hindoo who lies at the point of death, among the Hindoos, will talk of his decease with the utmost composure; and if near the river Ganges, will desire to be carried out, that he may expire on its banks. Such is the ex- cellent veneration they have for their religion and customs, that no person will infringe them even to pre- serve his own life. An Hindoo, we are told, being ill of a putrid fever, was prevailed upon to send for an Eu- ropean physician, who prescribed him the bark in wine; but this was refused with the greatest obstinacy even to the very last, though the governor himself joined in his solicitations, and in other matters had a considerable influence over him. In many instances these people, both in ancient and modern times, have been known, when closely beset by an enemy whom they could not resist, to kill their wives and children, set fire to their houses, and then violently rush upon their adversaries till every one was destroyed. Some sepoys, in the British service, having been concerned in a mutiny, were condemned to be blown away from the mouths of cannon. Of these some were grenadiers, who cried out, that as they had all along had the post of honour, they saw no reason why they should be denied it now; and therefore desired that they might be blown away first. This being granted, they walked forward to the guns with composure, begged that they might be spared the indignity of being tied, and, placing their breasts close to the muzzles, were shot away. The commanding officer was so much affected with this instance of heroism, that he pardoned all the rest.

In ordinary life the Hindoos are cheerful and lively; fond of conversation and amusements, particularly dancing. They do not, however, learn or practice dancing themselves, but have women taught for the purpose; and in beholding these they will spend whole nights. They disapprove of many parts of the education of European ladies, as supposing that they engage the attention too much, and draw away a woman's affection from her husband and children. Hence there are few women in Hindostan who can either read or write. In general they are finely shaped, gentle in their manners, and have soft and even musical voices. The women of Kashmir, according to Mr Forster, have a bright olive complexion, fine features, and delicate shape; a pleasing freedom in their manners, without any tendency to immodesty.

The dresses of the modest women in Hindostan consist of a close jacket, which covers their breasts, but perfectly shows their form. The sleeves are tight, and reach half way to the elbows, with a narrow border painted or embroidered all round the edges. Instead of a petticoat, they have a piece of white cotton cloth wrapped round the loins, and reaching near the ankle on the one side, but not quite so low on the other. A wide piece of muslin is thrown over the right shoulder; which, passing under the left arm, is crossed round the middle, and hangs down to the feet. The hair is usually rolled up into a knot or bunch towards the back part of the head; and some have curls hanging before and behind the ears. They wear bracelets on their arms, rings in their ears, and on their fingers, toes, and ankles; with sometimes a small one in their nostril.

The dresses of the dancing women, who are likewise votaries of Venus, is very various. Sometimes they wear a jama, or long robe of wrought muslin, or gold and silver tissue; the hair plaited and hanging down behind, with spiral curls on each side of the face. They are taught every accomplishment which can be supposed to captivate the other sex; form a class entirely different from the rest of the people, and live by their own rules. Their clothes, jewels, and lodging, are considered as implements of their trade, and must be allowed them in cases of confiscation for debt. They may drink spirituous liquors, and eat any kind of meat except beef: Their dances are said to resemble pretty exactly those of the ancient Bacchanalians represented in some of the ancient paintings and bas reliefs. In some of their dances they attach gold and silver bells to the rings of the same metals they wear on their ankles.

The men generally shave their heads and beards, Dres of the leaving only a pair of small whiskers and a lock on the men. back part of their head, which they take great care to preserve. In Kashmir and some other places, they let their beards grow to the length of two inches. They wear turbans on their heads; but the Bramins who officiate in the temples commonly go with their heads uncovered, and the upper part of the body naked: round their shoulder they hang the sacred string called Zennar, made of a kind of perennial cotton, and composed of a certain number of threads of a determined length. The Khatries wear also a string of this kind, but composed of fewer threads; the Bhyse have one with still fewer threads, but the Sooderias are not allowed to wear any string. The other dress of the Bramins consists of a piece of white cotton cloth wrapped about the loins, descending below the knee, but lower on the left than on the right side. In cold weather they sometimes put a red cap on their heads, and wrap a shawl round their bodies.—The Khatries, and most other of the inhabitants of this country, wear also pieces of cotton cloth wrapped round them, but which cover the upper as well as the lower part of the body. Ear-rings and bracelets are worn by the men as well as women: and they are fond of ornamenting themselves with diamonds, rubies, and other precious stones, when they can procure them. They wear slippers on their feet of fine woollen cloth or velvet, frequently embroidered with gold and silver; those of princes being sometimes adorned with precious stones. The lower classes wear sandals or slippers of coarse woollen cloth or leather. These slippers are always put off on going into any apartment, being left at the door, or given to an attendant; nevertheless the Hindoos make no complaints of the Europeans for not putting off their shoes when they come into their houses, which must certainly appear very uncouth to them.

