CHAP. I. HISTORY OF ICHTHYOLOGY.

Definition. ICHTHYOLOGY (from the Greek ἰχθύς, "a fish," and ἀνάγνωσις, "dilcours"), is that part of zoology which treats of fishes.

Fishes are such animals as have a heart with one auricle and one ventricle, with cold red blood, which inhabit water, and breathe by means of gills. Most of the species are likewise distinguished by fins and scales.

The very element in which fishes live prevents us from following their motions with exactness, from studying their instincts, and from noting with fidelity their specific differences. Their colours often vary, according to the accidental circumstances of age, sex, climate, season, breeding, &c., and often vanish in the open air, or with the principle of life. On the same shores unknown kinds seldom occur; and when they do, they may pass unnoticed by the illiterate fisherman. Hence, the natural history of the finny tribe has, in all ages, been involved in greater obscurity than that of land animals, which are more readily subjected to the investigation of the learned and the curious. Hence, Aristotle, Pliny, and Belon, in treating of fishes, have mingled much fable with some truths, and have even confounded classes which nature has distinctly separated. Such, too, is the ambiguity which now attaches to their vague and unscientific nomenclature, and such, we may add, is the indispensable limitation of our plan, that we shall forbear enlarging on the ichthyological portions of their writings. The classical and inquisitive reader may, however, derive entertainment and some instruction from a careful perusal of their text, and of some of the most ingenious and judicious annotations of more recent scholars and naturalists.

To the names just mentioned, we may add that of Athenaeus, who, in the seventh book of his Deipnosophistes, dilcours of fishes. Ovid celebrates them in his Halieuticon; and his example has been followed, not without success, by Oppian, a Greek poet, who flourished in the second century, under the reign of Caracalla. Aujonius, a native of Bordeaux, who died towards the conclusion of the fourth century, in his admired poem on the Mollusca, has not forgotten to sing of its inhabitants.

In the more downward periods of the dark and middle ages, no writer of eminence appears in this department of natural history. Indeed, the first who laid the foundation of ichthyological arrangement was Pierre Belon, a French physician, born in 1518, and advantageously known by his travels in Judaea, Greece, and Arabia, as well as by his writings in natural history. Some of his divisions of fishes, as the eleventh, which comprises the flat species that are not cartilaginous; the twelfth, those that are both flat and cartilaginous; the thirteenth, which includes the Squalli, &c., are deduced from natural resemblances; but others are more fanciful; and the wooden cuts are deficient in accuracy and neatness. Belon was an industrious, and rather an acute observer, who wrote with pleasing naiveté, and who should rank high in the estimation of the learned world, when we reflect on the few resources of which he could avail himself. His history of fishes appeared in 1551. That of his countryman, Rondelet, was published three years afterwards, and exhibited more accurate descriptions and figures, with many excellent remarks, the result of his own observation. In point of arrangement, however, Rondelet's work is extremely imperfect, and even puerile. He tells us, for example, &c., that, after very mature deliberation, he resolved to begin with the gill-head, because it was best known to the ancients and moderns, and highly prized for its delicacy. He had, however, the merit of exciting a general taste for the study of ichthyology; and Salviani, Boffetti, Conrad Gessner, Pison, &c., who followed him in rapid succession, contributed their share to the stock of scientific facts, though they made few advances to the construction of a natural order.

In 1605, Aldrovandus, who published a large compilation on natural history, distributed the fishes according to the nature of their residence; thus, his first book treats of those that frequent rocks; the second is devoted to the littoral; the third to the pelagian, &c. Several authors, whom we cannot stay to name, displayed their talents, with more or less felicity, on the same subject. But their labours were eclipsed by those of Willoughby, whose work, entitled De Historia Piscium Willoughbii, was printed at Oxford in 1686, and unfolded by many new and accurate notions relative to the anatomy and physiology of fishes. His arrangement may be considered as an improved modification of that of Belon. The celebrated Ray published, in 1707, his Synopsis Methodica Piscium, which may be regarded as an abridged and corrected view of Willoughby's larger work, and as indicating, if not fixing, a series of genera. This valuable descriptive catalogue continued to be appealed to as a standard, till the combined genius of Araldi and Linnaeus effected an important reform in the science of ichthyology.

Araldi, the countryman and friend of the great Araldi Swedish naturalist, had adopted his principles, and was engaged in applying them to the systematic illustration of fishes, when death prematurely arrested the prosecution of his design. His illustrious friend put the finishing hand to his papers, and published them in the form of two octavo volumes, under the title of Bibliotheca Ichthyologica, and Philosophia Ichthyologica, which Walbaum re-edited, in four volumes, in 1792. Thus, then, to Araldi we may ascribe the merit of having first traced the outlines of that classification of fishes which has now become so popular in Europe; for he first instituted orders and genera, and defined the characters on which these divisions are founded. Independently of the cetaceous tribes, which are now generally clasped with the mammalia, and of which we have treated in the History, the article Cetology, his method consisted of four great divisions or orders, namely, the Malacoptygian, Acanthopterygian, Branchiopterygian, and Chondropterygian. The first denoted those species which have soft fins, or fins with bony rays but without spines, and included twenty-one genera; the second, those with spiny fins, containing fifteen genera; the third, corresponding to the amphibia nantes of Linnaeus which want the operculum or branchiostegous membrane; and the fourth, the Linnaean amphibia nantes which have not true bones, but only cartilages, and the rays of whose fins hardly differ from a membrane. In his first edition of the System of Nature, Linnaeus wholly adopted the Arctedian method. With regard to the changes which he afterwards introduced, it would be unnecessary to state them in this rapid historical sketch, especially as we purpose to follow his divisions in our systematic exposition.

Those ichthyologists who have proposed methods in opposition to that of Linnaeus, have usually fallen short of the latter in point of simplicity. Thus Klein, who vainly attempted to rival the professor of Upsala, distributed fishes into three sections, according as they had lungs, and visible or invisible gills; but his subdivisions were so numerous and complex, that his scheme has never been adopted. That of Gronovius was, at least for a few years, much more favourably received. It is principally founded on the presence or absence, and the number or the nature, of the fins. The first class includes all the cetaceous animals, and the second all the fishes. The chondropterygian, and the osseous or bony, form two great divisions; and the osseous are subdivided into branchiostegous and branchial. These last are grouped according to the Linnaean rules; but, in the formation of the genera, the number of dorsal fins is admitted as a character, which Linnaeus has, perhaps injudiciously, overlooked, and which gives rise to several genera which are not to be found in the System of Nature.—Brunnich laboured, with much pains and considerable ingenuity, to combine the Linnaean and Arctedian divisions; but his system remained without encouragement or support.—Scopoli boldly struck out a new path, and assumed the position of the anus as the basis of his three primary divisions. His secondary characters sometimes coincide with those of Gronovius, and sometimes with those of Linnaeus; while his third series of distinctions is sometimes drawn from the form of the body, and sometimes from the teeth. Gouan, the celebrated professor of botany at Montpellier, preferred the Linnaean genera, but formed his greater divisions from the union of those of Linnaeus and Arctedi. His two principal sections are, of fishes with complete, and of those with incomplete, gills; and the first is divided into two others, viz., acanthopterygian, and malacoptygian, in each of which are ranged the apodæ, jugular, thoracic, and abdominal species. The same process is followed in the second section, which includes the branchiostegous and the chondropterygian.

All the authors who have just passed under our review, with the exception of Belon, Rondelet, and Gronovius, published their works without any regular series of plates illustrative of their descriptions. Among those who embellished their volumes with valuable figures, we have to mention Seba, in his large collection of subjects belonging to natural history,—Catesby, in his History of Carolina,—Broussonet, in his Ichthyologia,—and Bloch, in his Natural History of Fishes, first published at Berlin in German, and in French in 1785, and recently republished in a small form, by Deterville, at Paris, forming part of the extensive work entitled Histoire Naturelle de Buffon, &c. Bloch's original work includes about 600 species of fishes, which are generally described with great accuracy, figured, as nearly as circumstances will admit, of the natural size, and beautifully coloured. The author enters with some minuteness into the history of those which afford food for man, or which suggest facts worthy of remark. He has followed the Linnaean method, and made considerable additions to the number of genera.

La Cépéde, the friend and continuator of Buffon, has Of La Cépéde likewise executed an elaborate and extensive undertaking on the natural history of fishes. He divides this class of animals into two secondary classes, viz., the cartilaginous and the osseous. Each of these subordinate classes consists of four divisions, taken from the combinations of the presence or absence of the operculum, and of the branchial membrane; thus, the first division of the cartilaginous includes those fishes which have neither operculum nor branchial membrane; the second, those which have no operculum, but a membrane; the third, those which have an operculum, but no membrane; and the fourth, those which have both. The same characters, stated in the inverse order, determine the divisions of the osseous species. Each of these divisions is again distributed into the Linnaean orders, and these, in turn, into the Linnaean genera. The contents of the latter, however, do not always correspond with the enumerations in the System of Nature; for the French zoologist has withdrawn many species from their former categories, and ranged them under new genera. His innovations in this respect are, perhaps, not always improvements; and some of his generic appellations, as gobie, gobiofore, gobioïde, gobionere, and gobiomoride, pomacanthe, pomacanxe, pomadafis, and pomatome, &c., are too nearly allied in sound and orthography, to be readily discriminated by the memory. We have, moreover, to regret that the plates are not coloured, and that they are executed on too small a scale. Yet, after every deduction which even rigid criticism may require from the merits of this publication, enough will remain to attest the industry and the talents of its author, and to justify the high rank which he has obtained among the writers on ichthyology.

Before closing even these very condensed notices, it would be unpardonable to omit reminding our readers, that the British fishes have found an able and entertaining expositor in Mr Pennant, to whom the natural history of this country is under many obligations. In the third volume of his British Zoology, this author describes the fishes under the three great divisions of cæcæus, cartilaginous, and bony. The latter, which is by far the most numerous, he subdivides into four sections, entitled, agreeably to the Linnaean orders, apodæ, thoracic, jugular, and abdominal.

Besides the sources of information to which we have referred, the curious inquirer into the history of fishes may occasionally resort to Duhamel's General Treatise. CHAP. II. ANATOMY OF FISHES.

THE shape of the body of fishes is subject to considerable varieties. It is said to be compressed, when the diameter, from side to side, is less than from back to belly; and depressed, on the contrary, when the diameter, from side to side, is greater than from back to belly. It is cylindrical, when it is circular in the greater part of its length; eniform, or sword-shaped, when the back and belly terminate in a sharp edge, or when the body gradually tapers from the head to the tail; cultrated, or knife-shaped, when the back is somewhat flat, and the angle below acute; carinated, or keel-shaped, when the back is rounded, and the under part of the belly acute, through its length; oblong, when the longitudinal diameter is much longer than the transverse; oval, when the longitudinal diameter not only exceeds the transverse, but the base is circular, and the apex more acute; orbicular, when the longitudinal and transverse diameters are nearly equal; lamellated, or pear-shaped, when oblong, and attenuated at both extremities; cuneiform, or wedge-shaped, when the body gradually flattens towards the tail; conical, when it is cylindrical, and grows gradually more slender towards the tail; ventricose, when the belly is very prominent; gibbous, when the back presents one or more protuberances; annulated, when the body is surrounded by rings, or elevated lines; articulated, when it is covered with connected and bony plates; trigon, tetragon, pentagon, and hexagon, when the sides are plain, with three, four, or six longitudinal angles; if the number of these angles exceed five, it is termed a polygon.

The surface of the body of fishes is termed naked, when it is destitute of scales; scaly, when provided with them; smooth, when the scales are without angles, furrows, roughness, or inequalities; lubricious, or slippery, when invested with a mucous or flimsy humour; tuberculated, or rough, when covered with prominent warts or tubercles; papillous, when covered with fleshy points; spinous when the apertures are elongated, and pointed at their extremities; loricated, or maimed, when the body is inclosed in a hard, callous, or bony integument, or in scales so closely united as to seem but one; fasciated, or banded, when marked with transverse zones from the back to the belly; striped, when marked with very narrow, scattered, and coloured streaks; wittated, when marked with longitudinal zones along the side, from the head to the tail; reticulated, or chequered, when marked with lines forming the appearance of net-work; pointed, or dotted, when marked with points, either longitudinally disposed, or without order; and variegated, when of different colours.

The parts of the body are either external, or internal: the former include the head, trunk, and fins; the latter, the skeleton, muscles, and viscera.

1. The head is always placed at the anterior part of the body, and reaches from the extremity of the snout to the gills.

Several of the technical terms already defined, are applied to the head as well as to the whole body; but others, which are more appropriate, require to be explained. Obtuse or truncated, denotes that the head is blunt, or terminated by a transverse line; acute, that it terminates in an acute angle; slanting, that it presents an inclined plane, from the top of the anterior part to the extremity of the snout; acutated, or prickly, that it is armed with sharp points or spines; unarmed, that it is without spines or tubercles; beardless, that it is without cirri, &c.

The head contains the mouth, nose, jaws, lips, teeth, tongue, palate, nostrils, eyes, branchial opercula, the branchio-branchial membrane, the aperture of the gills, and the nape.

The mouth is that cavity, which is terminated in front by its own orifice; on the sides, by the branchial opercula; and behind, by the throat. It is superior, when placed at the upper part of the head; inferior, when at the lower part; vertical, when it descends perpendicularly from the upper part; transverse, or horizontal, when it is parallel to the surface of the water when the fish swims; oblique, when it is neither vertical nor horizontal; tubular, or fissural, when the orifice is narrow, round, and deep; slanting, or flat-nosed, when the orifice is not prominent or deep.

The nose, or snout, is the fore part of the head, extending from the eyes to the extremity of the jaws. It is cuspidated when its apex terminates in a sharp point or brittle; spatula-shaped, when its extremity is flattened and extended; bifid, forked, or lobed, when its extremity is divided into two lobes; triquetrous and tetraquetrous, when it has three or four flat sides; and reflex, when it is incurved towards the belly.

The jaws are always two in number, and differ in different species chiefly in respect of figure and proportion. They are sabulata, or awl-shaped, when they are rounded at the base, and are gradually attenuated towards the apex; carinated, or keel-shaped, when the lower jaw is longitudinally ridged, either without or within; equal, when both are of the same length; unequal, when one projects beyond the other; naked, when not covered with lips; labiate, when covered with one or two lips; edentulated, when destitute of teeth; dentated, or toothed, when furnished with teeth of unequal size; dentato-crenated, when the bones are formed into the appearance of teeth; cirrated, or circrated, when furnished with cirri, or brittle membranaceous appendages, which hang from one or both jaws; vaginated, or fleathed, when the margin of one covers that of the other; arched, or covered, when furnished with a membranaceous veil, attached before, and loofe behind. Anatomy behind, within which, and the upper or under part of the mouth, the fish lays its tongue, or discharges water from its mouth; and moveable, when they can be thrust out or drawn in.

The lips are obvious only in a few fishes, and are either of a fleshy or bony consistence. They are also distinguished into plicated, or consisting of folds, and retractile, or capable of being drawn out or in, at the pleasure of the animal.

