a large island lying in the northern part of the Atlantic ocean, between 63 and 68 degrees of north latitude, and between 10 and 26 degrees of west longitude; its greatest length being about 700 miles, and its breadth 300.
This country lying partly within the frigid zone, and being liable to be surrounded with vast quantities of ice which come from the polar seas, is, on account of the coldness of its climate, very inhospitable; but much so for other reasons. It is exceedingly subject to earthquakes; and so full of volcanoes, that the little part of it which appears fit for the habitation of man seems almost totally laid waste by them. The best account that hath yet appeared of the island of Iceland is in a late publication, intitled "Letters on Iceland, &c. written by Uno Von Troil, D.D. first chaplain to his Swedish majesty." This gentleman sailed from London on the 12th of July 1772, in company with Mr Banks, Dr Solander, and Dr James Lind of Edinburgh, in a ship for which 100l. sterling was paid every month. After visiting the Western islands of Scotland, they arrived on the 28th of August at Iceland, where they cast anchor at Bessafjord or Bessafjadr, lying in about 64° 6' N. Lat. in the western part of the island. The country had to them the most dismal appearance that can be conceived. "Imagine to yourself (says Dr Troil) a country, which from one end to the other presents to your view only barren mountains, whose summits are covered with eternal snow, and between them fields divided by vitrified cliffs, whose high and sharp points seem to vie with each other to deprive you of the sight of a little grass which feebly springs up among them. These same dreary rocks likewise conceal the few scattered habitations of the natives, and nowhere a single tree appears which might afford shelter to friendship and innocence. The prospect before us, though not pleasing, was uncommon and surprising. Whatever presented itself to our view bore the marks of devastation; and our eyes, accustomed to behold the pleasing coasts of England, now saw nothing but the vestiges of the operation of a fire, Heaven knows how ancient."
The climate of Iceland, however, is not unwholesome, or naturally subject to excessive colds, notwithstanding its northerly situation. There have been instances indeed of Fahrenheit's thermometer sinking to 24° below the freezing point in winter, and rising to 104° in summer. Since the year 1749, observations have been made on the weather; and the result of these observations hath been unfavourable, as the coldness of the climate is thought to be on the increase, and of consequence the country is in danger of becoming unfit for the habitation of the human race. Wood, which formerly grew in great quantities all over the island, cannot now be raised. Even the hardy firs of Norway cannot be reared in this island. They seemed indeed to thrive till they were about two feet high; but then their tops withered, and they ceased to grow. This is owing chiefly to the storms and hurricanes which frequently happen in the months of May and June, and which are very unfavourable to vegetation of every kind. In 1772, Governor Thodal sowed a little barley, which grew very briskly; but a short time before it was to be reaped, a violent storm so effectually destroyed it, that only a few grains were found scattered about. Besides these violent winds, this island lies under another disadvantage, owing to the floating ice already mentioned, with which the coasts are often beset. This ice comes on by degrees, always with an easterly wind, and frequently in such quantities as to fill up all the gulfs on the north-west side of the island, and even covers the sea as far as the eye can reach; it also sometimes drives to other shores. It generally comes in January, and goes away in March. Sometimes it only reaches the land in April; and, remaining there for a long time, does an incredible deal of mischief. It consists partly of mountains of ice, said to be sometimes 60 fathoms in height; and partly of field ice, which is neither too thick nor too much dreaded. Sometimes these enormous masses are grounded in shoal-water; and in these cases they remain for many months, nay years, undissolved, chilling the atmosphere for a great way round. When many such bulky and lofty ice-masses are floating together, the wood which is often found drifting between them, is so much chafered, and pressed with such violence together, that it sometimes takes fire: which circumstance has occasioned fabulous accounts of the ice being in flames.
In 1753 and 1754, this ice occasioned such a violent cold, that horses and sheep dropped down dead by reason of it, as well as for want of food; horses were observed to feed upon dead cattle, and the sheep ate off each other's wool. In 1755, towards the end of the month of May, the waters were frozen over in one night to the thickness of an inch and five lines. In 1756, on the 26th of June, snow fell to the depth of a yard, and continued falling through the months of July and August. In the year following it froze very hard towards the end of May and beginning of June, in the south part of the island, which occasioned a great scarcity of grafs. These frosts are generally followed by a famine, many examples of which are to be found in the Icelandic chronicles. Besides these calamities, a number of bears annually arrive with the ice, which commit great ravages among the sheep. The Icelanders attempt to destroy these intruders as soon as they get sight of them. Sometimes they assemble together, and drive them back to the ice, with which they often float off again. For want of fire-arms, they are obliged to use spears on these occasions. The government also encourages the destruction of these animals, by by paying a premium of 10 dollars for every bear that is killed, and purchasing the skin of him who killed it.
Notwithstanding this dismal picture, however, taken from Von Troil's letters, some tracts of ground, in high cultivation, are mentioned as being covered by the great eruption of lava in 1783. It is possible, therefore, that the above may have been somewhat exaggerated.
Thunder and lightning are seldom heard in Iceland, except in the neighbourhood of volcanoes. Aurora Borealis is very frequent and strong. It most commonly appears in dry weather; though there are not wanting instances of its being seen before or after rain, or even during the time of it. The lunar halo, which prognosticates bad weather, is likewise very frequent here; as are also parhelions, which appear from one to nine in number at a time. These parhelions are observed chiefly at the approach of the Greenland ice, which an intense degree of frost has produced, and the frozen vapours fill the air. Fire-balls, sometimes round and sometimes oval, are observed, and a kind of ignis fatuus which attaches itself to men and beasts; and comets are also frequently mentioned in their chronicles. This last circumstance deserves the attention of astronomers.
Iceland, besides all the inconveniences already mentioned, has two very terrible ones, called by the natives skridla and snigflodi: the name of the first imports large pieces of a mountain tumbling down and destroying the lands and houses which lie at the foot of it: this happened in 1554, when a whole farm was ruined, and thirteen people buried alive. The other word signifies the effects of a prodigious quantity of snow, which covers the top of the mountains, rolling down in immense masses, and doing a great deal of damage: of this there was an instance in 1699, during the night, when two farms were buried, with all their inhabitants and cattle. This last accident Iceland has in common with all very mountainous countries, particularly Switzerland.