Hindoo families are always governed by the eldest male, to whom great respect is shown. Filial veneration is carried to such a height among them, that a son will not sit down in the presence of his father until ordered to do so: and Mr Forster observes, that during the whole time of his residence in India, he never saw a direct instance of undutifulness to parents; and the same is related by other writers.

The houses of the Hindoos make a worse appearance than could be supposed from their ingenuity in other respects. In the southern parts of the country, the houses are only of one story. On each side of the door, towards the street, is a narrow gallery covered by the slope of the roof which projects over it, and which, as far as the gallery extends, is supported by pillars of brick or wood. The floor of this gallery is raised about 20 inches above the level of the street, and the porters, or bearers of palankeens, with the foot soldiers named Peons, who commonly hire themselves to noblemen, often lie down in this place. This entrance leads into a court, which is also surrounded by a gallery like the former. On one side of the court is a large room, on a level with the floor of the gallery; open in front, and spread. spread with mats and carpets covered with white cotton cloth, where the master of the house receives visits and transacts business. From this court there are entrances by very small doors to the private apartments. In the northern parts, houses of two or three stories are commonly met with. Over all the country also we meet with the ruins of palaces, which evidently show the magnificence of former times.

The Bramins of India were anciently much celebrated for their learning, though they now make a very inconsiderable figure in comparison with the Europeans. According to Philostratus, the Gymnosophists of Ethiopia, were a colony of Bramins, who being obliged to leave India on account of the murder of their king near the banks of the Ganges, migrated into that country. The ancient Bramins, however, may justly be supposed to have cultivated science with much greater success than their descendants can boast of, considering the ruinous wars and revolutions to which the country has been subjected. Metaphysics, as well as moral and natural philosophy, appear to have been well understood among them; but at present all the Hindu knowledge is confined to those whom they call Pundits, "doctors or learned men." These only understand the language called Sanskrit or Sanfrit, (from two words signifying perfection); in which the ancient books were written.

The metaphysics of the Bramins is much the same with that of some ancient Greek philosophers. They believe the human soul to be an emanation from the Deity, as light and heat from the sun. Gowtama, an ancient metaphysician, distinguishes two kinds of souls, the divine and vital. The former resembles the eternal spirit from which it came, is immaterial, indivisible, and without passions; the vital soul is a subtle element which pervades all things, distinct from organized matter, and which is the origin of all our desires. The external senses, according to this author, are representations of external things to the mind, by which it is furnished with materials for its various operations; but unless the mind act in conjunction with the senses, the operation is lost, as in that absence of mind which takes place in deep contemplation. He treats likewise of reason, memory, perception, and other abstract subjects. He is of opinion, that the world could not exist without a first cause; chance being nothing but the effect of an unknown cause: he is of opinion, however, that it is folly to make any conjectures concerning the beginning or duration of the world. In treating of providence, he denies any immediate interposition of the Deity; maintaining, that the Supreme Being having created the system of nature, allowed it to proceed according to the laws originally impressed upon it, and man to follow the impulse of his own desires, refrained and conducted by his reason. His doctrine concerning a future state is not different from what we have already stated as the belief of the Hindus in general. According to Bishop Wilkins, many of them believe that this world is a state of rewards and punishments as well as of probation; and that good or bad fortune are the effects of good or evil actions committed in a former state.