The teeth are acute, when their extremity terminates in a point; obtuse, when it is rounded; granular, when the teeth are of the size and shape of small grains; plane, when flat on the sides; semi-sagittate, when hooked on one side only; serrated, when toothed like a saw on the margin; emarginate, when the extremity is somewhat cleft; recurved, when inclined towards the gullet; parallel, when of the same direction, length, and figure; diverging, when the apices stand wide, or distant from each other; similar, when they are all of the same size and figure; dissimilar, when some are acute, and others obtuse; ordinate, when disposed in one or more rows; confused, when crowded, and not disposed in any regular order.

The tongue is termed acute or obtuse, according as its extremity terminates in a point, or is rounded; it is emarginate, or bifid, when the extremity is divided into two lobes; carinated, when angulated on the upper or lower surface; dentated, when its surface is furnished with teeth; and papillose, when covered with fleshy points.

The palate is that part of the mouth which is included between the base of the jaws and the origin of the oesophagus. It is either smooth, when its surface is destitute of tubercles, teeth, and asperities; or denticulated, when furnished with teeth.

The nostrils are orifices, almost always situated in the rostrum, before the eyes. They are anterior, when they occupy the fore part of the rostrum, and are somewhat distant from the eyes; posterior, when situated at the base of the rostrum, and very near the eyes; superior, when on the crown of the head, between the eyes, and close to them; cylindrical, when they form a tube; single, or solitary, when there is only one on each side of the head; and double, when there are two on each side.

The eyes are always two, and are composed of two principal parts, which as they are visible from without belong to the description of the external structure. These parts are the pupil and the iris. The first occupies the centre of the globe; and is usually spherical, but sometimes oval; and the second is the coloured circle which surrounds the pupil, and is often furnished with a distinct ring. It is, for the most part black or gold-coloured, but sometimes it assumes a filvery hue.

The eyes are said to be covered, when they are enveloped in the skin, or in a nictitating membrane; semi-covered, when this membrane is arched, or lunate, or perforated like a ring; naked, when destitute of a nictitating membrane; vertical, when situated on the crown of the head; lateral, when placed on the sides of the head; binocular, when they are both on the same side of the head; plane, or depressed, when the convexity of the ball does not exceed the surface of the head; convex, when the convexity projects beyond this surface; salient, when the eyes are very prominent.

The branchial opercles, are fleshy or bony processes, situated on both sides of the head, behind the eyes, opercles, closing the aperture of the gills, and sustaining the branchial membrane. They are termed simple, when composed of a single piece; diphyllous, triphyllous, or tetraphyllous, when consisting of two, three, or four pieces; flexible, or soft, when they can be easily bent; sub-arcuated, when the posterior margin is rounded; fimbriate, when the branchial opening seems to be excavated out of the substance of the opercula; acuminate, when the hinder plate runs out into a sharp process; ciliated, when the posterior margin is fringed, or set with membranous fleshy appendages; frenated, or bridled, when connected with the body by means of a membrane; scabrous, when their surface is covered with asperities; striated, when marked with hollow and nearly parallel lines; radiated, when the lines run like rays, from the centre to the edge; grooved, when the lines appear in no regular order; aculeated, when the posterior margin is terminated by one or more spines; serrated, when it is cut like the teeth of a saw; scaly, when the surface of the opercles is covered with scales.

The branchial or branchioleous membrane, is a true fin, formed of cartilaginous crooked bones, joined by a thin membrane, lurking under the opercula, to which it adheres, and is capable of being folded or expanded, as necessity requires. This membrane is said to be patent, when it projects beyond the margin of the opercula; retracted or latent, when it is concealed under them; covered, when concealed under them, yet so as to be visible without hurting them.

The aperture of the gills, is a cleft commonly lateral, which opens between the opercula and the trunk, by means of the gills. It is arcuated, or arched, when it represents a crescent; operculated, when quite covered by the opercula; pipe-shaped, when in the form of a tube. Its place, in some of the cartilaginous species, is supplied by vents, or spiracles, which are either round, arched, lateral, or inferior, i.e., placed underneath the body.

The nape is the hind and terminating part of the head, which is attached to the first vertebra of the trunk, in the region of the gills. It is carinated, when its surface is sharply angulated; plane, when flat, and on a level with the body; and fulcated, when ridged or furrowed.

2. The trunk is that part of the body, which extends from the nape and branchial aperture, to the extremity of the tail. It comprehends the gills, throat, thorax, back, sides, abdomen, lateral line, anus, tail, and scales.

The gills, or branchiae, consist, for the most part, of four crooked, parallel, unequal bones, furnished, on the outer or convex part, with small soft appendages, like the barbs of a feather, and generally of a red colour. They are aculeated, when the concave or interior part has spines instead of tubercles; anomalous, when some are ciliated, others tuberculated, or of a different structure; denuded, when wanting opercles, the branchioleous membrane, or both; peckinated, when the convex or exterior part, towards the branchial aperture, Anatomy of fishes furnished with red fætaceous rays, or lamellæ; without drawn, when not conspicuous, lying nearer the throat than the aperture; simple, when furnished either with filaments or tubercles; approaching, when they correspond to the same aperture.

The throat is that part which corresponds to the branchial apertures, and is placed between them. It is swelling, when it exceeds the level of the body and the head; carinated, when angulated underneath; plane, when on a level with the thorax and head.

The thorax is that part which begins at the extremity of the throat, and is terminated by a line drawn to the insertion of the pectoral fins.

The back is the upper part of the trunk, extending from the nape to the origin of the tail. It is apterygious, without fins; monopterygious, dipterygious, &c., with one, or two fins; convex, higher in the middle than toward the sides; serrated, having a deep longitudinal furrow for the same purpose.

The sides are that part of the trunk, which reaches from the gills to the anus, between the back and the abdomen. They are sometimes marked with zones, lines, spots, or points.

The abdomen is the under part of the trunk, between the posterior extremity of the thorax and the origin of the tail. It is carinated, or acute through its length; serrated, when the scales forming the carina are tipped like the teeth of a saw; plane, when without prominence or depression.

The lateral line usually commences at the extremity of the branchial opercles, runs along the sides, and terminates at the caudal fin. It is formed by lines, dots, or small tubercles. It is straight, when it presents no inflexion through its length; curved, when it inclines to the back or belly; broken, when divided into two or more parts, which follow different directions; obliterated, when scarcely perceptible; double, when there are two on each side; smooth, when without prickles or tubercles; aculeated, when furnished with spines; defending, when it runs obliquely from the head to the tail; inferior, when situated on the lower part of the side; loricated, or mailed, when rough with small bones, or hard scaly tubercles; mean, when situated in the middle of the side; obsolete, when nearly effaced; porous, when punctured with small holes; sinuous, when bent in a waving line; solitary, when there is one line on each side; superior, when on the upper part of the side, near the back; banded, when covered with a longitudinal zone, coloured or silvery.

The anus is the external orifice of the rectum. It is jugular, when situated under the branchial opercles; pectoral, when under the gills; mean, when equally removed from the head and extremity of the tail; remote, when near the tail.

The tail is the solid part of the trunk, which it terminates, being situated behind the anus. It is round, as in the lamprey and eels; carinated, when its surface presents some sharp angle; muricated, when beset with spines or tubercles; apterygious, when destitute of fins; dipterygious, when the fin is divided at the base.

The scales are pellucid, cartilaginous, or horny teguments, which usually cover the trunk. They are oval, when one extremity is rounded, and larger than the other; orbiculate, when nearly round; smooth, when destitute of sensible angles or asperities; ciliated, when the margin is set with fætaceous processes; serrated, when the margin is toothed like a saw; imbricated, when the scales partly cover one another, like tiles on a roof; rare, when sensibly separated from one another; deciduous, when they easily fall off; tenacious, when they are detached with difficulty; remote, when separated from one another; verticillate, when surrounding the body in rings.

3. The fins consist of several rays connected by a fine, tender film, or membrane; and they are raised, expanded, or moved in various directions, by means of appropriate muscles. The rays of the fins are either jointed and flexible small bones, whose extremity is often divided into two parts; or hard and prickly, without division at the extremity. In some cases, those on the back of the fish are furnished with membranaceous appendages, simple, or palmated, and adhering to the apex or sides.—The fins, according to their position, are denominated dorsal, pectoral, ventral, anal, or caudal.

The dorsal fins are situated on the upper part of the body, between the head and the tail. Their number varies from one to three, and so gives rise to the epithets monopterygious, dipterygious, and tripterygious. If the back has no fin, it is said to be apterygious. The form, size, and situation of the dorsal fins have likewise suggested various technical appellations; but few of these require to be particularly defined. We shall notice, therefore, only the belly, which are covered with a thick skin, or muscular substance; and the ramenaceous, which are furnished with membranaceous or filamentous appendages.

The pectoral fins are situated on each side, about the aperture of the gills. In some species, they are wanting; in others, solitary, or one on each side; in a few they are double, i.e., two on each side; in some, they are falcated, or arched above, and concave below.

The ventral or inferior fins are always placed on the under part of the fish; but at a greater distance from the mouth. They are abdominal, when placed in the belly, behind the pectoral fins, and not fixed in the sternum, but in the olla pelvis; deform, when they have a spine or cirrhus, besides the officies; jugular, when placed under the throat before the pectoral fins, and fixed to the clavicles; multiradiated, when they have several rays, though seldom exceeding seven; thoracic, when placed under the pectoral fins, often a little behind them, but always fixed to the sternum.

The anal fin is placed between the anus and the caudal fin. It is bifurcated, or two-forked, when the officies in the middle are short; coalescing, when united with the caudal fin; longitudinal, when it extends from the anus to the tail; posterior, when placed at the end of the tail, near the caudal fin.

The caudal fin is situated vertically, at the extremity of the body. It is equal, or entire, when its rays are of equal length; lanceolate, when the rays in the middle are longer than the others; emarginate, when they are shorter than the others; bifid, when they are very short; trifid, when the fin is divided into three lobes; coalescing, when united with the dorsal and anal fins; culpitated, when attenuated at the apex, or terminating in a fætaceous point; fetiferous, when a filiform appendage proceeds from the division. Internal Parts.

1. The skeleton of a fish is the assemblage of bones which constitutes the frame-work of its body. The number of these bones is not uniform in each individual, but varies according to age and species. They may be conveniently divided into those of the head, thorax, abdomen, and fins.

The head contains a considerable number of bones; that of the perch, for example, has eighty. As the limited nature of our plan precludes minute specification, we shall indicate only a few of the most important. The skull covers the whole head, its sides frequently forming the sockets of the eyes, the temples, and the cheeks. The upper and lower jaw-bones are placed on the fore part of the head. The upper is more or less of an arched form. In some fishes it is wanting, and its place is supplied by a portion of the skull. The lower jaw is usually arched or triangular, and its length regulates that of the snout, or rostrum. The bones of the palate are, for the most part, four, viz. two on each side of the fauces, oval, and nearly plane, often crowded with teeth, or rough with tubercles, or furrowed transversely, the base of one connected with the apex of the other. The gills are attached to these osseous parts by a cartilage. The opercular bones are situated at the hind part of the jaws, on each side of the head, and behind the eyes. In some species, they form a part of the upper jaw. The hyoid bone is an osseous part situated between the two sides of the lower jaw, serving as a basis for the tongue, presenting the figure of a V, and occasionally furnished with a hook.

The thorax is a cavity principally formed by the vertebrae, the sternum, the clavicles, and the scapulae. The vertebrae form the back-bone, which reaches from the skull to the extremity of the tail. They are stronger and thicker towards the head, and grow weaker and more slender towards the tail. Each species has a determinate number of vertebrae, which grow with the body. They are furnished with transverse and spiny processes, the former of which are marked by transverse lines, by the number of which, it is supposed, the age of fishes may be known. The spinal marrow is contained in the canal which passes through the vertebrae. The sternum in fishes is not cartilaginous, as in other animals, but always bony. Its form varies considerably, being sometimes triangular, sometimes rounded before, and pointed behind, but most frequently of a rhomboidal figure. It occupies the fore part of the thorax, and closes that cavity. The clavicles are two bones situated transversely behind the opening of the gills; and are sometimes formed by two osseous united. They are attached to the first vertebra. The scapulae are two flat, rhomboidal, or arched bones, situated on the lateral side of the body, under the posterior margin of the clavicles, and serving as a basis to the pectoral fins. When the scapulae are wanting, the pectoral fins are attached to the sternum, or to the margin of the clavicles.

The abdomen forms a cavity always larger than that of the thorax, extending from the extremity of the latter to the anus. It is encompassed by the ribs and the osseous pelvis. The ribs are bony arches, situated obliquely on the lateral parts of the abdomen, having their upper extremity articulated with the extremity of the transverse processes of the vertebrae. Their number is very variable. In those species which are without ribs, the absence of the latter is compensated by the length and direction of the transverse processes of the vertebrae. The osseous pelvis are two bones which defend the viscera contained in the abdomen. The ventral fins are usually attached to their posterior margin. When these fins are wanting, or when they are attached under the throat, or on the thorax, the osseous pelvis are also wanting. The tail is composed of certain bones, which terminate the vertebral column. The processes of each vertebra of the tail are incident to great variety in respect of number and dimensions.

The fins are formed of a certain number of osseous, connected to one another by firm membranes. The dorsal and anal fins are supported by the inter-spinous bones (osseous inter-spinosa), which lie between the pointed processes of the vertebrae, and are connected with them by a ligament. The rays of the anal fin have nearly the same conformation as those of the dorsal.

2. The muscles are an assemblage of small bundles of fibrous fibres, partly red, and partly whitish, enveloped in a common membrane. The first of these is called the fleshly portion of the muscle, the second, the tendon. Each muscle, thus composed, is susceptible of contraction and dilatation. The former is accompanied by a visible swelling, hardening, wrinkling, and shortening of the muscle, and the latter by its elongation, expansion, and recovery of its former softness and flexibility. Its force, in general, depends on the quantity of fibrous matter which enters into its composition, and its moving power on the length and size of the fibres. The muscles vary much in respect of number, size, and situation. There are two which proceed from the head to the tail, along the sides of the body, and thence denominated lateral muscles. Each of these seems to be composed of several transverse muscles, which are similar and parallel. There are four situated at the caudal fin, namely, three superior, and one inferior. Of the two former, one is straight, and two are oblique. The fourth occupies the half of the lower extremity of the tail. There are likewise four at each pectoral fin, namely, two erectors and two depressors; the two former situated on the external surface of the clavicles and scapulae, and the two latter under these parts. Each ventral fin has three muscles, one erecter and two depressors; the first placed over the whole external surface of the osseous pelvis, and the two latter on the internal surface of the same part. The cardinal muscles of the back and tail are slender, and closely united, occupying the space that is left between the lateral muscles. Their number is always proportioned to that of the dorsal fins. Fishes, for example, which have no dorsal fin, have but one pair of cardinal muscles, those which have one dorsal fin, have two pairs, and those which have two dorsal fins, have three pairs, viz. one pair between the first and second fin, another between the two fins, and a third between the second dorsal and the caudal fin. The proper inter-spinous muscles are those whose office it is to raise or depress the dorsal and anal fins. Each inter-spinous ray is furnished with four, two erectors, and two depressors. The dilating muscle of the branchioleus membrane is small, and attached by its anterior extremity, partly under the angle of the lower Anatomy of Fishes.

Lower jaw, and partly to the sides of the or pelvis. It is fixed to the branchial membrane by as many tendons as there are tendons in the membrane.