"Iceland abounds with hot and boiling springs, some of which spout up into the air to a surprising height. All the jets d'eau which have been contrived with so much art, and at such an enormous expense, cannot by any means be compared with these wonders of nature in Iceland. The water-works at Herenhausen throw up a single column of water of half a quarter of a yard in circumference to a height of about 70 feet; those at the Winterkotten at Caffel throw it up, but in a much thinner column, 130 feet; and the jet d'eau at St Cloud, which is thought the greatest of all the French water-works, casts up a thin column 80 feet into the air; but some springs in Iceland pour forth columns of water several feet in thickness to the height of many fathoms; and many affirm of several hundred feet.
"These springs are unequal in their degrees of heat; but we have observed none under 188 degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer; in some it is 192, 193, 212, and in one small vein of water 213 degrees. From some the water flows gently, and the spring is then called laug, "a bath;" from others it spouts with a great noise, and is then called Hiver, or kitted. It is very common for some of these spouting springs to close up, and others to appear in their stead. All these hot waters have an incrusting quality, so that we very commonly find the exterior surface from whence it bursts forth covered with a kind of rind, which almost resembles chafed work, and which we at first took for lime, but which was afterwards found by Mr Bergman to be of a siliceous or flinty nature. In some places the water taffes of sulphur, in others not; but when drank as soon as it is cold, tastes like common boiled water. The inhabitants use it at particular times for dyeing; and were they to adopt proper regulations, it might be of still greater use. Viscals may also be boiled in it, and milk held over its steam becomes sweet; owing, most probably, to the excessive heat of the water, as the same effect is produced by boiling it a long time over the fire. They have begun to make salt by boiling sea water over it, which when it is refined, is very pure and good. The cows which drink this hot water yield a great deal of milk. Egbert Olafsen relates, that the water does not become turbid when alkali is thrown into it, nor does it change the colour of syrup of violets. Horrebow affirms, that if you fill a bottle at one of the spouting springs, the water will boil over two or three times while the spring throws forth its water; and if corked too soon, the bottle will burst.
"Among the many hot springs to be met with in Iceland, several bear the name of geyser: the following is a description of the most remarkable of that name, named and in the whole island. It is about two days journey from Hecla, near a farm called Haukadal. Here a poet would have an opportunity of painting whatever nature has of beautiful and terrible, united in one picture, by delineating this surprising phenomenon. Represent to yourself a large field, where you see on one side, at a great distance, high mountains covered with ice, whose summits are generally wrapped in clouds, so that their sharp and unequal points become invisible. This loss, however, is compensated by a certain wind, which causes the clouds to sink, and cover the mountain itself, when its summit appears as it were to rest on the clouds. On the other side Hecla is seen, with its three points covered with ice, rising above the clouds, and, with the smoke which ascends from it, forming other clouds at some distance from the real ones: and on another side is a ridge of high rocks, at the foot of which boiling water from time to time issues forth; and further on extends a marsh of about three English miles in circumference, where are 40 or 50 boiling springs, from which a vapour ascends to a prodigious height.—In the midst of these is the greatest spring geyser, which deserves a more exact and particular account. In travelling to the place, about an English mile and a half from the river, from which the ridge of rocks still divided us, we heard a loud roaring noise, like the rushing of a torrent precipitating itself from stupendous rocks. We asked our guide what it meant; he answered, it was geyser roaring; and we soon saw with our naked eyes what before seemed almost incredible.
"The depth of the opening or pipe from which the water gushes cannot well be determined; for sometimes the water sunk down several fathoms, and some seconds passed before a stone which was thrown into the aperture reached the surface of the water. The opening itself was perfectly round, and 19 feet in diameter," meter, and terminated in a basin 59 feet in diameter. Both the pipe and the basin were covered with a rough basaltic rind, which had been formed by the force of the water; the outermost border of the basin is nine feet and an inch higher than the pipe itself. The water here spouted several times a day, but always by fits and starts, and after certain intervals. The people who lived in the neighbourhood told us, that they rose higher in cold and bad weather than at other times; and Egbert Olafsen and several others affirm, that it has spouted to the height of 62 fathoms. Most probably they guessed only by the eye, and on that account their calculation may be a little extravagant; and indeed it is to be doubted whether the water was ever thrown up so high, though probably it sometimes mounts higher than when we observed it. The method we took to observe the height was as follows. Every one in company wrote down, at each time that the water spouted, how high it appeared to him to be thrown, and we afterwards chose the medium. The first column marks the spoutings of the water, in the order in which they followed one another; the second, the time when these effusions happened; the third, the height to which the water rose; and the last, how long each spouting of water continued.
| No | Time | Height | Duration | |----|--------|--------|----------| | 1 | At VI 42 m. | 30 feet. | 0 20 seconds. | | 2 | 51 | 6 | 0 20 | | 3 | VII 16 | 6 | 0 10 | | 4 | 31 | 12 | 0 15 | | 5 | 51 | 60 | 0 6 | | 6 | VIII 17| 24 | 0 30 | | 7 | 29 | 18 | 0 40 | | 8 | 36 | 12 | 0 40 |
The pipe was now for the first time full of water, which ran slowly into the basin,
| | IX 25 | 48 | 1 10 | |----|-------|----|------| | 10 | X 16 | 24 | 1 00 |
"At 25 minutes after twelve we heard, as it were, three discharges of a gun underground, which made it shake: the water flowed over immediately, but instantly sunk again. At eight minutes after two, the water flowed over the border of the basin. At 15 minutes after three, we again heard several subterranean noises, though not so strong as before. At 43 minutes after four, the water flowed over very strongly during the space of a minute. In five minutes after, we heard many loud subterraneous discharges, not only near the spring, but also from the neighbouring ridge of rocks, where the water spouted. At 51 minutes after six, the fountain spouted up to the height of 92 feet, and continued to do so for four minutes. After this great effort, it sunk down very low into the pipe, and was entirely quiet during several minutes; but soon began to bubble again: it was not, however, thrown up into the air, but only to the top of the pipe.
"The force of the vapours which throw up these waters is excessive: it not only prevents the stones which are thrown into the opening from sinking, but even throws them up to a very great height, together with the water. When the basin was full, we placed ourselves before the sun in such a manner that we could see our shadows in the water; when every one observed round the shadow of his own head (though not round that of the heads of others), a circle of almost the same colours which compose the rainbow, and round this another bright circle. This most probably proceeded from the vapours exhaling from the water.