The science for which the Bramins, however, were most remarkable, is that of astronomy; and in this their progress was so great, as even yet to furnish matter of admiration to the moderns.—The Europeans first became acquainted with the Indian astronomy in 1687, from a Siamese MS. containing rules for calculating the places of the sun and moon, brought home by M. Loutere the French ambassador at Siam. The principles on which the tables in this MS. were founded, however, proved to be so obscure, that it required the genius of Cassini to investigate them. The missionaries afterwards sent over two other sets of tables from Hindostan; but no attention was paid to them till M. le Gentil returned from observing the transit of Venus in 1769. During the time of his stay in Hindostan, the Bramins had been much more familiar with him on account of his astronomical knowledge, than they usually were with Europeans; and he thus had an opportunity of obtaining considerable insight into their methods of calculation. In consequence of this instruction he published tables and rules, according to the Indian method, in the academy of sciences for 1772; and in the explanation of these M. Bailly has employed a whole volume. The objects of this astronomy, according to Mr Playfair, are, 1. Tables and rules for calculating the places of the sun and moon. 2. Of the planets. 3. For determining the phases of eclipses. They divide the zodiac into 27 constellations, probably from the motion of the moon through it in 27 days; and to this lunar motion the Professor ascribes the general division of time into weeks, which has prevailed to universally throughout the world. The days of the week were dedicated to the planets, as by the ancient heathens of the west, and in precisely the same order. The ecliptic is divided into signs, degrees, and minutes, as with us: and indeed their calculations are entirely sexagesimal, the day and night being divided into 60 hours; so that each of their hours is only 24 of our minutes, and each of their minutes 24 of our seconds.

The requisites for calculating by the Indian tables are, 1. An observation of the celestial body in some past moment of time, which is commonly called the Epoch of the tables. 2. The mean rate of the planet's motion. 3. The correction on account of the irregular motion of the body, to be added or subtracted from the mean place, according to circumstances. They calculate the places of the sun and moon, not from the time of their entrance into Aries, but into the moveable Zodiac. Thus the beginning of the year is continually advancing with regard to the seasons; and in 24,000 years will have made the complete round. The mean place of the sun for any time is deduced on the supposition that 800 years contain 292,207 days; from whence, by various calculations, the length of the year comes out only 1' 53" greater than that of De la Caille; which is more accurate than any of our ancient astronomical tables. In the equation of the sun's centre, however, they commit an error of no less than 16'. But Mr Playfair is of opinion that this cannot be ascribed wholly to their inaccuracy, as there was a time when their calculation approached very near the truth; and even at present the error is less than it appears to be.

The motions of the moon are deduced from a cycle of 19 years; during which she makes nearly 235 revolutions; and which period constitutes the famous cycle supposed to have been invented by Meton the Athenian astronomer, and from him called the Metonic Cycle. They are likewise surprisingly exact in calculating ting the moon's apogee and some of the inequalities of her motion; they know the apparent motion of the fixed stars eastward, and the Siamese tables make it only four seconds too quick; which still shows a great accuracy of calculation, as Ptolemy the celebrated astronomer made an error of no less than 14 seconds in calculating the same thing. M. Cassini, however, informs us, that these tables are not calculated for the meridian of Siam, but for a place 18° 13' to the westward of it, which brings us very near the meridian of Benares, the ancient seat of Indian learning. This likewise agrees with what the Hindoos call their first meridian, which passes through Ceylon, and the banks of the river Remananur. It must be observed, however, that the geography of the Hindoos is much more inaccurate than their astronomy.

The date of the Siamese tables is not very ancient; and that of the table above mentioned sent from Hindostan by the missionaries is still more modern. These, however, are written in such an enigmatical manner, that the missionary who sent them was unable to tell their meaning; and Mr Playfair supposes that even the Bramins themselves were ignorant of it. Nevertheless they were deciphered by M. le Gentil; who thinks that they have the appearance of being copied from inscriptions on stones. The minutes and seconds are not ranged in vertical columns, but in rows under one another, and without any title to point out their meaning or connexion.

The tables of Trivalore are among the most remarkable of all we are yet acquainted with. Their date, according to Mr Playfair, corresponds with the year 3102 B. C. thus running up to the year of the world 902, when Adam was still in life. This era is famous in Hindostan, under the name of Calyougham: and as this extraordinary antiquity cannot but create some suspicion, Mr Playfair has been at some pains to determine whether it is real or fictitious, i.e. whether it has been determined by actual observation, or derived by calculation from tables of more modern date. The result of his labours is, that we are to account the Calyougham as determined by observation; and that had it been otherwise, we must have been furnished with infallible methods of detecting the fallacy. His reasons for this opinion are,

1. The task would have been too difficult, even for modern astronomers, to make the necessary calculations without taking into account the disturbances arising from the action of the heavenly bodies upon one another, and with which we cannot suppose the ancient astronomers to have been equally well acquainted with the moderns. By reason of these variations, as well as from the small errors unavoidable in every calculation, any set of astronomical tables will be found prodigiously inaccurate when applied to any period very far distant from the time of observation. Hence, says our author, "it may be established as a maxim, that if there be given a system of astronomical tables, founded on observations of an unknown date, that date may be found by taking the time when the tables represent the celestial motions most exactly." This indeed might be done, provided we were furnished with any set of perfectly accurate tables with which we could compare the suspected ones; and Mr Playfair thinks it "a very reasonable postulatum," that our modern astronomical tables, though not perfectly accurate, are yet capable of determining the places of the celestial bodies without any sensible error for a longer period than that of the Calyougham.