3. Organs and viscera.—The brain of fishes is a very small organ, relative to the size of the head. It is divided into three equal lobes, of which the two anterior are contiguous; the third being placed behind, and forming the cerebellum. These three lobes are surrounded by a frothy matter, resembling saliva. In this region the optic and olfactory nerves are easily discovered.

The esophagus, or gullet, begins at the bottom of the throat, and extends, in a straight line, to the upper orifice of the stomach. It is membranous, smooth, and lined with a mucous humour.

The stomach is a membranous sack, sometimes cylindrical or spherical, and sometimes divided into two lobes.

The swimming, or air-bladder, or sound, is an oblong, white, membranous bag, sometimes cylindrical, sometimes elliptical, and sometimes divided into two or three lobes, of different lengths. It is usually situated between the vertebrae and the stomach, and included within the peritoneum. In some fishes it communicates with the stomach, and in others, with the esophagus. The flat fishes are unprovided with this organ.

The intestines, which in man are placed transversely, have a longitudinal position in fishes, and are all connected with the substance of the liver. They are in general very short, making only three turns, the last of which terminates in a common outlet or vent. The appendices, or secondary intestines, are very numerous, composing a group of worm-like processes, all ultimately terminating in two large canals, opening into the first intestine, into which they discharge their peculiar fluid.

The liver is commonly of a yellowish colour. It is situated on the right or left side, or in the anterior region of the abdomen, of whose cavity it fills about two-thirds. It is sometimes simple, and sometimes divided into two, three, or more lobes. It usually contains a large portion of oil or fat.

The gall-bladder is oval or oblong, and lies under the right side of the liver. It communicates with the stomach or the intestines, by means of the cystic duct and the choledochic canal.

The spleen varies in form and position. Sometimes it is all of a piece; sometimes divided into many lobes, which adhere only by very slender filaments. In some individuals it is black, in others it has the red hue of clotted blood. It is placed near the backbone, and at a place where it is subject to an alternate contraction and dilatation, from the pressure of the air-bag, which is situated in its neighbourhood.

Almost all fishes are provided with the urinary bladder. Its form is nearly oval. It terminates under the tail; and has no communication with the rectum.

The kidneys are two flat bodies, of a pyramidal form, as long as the abdomen, and of a reddish colour. They are attached to the vertebrae, separated from the cavity of the abdomen by the peritoneum, and frequently prolonged from the diaphragm to the region of the urinary bladder.

The diaphragm is a white and shining membrane which separates the thorax from the abdomen. This partition is partly fleshy and partly tendinous.

The peritoneum, or membrane investing the contents of the abdomen, is thin and of a blackish colour.

The ovaries, in the females, are disposed into two large oblong bodies, one on each side of the abdomen; and the milt or soft-roe, in the male, appears in a similar form in the same part.

The pericardium is a small bag which contains the heart.

The heart is a viscus situated on the sternum, under the posterior gills. It varies considerably in form, being sometimes flat, frequently triangular or pyramidal, &c. Its position is not transverse, as Arvedi has alleged, but longitudinal, as in quadrupeds. It consists of one ventricle and one auricle. The sides of the former are rugose, and exhibit many small cavities. The latter is a very slender muscular bag, with a larger cavity than that of the ventricle, and forming the communication between the heart and

The venous sinus. The capacity of this last is still greater than that of the auricle. Its position is transverse, corresponding to that of the diaphragm. It communicates with the auricle by a large aperture, and receives at the other end three large trunks of veins.

The aorta is an artery attached to the apex of the heart, and sending out numberless branches to the gills, on which it is subdivided into ramifications so minute as to escape the eye unless assisted by a glass.

The blood of fishes is red, and the red particles are not round as in the mammalia, but oval as in the amphibia.

Dr Monro's elaborate description of the absorbent system in fishes, is thus stated by Dr Shaw in the fourth volume of his General Zoology.

"On the middle of the belly, immediately below the outer skin, a lymphatic vessel runs upwards from the vent, and receives branches from the sides of the belly and the fin below the vent; near the head this lymphatic passes between the two pectoral fins, and having got above them, receives their lymphatics: it then goes under the juncture of the two bones which form the thorax, where it opens into a net-work of very large lymphatics which lie close to the pericardium, and almost surrounds the heart: this net-work, besides that part of it behind the heart, has a large lymphatic on each side, which receives others from the kidney, runs upon the bone of the thorax backwards, and when it has got as far as the middle of that bone, sends off a large branch from its inside to join the thoracic duct; after detaching this branch, it is joined by the lymphatics of the thoracic fins, and soon after by a lymphatic which runs upon the side of the fish; it is formed of branches, which give it a beautiful penniform appearance. Besides these branches, there is another set lying deeper, which accompanies the ribs; after the large lymphatic has been joined by the above-mentioned vessels, it receives others from the gills, orbit, nose, and mouth: a little below the orbit another net-work appears, consisting in part of the vessels above described, and of the thoracic duct: this net-work is very complete, some of its vessels lying on each side the muscles of the gills, and from its internal part a trunk is sent out, which terminates in the jugular vein.

"The lacteals run on each side of the mesenteric arteries, CHAP. III. PHYSIOLOGY AND HABITUDES OF FISHES.

MOST of the observations which belong to this section may be referred to the general topics of respiration, external senses, motion, nourishment, reproduction, and duration.

1. Respiration.

This important animal function is performed, in fishes, by means of gills, which supply the place of lungs. Though all fishes live in water, the presence of air is not less necessary to their existence than to our own. If a carp, for example, be put into a large vase of water, from which the air is extracted by the air-pump, a number of bubbles are observable on the surface of the fish's body; soon after, the animal breathes swifter and with greater difficulty; then rises to the surface to get more air; the bubbles on its surface begin to disappear; next, the belly, which was swollen, will suddenly fall, and the fish sink to the bottom, convulsed and expiring. For the same reason, if the external air be excluded from a small pond by a sufficient and durable covering of ice, the fish within it will be killed: or if a hole be made in the ice, before it be too late, they will all come near it for a fresh supply of air. In ordinary cases, a fish in the water first receives a quantity of that element by the mouth, from which it is driven to the gills; these close and prevent the water so swallowed from returning by the mouth, at the same time that their bony covering prevents it from passing through them, until the proper quantity of air has been drawn from it. The covers then open, and give it a free passage: by which means the gills also are again opened, and admit a fresh body of water.

Should the free play of the gills be suspended, or their covers kept from moving, by a string tied round them, the fish would soon fall into convulsions, and die in a few minutes. Though the branchial apparatus be comprised in a small compass, its surface, if fully extended, would occupy a very considerable space, since that of the common skate is equal to the surface of the human body. This single fact may convince us of the numberless convolutions and ramifications in which the included water is elaborated and attenuated in the course of giving out its air in the respiratory process. This process, in fishes, as in the human subject, is carried on during sleep, and is repeated about twenty-five times in a minute.

Atmospheric air, though in small quantities, is thus imparted to the blood at the ramifications of the gills, without, however, depriving it of a large share of the hydrogenated and carbonized substances furnished by the aliments; and, consequently, without communicating to it so much of the vermilion tinge as is observable in warm blooded animals with lungs. Hence the oily quality of the blood of fishes, and the greatly congestion which take place in their livers, and in the abdominal regions of animals whose respiration is slow or scanty. The act of breathing is, in reality, a species of combustion; and the temperature of animals, in whose system this combustion is imperfectly performed, is necessarily low. As that of fishes is little elevated above the mean temperature of water, some species, as eels and gudgeons, are occasionally benumbed by the winter's cold, and remain concealed in the mud or sand, without motion, food, or breathing, till the warmth of spring roules them from their torpor. As Physiology the bottom of the sea, however, probably preserves a pretty equal degree of heat at all times, the myriad tribes which inhabit it are permanently secured against the inclemency of the season. The tardy circulation of the blood in fishes may likewise, in some measure, depend on their mode of respiration. The heart of the carp contracts only thirty-six times in the course of a minute, or about half as often as that of a man. In the carnivorous species of fishes, as the shark, pike, salmon, &c., the heart is comparatively larger, the circulation more rapid, and the breathing more powerful. Active, robust, and courageous, they are also less encumbered with fat, and their liver is less bulky than in the other species. It deserves to be remarked, however, that the blood in fishes, after being thrown by the heart into the ramification of the gills, is collected again by a vast number of small veins, somewhat in the same manner as in the mammalia; but instead of returning to the heart again, these vessels unite and form a descending aorta, without the intervention of an auricle and ventricle, a circumstance which may also materially contribute to the slowness of the circulation.

For some time it was believed, that the cartilaginous fishes were provided with internal lungs, an idea which has been abandoned by later physiologists, who have proved, that the supposed lungs are only a peculiar modification of gills. To the want of lungs we may ascribe the want of voice: for, though some kinds of fishes, as those of the genus Balistes, when seized, discharge a quantity of air and water with a rattling noise, and the rubbing of the fins on the scales sometimes produces an indistinct rattling sound; yet both are very different from anything like audible language that can be understood among the individuals of a species.

2. External Sense.

That fishes possess the faculty of seeing, is evident from the accuracy with which they direct their motions to the objects of their pursuit. Their organs of vision, too, are admirably adapted to the circumstances of their condition. As their eyes are not placed in the forepart, but in the sides of the head, they cannot look, at the same time, with both on one object, so conveniently as quadrupeds. Their optic nerves, accordingly, are not confounded with one another, in their middle progress betwixt their origin and the orbit, but the one passes over the other without any communication; so that the nerve which comes from the left side of the brain, goes distinctly to the right eye, and vice versa.

As fishes are continually exposed to injuries in the uncertain element in which they reside, and as they are in perpetual danger of becoming a prey to the larger ones, it was necessary that their eyes should never be shut; and as the cornea is sufficiently washed by the element in which they live, they are not provided with eyelids; yet, as in the current itself, the eye must be exposed to several injuries, it is defended by a firm pellucid membrane, being a continuation of the same transparent cuticle which covers the rest of the head, and which, being insensible and destitute of vessels, is not liable to obstructions and opacities. We may likewise observe, that the optic nerve and crystalline lens are larger than in other animals, that the choroides is composed of two separate membranes, and that all these parts are differently modified and arranged, according to the manners and habits of different species. Those fishes which undertake long voyages, and traverse much space in a short time, as the trout, salmon, salvelin, &c., have the conformation of the eye like that of birds; whose sight is very acute. Were we, indeed, to form our judgment of the power of vision in fishes merely from the external appearance of their eyes, we should conclude, that it is far from perfect, and that the small convexity of the cornea would occasion very little refraction in the rays of light; but this defect is sufficiently compensated by the structure of the crystalline lens, which is almost spherical, and more dense than in terrestrial animals. In its natural state, it is transparent, and not much harder than a jelly; and it forms that little hard pea-like substance which is found in the eyes of fishes after boiling. As the rays fall on this convex humour, undergo a powerful refraction, gradually approach one another, and unite at the axis of the eye, where they form their impressions. In most fishes the eyes are naked; but those of the skate tribe are distinguished by a digitated curtain, which hangs over the pupil, and which may exclude the light when the animal rests; and, in the genera Gadus and Blennius, the eyes are covered with an internal nictitating membrane.

That fishes possess the sense of hearing, has been alternately maintained and denied by the most celebrated naturalists, since the days of Aristotle. Among the moderns, Artedi, Linnæus, and Govan have contended for the non-existence of this faculty, although some very ordinary facts naturally lead to an opposite conclusion. It is well known that fishes are affected by noise, and that they seem to be alarmed at loud explosions. On the coast of Brittany, they are frequently chased into nets by the sound of a drum; in China, by that of the tam-tam; and in ponds, they have been taught to assemble at the ringing of a bell. These sounds, however, it has been alleged, produce certain changes or vibrations in the water, which are felt by the animals, or which affect them in some way different from acting on the organ of hearing, an organ which naturalists and anatomists had long laboured in vain to discover. As the eruptions of Etna are sometimes felt at Malta, and an earthquake will sometimes visibly agitate the sea, at the distance of many leagues, it is supposed that smaller commotions in the atmosphere may communicate similar impressions to the finny tribes, independently of the medium of hearing. The laborious Klein spared no pains in searching for some hidden organ, by which he hoped to demonstrate that fishes are not more destitute of the faculty of hearing than other animals; but though his investigations proved fruitless, we are indebted to him for many curious observations on the number and figure of the small bones which are to be found in the head of various species. Geoffroy also made some important discoveries, but without arriving at decisive results. At length, the abbé Nollet proved, that water is a conductor of sound, and that even the tones and articulation of the human voice may be transmitted through its medium. All that now remained to set the question completely at rest, was to detect the parts of the auditory organ in fishes, and these the celebrated Camper has distinctly revealed in consequence of numerous dissections. For his particular description of the figure and mechanism of Physiology of the whole apparatus, we must refer our readers to the seventh volume of the Haerlem Memoirs, and to a paper which he has inserted in one of the volumes of the Journal des Sciences Étrangères. Suffice it for the present to note, that this curious organ is contained in the cavity of the head, and that it consists of three semicircular, cartilaginous canals, and an elastic bag, which includes one or two very moveable offices, floating in a jelly more or less thick, and slightly adhering to the contiguous parts. The moment that the vibration of the water, which is analogous to that of the air, is communicated to the fish's head, the impression is transmitted to the offices, which, acting in the ratio of their mass multiplied by the force of the impulse, impart their movement to the hole of the elastic bag and to the semicircular canals. The sentient principle is more or less alive to the action of the offices on the nerves, that is to say, in Camper's own language, "that the fish perceives sound, but sound peculiar to the watery element." Hunter, who observed the same organs in the head of fishes, remarks that their structure varies in different species. His minute and ingenious observations on this subject are published in the 77th volume of the Philosophical Transactions. "Fishes, particularly of the skate kind, (says Dr Shaw) have a bag at some distance behind the eyes, which contains a fluid, and a soft cartilaginous substance, and supplies the place of the vestibule and cochlea: there is a nerve distributed upon it, similar to the portio molle in man: they have semicircular canals, which are filled with a fluid, and communicate with the bag: they have likewise a meatus externus, which leads to the internal ear. The cod-fish, and others of the same shape, have an organ of hearing somewhat similar to the former; but instead of a soft substance contained in the bag, there is a hard cartilaginous stone."

The sense of touch is probably very imperfect in fishes, because it results from the contact and immediate application of the surface of some object to that of the animal, and all parts of the body are not equally fit to be applied to the surface of foreign substances. The hand alone, which is divided into several flexible and moveable parts, and is capable of being applied to different portions of the same surface, at the same time, seems peculiarly destined to convey the ideas of size and form, and even it would ill discharge such an office, if its contact with objects should be intercepted by any intermediate substance, as hair, feathers, shells, scales, &c. A rough and hard skin blunts the sense of touch, while a fine and delicate one renders it more lively and exquisite. Hence, we may presume, that fishes, which are destitute of palmed extremities, are incapable of recognizing the forms of bodies. Besides, as they are invested with a rough skin, which is frequently covered with tubercles, or numberless scales, they appear to be unsensitive of that delicacy of feeling which nature has bestowed on many of the quadrupeds.