"Not far from this place, another spring at the foot of the neighbouring ridge of rocks spouted water to the height of one or two yards each time. The opening through which this water issued was not so wide as the other: we imagined it possible to stop up the hole entirely by throwing large stones into it, and even flattered ourselves that our attempts had succeeded: but, to our astonishment, the water gushed forth in a very violent manner. We hastened to the pipe, and found all the stones thrown aside, and the water playing freely through its former channel. In these large springs the waters were hot in the highest degree, and tasted a little of sulphur; but in other respects it was pure and clear. In the smaller springs of the neighbourhood the water was tainted: in some, it was as muddy as that of a clay-pit: in others, as white as milk; and in some few, as red as blood.
"Iceland abounds with pillars of basaltes, which Account of the lower sort of people imagine have been piled upon the basaltic each other by the giants, who made use of supernatural force to effect it. They have generally from three to seven sides; and are from four to six feet in thickness, and from 12 to 16 yards in length, without any horizontal divisions. But sometimes they are only from six inches to one foot in height, and they are then very regular, inasmuch that they are sometimes made use of for windows and door-panes. In some places they only peep out here and there among the lava, or more frequently among the tufa; in other places they are quite overthrown, and pieces of broken pillars only make their appearance. Sometimes they extend without interruption for two or three miles in length. In one mountain they have a singular appearance: on the top the pillars lie horizontally, in the middle they are sloping; the lowest are perfectly perpendicular; and in some parts they are bent into a semicircular figure. The matter of the Iceland basaltes seems to be the same with that of Staffa; though in some it is more porous, and inclines to a gray. Some we observed which were of a blackish gray, and composed of several joints. Another time we observed a kind of porous glassy stone, consequently a lava, which was so indistinctly divided, that we were for some time at a loss to determine whether it was basaltes or not, though at last we all agreed that it was.
"Iron ore is found in some parts of the island, and that beautiful copper ore called malachites. Horrobow speaks of native silver. A stratum of sulphur is found near Myvatu from nine inches to two feet in thickness; partly of a brown colour, and partly of a deep orange. Immediately over the sulphur is a blue earth; above that a vitriolic and aluminous one; and beneath the sulphur a reddish bole.
"At what time the island of Iceland was first peopled History of is uncertain. An English colony indeed is said to the island, have been settled there in the beginning of the fifth century;" Iceland. century; but of this there are not sufficient proofs.
There is, however, reason to suppose that the English and Irish were acquainted with this country under another name, long before the arrival of the Norwegians; for the celebrated Bede gives a pretty accurate description of the island. But of the original inhabitants we cannot pretend to say anything, as the Iceland chronicles go no farther back than the arrival of the Norwegians. What they relate is to the following purpose.
Naddodr, a famous pirate, was driven on the coast of Iceland in 861, and named the country Snio-land, "Snow-land," on account of the great quantities of snow with which he perceived the mountains covered. He did not remain there long; but on his return extolled the country to such a degree, that one Gardar Suafarson, an enterprising Swede, was encouraged by his account to go in search of it in 864. He sailed quite round the island, and gave it the name of Gardalsholmur, or Gardar's island. Having remained in Iceland during the winter, he returned in the spring to Norway, where he described the newly-discovered island as a pleasant well-wooded country. This excited a desire in Floke, another Swede, reputed the greatest navigator of his time, to undertake a voyage thither. As the compass was then unknown, he took three ravens on board to employ them on the discovery. By the way he visited his friends at Ferro; and having sailed farther to the northward, he let fly one of his ravens, which returned to Ferro. Some time after, he dismissed the second, which returned to the ship again, as he could find no land. The last trial proved more successful; the third raven took his flight to Iceland, where the ship arrived a few days after. Floke stayed here the whole winter with his company; and, because he found a great deal of floating ice on the north side, he gave the country the name of Iceland, which it has ever since retained.
When they returned to Norway in the following spring, Floke, and those that had been with him, made a very different description of the country. Floke described it as a wretched place; while one of his companions named Thorulfr, praised it so highly, that he affirmed butter dropped from every plant; which extravagant commendation procured him the name of Thorulfr-senior, or Butter-Thorulfr.
From this time there are no accounts of any voyages to Iceland, till Ingolf and his friend Leif undertook one in 874. They spent the winter on the island, and determined to settle there for the future. Ingolf returned to Norway, to provide whatever might be necessary for the comfortable establishment of a colony, and Leif in the mean time went to assist in the war in England. After an interval of four years, they again met in Iceland, the one bringing with him a considerable number of people, with the necessary tools and instruments for making the country habitable; and the other imported his acquired treasures. After this period many people went there to settle; and, in the space of 60 years, the whole island was inhabited. The tyranny of Harold king of Norway contributed not a little to the population of Iceland; and so great was the emigration of his subjects, that he was at last obliged to issue an order, that no one should sail from Norway to Iceland without paying four ounces of fine silver to the king.
Besides the Norwegians, new colonies arrived from different nations, between whom wars soon commenced; and the Icelandic histories are full of the accounts of their battles. To prevent these conflicts for the future, a kind of chief was chosen in 928, upon whom great powers were conferred. This man was the speaker in all their public deliberations; pronounced sentence in difficult and intricate cases; decided all disputes; and published new laws, after they had been received and approved of by the people at large; but he had no power to make laws without the approbation and consent of the rest. He therefore assembled the chiefs whenever the circumstances seemed to require it; and after they had deliberated among themselves, he represented the opinion of the majority to the people, whose assent was necessary before it could be considered as a law. His authority among the chiefs and leaders, however, was inconsiderable, as he was chosen by them and retained his place no longer than while he preserved their confidence.
This institution did not prove sufficient to restrain the turbulent spirit of the Icelanders. They openly waged war with each other; and, by their intestine conflicts, weakened all parties, that the whole became at last a prey to a few arbitrary and enterprising men; who, as is too generally the case, wantonly abused their power to the oppression of their countrymen, and the disgrace of humanity. Notwithstanding these troubles, however, the Icelanders remained free from a foreign yoke till 1261; when the greatest part of them put themselves under the protection of Hakans king of Norway, promising to pay him tribute upon certain conditions agreed on between them; and the rest followed their example in 1264. Afterwards, Iceland, together with Norway, became subject to Denmark. For a long time the care of the island was committed to a governor, who commonly went there once a-year; though, according to his instructions, he ought to have resided in Iceland. As the country suffered incredibly through the absence of its governors, it was resolved a few years ago that they should reside there, and have their seat at Bessastaðir, one of the old royal domains. He has under him a bailiff, two laymen, a sheriff, and 21 júlísmenn, or magistrates who superintend small districts; and almost everything is decided according to the laws of Denmark.