2. By calculation from our modern tables, it appears that the place of the star Aldebaran, at the commencement of the Calyougham, differs only 53' from what the Indian tables make it. He thinks this coincidence the more remarkable, as the Bramins, by reason of the inaccuracy of their own date, would have erred by four or five degrees, had they calculated from their most modern tables dated in 1491.

3. At the commencement of this epoch (which according to M. Bailly, happened at midnight between the 17th and 18th of February 3102 B. C.) the sun was in 10° 3° 38' 13'' by the Indian tables. But the mean longitude of the sun, according to the tables of M. de la Caille, for the same time, comes out to be only 10° 19' 57'', supposing the precession of the equinoxes to have been the same at that time as now. M. de la Grange, however, has demonstrated, that, in former ages, the precession of the equinoxes was less than at present: whence there arises an equation of 1° 45' 22'' to be added to the sun's place already mentioned; and thus it will differ only 47' from the radical place in the tables of Trivalore. Notwithstanding this reasoning, however, Mr Playfair thinks that no stress is to be laid upon this argument, as it depends on the truth of a conjecture of M. Bailly that the place of the sun above mentioned was not the mean but the true one.

4. The mean place of the moon at Benares, calculated from Mr Mayer's tables, for the 18th of February 3102 B. C. will be 10° 00' 51'' 16'', provided her motion had all that time been equable: but the same astronomer informs us, that the motion of the moon is subject to a small but uniform acceleration, about 9'' in 100 years; which, in an interval of 4801 years, must have amounted to 5° 45' 44''; which added to the preceding, gives 10° 60' 37'' for the true place of the moon at the commencement of the Calyougham. Now the place of this luminary, at that time, by the tables of Trivalore, is 10° 69'; the difference is less than two-thirds of a degree, which, for so remote a period, and considering the acceleration of the moon's motion, for which no allowance could be made in an Indian calculation, is a degree of accuracy that nothing but actual observation could have produced.—This conclusion is confirmed by a computation of the moon's place from all the tables to which the Indians could have any access, and of which the enormous errors would instantly show the deception. Thus, by the tables of Ptolemy, the place of the sun would be 10° 21' 15'' greater; and that of the moon 11° 52' 7'' greater than has just been found from the Indian tables. By those of Ulug Beg, the place of the sun would be 1° 30', and that of the moon 60', different from what it is by the Indian tables; and in like manner our author shows that the Indian calculations could not be derived from any other set of tables extant. In like manner, he shows that, with regard to the mean place of the moon, there is a coincidence for a period of more than 4000 years between the tables of Mayer and those of India named Chirnabouram; which, though they bear a more modern date than those of Trivalore, are thus probably more ancient. From this remarkable coincidence (says Mr Playfair), we may conclude, with the highest probability, that at least one set of these observations on which the tables are founded, is not less ancient than the era of the Calyougham: and though the possibility of their being some ages later than that epoch is not absolutely excluded, yet it may, by strict mathematical reasoning, be inferred, that they cannot have been later than 2000 years before the Christian era.