In the mouth of man, and of those animals which are endowed with sensibility of taste, there are numberless nervous papillae, large, porous, constantly supplied with an abundance of lymph, and covered with a delicate skin, or inserted in sheaths of very unequal lengths. The savoury matters are arrested by these asperities, diluted by the lymph, and absorbed by the pores, which convey them to the nervous papillae, on which they act as stimulants. The tongue is the principal seat of this system of organs, and is extremely susceptible of impression, being composed of fleshy fibres, encompassed by a medullary tissue. In fishes, however, few pores have been discovered in the interior region of the mouth, the lymph is constantly carried off by the passage of the water, the tongue is sometimes imperfect and sometimes cartilaginous, and the palate is generally hard and bony. If to these circumstances we add the want of mastication, we may justly infer, that fishes are nearly destitute of the discriminating powers of taste. Accordingly, they are remarked for voracity, rather than for particular relishes; and they will often swallow substances which can afford them no nourishment.

The organ of smelling, on the other hand, is large; Smelling and the animals have a power of contracting and dilating the entry to it as they have occasion. All have one or more nostrils; and even those which have not the holes perceptible without, yet have the proper formation of the bones for smelling within. The olfactory nerves, which are extended over the nostrils, are probably the instruments by which they are enabled to distinguish their food. A fish will discover a worm that is thrown into the water, at a considerable distance; and that this is not done by the eye, is manifest from the consideration, that after the same worm has remained for some time in the water, and lost its smell, no fishes will come near it; but if you make several little incisions into it, so as to let out more of the odoriferous effluvia, the creatures again approach it. "We may frequently observe them (says the intelligent naturalist quoted above), allowing themselves to be carried down with the stream, that they may ascend again leisurely against the current of the water; thus the odoriferous particles swimming in that medium, being applied more forcibly to their organs of smell, produce a stronger sensation."

3. Motion.

Most fishes present us with the same external form, Motions of being sharp at either end, and swelling in the middle, fishes whereby they are enabled to traverse their native fluid extremely with greater ease and celerity. We wisely endeavour rapid to imitate this peculiar shape in the construction of vessels designed to sail with the greatest swiftness; yet, the progress of a machine moved forward in the water by human contrivance, is nothing to the rapidity of an animal formed to reside in that element. The large fishes are known to overtake a ship in full sail with the greatest ease, to play round it without effort, and to outstrip it at pleasure. The flight of an arrow is not more rapid than the darting of a tunny, a salmon, or a gilt-head, through the water. It has been calculated that a salmon will glide over 86,400 feet in an hour, and 24 feet in a second, that it will advance more than a degree of the meridian of the earth in a day, and make the tour of the world in the course of some weeks. Every part of the body seems exerted in this dispatch; the fins, the tail, and the motion of the whole back-bone assist progression; and it is to that flexibility of body which mocks the efforts of art, that fishes owe their great velocity.

The chief instruments in a fish's motion are its fins, Instruments air-bladder, and tail. With at least two pair, and three of motion. Physiology single fins, it will migrate with great rapidity, and take voyages of a thousand leagues in a season, without indicating any visible symptoms of languor or fatigue. But it does not always happen, that fishes which have the greatest number of fins, have also the swiftest motion: the shark, for example, which is reckoned one of the swiftest swimmers, wants the ventral fins; while the haddock, which has its full complement of fins, is more tardy in its progress.

The fins serve not only to assist the animal in progression, but in rising or sinking, in turning, or even in leaping out of the water. To answer these purposes, the pectoral fins, like ears, serve to push the animal forward, and have, therefore, not unaptly, been compared to the wings of a bird. By their help and continued motion, the flying-fish is sometimes seen to dart out of the water, and to fly above a hundred yards. The pectoral fins likewise serve to balance the head, when it is too large for the body, and prevent it from tumbling prone to the bottom, as happens to large-headed fishes, when the pectoral fins are cut off. The ventral fins, which lie flat in the water, in whatever situation the fish may be, serve rather to raise or depress the body, than to assist its progressive motion. The dorsal fin acts as a spoiler, in preserving the animal's equilibrium, at the same time that it aids the forward movement. The anal is designed to maintain the vertical or upright position of the body.

By means of the air-bladder, fishes can increase or diminish the specific gravity of their body. When they contract it, or press out the included air, by means of the abdominal muscles, the bulk of the body is diminished, its weight in proportion to the water is increased, and the fish swims easily at a great depth. On relaxing the operation of the abdominal muscles, the swimming-bladder again acquires its natural size, the body increases in bulk, consequently becomes lighter, and enables the fish to swim easily near the surface. So fishes which have no air-bladder, or those whose bladder has been injured, keep always at the bottom.

Lastly, the tail may be regarded as the directing instrument of motion, to which the fins are only subservient. To illustrate all this by a simple experiment—If we take a live carp, and put it into a large vessel, the fish, when in a state of repose, will be seen to spread all its fins, and to rest on the pectoral and ventral near the bottom; and, if it fold up either of its pectoral fins, it will incline to the side on which the folding takes place. When it desires to have a retrograde motion, striking with the pectoral fins, in a contrary direction, effectually produces it. If it desires to turn, a blow from the tail sends it about; but if the tail strike both ways, the motion is progressive. If the dorsal and ventral fins be cut off, the fish reels to the right and left, and endeavours to supply its loss by keeping the rest of its fins in constant exercise. If the right pectoral fin be cut off, the fish leans to that side; and, if the ventral fin on the same side be cut away, it loses its equilibrium entirely. When the tail is removed, the fish loses all motion, and abandons itself to the impulse of the water.

The slimy glutinous matter which is secreted from the pores of most fishes, not only defends their bodies from the immediate contact of the surrounding fluid, but facilitates their progressive motion.

The pelagic tribes of fishes, which traverse large portions of the ocean, as the salmon, tunny, and several species of coryphaena, gadus, sparus, sciaena, &c., are furnished with large and strong fins, to enable them to struggle against large waves and rapid currents; whereas those which frequent the shores and fresh waters have their fins smaller and weaker; while those with soft fins seldom expose themselves to the fury of the storm, and confine themselves to depths that are not affected by the most impetuous winds. A more ample explanation of these particulars will be found in Borelli's work de Motu Animalium.

Notwithstanding the astonishing agility of their movements, fishes often remain in a state of inactivity and stupines, till roused by the calls of hunger or love, or stimulated by the dread of an approaching enemy. The periodical and extensive migrations of certain tribes of fishes are not irreconcilable with this remark, since the want of food, or the important occupation of breeding, may induce them to change their station. But we cannot give implicit credit to the relations of those naturalists, who, copying from one another, affect on this subject the language of wonder and mystery. In regard to the reputed migrations of immense shoals of herrings from the polar regions to the south of Europe, and which have been generally ascribed to the depredations of the cetaceous tribes, we may be allowed to ask, why these small fishes proceed some hundred leagues beyond the reach of their enemies, and why they return in winter to the very haunts of their gigantic destroyers? If it be alleged, that those monstrous animals drive them into bays and inlets; why do they equally abound in the North Sea and the Baltic, which are not frequented by whales? If mere want of food compels the herrings to detach their crowded colonies; how happens it that the migration always takes place at the same time, and at the same season of the year? It is difficult to conceive, that their stock of provisions should regularly be exhausted at the year's end? Besides, if the arctic pole be the native country of the herrings, as has been usually supposed, they should make their appearance, like birds of passage, in numerous troops at certain seasons, and very few or none should be seen during the rest of the year. Yet it is well known, that great quantities of them are caught in Norway, during the whole of summer; in the same country, and in Swedish Pomerania, the fishery is very productive from January to March; on the coast of Gothland, from October to December; in the north of Holland, in February, March, and April; and in Sweden, in the middle of winter. That part of the migrating shoal regularly directs its course to the coast of Iceland, is an assertion unsupportable by respectable testimony. Horrebow, who passed some years on that island, affirms, that a single herring will sometimes not be seen for many years; and Olafsen, Agidius, Ortho-Fabricius, and others, corroborate his assertions.

To account, then, for the movements of the herring, cod, tunny, anchovy, &c., it is in vain to have recourse to the capacity of the whale, or to the urgent pressure of hunger; and least of all should we adopt the marvelous tales of periodical voyages, performed with the utmost order and exactitude. M. Bloch explains in a much more simple and natural manner the arrival and disappearance of the respective shoals. According to him, herrings... Physiology herring have the same propensity as other fishes, and usually live in the depths of the water, till stimulated by the desire of reproducing their species. They then quit their retreat, and suddenly appear in places where they were not formerly seen; and, as the spawning time occurs sometimes sooner, and sometimes later, according to the temperature of the water, and the age of the fishes, we can easily conceive why those species which are reputed migratory, should be observed at different times. Those sea fishes which ascend rivers in spring, only return to their several haunts in autumn. The herrings are, doubtless, guided by an analogous instinct; and if we may be allowed to suppose, that they sometimes spawn more than once in the course of the year, we shall be at no loss to account for the circumstances of their wandering.

4. Nourishment.

Among fishes, as among quadrupeds and birds, some search for their food in the mud; others live on worms, insects, or marine plants. The former have their anterior extremity adapted to the extraction of peculiar juices from the earth; the latter have the conformation of their jaws or teeth suited to the capture and destruction of their appropriate prey. The greatest number of species, however, are carnivorous and extremely voracious, subsisting chiefly on other fishes, and frequently not sparing even their own offspring. When taken out of the water, and almost expiring, they will often greedily swallow the very bait which lured them to their ruin. In the sequel, we shall have occasion to aduce some striking instances of the violent and indiscriminate appetite of several fishes. The digestive power of their stomach is no less remarkable, and seems to increase with the quantity of food received into it. This food, though reduced to a gelatinous state, usually preserves its natural form; a circumstance which leads us to conclude, that the process of digestion is performed by the solvent power of some particular menstruum, and not by any trituration.

Fishes, in general, manifest a predilection for whatever they can swallow possessed of life. Some that have very small mouths, feed on worms and the spawn of other fish; others, whose mouths are larger, seek larger prey; it matters not of what kind, whether of another or their own. Those with the largest mouths, pursue almost every thing that has life; and often meet each other in fierce opposition, and the victor devours his antagonist. Thus are they irritated by the continual desire of satisfying their hunger; and the life of a fish, from the smallest to the greatest, is but one scene of hostility, violence, and evasion. The smaller fry, which stand no chance in the unequal combat, resort to those shallows, where the greater are unable or too heavy to pursue. There they become invaders in turn, and live on the spawn of large fishes, which they find floating on the surface of the water, till they are imprisoned and leisurely devoured by the mussel, oyster, or scallop, which lie in ambush at the bottom.

Notwithstanding the astonishing voracity of fishes, some of them are capable of suffering at least the apparent want of food for a long time. This is particularly the case with the gold and silver fishes which are kept in vases, and which seem to enjoy perfect health, though deprived of sustenance for months. But they may probably feed on minute invisible insects, or be endowed with the power of decomposing water, and of converting its elements into the means of subsistence. Much, in fact, remains to be discovered on the interesting subject of the food of fishes; for while the incessant craving and gluttony of some are obvious to the most superficial observation, the methods by which others are maintained in existence have only been furnished by conjecture. Meanwhile, it is of importance to remark, that in the water, as on the land, nature has nicely adjusted the balance of destruction and renovation, thus providently guarding against an overwhelming accumulation of putrid carcasses, and multiplying, at the same time, the sources and centres of vitality and animal enjoyment.

5. Reproduction.

In most, if not in all fishes, there is a difference in sex, though Bloch and others make mention of individuals, which seemed to unite the two sexes, and to be real hermaphrodites. The number of males, it has been remarked, is about double that of females; and were it not for this wise provision of nature, a large proportion of the extruded eggs would remain unfecundated. A few species, indeed, as the eel, blenny, &c., are viviparous; but by far the greater number are produced from eggs. These last compose the roe or ovaries of the females, which lie along the abdomen. The milt of the males is disposed along the back-bone, in one or two bags, and consists of a whitish glandular substance, which secretes the spermatic fluid. Though the history of the generation of fishes be still involved in considerable obscurity, it seems to be ascertained, that no sexual union takes place among the oviparous kinds, and that the eggs are fructified after exclusion. They are of a spherical form, and consist of a yolk, a white part, and a bright crescent-like spot, or germ. The yolk, which is usually surrounded by the white, is round, and not placed in the middle, but towards one of the sides; and the clear spot, or embryo, is situated between the yolk and the white. In this spot there is observable, on the day after fecundation, a moveable point, of a somewhat dull appearance. On the third day, it assumes the appearance of a thickish mass, detached on one side, and on the other strongly adhering to the yolk, and presenting the contour of the heart, which, at this period, receives an increase of motion, while the disengaged extremity, which forms the rudiments of the tail, is perceived to move at intervals. On the fourth day, the pulsations of the heart and the movements of the whole body occur in quicker succession. On the fifth, the circulation of the humours in the vessels may be discerned, when the fish is in a particular position. On the sixth, the back-bone may be distinctly recognized. On the seventh, two black points, which are the eyes, and the whole form of the animal, are visible to the naked eye. Although the yolk gradually diminishes as the embryo enlarges, the included animal cannot yet stretch itself at length, and makes a curve with its tail. Its motions are then so brisk, that when it turns its body, the yolk turns with it; and these motions become more and more frequent, as the moment of birth, which happens between the seventh and ninth day, approaches. By repeated strokes of the tail, the covering of the egg at length... Physiology length gives way, and the fish comes forth, first by the tail, redoubling its efforts, till it detach its head; and then it moves nimbly, and at liberty, in its new element. Such, at least, are the results of some particular observations: but it is obvious, that they must vary considerably according to circumstances; particularly, that the spawn must continue in the egg-state in some species longer than in others, and this in proportion to the animal's size. The embryo salmon, for instance, continues in the egg from the beginning of December to the beginning of April, and the carp not above three weeks.

Fishes have different seasons for depositing their spawn. Some which live in the depths of the ocean, are said to choose the winter months; but, in general, those with which we are acquainted, choose the hottest months in summer, and prefer such water as is somewhat tepid by the beams of the sun. They then leave the deepest parts of the ocean, which are the coldest, and shoal round the coasts, or swim up the fresh-water rivers, which are warm as they are comparatively shallow, depositing their eggs where the sun's influence can most easily reach them, and seeming to take no farther charge of their future progeny.

Of the eggs thus deposited scarcely one in a hundred brings forth an animal, as they are devoured by all the lesser fry which frequent the shores, by aquatic birds near the margin, and by the larger fish in deep water. Still, however, the sea is amply supplied with inhabitants; and, notwithstanding their own rapacity, and that of various tribes of fowls, the numbers that escape are sufficient to relieve the wants of a considerable portion of mankind. Indeed, when we consider the fecundity of a single fish, the amount will seem astonishing. If we should be told, for example, that a single being could in one season produce as many of its kind as there are inhabitants in England, it would strike us with surprize; yet the cod annually spawns, according to Lewenhoeck, above nine million of eggs contained in a single roe. The flounder is commonly known to produce above one million; and the mackerel above five hundred thousand; a herring of a moderate size will yield at least ten thousand; a carp, of 14 inches in length, contained, according to Petit, two hundred and sixty-two thousand, two hundred and twenty-four; and another, 16 inches long, contained three hundred and forty-two thousand, one hundred and forty-four; a perch deposited three hundred and eighty thousand, six hundred and forty; and a female sturgeon, seven million, six hundred and fifty-three thousand, two hundred.—The viviparous species are by no means so fruitful; yet the blenny brings forth two or three hundred at a time, all alive and playing round the parent together.