At the first settlement of the Norwegians in Iceland, they lived in the same manner as they had done in their own country, namely, by war and piracy. Their situation with regard to the kings of Norway, however, soon obliged them to apply to other states, in order to learn as much of the knowledge of government and politics as was necessary to preserve their colony from subjugation to a foreign yoke. For this purpose they often sailed to Norway, Denmark, Sweden, England, and Scotland. The travellers, at their return, were obliged to give an account to their chiefs of the state of those kingdoms through which they passed. For this reason, history, and what related to science, was held in high repute as long as the republican form of government lasted; and the great number of histories Iceland, to be met with in the country, show at least the desire of the Icelanders to be instructed. To secure themselves, therefore, against their powerful neighbours, they were obliged to enlarge their historical knowledge. They likewise took great pains in studying perfectly their own laws, for the maintenance and protection of their internal security. Thus Iceland, at a time when ignorance and obscurity overwhelmed the rest of Europe, was enabled to produce a considerable number of poets and historians. When the Christian religion was introduced, about the end of the 10th century, more were found conversant in the law than could have been expected; considering the extent of the country, and the number of its inhabitants. Fishing was followed among them; but they devoted their attention considerably more to agriculture, which has since entirely ceased.
Two things have principally contributed towards producing a great change both in their character and way of life, viz., the progress of the Christian religion, and their subjection first to Norway, and afterwards to Denmark. For if religion, on one side, commanded them to desist from their ravages and warlike expeditions; the secular power, on the other, deprived them of the necessary forces for the execution of them; and, since this time, we find no farther traces of their heroic deeds, except those which are preserved in their histories.
The modern Icelanders apply themselves to fishing and breeding of cattle. They are middle-sized and well made, though not very strong; and the women are in general ill-featured. Vices are much less common among them, than in other parts where luxury and riches have corrupted the morals of the people. Though their poverty disables them from imitating the hospitality of their ancestors in all respects, yet they continue to show their inclination to it; they cheerfully give away the little they have to spare, and express the utmost joy and satisfaction if you are pleased with their gift. They are uncommonly obliging and faithful, and extremely attached to government. They are very zealous in their religion. An Icelander never passes a river or any other dangerous place, without previously taking off his hat, and imploring the divine protection; and he is always thankful for the protection of the Deity when he has passed the danger in safety. They have an inexplicable attachment to their native country, and are nowhere so happy. An Icelander therefore rarely settles in Copenhagen, though ever such advantageous terms should be offered him. On the other hand, we cannot ascribe any great industry or ingenuity to these people. They work on in the way to which they have all along been accustomed, without thinking of improvements. They are not cheerful in conversation, but simple and credulous; and have no aversion against a bottle, if they can find an opportunity. When they meet together, their chief pastime consists in reading their history. The matter of the house makes the beginning, and the rest continue in their turns when he is tired. Some of them know these stories by heart; others have them in print; and others in writing. Besides this, they are great players at chess and cards, but only for their amusement, since they never play for money; which, however, seems to have been formerly in use among them; since by one of their old laws, a fine is imposed upon those who play for money.
The modern Icelanders have made very little alteration in their dress from what was formerly in use. Their dress. The men all wear a linen shirt next to the skin, with a short jacket, and a pair of wide breeches over it. When they travel, another short coat is put over all. The whole is made of coarse black cloth, called wadmal; but some wear clothes of a white colour. On their head they wear large three-cornered hats, and on the feet Iceland shoes and worsted stockings. Some of them indeed have shoes from Copenhagen; but, as they are rather too dear for them, they generally make their own shoes, sometimes of the hide of oxen, but more frequently of sheep's leather. They make them by cutting a square piece of leather, rather wider than the length of the foot; this they sew up at the toes and behind at the heel, and tie it on with leather thongs. These shoes are convenient enough where the country is level; but it would be very difficult for us who are not accustomed to walk with them amongst the rocks and stones, though the Icelanders do it with great ease.
The women are likewise dressed in black wadmal. They wear a bodice over their shifts, which are sewed up at the bottom; and above this a jacket laced before with long narrow sleeves reaching down to the wrists. In the opening on the side of the sleeve, they have buttons of chafed silver, with a plate fixed to each button; on which the lover, when he buys them in order to present them to his mistress, takes care to have his name engraved along with hers. At the top of the jacket a little black collar is fixed, of about three inches broad, of velvet or silk, and frequently trimmed with gold cord. The petticoat is likewise of wadmal, and reaches down to the ankles. Round the top of it is a girdle of silver or some other metal, to which they fasten the apron, which is also of wadmal, and ornamented at top with buttons of chafed silver. Over all this they wear an upper dress nearly resembling that of the Swedish peasants; with this difference, that it is wider at bottom: this is close at the neck and wrists, and a hand's-breadth shorter than the petticoat. It is adorned with a facing down to the bottom, which looks like cut velvet, and is generally worn by the Icelandic women. On their fingers they wear gold, silver, or brass rings. Their head-dress consists of several cloths wrapped round the head almost as high again as the face. It is tied fast with a handkerchief, and serves more for warmth than ornament. Girls are not allowed to wear this head-dress till they are marriageable. At their weddings they are adorned in a very particular manner; the bride wears, close to the face, round her head-dress, a crown of silver gilt. She has two chains round her neck, one of which hangs down very low before, and the other rests on her shoulders. Besides these, she wears a lesser chain, from whence generally hangs a little heart, which may be opened to put some kind of perfume in it. This dress is worn by all the Icelandic women without exception: only with this difference, that the poorer sort have it of coarse wadmal, with ornaments of brass; and those that are in easier circumstances have it of broad cloth, with silver ornaments gilt. The houses of the Icelanders are very indifferent, but the worst are said to be on the south side of the island. In some parts they are built of drift-wood, in others of lava, almost in the same manner as the stone-walls we make for inclosures, with moss stuffed between the pieces of lava. In some houses the walls are wainscotted on the inside. The roof is covered with sods, laid over rafting, or sometimes over the ribs of whales; the walls are about three yards high, and the entrance somewhat lower. Instead of glaas, the windows are made of the chorion and amnios of sheep, or the membranes which surround the womb of the ewe. These are stretched on a hoop, and laid over a hole in the roof. In the poorer sort of houses they employ for the windows the inner membrane of the stomach of animals, which is less transparent than the others.