5. Since the time that M. Bailly wrote, every argument respecting the acceleration of the moon's motion has become more worthy of attention, and more conclusive. For that acceleration is no longer a mere empirical equation introduced to reconcile the ancient observations with the modern, nor a fact that can only be accounted for by hypothetical causes, such as the resistance of the ether, or the time necessary for the transmission of gravity; but a phenomenon which M. de la Place has with great ability deduced from the principle of universal gravitation, and shown to be necessarily connected with the changes of eccentricity in the earth's orbit discovered by M. de la Grange: so that the action of the moon is indirectly produced by the action of the planets, which alternately increasing and diminishing this eccentricity, subjects the moon to different degrees of that force by which the sun disturbs the time of her revolution round the earth. It is therefore a periodical inequality, by which the moon's motion, in the course of ages, will be as much retarded as accelerated; but its changes are so slow, that her motion has been constantly accelerated, even for a much longer period than that to which the observations of India extend.—To M. de la Grange also we are indebted for one of the most beautiful of the discoveries in physical astronomy, viz. That all the variations in our system are periodical; so that, though every thing, almost without exception, be subject to change, it will, after a certain interval, return to the same state in which it is at present, and leave no room for the introduction of disorder, or of any irregularity that might constantly increase. Many of these periods, however, are of vast duration. A great number of ages, for instance, must elapse, before the year be exactly of the same length, or the sun's equation be of the same magnitude, as at present. An astronomy, therefore, which professes to be so ancient as the Indian, ought to differ considerably from ours in many of its elements. If, indeed, these differences are irregular, they are the effects of chance, and must be accounted errors; but if they observe the laws which theory informs us they do, they must be held as the most undoubted marks of authenticity.

6. Neither these tables of Trivalore, nor the more ancient ones of Chirnabouram, are those of the greatest antiquity in India. The Bramins constantly refer to an astronomy at Benares, which they emphatically style the ancient; and which, they say, is not now understood by them, though they believe it to be much more accurate than that by which they calculate.

From these and other similar arguments, Mr Playfair draws the following conclusions with respect to Indian astronomy. 1. The observations on which it is founded, were made more than 3000 years before the Christian era; and, in particular, the places of the sun and moon, at the beginning of the Calyougham, were determined by actual observation. 2. Though the astronomy now in the hands of the Bramins is so ancient in its origin, yet it contains many rules and tables that are of later construction. 3. The basis of their four systems of astronomical tables is evidently the same. 4. The construction of these tables implies a great knowledge of geometry, arithmetic, and even the theoretical part of astronomy. All this, however, we find controverted, or at least rendered somewhat doubtful, by William Marlden, Esq. who has written a paper on the chronology of the Hindus, in the Philosophical Transactions for 1790. "The Kalee Yogo" (says he), or principal chronological era, began in the year 3102 B. C. according to the common method of computation, or in 3101 according to the astronomical method, on the 18th of February, at sunrise; or at midnight, according to different accounts, under their first meridian of Lauka. At that period it is said to be affected by their astronomers, that the sun, moon, and all the planets, were in conjunction according to their mean places. The reality of this fact, but with considerable modification, has received a respectable sanction from the writings of an ingenious and celebrated member of the French academy of sciences, who concludes that the actual observation of this rare phenomenon, by the Hindus of that day, was the occasion of its establishment as an astronomical epoch. Although M. Bailly has supported this opinion with his usual powers of reasoning, and although abundant circumstances tend to prove their early skill in this science, and some parts of the mathematics connected with it; yet we are constrained to question the verity or possibility of the observation, and to conclude rather that the supposed conjunction was, at a later period, sought for as an epoch, and calculated retrospectively. That it was widely miscalculated too, is sufficiently evident from the computation which M. Bailly himself has given of the longitudes of the planets at that time, when there was a difference of no less than 73° between the places of Mercury and Venus. But fifteen days after, when the sun and moon were in opposition, and the planets far enough from the sun to be visible, he computes that all, except Venus, were comprehended within a space of 17°; and on this he grounds his supposition of an actual observation.

"In their current transactions the inhabitants of the peninsula employ a mode of computation of a different nature, which, though not unknown in other parts of the world, is confined to these people among the Hindus. This is a cycle, or revolving period, of 60 for years, which has no farther correspondence with their other eras than that of their years respectively commencing on the same day. Those that constitute the cycle, instead of being numerically counted, are distinguished from each other by appropriate names, which in their epistles, bills, and the like, are inserted as dates, with the months, and perhaps the age of the moon annexed; but in their writings of importance and record, the year of Saka (often called the Saka year) is superadded; and this is the more essential, as I do not find it customary to number the cycles by any progressive reckoning. In their astronomical calculations we observe, that they sometimes compute the year of their era by multiplying the number of cycles elapsed, and adding the complement of the cycle in which it commenced, Hindoos, however, as well as the years of the current cycle; but from hence we are led to no satisfactory conclusion concerning this popular mode of estimating time. The presumption is in favour of its being more ancient than their historical epochs. The present cycle, of which 43 complete years expired in April 1790, began in 1747, with the year of Salaban 1669, and of the grand era 4848. M. le Gentil, to whom Europe is chiefly indebted for what is known of Hindoo astronomy, has fallen into an unaccountable error with regard to the years of this cycle, and their correspondence with those of the Kalee Yoog, as appears by the comparative table he has given of them, and other passages of his work. He seems to have taken it for granted, without due examination, that the years 3600 of the latter must have been produced by the multiplication of the cycle of 60 into itself; and consequently that the first year of this grand era must likewise have been the first of the cycle. But this is totally inconsistent with the fact; the Kalee Yoog began the 13th year of the cycle of 60; and all the reasoning founded on the self-production and harmony of these periods must fall to the ground.*