Some naturalists have suspected, that there are fishes which undergo certain metamorphoses in the early period of their existence, like the tadpoles of frogs. Demoiselle Merian, in her splendid work on the Insects of Surinam, even describes frogs, which are transformed into fishes. Spelmann makes mention of aquatic animals of an ambiguous nature, which he met with at all seasons of the year, and which he terms proteuses; and Schranck and Laurenti have remarked in the Tyrolean lakes particular races of animals, which seem to form a gradation between tadpoles and branchioleous fishes. Perhaps they are larvae, or imperfect animals, whose development is still obscure; yet it is not improbable that some fishes may undergo transformations analogous to those of young frogs and salamanders. The history of the ophrion and diodon families will warrant such a supposition; and the sirens lacertina of Linnaeus seems to be alike connected with reptiles and fishes.

For several curious and interesting experiments relative to the artificial fecundation of the spawn of fishes, we must refer our readers to M. Jacobi's Memoir, inserted in the Berlin Transactions for 1764. By pressing the contents of the milt of salmon and trout on the spawn of these fishes, he succeeded in rendering the ova fruitful, and obtained live fish. Among these were several monsters, such as trouts with two heads, others in the form of a crofs, &c., none of which lived beyond six weeks, exhausting in that time the juices of their own stomach, and the yolk of the egg to which they were attached.

6. Duration.

It is extremely difficult to ascertain the precise term which nature has assigned to the existence of those creatures which inhabit a medium different from our own. It is probable, that the life of fishes which escape the numerous snares that are laid for them, is considerably longer than their mere size would seem to indicate. In the first stages of their existence, their growth is, no doubt, rapid; but their fibres quickly become hard, and less susceptible of extension. When newly excluded from its egg, the fish grows four lines in the short space of eight hours; but three weeks at least elapse, before it acquire an additional line. Nor is the rate of growth at all equal in different species. Thus a carp attains only to the length of six or seven inches in three years, and to the weight of 12 pounds in ten years. The growth of the tench is still more tardy, since twelve years are required to give it the length of twenty inches.

There have been two methods devised for determining the age of fishes, the one, by the circles of the scales, the other, by the transverse section of the backbone. When a fish's scale is examined through a microscope, it will be found to consist of a number of circles, one within another, in some measure resembling those which appear on the transverse section of a tree, and which are supposed to afford the same information. For, as in trees, we can tell their age by the number of their circles, so in fishes, we can tell theirs by the number of circles in every scale, reckoning one ring for every year of the animal's existence. By this method, the count de Buffon found a carp, whose scales he examined, to be not less than a hundred years old. Gesner adduces an instance of one of the same age, and Albertus of one more than double that period.—The age of the skate and the ray, which are destitute of scales, may be known by the other method, which consists in separating the joints of the back-bone, and then minutely observing the number of rings which the surface where it was joined exhibits. But whatever degree of precision we may attach to such evidence, we have of some no reason to doubt the great age of some fishes. Those persons who have ponds often know the oldest by their superior size and other indications. The carp which were were bred in the ditches of Pont-Chartrain, are quoted by Buffon, as exceeding a hundred and fifty years; and those in the royal gardens of Charlottenburg, in Prussia, are said by Bloch to have their heads overgrown with moss. Ledelius alleges, that in some pools in Lusatia there are carp about 200 years old. At Mannheim, there is the skeleton of a pike, 19 feet in length, and which is said to have weighed, when alive, 350 pounds. It was caught at Kayserlautern, in 1497; and a Greek inscription on a brass ring, inserted at the gills, announced that it had been put into the pond by the emperor Frederick II., that is to say, 267 years before it was taken. Some species, however, are known to have a much shorter existence; thus, the eel usually lives about 15 years; the bream and the tench, from 10 to 12, and the fifteen-finned stickle-back seldom survives two.—The comparative simplicity of their structure, the flexibility of their frame, the strength of their digestive power, their want of sensibility, and the equal temperature of the element which they inhabit, probably all contribute to the longevity of fishes. The same causes may, perhaps, exempt them from many diseases which are incident to other races of animals. Yet we know for certain, that they are occasionally subject to indisposition and distempers. Before the spawning season, they undergo a change of their external covering, analogous to moulting amongst the feathered tribes; their scales and skins are renewed, and the colours of the more beautiful kinds assume more fresh and vivid hues. But this annual change is not effected without evident symptoms of languor, decline, and suffering. Some kinds of salmon trout are liable to a leprous affection, the carp to smallpox, and the eruption of small tumours on the head and back, the perch to dropsy, eels to a cutaneous disorder which often proves fatal, and most species to ulcerated livers, or injured viscera, from the worms and insects of various descriptions which multiply within them.

CHAP. IV. SYSTEMATIC EXPOSITION OF FISHES.

THE Linnean orders of fishes have been instituted from the situation, presence, or absence of the ventral fins.

1. Such as are entirely destitute of these fins, are termed pisces apodæ, apodæ or footless fishes.

2. The jugulares, or jugulars, are those which have ventral fins placed more forward than the pectoral fins, or under the throat.

3. The thoracici, or thoracic, include those whose ventral fins are placed immediately under the pectoral fins, or on the breast.

4. The abdominæ, or abdominal, comprise those whose ventral fins are situated behind the pectoral fins, or on the abdomen.

5. There still remains a particular tribe, denominated cartilaginei, which, as their name imports, have a cartilaginous instead of a bony skeleton. This tribe was by Linnaeus separated from the rest, on the mistaken idea, that the individuals which compose it were furnished both with lungs and gills, and should be ranked in the class of amphibious animals.

The genera which pertain to the preceding orders are determined by the number of rays in the branchiofugal membrane, the condition of the teeth, the figure of the body, and of other remarkable parts.

The characters of the species are taken chiefly from the number of rays in the fins, which differs in the different species. But, as the precise enumeration of these rays is sometimes a matter of difficulty, and, as they are likewise subject to variation, it is necessary to have recourse to other marks, and to adopt, as subsidiary characters, the form and situation of particular fins, the proportion of the head to the body, the condition of the lateral line, the number of the vertebrae and ribs, &c.

I. APODAL.

The fishes of this order approach very near to the amphibia, and some of them even resemble the serpent tribe. They have a smooth slippery skin, which is, in general, naked, or covered in some species only, with small, soft, and distant scales. Their body is long and slender; they have teeth in the jaws, and live in the sea; but some are found in rivers and standing waters. They feed on other animals.

Genus I. Muraena.

Head smooth; nostrils tubular; eyes covered by the common integument; gill-membrane ten-rayed; body nearly cylindrical, smooth, and slippery; dorsal, caudal, and anal fins united; spiracles behind the head or pectoral fins.

Roman muraena, or murey. No pectoral fins; body helena-eel-shaped, and variegated; spiracle on each side the neck.—The colour of this fish is a dusky-greenish brown, diversified with dull yellow patches, and forming a kind of obscure net-work. The head is rather small; the mouth moderately wide, and the teeth sharp. The fins are of a dusky colour, with whitish spots. The murey is capable of living with equal facility in fresh or salt water, though principally found in the latter, especially on the coasts of the Mediterranean. It attains to a size at least equal, if not superior to the common eel, which it much resembles in its manners and voracity. The Romans prized it as an exquisite luxury, and kept it in appropriate reservoirs.

Snake eel, or sea serpent. Snout lengthened; tail ophius-pointed; and finlets; body round. The head of this species is long and slender, the gape very wide, the teeth very sharp, and the colour a very pale yellowish brown above, and bluish white beneath. It is a native of the Mediterranean and northern seas, where it often arrives at a very considerable size, and has probably given rise to the marvellous tales of huge sea serpents in the northern ocean.—The anguilla ophius, or spotted eel of Shaw, seems to be a distinct species, or else a marked variety, being spotted with brown, and chiefly found in the Indian seas, though sometimes also in the Mediterranean, &c.

Common eel.—The lower jaw longer than the upper, per; body olive-brown above, somewhat filvery beneath. The figure and appearance of this species are too well known to require a particular description. It is a native of almost all the waters of the ancient continent, frequenting not only rivers but stagnant pools, and occasionally salt marshes and lakes. In spring it is found even in the Baltic and other seas. In some places near the mouths of the Baltic, they are taken in such abundance that they cannot be used fresh, but are smoked and salted, and conveyed by waggon-loads into Saxony, Silesia, &c. We are told that 2000 have been taken in Jutland at a single sweep of the net, and 60,000 in the Garonne in one day, by a single net. It is generally alleged that the eel cannot bear the water of the Danube; and it is rarely found either in that river or the Wolga, though very common in the lakes and rivers of Upper Austria. Its ordinary size is from two to three feet, though it has been known to attain to the length of six feet, and to weigh fifteen pounds. Dale and others mention some of uncommon magnitude, but which were probably congers. Though impatient of heat and cold, the eel can live longer out of the water than any other fish, and is extremely tenacious of life, as its parts will move a considerable time after it has been skinned, and cut into pieces. It sometimes quits the water, and wanders about meadows and moist grounds in quest of particular food, as snails, worms, &c. It is also said to be fond of new-fown peas, and to have sometimes taken refuge from fevers from adjoining hay-ricks. Its usual food consists of water-insects, worms, and the spawn of fishes. It will also devour almost any decayed animal substance. It is viviparous, producing its young about the end of summer; though both eggs, and ready-formed young are occasionally observed in the same individual. Its skin, which is proverbially slippery, from the large proportion of mucus with which it is furnished, serves, in some countries, from its toughness and pliability, as tackle for carriages, &c. and glaas for windows. Though we learn from Athenaeus, that the Sybarites exempted from every kind of tribute the vendors of eels, the Romans seem to have held this fish very cheap as an article of food. In modern times it is reckoned highly nutritious, though somewhat difficult of digestion, and hurtful when taken to excess.

Conger eel.—Two tentacula at the rostrum, the lateral line whitish and dotted. The first of these characters is not constant. But the conger may be distinguished from the common eel by other marks, such as its darker colour, larger eyes, its shorter lower jaw, and the greater size to which it usually attains. Specimens from the Mediterranean have sometimes been taken of the length of ten feet, and of the weight of more than a hundred pounds. It is likewise an inhabitant of the northern seas, and of those which surround some of the American islands. The conger is only an occasional visitant of fresh water, frequenting the mouths of rivers in spring. In the mouth of the Severn incredible quantities of the fry are taken in April, under the name of elvers. In its full-grown state the conger is also reckoned a useful article of food in many parts of Europe. The great quantities that are taken on the coast of Cornwall are chiefly exported to Spain and Portugal. Much of their abundant oil is drained away in the process of drying, the weight being reduced nearly eighty per cent. Congers are extremely voracious, preying on other fishes, and on various kinds of crustacea, particularly on the small crabs during their soft state after they have cast their shell.

Southern murena.—No pectoral fins; brown, with echidna black variegations; depressed head and very turgid neck. This species, which inhabits the southern ocean, has a repulsive appearance, grows to a very considerable size, and affords excellent food.

The firen.—Pectoral fins like hands with four fingers, gill membrane with three pinnatified bones. This is the firen lacerina of former editions of the System of Nature. It is peculiar to the muddy swamps of South Carolina, preys on serpents, which it seizes and holds with its strong and firm teeth. It is sometimes a foot and a half in length; its heart has but one ventricle; it has ribs and a bony tail; and is so fragile, that if cast on the ground, it breaks into three or four pieces.

The other species are, colubrina, serpens, myrus, guttata, caca, catenata, reticulata, africana, zebra, melagratis, and viridis.

Gen. 2. Synbranchus.

Body eel-shaped; no pectoral fins; spiracle single beneath the neck.

Marbled synbranchus.—Olive-brown, marbled with blackish spots; the body yellow beneath. Native of Surinam.

Plain synbranchus.—Of a plain unvariegated brown colour. A native of Surinam.

Gen. 3. Monopterus.

Body eel-shaped; nostrils placed between the eyes; fin cadal.

Javan monopterus.—Livid brown or blackish, with javanicus, a very sharp-pointed tail. This fish, which has the appearance and habits of a murena, is a native of the Indian seas, and very common about the coasts of Java, where it is considered as an excellent food.

Gen. 4. Gymnotus.

Head with lateral opercula; two beards or tentacula on the upper lip; eyes covered by the common integument; gill-membrane five-rayed; body compressed, without dorsal fin (in most species), but carinated by a fin beneath.

Carapo gymnotus.—Brown, with the vent-fin of the carapo. Length of the attenuated tail, and the upper jaw longer than the lower. This fish is a native of the American seas, and is said to be most frequent about the coast of Surinam. Its ordinary length is from one to two feet. It is reckoned excellent by the South Americans.

Electrical gymnnotus, or cramp-fish.—Without scales electricus, or dorsal fin; the caudal very obtuse, and joined to the anal fin. This fish bears a considerable resemblance to a large eel, though somewhat thicker, and commonly of an uniform blackish-brown. It was first announced to the philosophers of Europe on account of its remarkable electrical or galvanic properties, in 1677, by M. Richer, who was commissioned by the French Academy to make some mathematical observations in Cayenne. It would be tedious to recite all the remarks and experiments of succeeding observers, which conspire to prove the voluntary electricity of the gymnus, which, however, occasionally exhibits some variations from the phenomena of common electricity. If a person touches the animal with one hand, in such a manner as to irritate it considerably, while the other is held at a small distance from it in the water, he will experience as strong a shock as from a charged Leyden phial. The shock is also readily communicated through a circle of eight or ten persons at once, the person at one extremity putting his hand in the water near the fish, while the other touches the animal. It is by this extraordinary faculty that the gymnus supports its existence, the smaller fishes and other animals which happen to approach it being instantly stupified, and then falling an easy prey. It is even capable of depriving those who approach it in its native waters, of sense and motion. It is a native of the warmer regions of Africa and America, in which last it inhabits the larger rivers, particularly those of Surinam. In Africa, it is said to occur chiefly in the branches of the Senegal. In the 65th volume of the Philosophical Transactions, our readers will find an accurate description of the external form of the electrical gymnus, by the late ingenious Dr Garden, and one equally accurate of its internal structure by the celebrated Mr John Hunter.

**Needle gymnus.** Naked, with finless tail and belly, the anal fin of sixty rays, terminating before it reaches the tip of the tail. The only European species yet discovered, being a native of the Mediterranean, and described by Brunnich in his history of the fish of Marseille.

To the same genus belong fasciatus, albus, albifrons, reticulatus, notopterus, and fasciatus.

**Gen. 5. Trichiurus.**

Head stretched forwards, with lateral gill covers; teeth ensiform, semi-fagittated at the points, the fore teeth the largest; gill-membrane seven-rayed; body compressed and ensiform, with a subulate and finless tail.

Silvery trichiurus, or gymnogaster.—The lower jaw longer than the upper. This fish is distinguished by the singularity of its shape, and the silver brilliancy of its colour. It is from two to three feet long, very voracious, and a rapid swimmer. In the pursuit of its prey, it sometimes leaps into small vessels which happen to be sailing by. It frequents the rivers and larger lakes of South America, and is also said to occur in some parts of India and China.

Indian or electrical trichiurus.—Jaws of equal length. Inhabits the Indian seas, and is said to possess a degree of electrical power.

**Gen. 6. Anarchicas.**

Head somewhat obtuse; fore teeth both above and below, conical, diverging, strong; five or more grinders in the under jaw, and palate rounded; gill-membrane six-rayed, body roundish, caudal fin distinct.