As the island of Iceland produces no kind of grain, the inhabitants of consequence have no bread but what is imported; and which being too dear for common use, is reserved for weddings and other entertainments. The following list of their viands is taken from Troil's Letters.
1. Flour of fialgras, (lichen islandicus), or rock-grass. The plant is first washed, and then cut into small pieces by some; though the greater number dry it by fire or in the sun, then put it into a bag in which it is well beaten, and lastly work it into a flour by stamping.
2. Flour of komfyra, (polygonum biflorum), is prepared in the same manner, as well as the two other sorts of wild corn melur (arundo arenaria, and arundo foliorum lateribus convolutis), by separating it from the chaff, pounding, and lastly grinding it.
3. Surt finner, (butter). The Icelanders seldom make use of fresh or salt butter, but let it grow four before they eat it. In this manner it may be kept for 20 years, or even longer; and the Icelanders look upon it as more wholesome and palatable than the butter used among other nations. It is reckoned better the older it grows; and one pound of it then is valued as much as two of fresh butter.
4. Stringi, or whey boiled to the consistence of sour milk, and preferred for the winter.
5. Fifth of all kinds, both dried in the sun and in the air, and either salted or frozen. Those prepared in the last manner are preferred by many.
6. The flesh of bears, sheep, and birds, which is partly salted, partly hung or smoked, and some preserved in casks with four or fermented whey poured over it.
7. Misoð, or whey boiled to cheese, which is very good. But the art of making other kinds of good cheese is lost, though some tolerably palatable is sold in the east quarter of Iceland.
8. Beinafrigg, bones and cartilages of beef and mutton, and likewise bones of cod, boiled in whey till they are quite dissolved: they are then left to ferment, and are eaten with milk.
9. Skyr. The curds from which the whey is squeezed are preserved in casks or other vessels; they are sometimes mixed with black crowberries or juniper-berries, and are likewise eaten with new milk.
10. Syra, is sour whey kept in casks, and left to ferment; which, however, is not reckoned fit for use till a year old.
11. They likewise eat many vegetables, some of which grow wild, and some are cultivated; also shell-fish and mushrooms.
The Icelanders in general eat three meals a-day, at seven in the morning, two in the afternoon, and nine at night. In the morning and evening they commonly eat curds mixed with new milk, and sometimes with juniper or crow-berries. In some parts, they also have pottage made of rock-grass, which is very palatable, or curdled milk boiled till it becomes of a red colour, or new milk boiled a long time. At dinner, the food consists of dried fish, with plenty of sour butter; they also sometimes eat fresh fish, and, when possible, a little bread and cheese with them. It is reported by some, that they do not eat any fish till it is quite rotten; this report perhaps proceeds from their being fond of it when a little tainted: they however frequently eat fish which is quite fresh, though, in the same manner as the rest of their food, often without salt.
The common beverage is milk, either warm from the cow or cold, and sometimes boiled: they likewise use butter-milk with or without water. On the coasts they generally drink blanda and four milk; which is sold after it is skimmed at two-fifths of a rixdollar per cask: some likewise send for beer from Copenhagen, and some brew their own. A few of the principal inhabitants also have claret and coffee. The common people sometimes drink a kind of tea, which they make from the leaves of dryas ostepetala, and the veronica officinalis.
On the coasts the men employ themselves in fishing, both summer and winter. On their return home, when they have drawn and cleaned their fish, they give manufactures, them to their wives, whose care it is to dry them. In &c., the winter, when the inclemency of the weather prevents them from fishing, they are obliged to take care of their cattle, and spin wool. In summer, they mow the grass, dig turf, provide fuel, go in search of sheep and goats that were gone astray, and kill cattle. They prepare leather with the spiraea ulmaria instead of bark. Some few work in gold and silver; and others are instructed in mechanics, in which they are tolerable proficient. The women prepare the fish, take care of the cattle, manage the milk and wool, sew, spin, and gather eggs and down. When they work in the evening, they use, instead of an hour-glass, a lamp with a wick made of epilobium dipt in train oil, which is contrived to burn four, six, or eight hours.
Among the common people of Iceland, time is not reckoned by the course of the sun, but by the work they have done, and which is prescribed by law. According to this prescription, a man is to mow as much hay in one day as grows on 30 fathoms of manured foil, or 40 fathoms of land which has not been manured; or he is to dig 700 pieces of turf eight feet long and three broad. If as much snow falls as reaches to the horses' bellies, a man is required daily to clear a piece of ground sufficient for 100 sheep. A woman is to rake together as much hay as three men can mow, or to weave three yards of wadmal a-day. The wages of a man are fixed at four dollars and 12 yards of wadmal; and those of a woman at two dollars and five yards of wadmal. When men are sent a-fishing out of the country, there is allowed to each man, by law, from the 25th of September to the 14th of May, five pounds of butter, and 18 pounds of dried fish every week. This may seem to be too great an allowance; but it must be remembered that they have nothing else to live upon. When they are at home, and can get milk, &c., every man receives only five pounds of dried fish and three quarters of a pound of butter a-week.
The food and manner of life of the Icelanders by no means contribute to their longevity. It is very rare indeed to see an inhabitant of Iceland exceed the age of 50 or 60; and the greater part are attacked by grievous diseases before middle age. Of these the feverish and elephantiasis or leprosy are the worst. They are also subject to the gout in their hands, owing to their frequent employment in fishing, and handling the wet fishing-tackle in cold weather. St Anthony's fire, the jaundice, pleurisy, and lowness of spirits, are frequent complaints in this country. The small-pox also is exceedingly fatal, and not long ago destroyed 16,000 persons. By these diseases, and the frequent famines with which the country has been afflicted, the inhabitants are reduced to a much smaller number than they formerly were, inasmuch that it is computed they do not in all exceed 60,000.