From what Mr Marfden here sets forth, it is plain that we must make very considerable abatements in our confidence of the extreme antiquity of the Hindoos observations. Indeed we can scarce conceive a possibility of reconciling such extravagant antiquity with the authentic histories of which we are possessed, or with those of Scripture. The want of an ancient history of Hindoostan leaves us indeed in the dark, and gives room for ingenious and speculative men to indulge themselves in marvellous reveries concerning their antiquity. But the flood, we know, which if it existed at all, could not be but general over the whole earth*, must have destroyed every monument of art and science; and it is surely more reasonable to believe, that M. le Gentil, or the most learned man in the present age, has been mistaken (even though we should not be able to determine the particular manner), than at once to deny the authenticity of all history both sacred and profane, and attempt to evade evidence which no power of reasoning can ever set aside.

It is, however, undeniable, that the progress of the Hindoos in geometry as well as astronomy has been very great in ancient times. Of this a most remarkable instance is given by Mr Playfair, in their finding out the proportion of the circumference of a circle to its diameter to a great degree of accuracy. This is determined, in the Ayeen Akbery, to be as 3927 to 1250, and which, to do it arithmetically in the simplest manner possible, would require the inscription of a polygon of 768 sides; an operation which cannot be performed without the knowledge of some very curious properties of the circle, and at least nine extractions of the square root, each as far as ten places of decimals. This proportion of 1250 to 3927 is the same with that of 1 to 3.1416; and differs very little from that of 113 to 355 discovered by Metrns. He and Vieta were the first who surpassed the accuracy of Archimedes in the solution of this problem; and it is remarkable that these two mathematicians flourished at the very time that the Ayeen Akbery was composed among the Hindoos. In geography, however, they are much deficient; and it is very difficult to find out the true situation of the meridians mentioned by their authors from what they have said concerning them.

The art of painting among the Hindoos is in an imperfect state; nor are there any remains of antiquity sculpture, which convince its ever being more perfect than it is just seen now. Their principal defect is in drawing, and they seem to be almost totally ignorant of the rules of perspective. They are much better skilled in colouring, and some of their pictures are finished with great nicety. Their sculptures are likewise rude, and greatly resemble those of the Egyptians. They seem to follow no regular rules in architecture: their temples indeed are filled with innumerable columns, but most of them without any just shape or proportion. They are principally remarkable for their immense size, which gives them an air of majesty and grandeur.

The music of the Hindoos is but little known to Europeans; and the art seems to have made but little progress among them in comparison with what it has done in the western countries; though some of the Indian airs are said to be very melodious. Their musical instruments are very numerous: in war they use a kind of great kettle-drum named nagar, carried by a camel, and sometimes by an elephant. The dole is a long narrow drum flung round the neck; and the tam-tam is a flat kind of drum resembling a tabor, but larger and louder. They use also the cymbal, which they name talan; and they have various sorts of trumpets, particularly a great one named tary, which emits a most doleful sound, and is always used at funerals, and sometimes to announce the death of persons of distinction.

The jugglers among the Hindoos are so expert, that many of the missionaries have ascribed their tricks to and supernatural power; and even to late a traveller as Mr Grofe seems to be not of a very different opinion.* Like the Egyptians, they seem to have the power of charming serpents of their poison, and there are many trollers who go about with numbers of these animals in bags, having along with them a small bagpipe called magouy, which they pretend is useful to bring them from their lurking places. They take the serpents, though of the most poisonous kinds, out of the bags with their naked hands, and throw them on the ground, where they are taught to rear and move about to the found of their music. They say that this is accomplished by means of certain incantations.