Wolf fish, sea wolf, or ravenous wolf fish.—Of a blackish gray colour, the sides, anal and caudal fins, and abdomen lighter. This is one of the few fishes which have fore teeth and grinders. Of three specimens examined by Dr Bloch, one had six rows of grinders in the upper jaw, and as many in the lower; another had five rows above, and four below; and a third had five above, and three below. The disposition and structure of all the teeth are excellently adapted for breaking and comminuting the crabs, lobsters, scallops, large whelks, &c., which this voracious animal grinds to pieces, and swallows with the shells. When caught, it fastens on anything within its reach. Schonfeld relates, that it will seize on an anchor and leave the marks of its teeth behind; and we are informed by Steller, that one which he saw taken on the coast of Kamtschatka, seized with great violence a cutlass with which it was attempted to be killed, and broke it in pieces as if it had been made of glass. The fishermen, dreading its bite, endeavour as soon as possible to beat out its fore teeth, and then kill it by striking it on the head. Its flat and grinding teeth are often found in a fossil state, and known by the name of bufonites, or toad-stones, to which many superstitious virtues were formerly ascribed. The sea wolf grows to a very considerable size, being frequently four, and sometimes even seven feet in length. It has small scales and a lateral line, though described by most naturalists as destitute of both. It commonly frequents the deep parts of the sea, in the northern regions of the globe, and some parts of the British coasts, approaching the shores in spring, to deposit its spawn among the marine plants. It swims slowly, and with the serpentine motion of the eel. Owing to its forbidding appearance, it is not generally brought to market; but the fishermen, the Greenlanders, and the Scotch, find it excellent food. The latter call it the sea cat, and take off the head and skin before dressing it. The trigonus is now generally admitted to be only a variety of the preceding.

Smaller wolf fish.—With very sharp cartilaginous minor teeth. Inhabits the coast of Greenland.

Panther wolf fish.—Yellow, or fulvous, spotted with brown. In other particulars it agrees with the common species. Native of the northern seas.

**Gen. 7. Odontognathus.**

Mouth furnished with a strong moveable lamina or process on each side of the upper jaw; gill-membrane five-rayed.

Aculeated odontognathus.—Abdomen aculeated. Native of the American seas, and common about the coasts of Cayenne, where it ranks among the edible fishes.

**Gen. 8. Triurus.**

Snout cylindrical; one tooth in each jaw; dorsal and anal fin extended beyond the tail.

Commononian triple-tail.—The branchial orifice closed at pleasure by a valve. In general appearance and size, it resembles a herring. It is distinguished from the whole class of fishes by the circumstance noted in the specific character. Native of the Indian seas.

**Gen. 9. Ammodytes.**

Head compressed, narrower than the body; upper lip doubled, the lower jaw narrow, and pointed; teeth small. Sand lance, or sand eel.—The lower jaw longer than the upper. A native of the northern parts of Europe, commonly frequenting the coasts, and lying imbedded in the land, in the summer months, at the depth of half a foot, or a foot, with its body rolled into a spiral form. In this situation it is taken at the recesses of the tide, either for bait by the fishermen, or as an article of food, being regarded as a delicacy. It lives on worms and small fishes, not even excepting its own species; and it is itself preyed on by the porpoise, and larger fishes, particularly by the mackerel. Most of the older ichthyologists have erroneously represented it as destitute of scales, and Klein has improperly divided it into two species.

Gen. 10. OPHIDION.

Head somewhat naked; teeth in the jaws, palate, and fauces; gill-membrane seven-rayed, patulous; body sword shaped.

barbatum. Bearded ophidium.—Four cirrhi on the lower jaw. This species, which is frequent in the Mediterranean and Red seas, grows to ten or twelve inches long, is of a silvery hue, with a shade of pink, and marked with irregular linear spots; its skin is covered with soft oblong scales, adhering at their anterior edge. According to Belon, the Romans prized its flesh, which is white, but rather coarse.

imberbe. Beardless ophidium.—Jaws beardless; tail rather obtuse; in other respects, much allied to the former. Inhabits the Mediterranean, and has also been taken near Weymouth.

Viride, aculeatum, and moftacembalus, the other species, are but imperfectly known.

Gen. 11. STROMATEUS.

Head compressed; teeth in the jaws and palate; body oval, broad, and slippery; tail bifid.

fiatola. Striped stromateus.—Marked with transverse undulated bands. This species, which is beautifully variegated, inhabits the Mediterranean and Red sea, and is known to the modern Romans by its specific appellation.

paru. Paru stromateus.—Gold coloured back, and silvery abdomen. General size, that of a turbot. Much esteemed as a food, Native of South America and Tranquebar. The cumarca of Gmelin's Linnaeus seems to be only a variety of this.

cinereus. Ash-coloured stromateus.—Tail forked, the lower lobe longer than the upper. Native of the Indian seas, and served at table, as a dainty, under the name of pampel.

argentatus. Silver stromateus.—With the lobes of the tail equal. Nearly allied to the preceding, a native of the same seas, and equally esteemed as an article of food.

niger. Black stromateus.—Entirely of a blackish colour. This also frequents the Indian seas; but is seldom prepared for the table, on account of its colour and the circumstance of its feeding on wood-lice, which are sometimes found in its mouth.

Gen. 12. XIPHIAS.

Head with the upper jaw terminating in a sword-shaped snout; mouth without teeth; gill-membrane eight-rayed; body roundish, and scaleless.

Common or Sicilian sword-fish.—The dorsal fin attenuated at the hind part. The body of the sword-fish is long, round, and gradually tapers towards the tail; the head is flatfish, and the mouth wide, both jaws terminating in a point, but the upper stretched to a great distance beyond the lower, forming what is commonly called the sword, by which it pierces and kills the smaller kinds of fishes. It sometimes measures twenty feet in length, and is of an active and ravenous disposition. The method of taking it, described by Strabo, exactly agrees with the modern practice. A man ascends one of the cliffs that overhang the sea, and as soon as he spies the fish, gives notice by voice or signal of the course it takes. Another person in a boat climbs up the mast, and on seeing the fish, directs the rowers to it. The moment that he thinks they have got within reach, he descends and taking his spear in his hand, strikes into the fish, which, after wearying itself with its agitations, is seized and dragged into the boat. Its flesh is much esteemed by the Sicilians, who cut it in pieces and salt it. The pieces from the belly and tail are most esteemed, and the falted fins are sold under the name of callo. The sword-fish is frequently found in the Mediterranean, especially on the coasts of Sicily, where the male and female usually appear in pairs. It also occasionally occurs in the northern seas, and sometimes in the Pacific ocean; but Ælian erroneously affirms that it is at the same time a fresh-water fish, and an inhabitant of the Danube.

Broad-finned sword-fish.—Distinguished from the preceding by a very broad back fin, and very long sharp-pointed thoracic appendages. Found not only in the Brazilian and East Indian seas, but also in the Northern ocean. It is said to have frequent combats with whales. The bottom of an East Indiaman was pierced by a fin of this species, in such a manner, that the sword was driven through almost to its base, and the animal killed by the violence of the effort. The wood, together with the sword imbedded in it, is now in the British Museum. When this species does not exceed four feet, it is considered as an eatable fish; but it is found of the length of twenty feet, and sometimes even much longer.

Short-snouted sword-fish.—Blackfish; with snout of middling length, and two bony tubercles on each side of the tail. Resembles the common sword-fish, except that the snout is much shorter and thicker.

Gen. 13. STERNOPTYX.

Head obtuse; mouth turning up; teeth very small; no gill-membrane; body compressed, without visible scales; breast carinated, and folded both ways; abdomen pellucid.

Transparent sternoptyx.—Silvery; with carinated diaphana, breast, and pellucid abdomen; two or three inches long, broad, and compressed, the back rising into a sharp edge, and the abdomen terminating in a carina. Native of the American seas.

Gen. 14. Gen. 14. Leptocephalus.

Head narrow; body very thin and compressed; no pectoral fins.

Morris launce, or Anglesea morris.—First discovered on the coast of Anglesea by Mr. Morris, and described by Pennant under his name. Four inches in length; the head very small; the body extremely thin, and almost transparent.

Gen. 15. Stylephorus.

Eyes pedunculated, standing on a short thick cylinder; snout lengthened, directed upwards, retractile towards the head by means of a membrane; mouth without teeth; gills three pair beneath the throat; pectoral fins small; dorsal the length of the back; caudal short, with spiny rays; body very long, compressed.

Chordatus. Chordated stylephorus.—Silvery, with an extremely long caudal thread. We shall here describe Dr. Shaw’s description of this very extraordinary species.

“The rostrum or narrow part which is terminated by the mouth, is connected to the back part of the head by a flexible leathery duplicature, which permits it to be either extended in such a manner that the mouth points directly upwards, or to fall back, so as to be received into a sort of case formed by the upper part of the head. On the top of the head are placed the eyes, which are of a form very nearly approaching to those of the genus cancer, except that the columns or parts on which each eye is placed, are much broader or thicker than in that genus; they are also placed close to each other, and the outward surface of the eyes when magnified, does not show the least appearance of a reticulated structure. The colour of the eyes, as well as of the columns on which they stand, is a clear chestnut brown, with a sort of coppery gloo. Below the head, on each side, is a considerable compressed semicircular space, the fore part of which is bounded by the covering of the gills, which covering seems to consist of a single membrane of a moderately strong nature. Beneath this, on each side, are three small pair of branchiae. The body is extremely long, and compressed very much, and gradually diminishes as it approaches the tail, which terminates in a string or process of an enormous length, and finishes in a very fine point. This string, or caudal process, seems to be strengthened throughout its whole length, or at least as far as the eye can trace it, by a sort of double fibre or internal part. The pectoral fins are very small, and situated almost immediately behind the cavity on each side the thorax. The dorsal fin, which is of a thin and soft nature, runs from the head to within about an inch of the tail, when it seems suddenly to terminate, and a bare space is left of about a quarter of an inch. I am, however, not altogether without my doubts whether it might not, in the living animal, have run on quite to the tail, and whether the specimen might not have received some injury in that part. From this place commences a smaller fin which constitutes part of the caudal one. The caudal fin itself is furnished with five remarkable spines, the roots or originations of which may be traced to some depth in the thin part of the tail.”

The general colour of this fish is a rich silver, except on the flexible part belonging to the rostrum, which is of a deep brown, the fins and caudal processes are also brown, but not so deep as the part just mentioned. There is no appearance of scales on this fish. From the very singular figure and situation of the eyes, I have given it the generic name of Stylephorus, and as the trivial name cannot be taken from any circumstance more properly than from the extraordinary thread-like process of the tail, I have applied to it the title of chordatus. It is a native of the West Indian seas, and was taken between Cuba and Martinico, near a small cluster of little islands about nine leagues from shore, where it was observed near the surface. The whole length of this uncommon animal, from the head to the extremity of the caudal process, is about 32 inches, of which the process itself measures 22.”

II. Jugular.

The fishes of this order have their ventral fins situated before the pectoral fins, and, as it were, under the throat. They are mostly inhabitants of the sea. Their body is sometimes covered with scales, and sometimes not. With a very few exceptions, they have spines in the dorsal and anal fins; and their gills have bony rays.

Gen. 1. Callionymus.

The upper lip doubled; eyes near each other; the gill-membrane six-rayed; two breathing apertures in the hind part of the head; opercula close; body scaleless; ventral fins very distant.

Gemmeous dragonet.—The first ray of the first dorsal lyra, fin as long as the body. In this beautiful species, the pupils of the eyes are of a rich sapphire, the irides of a fine flame colour; the pectoral fins light brown, and the body yellow, blue, and white. “The blue,” says Mr. Pennant, “is of an inexplicable splendour; the richest cerulean, glowing with a gemmeous brilliancy; the throat black.” Dr. Tyron has described it, in the 24th volume of the Philosophical Transactions, under the improper appellation of the yellow gurnard. It grows to the length of 10 or 12 inches; the body is slender, round, and smooth; and the membranes of all the fins extremely thin and delicate. It is found as far north as Norway and Spitzbergen, and as far south as the Mediterranean, and is not unfrequent on the Scarborough coasts, where it is taken by the hook in 30 or 40 fathoms water. It is often found in the stomach of the cod-fish. Its flesh is white and well flavoured. Rondelet compares it to that of the gudgeon. Pontoppidan, who never saw it, asserts, with his usual credulity, that it can fly in the air to the distance of several market fathom.

Sordid dragonet.—The rays of the first dorsal fin dracunculus shorter than the body. In most other respects it agrees lar, with the preceding.

This genus likewise comprises indicus, baikalenis, ocellatus, sagitta, and japonicus.

Gen. 2. Uranoscopus.

Head depressed, rough and large; mouth turned up; the upper jaw shortest; gill-membrane papillary and dentated; dentated; with six rays, gill-covers membranaceous and ciliated; anus in the middle of the body.

Bearded star-gazer.—Back smooth; usual length about 12 inches. The head is large, squarish, and covered with a bony case. The mouth is wide, and opens in an almost vertical direction. The eyes are situated very near each other on the top of the head. A long cirrus or beard extends beyond the lips, which are themselves edged with smaller ones; frequenting shallows near the shores; it lies concealed in the mud, exposing only the tip of the head, and waving its beards in various directions, thus decoying the smaller fishes and marine insects, which mistake these organs for worms. It is said to sleep during the day. Is found chiefly in the Mediterranean. Its flesh is white, but tough, coarse, and meagre.

Japanese star-gazer.—Back rough, with a series of spinous scales. Body roundish; yellow above; white underneath. Native of the coasts of Amboyna.

Gen. 3. Trachinus.

Head slightly rough, compressed; gill-membrane fixed; inferior plate of the gill-covers serrated; vent near the breast.

Dragon weever. Somewhat silvery hue, with transverse yellowish streaks; the first dorsal fin black, and five-rayed; of a lengthened shape, much compressed, and covered with small deciduous scales. The mouth and eyes, in respect of position, resemble those of the star-gazer. The usual length of this fish is from 10 to 12 inches. It frequently imbeds itself in the sand, and if trodden on, endeavours to wound the aggressor with the spines of its first dorsal fin. The pungentures are very troublesome and painful, though it does not appear that the spines contain any poisonous matter. It feeds principally on marine insects, worms, and small fishes, and is very tenacious of life, being capable of existing many hours out of the water. From this circumstance the French call it vive and vivier, which we have corrupted into weever. It frequents not only the Mediterranean, but the northern seas, and is found abundantly on the coasts of Holland and East Friesland. Its flesh is well flavoured, easy of digestion, and highly esteemed by the Dutch. The greater weever, described by Pennant, hardly deserves to be considered as a distinct species.

Ofbeckian weever. White, spotted with black; both jaws of equal length. Native of the Atlantic; found about the isle of Ascension, &c., and described by Ofbeck in his voyage to China.

Gen. 4. Gadus.

Head smooth; gill-membrane with seven round rays; body oblong, with deciduous scales; fins covered with a common skin; more dorsal and anal fins than one; the rays not prickly; the pectoral fins attenuated to a point.

* With three dorsal fins, cirrhi at the mouth.