The exports of Iceland consist of dried fish, salted mutton and lamb, beef, butter, tallow, train-oil, coarse woollen cloth, stockings, gloves, raw wool, sheep-skins, lamb-skins, fox-furs of various colours, eider down, feathers, and formerly sulphur; but there is no longer a demand for this mineral. On the other hand, the Icelanders import timber, fishing-lines and hooks, tobacco, bread, horse-hoes, brandy, wine, salt, linen, a little silk, and a few other necessaries, as well as superfluities for the better sort. The whole trade of Iceland is engrossed by a monopoly of Danes, indulged with an exclusive charter. This company maintains factories at all the harbours of Iceland, where they exchange their foreign goods for the merchandise of the country; and as the balance is in favour of the Icelanders, pay the surplus in Danish money, which is the only current coin in this island. All their accounts and payments are adjusted according to the number of fish: two pounds of fish are worth two shillings in specie, and 48 fish amount to one rixdollar. A Danish crown is computed at 30 fish: what falls under the value of 12 fish cannot be paid in money; but must be bartered either for fish or roll-tobacco, an ell of which is equal to one fish. The weights and measures of the Icelanders are nearly the same with those used in Denmark. The Icelanders being neither numerous nor warlike, and altogether unprovided with arms, ammunition, garrisons, or fleets, are in no condition to defend themselves from invasion, but depend entirely on the protection of his Danish majesty, to whom they are subject. The revenues which he draws from this island consist of the income of divers estates, as royal demesne, amounting to about 8,000 dollars per annum; of the money paid by the company for an exclusive trade, to the value of 20,000 dollars; and of a fixed proportion in the tythes of fish paid in some particular districts.
Iceland is noted for the volcanoes with which it abounds, as already mentioned, and which seem to be more furious than any yet discovered in the other parts of the globe. Indeed, from the latest accounts, it would seem that this miserable country were little other than one continued volcano. Mount Hecla has been commonly supposed to be the only burning mountain, or at least the principal one, in the island (see Hecla). It has indeed been more taken notice of than many others of as great extent, partly from its having had more frequent eruptions than any single one, and partly from its situation, which exposes it to the sight of ships sailing to Greenland and North America. But in a list of eruptions published in the appendix to Pennant's Arctic Zoology, it appears, that out of 51 remarkable ones, only one-third have proceeded from Hecla, the other mountains it seems being no less active in the work of destruction than this celebrated one. These eruptions take place in the mountains covered with ice, which the inhabitants call Jokuls. Some of these, as appears from a large map of Iceland made by order of his Danish majesty in 1734, have been swallowed up. Probably the great lakes met with in this country may have been occasioned by the sinking of such mountains, as several instances of a similar nature are to be met with in other parts of the world. The great Icelandic lake called Myvatn may probably have been one. Its bottom is entirely formed of lava, divided by deep cracks, which shelter during winter the great quantity of trout which inhabit this lake. It is now only 30 feet deep, but originally was much deeper; being nearly filled up in the year 1718 by an eruption of the great mountain Krafla. The fiery stream took its course towards Myvatn, and ran into it with a horrid noise, which continued till the year 1730.
"The mountains of Iceland (says Mr Pennant) are of two kinds, primitive and posterior. The former consist of strata usually regular, but sometimes confused. They are formed of different sorts of stone without the least appearance of fire. Some are composed of sand and free-stone, petroflex or chert, flinty or fissile stone, and various kinds of earth or bole, and steatites; different sorts of breccia or conglomerated stones; jaspers of different kinds, Iceland crystal; the common rhomboid spathum, chalcedonies stratified, and botryoid; zeolites of the most elegant kinds; crystals, and various other substances that have no relation to volcanoes. These primitive mountains are those called Jokuls, and are higher than the others. One of them, called Æsjan or Riar, is 6,000 feet high. It seems to be composed of great and irregular rocks of a dark gray colour, piled on each other. Another, called Enneberg, is about 3,000 feet high; the Snæfells Jokul, 2,287 yards; the Snæfellsnes or promontory of Snæfells is from 300 to 400 fathoms. Hornstrandir or the coast by the north Cape Nord is very high, from 300 to 400 fathoms. The rocks of Drango are seven in number, of a pyramidal figure, rising out of the sea at a small distance from the cliffs, four of which are of a vast height, and have a most magnificent appearance.
"Eastward from the Snæfells begins the Esjaerge, soaring to a vast height; many parts of which have felt the effects of fire, and in some of the melted rocks are large cavities. Budda-lekkr, a rock at one end of this mountain, is also volcanic, and has in it a great cavern hung with stalactites. The name of Solvahammer is given to a tremendous range of volcanic rocks, composed entirely of flags, and covered in the season with sea-fowl. It would be endless, however, to mention all the places which bear the marks of fire in various forms, either by having been vitrified, changed into a fiery colour, ragged and black, or bear the marks of having run for miles in a sloping course towards the sea."
These volcanoes, though so dreadful in their effects, seldom begin to throw out fire without giving warning. A subterraneous rumbling noise, heard at a considerable distance, as in other volcanoes, precedes the eruption for several days, with a roaring and cracking in the place from whence the fire is about to burst forth; many fiery meteors are observed, but generally unattended with any violent concussion of the earth, though sometimes earthquakes, of which several instances are recorded, have accompanied these dreadful conflagrations. The drying up of small lakes, streams, and rivulets, is also considered as a sign of an impending eruption; and it is thought to hasten the eruption when a mountain is so covered with ice, that the holes are stopped up through which the exhalations formerly found a free passage. The immediate sign is the bursting of the mass of ice with a dreadful noise; flames then issue forth from the earth, and lightning and fire balls from the smoke; stones, ashes, &c., are thrown out to vast distances. Egbert Olafsen relates, that, in an eruption of Kattlegia in 1755, a stone weighing 290 pounds was thrown to the distance of 24 English miles. A quantity of white pumice stones is thrown up by the boiling waters: and it is conjectured with great probability, that the latter proceeds from the sea, as a quantity of salt, sufficient to load several horses, has frequently been found after the mountain has ceased to burn.
To enumerate the ravages of so many dreadful volcanoes, which from time immemorial have contributed to render this dreary country still less habitable than it is from the climate, would greatly exceed our limits. It will be sufficient to give an account of that which happened in 1783, and which from its violence seems to have been unparalleled in history.
Its first signs were observed on the 1st of June by a trembling of the earth in the western part of the province of Skipterfjall. It increased gradually to the 11th, and became at last so great that the inhabitants quitted their houses, and lay at night in tents on the ground. A continual smoke or steam was perceived rising out of the earth in the northern and uninhabited parts of the country. Three fire-spouts, as they were called, broke out in different places, one in Ulfarfdal, a little to the east of the river Skapta; the other two were a little to the westward of the river called Ilverfjflot. The river Skapta takes its rise in the north-east, and running first westward, it turns to the south, and falls into the sea in a south-east direction. Part of its channel is confined for about 24 English miles in length, and is in some places 200 fathoms deep, in others 100 or 150, and its breadth in some places 100, 50, or 40 fathoms. Along the whole of this part of its course the river is very rapid, though there are no considerable cataracts or falls. There are several other such confined channels in the country, but this is the most considerable.