The use of fire-arms appears to have been of great antiquity in India. They are prohibited by the code of Gentoo laws, which is certainly of a very ancient date. The phrase by which they are denominated is agneeasler, or weapons of fire; and there is also mention made of shet-agnee, or the weapon that kills an hundred men at once. It is impossible to guess at the time when these weapons were invented among the Hindoos; but we are certain, that in many places of the east, which have neither been frequented by Mohammedans nor Europeans, rockets are almost universally made use of as weapons of war. The Hindoo books themselves ascribe the invention of fire-arms to Baejbkookerma, who formed all the weapons made use of in a war betwixt the good and evil spirits. Fire-balls, or blue lights, employed in besieged places in the night-time, to observe the motions of the besiegers, are met with everywhere through Hindoostan, and are constructed

* See the article Deluge.

22 Great skill of the Hindoos in geometry. constructed in full as great perfection as in Europe. Fireworks also are met with in great perfection; and, from the earliest ages, have constituted a principal article of amusement among the Hindoos. Gunpowder, or a composition somewhat resembling it, has been found in many other places of the east, particularly China, Pegu, and Siam; but there is reason to believe that the invention came originally from Hindostan. Poisoned weapons of all kinds are forbidden in this country.

The Hindoos are remarkable for their ingenuity in all kinds of handicraft; but their utensils are simple, and in many respects inconvenient, so that incredible labour and patience are necessary for the accomplishment of any piece of work; and for this the Hindoos are very remarkable. Lacquering and gilding are used all over the country, and must have been used in very early ages; though in some places the lacquering is brought to much greater perfection than in others.

The principal article of food throughout all Hindostan is rice, and of consequence the cultivation of it forms the principal object of agriculture. In this the most important requisite is plenty of water; and when there happens to be a scarcity in this respect, a famine must be the consequence. To prevent this as far as possible, a vast number of tanks and water-courses are to be met with throughout the country, though in some places these are too much neglected, and gradually going to decay. After the rice is grown to a certain length, it is pulled up, and transplanted into fields of about 100 yards square, separated from each other by ridges of earth; which are daily supplied with water let in upon them from the neighbouring tanks. When the water happens to fall below the level of the channels made to receive it, it is raised by a simple machine named picoti, the construction of which is as follows. A piece of timber is fixed upright in the ground, and forked so as to admit another piece to move transversely in it by means of a strong pin. The transverse timber is flat on one side, and has pieces of wood across it in the manner of steps. At one end of this timber there is a large bucket, at the other a weight. A man walking down the steps throws the bucket into the well or tank; by going up, and by means of the weight, he raises it; and another person standing below empties it into a channel made to convey the water into the fields. The man who moves the machine may support himself by long bamboos that are fixed in the way of a railing from the top of the piece of upright timber towards the wall.

A number of other kinds of grain are to be met with in Hindostan, but wheat is not cultivated farther south than 18° latitude. It is imported, however, to every part of the country by the Banjaries. These are a set of people belonging to no particular cast, who live in tents, and travel in separate bodies, each of which is governed by its own particular regulations. They frequently visit towns on the sea-coast, with bullocks loaded with wheat and other articles; carrying away in exchange spices, cloths, but especially salt, which they carry into the inland parts of the country. Some of their parties have several thousands of oxen belonging to them. They are rarely molested, even in time of war, otherwise than by being sometimes pressed into the service of an army to carry baggage or provisions; but for this they are paid, and dismissed as soon as the service is over. The Hindoos themselves are prohibited from going out of the country, under the severest of all penalties, that of losing their cast.—Notwithstanding this, however, it is certain that they do settle in foreign parts in the character of merchants and bankers. Perhaps these may have a toleration from the principal Bramin, or there may be an exemption for people of their profession; but this is not known. At any rate, wherever they go, they appear inviolably attached to their religious ceremonies, and refuse to eat what is prohibited to them in their own country. The Rytos, or Miserable people who cultivate the ground, are in many places in state of the most miserable situation; their only food being handsome coarse rice and pepper, for which they are obliged to endure all the inclemencies of a burning sun, and the inconveniencies which attend alternately wading in water and walking with their bare feet on the ground heated intensely by the solar rays; by which they are frequently blistered in a miserable manner. All this, however, they submit to with the utmost patience, and without making any complaint, expecting to be released from their sufferings by death; though even then their religion teaches them to hope for nothing more than what they call aborption into the essence of the Deity; a state almost synonymous with what we call annihilation.