Haddock. Whitish; the tail bilobated, the upper jaw the longest. Another distinguishing character may be deduced from the large black spot on each side above the pectoral fins. Superstition assigns this mark to the impression which St Peter left with his finger and thumb, when he took the tribute out of the mouth of a fish of this species, and which has been continued to the whole race. The haddock is usually of a moderate size, measuring about 18 inches or two feet in length, and the best for the table weighing from two to four pounds. It is found in the northern seas in prodigious shoals, visiting particular coasts at stated seasons, and for the most part attended by immense quantities of dog-fish, which, with seals, and other inhabitants of the ocean, are its constant devourers. Its food consists of small fishes, worms, crabs, and sea insects, and it fattens on herrings. In January, it deposits its spawn on the rocks near the shore, and is out of season till May. Its flesh is white, firm, delicate, and easy of digestion.

Dolphin. Varied, with an even tail, and upper jaw callarias, longest. Somewhat smaller than the haddock, seldom exceeding the weight of two pounds. Its colour is subject to vary with age and seasons. It inhabits the northern seas, the Baltic, and the Mediterranean. Otto Fabricius found in its stomach the sea-foecion, sandeel, crabs, and different species of sea-worms. It spawns in January and February, is taken both by the line and net, and is reckoned delicate eating.

Common cod.—Tail nearly equal, the first ray of the anal fin armed with a spine. This well-known and important species, which yields food and wealth to large districts of country, is found in immense shoals. It measures from two to three feet long, is of a cinereous colour with yellowish spots above and white below, and has larger scales than the other species of this genus. The young are sometimes reddish, with orange-coloured spots. It feeds on sepia, crabs, and fishes, not even sparing its own species, catching at any small body it perceives moved by the water, and throwing up what it does not digest. Its range of climate lies principally between the latitudes 50° and 66°. The great rendezvous of cod is on the banks of Newfoundland, and the other sand-banks that lie off the coasts of Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, and New England. This fish likewise abounds off the Hebrides, Ireland, the coast of Holland, &c., and is generally fattest and most numerous where the greatest sea runs. In our seas they begin to spawn in January; though some continue in roe till the beginning of April. As they recover sooner after spawning than most other fish, it is customary to take some good ones all the summer. When out of season they are thin-tailed and lousy; and the lie chiefly fix themselves on the inside of their mouths. Those most esteemed for the table are of a middling size, and are chosen by their plumpness and roundness, especially near the tail, by the depth of the furrow behind the head, and by the regular undulated appearance of the sides, as if they were ribbed. The glutinous parts about the head lose their delicate flavour after it has been four-and-twenty hours out of the water. The fish itself dies on being removed from salt-water, or put into fresh. The fishermen are well acquainted with the use of the air-bladder, and dexterously perforate the living fish with a needle, in order to let out the air; for without this operation the fish could not be kept under water in the well-boats, and brought fresh to market. The fowds, when salted, are reckoned a delicacy. delicacy, and are often brought in this state from Newfoundland. The Icelanders prepare from this part of the fish a species of isinglats. Pennant makes mention of a cod taken at Scarborough in 1753, which was five feet eight inches in length, and weighed 78 pounds. But the general weight of these fish in the Yorkshire seas is from 14 to 40 pounds.

Bib.—The first ray of the ventral fin setaceous; about a foot long; body deep, and sides compressed; eyes covered with a loofe membrane, so as to be blown up at the pleasure of the animal. The mouth is small, and under the chin is a cirrus about an inch long. Native of the European seas, and prized as an article of food.

Whiting pout.—Seven punctures on each side of the lower jaw. Much deeper in proportion to its length than any of the genus, rarely exceeding a foot in length; and one of that size being nearly four inches in the broadest part. Inhabits the Mediterranean and northern seas; burrows in the sand, and feeds on the blenny, salmon, and even young crabs. Its flesh is white and delicate, but somewhat dry.

Poor.—Vent in the middle of the body. Little more than six inches long; a small beard on the chin, and the eyes covered with a loofe membrane. The abdomen is lined with a black peritoneum. The poor is supposed to feed chiefly on worms and insects, or on the young and soft teleostean animals. It occurs in the Baltic and Mediterranean, and in some parts of the northern seas. It is reckoned a wholesome food, but is not fit for being salted or dried.

Blennoid gadus.—With didactyle ventral fins. Has the habit of a whiting, and frequents the Mediterranean.

Saidu gadus.—Bluish, with brown back, white abdomen, and the second ray of the ventral fins terminating in a long bristle. Length about eight inches. Eatable, but dry and juicyless. A native of the White sea.

** Three dorsal fins, and no cirrhi.**

Green gadus.—Greenish back and forked tail. Nearly resembles the pollack. Abounds in the northern seas.

Whiting.—White; the upper jaw longest. Usual length about ten or twelve inches, and the largest seldom exceeding twenty. Specimens from four to eight pounds in weight have been taken in the deep water at the edge of the Dogger bank. It is a fish of an elegant make; the body rather long, and covered with small round silvery scales; the head and back are of a pale brown, and the sides are slightly streaked with yellow. Though found in the Baltic, it is much more numerous in the north seas, and appears in shoals on the coasts of Holland, France, and England, during the spring, keeping at the distance of from half a mile to three miles from the shore. The whiting feeds on small crabs, worms, and young fishes, and is particularly fond of sprats and young herrings, with which the fishermen generally bait for it, and in default of them, with pieces of fresh herring. This species begins to spawn at the end of the year, and continues to the beginning of February. Its flesh is white, tender, and delicate; but insipid when the fish is out of season. The chief time of the whiting fishery in France is in January and February, though in England and Holland it is practised at a much later period.

Coalfish.—The under jaw longest, the lateral line straight. When full grown, this species will frequently measure two feet and a half in length, and four or five inches in breadth, and is distinguished from its congeners by its very dark or black colour, though the young are brown or olive. It is of any elegant tapering shape, with a pretty large and forked tail. It inhabits the Baltic, the northern, and Mediterranean seas, and swarms round our rocky and deep coasts, particularly those of Scotland and the Orkneys, affording by its fry, subsistence to numbers of the poor. In its full grown state it is coarse food.

Pollack.—The under jaw longest, the lateral line curved. This species is broad, and of a brown colour; feeds chiefly on small fishes, especially launces; and seldom grows to a very large size, though some have been taken at Scarborough which weighed nearly 28 pounds. It is found in the Baltic and northern sea, and is very common on many of our rocky coasts. During summer it is seen frolicking on the surface of the water, and will bite at anything that appears on the top of the waves. It is reckoned a good eating fish.

* * *. With two dorsal fins.

Hake.—Beardless; the under jaw longest. Considerably lengthened, measuring from one to two feet; the tail, body pale ash-colour on the back, and whitish on the sides and abdomen. This fish, which is very voracious, frequents the Mediterranean and northern seas. Its flesh is eatable and flaky, but little esteemed. It is salted and dried as food for the lower orders of people. One of the most considerable hake-fisheries is carried on about the coasts of Brittany, both by the hook and net. It is practised chiefly by night. The baits principally used are launces, fardines, and other small fishes.

Ling.—Bearded; the upper jaw longest. Long and slender; the sides and back sometimes of an olive hue, and sometimes cinereous; abdomen and ventral fins white, and the tail marked near the end with a transverse black bar, and tipped with white. Its ordinary length is from three to four feet, but it will sometimes grow to seven. It is an inhabitant of the northern seas, chiefly frequenting deep water, living on small fishes, shrimps, &c.; and depositing its spawn in June, among the fuci in oozy bottoms. In the Yorkshire seas, it is in perfection from the beginning of February to the beginning of May, during which season the liver is very white, and abounds with a fine flavoured oil. In many places ling is salted both for exportation and home consumption. An excellent isinglats is prepared from its sound.

Leuerian gadus.—Somewhat cinereous, with ocellated leverian-whitish spots. Supposed to be a native of the Southern ocean.

Whitfish gadus.—Bearded; ventral fins didactyle and albidus; elongated. Inhabits the Mediterranean.

Toad gadus.—Bearded; gill-covers with three spines; tau, the first dorsal fin with three rays. Native of the American and Indian seas.

Burbot.—Bearded; the jaws of equal length. Body lota much lengthened, somewhat cylindrical, of a brownish-yellow. yellow colour, and white below; but the shades vary at different seasons, and in different individuals. It is a fresh-water fish, affecting clear lakes and rivers; feeding voraciously on all the smaller fishes, as well as on frogs, worms, and aquatic insects; spawning in the finest season of the year, and rapidly attaining to full growth. The largest which are taken in England rarely exceed the weight of three pounds; but in some parts of Europe they are found of more than double that weight, and of the length of three feet and more. They occur in great plenty and perfection in the lake of Geneva, and are by no means rare in many places in Europe, Siberia, and India. In England it frequents the lakes of the northern counties, some of the Lincolnshire fens, and the rivers Witham and Trent. Its flesh is white, delicate, and easy of digestion; and its liver, when in season, is reputed a peculiar dainty. Aldrovandus makes mention of an old German countess who expended the greatest part of her income in the purchase of this dish. According to Bloch the burbot fishery once proved so productive in the Oder, that the fattest were cut into narrow thongs, which were dried, and used as matches.

**Welsf gadus, five-bearded cod, or whitle-fish.**—Five cirri; the first dorsal fin incomplete. Grows to nearly 19 inches; feeds on the testaceous and crustaceous marine animals; deposits its spawn in autumn; is covered with mucus and very thin scales; and is of a brownish yellow colour, with black spots, and white below. The tricirratus and the rufescens are only varieties of this species.

**Cimbrian gadus.**—Four cirri; first dorsal fin incomplete, with the first ray halftated. Nearly allied to the preceding. Native of the Atlantic and northern seas.

***With one dorsal fin.*

**Mediterranean gadus.**—Two cirri on the upper lip, and one on the lower. Native of the Mediterranean. Considered by La Cépéde as a blennius.

**Torfs, or tyk.**—Mouth bearded; tail oval and acute. About twenty inches in length; colour of the head dusky, of the back and sides yellow, of the belly white. Inhabits the northern seas, about the Shetland islands, and is not observed lower than the Orkneys. Both barrelled and dried, it forms a considerable article of commerce.

**Gen. 5. Blennius.**

Head sloping, and covered with scales; gill-membrane six-rayed; body lanceolate; ventral fins with two spineless processes, the anal fin detached.

*With crested head.*

**Crested blenny.**—Crest transverse, and skinny. Length about four or five inches; body long, compressed, and slippery. The crest erected or depressed at pleasure. Inhabits the European seas, and is sometimes found about the rocky coasts of Great Britain.

**Punarn.**—Longitudinal fleshy crest between the eyes. Native of the Indian seas.

**Horned blenny.**—Simple ray between the eyes; and single dorsal fin. Inhabits the Indian seas.

**Ocellated blenny.**—Blueish-green; subfasciated with brown broad dorsal fin, marked by a black ocellated spot. Length about six or eight inches. Inhabits the Fihes Mediterranean, among the rocks and sea-plants near the shore. Its flesh is meagre and not much esteemed.

**Fasciatus blenny.**—Two simple cirri between the fasciatus eyes; the vent fin with 19 rays. Native of the Indian seas.

**Salient blenny.**—Brown, streaked with black, with a saliens simple cirrus on the head, and very large pectoral fins. Observed by Commerçon about some of the southern islands, particularly those of New Britain. It was seen swimming by hundreds; and, as it were, flying over the surface of the water, occasionally springing up and down with great rapidity among the rocks.

**Gatorugine.**—Small palmated fins on the eyebrows, gatorugine, and nape. Inhabits the Mediterranean and Atlantic; and is reckoned estable.

**Supercilious blenny.**—With palmated superciliary, supercilious cirri, the lateral line curved. Grows to the length of about twelve inches; is viviparous; and inhabits the Indian seas.

**Tentaculated blenny.**—A simple cirrus over the eyes, tentacula and a large ocellated spot on the back fin. Nearly allied to the horned species; and is found in the Mediterranean.

**Simus blenny.**—With a very small cirrus over the simus eyes; dorsal fin united behind to the caudal fin, and crooked lateral line. Length about three inches and a half. Described by Swief, from a specimen in the museum of the Peterburgh Academy.

**Hake blenny, or forked hake.**—Nostrils somewhat phycis-crested, a cirrus on the upper lip, and two dorsal fins. Grows to be eighteen inches long; inhabits the Mediterranean, and occurs on the coast of Cornwall. Improperly clasped by Pennant among the gadi.

**Head plain, or cretules.**

**Trifurcated blenny, or trifurcated hake.**—Brown trifurcata with white lips, and three-rayed open ventral fins. Much allied to gadus tau; was first discovered by Mr Davies near Beaumaris, and described by Mr Pennant as a gadus.

**Punctulated blenny.**—White, scaly, with irregular punctula-brown points, and elongated ventral fins. Head large; size about five inches. Described from a specimen in the Paris Museum.

**Smooth blenny.**—The lateral line curved, and sub-pholis-bifid. This species, which frequents the northern and Mediterranean seas, lying among stones and sea-weed, and occasionally entering the mouths of rivers, will grow to the length of seven or eight inches, but is usually much smaller. It bites fiercely, when first taken, and is so tenacious of life, that it may be kept 24 hours out of water. It feeds on smaller fishes and their spawn, as well as on shell-fish, sea-insects, &c. It is smooth, and covered with mucus. Being a coarse fish, it is principally used as a bait.

**Bofian blenny.**—Olivaceous, with brown and whitish bofianus clouds; vent in the middle of the body. Very much allied to the preceding. Native of the American seas, and very common in the bay of Charlestown. It has its name from M. Bofé, by whom it was discovered.

**Gunnel, spotted blenny, or butter fish.**—The dorsofamelus fin marked with ten ocellated black spots. About nine or ten inches in length; head small, body com-pressed, pressed, and the colour of the body yellow brown, clouded and freckled with deeper specks. This species inhabits the Baltic, Mediterranean, and northern seas. Though coarse, it is often dried and eaten by the Greenlanders. The number of spots on the back fin varies from nine to twelve.

**myxelaris.** *Wenfel blenny.*—The anterior dorsal fin three-rayed. Native of the Indian seas.

**viviparus.** *Viviparous blenny.*—Two tentacula at the mouth. Is sometimes found of the length of a foot, or even of 15 inches. Of a somewhat slender form, with a smooth slippery skin, covered with small scales of a yellowish olive colour, paler beneath, and marked on the upper parts by several moderately large dusky spots, forming a kind of bars on the dorsal fin and over the back. The rays of all the fins are soft. This species is a littoral fish, frequenting the coasts of the Mediterranean, Baltic, and northern seas; sometimes entering the mouths of rivers, and feeding like its congeners on the smaller fishes, insects, &c. Its ova are hatched internally, and the young acquire their perfect form before the time of their birth. Not less than two or even three hundred of these have been sometimes observed in a single fish. When the latter is advanced in its pregnancy, it is scarcely possible to touch the abdomen without causing the immediate exclusion of some of the young, which are immediately capable of swimming with great vivacity. It probably breeds more than once in the course of the year; at least naturalists have assigned different seasons to the production of its young. Its flesh is white and fat; but a prejudice has been entertained against it, because the bones, like those of the gar-fish, become green by boiling. According to the observation of Linnaeus, they are also phosphorescent in the dark.

**lumpenus.** *Aeolated blenny*—Yellowish, with subcylindrical body, marked on the back by brown patches. Inhabits the deep sandy shores of the Mediterranean, and conceals itself among fucii, stones, &c. Sometimes grows to 10 or 12 inches.