The three fire-spouts, or streams of lava, which had broke out, united into one, after having risen a considerable height into the air, arriving at last at such an amazing altitude as to be seen at the distance of more than 200 English miles; the whole country, for double that distance, being covered with a smoke or steam not to be described.
On the 8th of June this fire first became visible. Vast quantities of sand, ashes, and other volcanic matters were ejected, and scattered over the country by the wind, which at that time was very high. The atmosphere was filled with sand, brimstone, and ashes, in such a manner as to occasion continual darkness; and considerable damage was done by the pumice stones which fell, red hot, in great quantities. Along with these a tenacious substance like pitch fell in vast quantity; sometimes rolled up like balls, at other times like rings or garlands, which proved no less destructive to vegetation than the other. This shower having continued for three days, the fire became very visible, and at last arrived at the amazing height already mentioned. Sometimes it appeared in a continued stream, at others in flashes or flames seen at the distance of 30 or 40 Danish miles (180 or 240 of ours), with a continual noise like thunder, which lasted the whole summer.
The same day that the fire broke out there fell a vast quantity of rain, which running in streams on the hot ground tore it up in large quantities, and brought it down upon the lower lands. This rain-water was much impregnated with acid and other salts, so as to be highly corrosive, and occasion a painful sensation when it fell on the hands or face. At a greater distance from the fire the air was excessively cold. Snow lay upon the ground three feet deep in some places; and in others there fell great quantities of hail, which did very much damage to the cattle and every thing without doors. Thus the grass and every kind of vegetation in those places nearest the fire was destroyed, being covered with a thick crust of sulphurous and footy matter. Such a quantity of vapour was raised by the contest of the two adverse elements, that the sun was darkened and appeared like blood, the whole face of nature seeming to be changed; and this obscurity seems to have reached as far as the island of Britain; for during the whole summer of 1783, an obscurity reigned throughout all parts of this island; the atmosphere appearing to be covered with a continual haze, which prevented the sun from appearing with his usual splendour.
The dreadful scene above described lasted in Iceland for several days; the whole country was laid waste, and the inhabitants fled everywhere to the remotest parts of their miserable country, to seek for safety from the fury of this unparalleled tempest.
On the first breaking out of the fire, the river Skapta was considerably augmented, on the east side of which one of the fire spouts was situated; and a similar overflow of water was observed at the same time in the great river Piorfa, which runs into the sea a little little to the eastward of a town called Orrebakka, and into which another river called Tuna, after having run through a large tract of barren and uncultivated land, empties itself. But on the 11th of June the waters of the Skapta were lessened, and in less than 24 hours totally dried up. The day following, a prodigious stream of liquid and red hot lava, which the fire-pot had discharged, ran down the channel of the river. This burning torrent not only filled up the deep channel above mentioned, but, overflowing the banks of it, spread itself over the whole valley, covering all the low grounds in its neighbourhood; and not having any sufficient outlet to empty itself by, it rose to a vast height, so that the whole adjacent country was overflowed, infusing itself between the hills, and covering some of the lower ones. The hills here are not continued in a long chain or series, but are separated from one another, and detached, and between them run little rivulets or brooks; so that, besides filling up the whole valley in which the river Skapta ran, the fiery stream spread itself for a considerable distance on each side, getting vent between the above-mentioned hills, and laying all the neighbouring country under fire.
The spouts still continuing to supply fresh quantities of inflamed matter, the lava took its course up the channel of the river, overflowing all the grounds above, as it had done those below the place whence it issued. The river was dried up before it, until at last it was flopped by the hill whence the Skapta took its rise. Finding now no proper outlet, it rose to a prodigious height, and overflowed the village of Buland, consuming the houses, church, and every thing that stood in its way: though the high ground on which this village stood seemed to ensure it from any danger of this kind.
The fiery lake still increasing, spread itself out in length and breadth for about 36 English miles; and having converted all this tract of land into a sea of fire, it stretched itself toward the south, and getting out again by the river Skapta, rushed down its channel with great velocity. It was still confined between the narrow banks of that river for about five miles (English); but coming at last into a more open place, it poured forth in prodigious torrents with amazing velocity and force; spreading itself now towards the south, tearing up the earth, and carrying on its surface flaming woods and whatsoever it met with. In its course it laid waste another large district of land. The ground where it came was cracked, and sent forth great quantities of steam long before the fire reached it; and every thing near the lake was either burnt up or reduced to a fluid state. In this situation matters remained from the 12th of June to the 13th of August; after which the fiery lake no longer spread itself, but nevertheless continued to burn; and when any part of the surface acquired a crust by cooling, it was quickly broken by the fire from below; and tumbling down among the melted substance, was rolled and tossed about with prodigious noise and cracking; and in many parts of its surface, small spouts or at least ebullitions, were formed, which continued for some length of time.
In other directions this dreadful inundation proved no less destructive. Having run through the narrow Iceland part of the channel of Skapta as early as the 12th of June, it stretched out itself towards the west and southwest, overflowing all the flat country, and its edge being no less than 70 fathoms high at the time it got out of the channel of the river. Continuing its destructive course, it overflowed a number of villages, running in every direction where it could find a vent. In one place it came to a great cataract of the river Skapta, about 14 fathoms in height, over which it was precipitated with tremendous noise, and thrown in great quantities to a very considerable distance. In another place it flooded up the channel of a large river, filled a great valley, and destroyed two villages by approaching only within 100 fathoms of them. Others were overflowed by inundations of water proceeding from the rivers which had been stopped in their courses; until at last all the passages on the south, east, and west, being stopped, and the spouts still sending up incredible quantities of fresh lava, it burst out to the north and north-east, spreading over a tract of land 48 miles long and 36 broad. Here it dried up the rivers Tuna and Axafjordri; but even this vast effusion being insufficient to exhaust the subterraneous resources of liquid fire, a new branch took its course for about eight miles down the channel of the river Ikerfjord, when coming again to an open country, it formed what our author calls a small lake of fire, about twelve miles in length and six in breadth. At last, however, this branch also stopped on the 16th of August; the fiery mountains ceased to pour forth new supplies, and this most astonishing eruption came to a period.
The whole extent of ground covered by this dreadful inundation was computed at no less than 90 miles long and 42 in breadth; the depth of the lava being from 16 to 20 fathoms. Two rivers were dried up, 20 or 21 villages were destroyed, and 224 people lost their lives. The extent above mentioned, however, is that only on the south, east and west; for that towards the north being over uninhabited land, where no body cared to venture themselves, was not exactly known. Some hills were covered by this lava: others were melted down by its heat; so that the whole had the appearance of a sea of red hot and melted metal.
After this eruption two new islands were thrown up from the bottom of the sea. One, about three miles in circumference, and about a mile in height, made its appearance in the month of February 1784, where there was formerly 100 fathoms of water. It was about 100 miles south-west from Iceland, and 48 from a cluster of small islands called Gierfugal. It continued for some time to burn with great violence, sending forth prodigious quantities of pumice-stones, sand, &c. like other volcanoes. The other lay to the north-west, between Iceland and Greenland. It burnt day and night without intermission for a considerable time; and was also very high, and larger than the former. Since that time, however, one or both of these islands have been swallowed up.
All the time of this great eruption, and for a considerable time after, the whole atmosphere was loaded with smoke, steam, and sulphureous vapours. The sun was sometimes wholly invisible; and when it could be seen was of a reddish colour. Most of the fisheries Iceland. ries were destroyed; the banks where the fish used to resort being so changed, that the fishermen could not know them again; and the smoke was so thick, that they could not go far out to sea. The rain water, falling through this smoke and steam, was so impregnated with salt and sulphureous matter, that the hair and even the skins of the cattle were destroyed; and the whole grass of the island was covered with foot and pitchy matter, that what had escaped the destructive effects of the fire became poisonous; so that the cattle died for want of food, or perished by eating those unwholesome vegetables. Nor were the inhabitants in a much better situation; many of them having lost their lives by the poisonous qualities of the smoke and steam with which the whole atmosphere was filled; particularly old people, and such as had any complaint in the breast and lungs.
Before the fire broke out in Iceland, there is said to have been a very remarkable eruption in the uninhabited parts of Greenland; and that in the northern parts of Norway, opposite to Greenland, the fire was visible for a long time. It was also related, that when the wind was in the north, a great quantity of ashes, pumice, and brimstone, fell upon the north and west coasts of Iceland, which continued for the whole summer whenever the wind was in that quarter; and the air was always very much impregnated with a thick smoke and sulphureous smell.
During the fall of the sharp rain formerly mentioned, there was observed at Trondheim, and other places in Norway, and likewise at Faw, an uncommon fall of sharp and salt rain, which totally destroyed the leaves of the trees, and every vegetable it fell upon, by scorching them up, and causing them to wither. A considerable quantity of ashes, land, and other volcanic matters, fell at Faro, which covered the whole surface of the ground whenever the wind blew from Iceland, though the distance between the two places is not less than 480 miles. Ships that were sailing betwixt Copenhagen and Norway were frequently covered with ashes and sulphureous matter, which stuck to the masts, sails, and decks, befouling them all over with a black and pitchy substance. In many parts of Holland, Germany, and other northern countries, a sulphureous vapour was observed in the air, accompanied with a thick smoke, and in some places a light gray-coloured substance fell upon the earth every night; which, by yielding a bluish flame when thrown into the fire, evidently showed its sulphureous nature. On those nights in which this substance fell in any quantity, there was little or no dew observed. These appearances continued, more or less, all the months of July, August, and September.
Some curious particulars relative to the ancient state of this island have lately been published by a Mr Vhorkelyn, a native of the country. From his work it appears that Iceland, for a very considerable space of time, viz. from the beginning of the 10th to the middle of the 13th century, was under a republican form of government. At first the father, or head of every family, was an absolute sovereign; but in the progress of population and improvement, it became necessary to form certain regulations for the settlement of disputes concerning the frontiers of different estates. For this purpose the heads of the families concerned assembled themselves, and formed the outlines of a republic. In the mean time they carried on a prosperous trade to different parts; sending ships even to the Levant, and to Constantinople, at that time celebrated as the only seat of literature and humanity in the world. Deputies were likewise sent from this island over land to that capital, for the improvement of their laws and civilization; and this a whole century before the first crusade. In these ancient Icelandic laws, therefore, we meet with evident traces of those of the Greeks and Romans. For example, besides a body of written laws which were read every third year to the people, they had two men chosen annually by the heads of families, with consular power, not only to enforce the laws then in being, but when these proved deficient, to act as necessity required.
These laws do not appear to have inflicted capital punishments upon any person. Murderers were banished to the woods; that is, to the interior and uncultivated parts of the island: where no person was allowed to approach them within a certain number of fathoms. In cases of banishment for lesser crimes, the friends of the offender were allowed to supply him with necessaries. The culprit, however, might be killed by any person who found him without his bounds; and he might even be hunted and destroyed in his sanctuary, provided he did not withdraw himself from the island within a twelvemonth after his sentence, which it was supposed he might accomplish by means of the annual arrival and departure of ships. Every man's person was free until he had forfeited his rights by some crime against society; and so great was their respect for independence, that great indulgence was allowed for the power of passion. If any provoking word or behaviour had been used, no punishment was inflicted on the party who resented it, even though he should have killed his adversary.
By the laws of Iceland, the poor were committed to the protection of their nearest kindred, who had a right to their labour as far as they were able to work, and afterwards to indemnification if the poor person should acquire any property. Children were obliged to maintain their parents in their old age; but if the latter had neglected to give them good education, they were absolved from this duty.
While the republic of Iceland continued free and independent, ships were sent from the island to all parts of the world. Till very lately, however, not a ship belonged to it, the little commerce it enjoyed being monopolized by a Danish company, until in 1786 it was laid open to all the subjects of Denmark. "There is at present (says Mr Pennant *) a revival of the cod fishery on the coast of Iceland from our kingdom. About a dozen of vessels have of late sailed from the Isle of Thanet, and a few from other parts of Great Britain. They are either sloops or brigs from 50 to 80 tons burden. A lug-sail boat, such as is used in the herring fishery, sailed last season from Yarmouth thus equipped. The crew consisted of five men from the town, and five more taken in at the Orkneys. They had twelve lines of 120 fathoms each, and 200 or 300 hooks; six heading knives, twelve gutting and twelve splitting knives. They take in 18 tons of salt at Leith, at the rate of three tons to every thousand fish; of which six or seven thousand is a load for a vessel of this