**raninus.** *Frog blenny.*—Brown, with obscurely fiss-cleft ventral fins, and gular cirrus. Native of the northern seas and of the Swedish lakes; in habit resembling the *gadus tau*. Is not eatable, and is said to frighten away other fish.

**murænoides.** *Murænoid blenny.*—Gill-membrane three-rayed; ventral fins one-rayed, with very minute spines. Body compressed, sword-shaped, smooth, and without visible scales. Described by Swief from a specimen in the Museum of the Peterburgh academy.

**Kurtus.**

**Gen. 6. Kurtus.**

Body carinated above and below, back elevated, gill-membrane two-rayed.

**indicus.** *Indian kurtus.*—Silvery, with gold-coloured back. Inhabits the Indian seas. Length, including the tail, about ten inches, and the greatest breadth somewhat more than four inches. Feeds on shell-fish, small crabs, &c.

### III. THORACIC.

The fishes of this order have the ventral fins at the breast, or nearly under the pectoral fins. They are generally voracious, preying on other fishes; they are mostly inhabitants of the sea; and their skins, with a few exceptions, are furnished with scales. None of them are viviparous.

**Gen. 1. Cæpola.**

Head roundish and compressed; mouth turning up, a single row of curved teeth; gill-membrane five-rayed; body sword-shaped and scaleless; the abdomen scarcely so long as the head.

**Common band-fish, ribband-fish, or tape-fish.**—Caudal fin attenuated, head very obtuse. Very thin, and almost transparent, so that its vertebrae are visible. Grows to the length of four or five feet. It swims with rapidity, and haunts the muddy or weedy shores of the Mediterranean. Scarcely eatable, having little or no flesh.

**Rubescens band-fish.**—Caudal fin attenuated, jaws rubescens pointed. A rare species, and not very distinctly described by authors. It is said to inhabit the Mediterranean.

The other species are *trachyptera* and *hermanniana*.

**Gen. 2. Gymnetrus.**

Body very long and compressed; teeth numerous and subulate; gill-membrane four or five-rayed; anal fin wanting.

**Afcanian gymneterus.**—Silvery, speckled longitudinally with brown points, and with the ventral cirri dilated at the tips. This singular fish, which is but imperfectly described in the *Icones Rerum Naturalium* of Professor Afcanius, is distinguished by the peculiar conformation of its ventral fins, which have more the appearance of long single rays or processes terminated by a small ovate and expanded tip. It is said either to precede or accompany the shoals of herrings in the northern seas, and is popularly denominated *king of the herrings*. That described by Dr Shaw from a drawing and notes in the possession of Dr Russell, is perhaps either a variety or sexual difference of the *afcanian*.

**Hawkinian or Blochian gymneterus.**—Bluish, silvery, *hawkenii*, with oblique, linear, brown bands, and rounded spots, red fins, and four long ventral processes. Described by Dr Bloch, from a drawing communicated by J. Hawkins, Esq. In general appearance, much allied to the other kinds of *gymnetrus*; from which, however, it is readily distinguished by its two pair of ventral processes with their finny extremities, and large distant round spots on the body. A native of the Indian seas. A specimen was thrown on the coast of Cornwall in February 1798.

**Cepedian gymneterus.**—Described by La Cépéde, from a coloured Chinese drawing, therefore very imperfectly known.

**Gen. 3. Vandellius.**

Body very long and sword-shaped; gill-membrane five or six-rayed; teeth subulate, and those in front larger.

**Lusitanian vandel.**—Silvery, with forked tail. Occurs, though very rarely, in the Mediterranean and Atlantic seas. It has been sometimes taken near Lisbon. Gen. 4. Echeneis.

Head oily, naked, and depressed, flat above, and emarginated, transversely ridged, and the sulci serrated; gill-membrane ten-rayed; body scaleless.

Mediterranean remora, or sucking-fish.—Tail forked; head with eighteen stripe bars. This number, however, is subject to vary, and cannot be safely assumed as a certain character. Grows to the length of about eighteen inches, and is usually of an uniform brown colour. It is remarkable for the apparatus on its head, by which it firmly adheres to rocks, ships, or animals, being incapable of swimming easily to any considerable distance. From this adhesive property arose the marvellous account of the ancients, who alleged that the remora could arrest a ship under full sail in the midst of the ocean. They also pretended, that it completely subdued the passion of love. Five individuals of this species have been found fastened to the body of a single shark. The latter fish, it is said, will not swallow them. The Indians of Cuba and Jamaica formerly kept and fed sucking-fishes for the purpose of catching others. The owner, on a calm morning, would carry one of them out to sea, secured to his canoe by a small but strong line, many fathoms in length; the creature fastened on the first fish in its way. The Indian, meanwhile, loosed and let go the line, which was provided with a buoy to mark the course which the sucking-fish had taken; and he pursued it in his canoe, until he perceived his game to be nearly exhausted. He then gradually drew the line towards the shore, the remora still so inflexibly adhering to his prey, as not easily to be removed. Oviedo says, he has known turtle taken by this mode, of a weight that no single man could support. This species inhabits the ocean and the Mediterranean. Its flesh is said to taste like fried artichokes.

Indian remora, or longest sucking-fish.—Tail entire; 24 bars on the head. Occurs more frequently in the Indian and American seas than in those of Europe, and is very common about the Mozambique coast, where it is used in catching turtle. It is found of the length of two or three feet, or even of seven. The upper parts of the body are olive green, and the under parts are whitish. Its flesh is tough and meagre.

Lineated remora.—Tail wedge-shaped; head with ten bars, two longitudinal white lines on each side of the body. Inhabits the Pacific ocean.

Gen. 5. Coryphaena.

Head much sloping and truncated; gill membrane five-rayed; the dorsal fin of the length of the back.

Common coryphene, or dolphin. Forked tail. Inhabits the Mediterranean, Indian, and Atlantic seas, often appearing in large shoals, playing round ships, and eagerly devouring any articles of food that happen to be thrown overboard. It will even swallow indigestible substances, such as iron nails, &c. Like its congeners, it exhibits splendid and vivid hues in the water, being of a bright and beautiful blue-green, accompanied by a golden gloe. When taken out of the water, this fine combination of colouring gradually vanishes with the principle of life. Its ordinary length is about three feet; but it is often seen of four, or even five feet in length. It is strong and voracious, pursuing the smaller fishes, and especially persecuting the flying-fish. In spring and autumn it frequents shores, to deposit its spawn. As its flesh is much esteemed, it is taken both with the line and net. Though popularly called dolphin, it is not to be confounded with the delphinus of the ancients.

Of the following, which more or less resemble the preceding, the history is too obscure to detain us: equifinis, plumieri, cerulea, pentadactyla, novacula, chrysurus, pompilus, fasciata, velifera, phtiacus, scombroides, acuta, sima, verens, hemiptera, branchiosega, japonica, clypeata, lineata, and sinensis.

Gen. 6. Macrourus.

Head and eyes large; body at the hind part attenuated into the tail.

Long-tailed imminifet. Two dorsal fins, of which the rupestris, first has the first ray toothed at the back. This is the coryphena rupestris of Linnaeus. It chiefly occurs about the coasts of Greenland and Iceland, where it is regarded as a dainty. The head is large and thick, and the body is covered with rounded scales, each of which is furnished with a toothed carina, ending in a pointed tip, so that the hand is wounded by drawing it over the fish from the tail towards the head. When taken, its body swells, as if with rage, and its eyes project in a hideous manner.

Gen. 7. Gobius.

Head small, with two approximated pores between the eyes, one pore placed before the other; gill-membrane four-rayed; body small, compressed on both sides, covered with small scales, and furnished with a pimple behind the vent; the ventral fins coalescing into an oval shape; two dorsal fins.

Common, or black goby, sea gudgeon, or miller's-niger. Thumb. Fourteen rays in the second dorsal fin. Grows to the length of six inches. The body is wedge-shaped, soft, and slippery, and overspread with small dusky or blackish specks. This species is said to affix itself to the rocks by the union of its ventral fins in the form of a funnel, from which circumstance it is sometimes called rock-fish. It is a native of the Mediterranean and southern seas, frequenting the shores in the beginning of summer, when it deposits its spawn. It is edible, but not held in particular estimation.

To this numerous genus also belong bicolor, cruenta-tus, paganellus, arabicus, nebulosus, eleotris, aphyia, minutus, joxo, pechinirufiris, schloferti, melanurus, boddaerti, laecephalus, cyprinoides, lanceolatus, bofici, cerulens, broussonetii, plumieri, ocellaris, ater, and anguillaris.

Gen. 8. Gobiomorus.

Habit as in the preceding genus; ventral fins distinct.

Southern gobiomore. Gobius strigatus of Linnaeus. Blue Gen. 9. Cottus.

Head broader than the body, and armed with spines; eyes vertical, furnished with a nictitating membrane; gill-membrane five-rayed; body round, without scales, attenuated towards the tail; dorsal fins more than one.

Mailed or armed bull-head, or pogge.—Covered with a hard crust; two bident warts on the rostrum; head furnished with cirrhi below. General length about five or six inches. The head large, bony, and rugged; the body octagonal, and covered with a number of strong bony crusts.—Frequents the European seas, and is plentiful on our own coasts, living on worms and water insects, particularly young crabs, and spawning in the month of May. It is dressed for the table, but not esteemed a luxury.

Four-horned bull-head, with four bony tubercles on the head.—Native of the Mediterranean, Baltic, and northern seas. Used chiefly as a bait.

Grunting bull-head.—Throat flanged with cirrhi; body naked.—When first taken, it utters, like some of the gurnards, a kind of abrupt grunting sound, by the sudden expulsion of air from the internal cavities, through the gill-covers and mouth. It is reckoned cululent; but the liver is said to be hurtful. Native of the Indian and American seas.

Ladder bull-head, or father-ladder.—Several spines on the head; the upper jaw rather longer than the lower. Inhabits the Mediterranean, and the northern ocean of Europe and America.—It is very strong, swims with great rapidity, and is very voracious, preying on the blennies, cod, herring, salmon, as well as on smaller fishes and insects. It is very frequent in Greenland, where it sometimes attains to the length of six feet, and where it is much relished as an article of food. It is said to be able to live a considerable time out of water, having the power of closing the gill-covers so as to exclude the effects of atmospheric air. Like the grunting bull-head, it utters a strong sound when first taken.

River bull-head, or miller's thumb.—Smooth, with two spines on the head.—Inhabits the clear rivers and brooks of Europe and Siberia, generally lying on the gravel, or concealing itself beneath the stones, preying on worms, water insects, and very young fishes.—It deposits its spawn in March or April. In this country its length seldom exceeds three inches and a half; but in other parts of Europe it seems to arrive at a superior size, and is even found of the length of seven inches. It is of a yellow olive colour, has a large head, slippery skin, and tapers to the tail. It is most readily caught during the night, and its flesh, which grows red by boiling, is esteemed good and wholesome.

Gen. 10. Scorpaena.

Head large, aculeated, cirrhated, obtuse, scaleless, and subcompressed; eyes approximated; teeth in the jaws, palate, and fauces; gill membrane seven-rayed; body fleshy; one dorsal fin, long; the first rays spinous.

Porcine scorpaena, little sea scorpion, or sea devil.—Porcus. Cirrhi at the eyes and nostrils. Common in the Mediterranean. Seldom exceeds a foot in length. Wounds with the spines of its dorsal fin. Flesh tough, and scarcely eatable.

Rufous scorpaena, or larger sea scorpion.—Two cirrhi, crofa, on the under lip. Larger than the preceding, being sometimes four feet in length. It preys not only on the smaller fishes, but, occasionally, on marine birds. Inhabits the Atlantic, Mediterranean, and northern seas.

Horrid scorpaena.—Scattered over with callous tubercles. Of a very uncouth and forbidding aspect. Measures from 12 to 15 inches in length, and inhabits the Indian seas.

Flying scorpaena.—Thirteen rays in the dorsal fin; volitans, fix cirrhi, the pectoral fins longer than the body. Like fishes of the exocetus and trigla genus, it uses its pectoral fins for the purposes of occasional flight. Native of the rivers of Japan, Amboyna, &c., where it is reckoned excellent food.

Besides the preceding, naturalists reckon plumieri, commersonii, bicapillata, brachiata, aculeata, barbata, antennata, capensis, spinosa, and americana.

Gen. 11. Zeus.

Head compressed, and flopping; upper lip arched with a transverse membrane; tongue tubulated; gill membrane with seven perpendicular rays, the lowest transverse; body compressed, thin, and shining; the rays of the first dorsal fin ending in filaments.

Brazilian dory.—The second ray of the dorsal and vomer, anal fin very long. Of a rhomboidal shape, about six or eight inches long, very thin, and scaleless. Native of the American seas, and sometimes seen in those of the north of Europe. Edible, but not much in request.

Infiduous dory.—With a narrow mouth. Native of infidulator, the rivers and fresh waters of India.

Indian dory.—The tenth ray of the dorsal and the se-gallus, second of the anal fin longer than the body. Native of the American and Indian seas.

Ciliated dory.—With some of the rays in the dorsal ciliaris, and anal fin very long. Native of the Indian seas.

Common dory.—The tail rounded; a brown central faber spot on each side of the body; two anal fins. Grows to nearly 18 inches in length, and weighs from 10 to 12 pounds. The head is abrupt, the mouth wide, the back much arched, and furnished with a row of strong small prickers. The body is covered with very minute scales, dusky brown above, and of a shining greenish yellow on the sides. 'We are indebted (says Mr. Pennant) to that judicious actor and bon vivant, the late Mr Quin, for adding a most delicious fish to our table, who overcoming all the vulgar prejudices on account of its deformity, has effectually established its reputation.'

Vol. XI. Part I. The dory is extremely voracious, and, when first taken, makes the same kind of sound, as the gurnards and scorpaenas. It is a native of the Mediterranean, Atlantic, and northern seas. It is fished on the southern coasts of England; but the largest are found in the bay of Biskay.

Red dory.—Tail even; body reddish. Resembles the preceding, but is much smaller. Native of the Mediterranean.

Oval dory.—Tail somewhat lunate; body reddish, with white spots. This beautiful species measures from four to five feet in length; the general colour sometimes a brilliant silvery green, and sometimes a bright gold colour, variegated with pretty numerous, and moderately large, oval white spots; while the fins and tail are bright scarlet. It is the Zeus Luna of Linnaeus. Found, though rarely, in the Mediterranean and northern seas.

Square dory.—Tail even; body cinereous, with transverse dusky bars. Native of the coasts of Jamaica.

Gen. 12. Pleuronectes.

Head small; eyes spherical, both on the same side of the head, and near each other; mouth arched; jaws with teeth, and unequal; gill-membrane, with four to seven rays; the gill-cover, in most of the species, consisting of three plates, body compressed, carinate; the one side somewhat convex, answering to the back; the other, of a paler colour, to the belly; the vent nearer the head than the tail.

The fishes of this genus are remarkable for having both eyes on one side of the head; and they are divided into two sections, according as they have the eyes towards the right, when the animal is laid with its coloured side upwards, with its abdomen towards the spectator; or to the left, when the fish is in the same situation.

* With eyes towards the right.

Holibut.—The whole body smooth. Dusky above, pure white beneath. Narrow in respect to its length. Individuals have been taken on the English coast, which weighed from 200 to 300 pounds; and the Icelanders have caught some which weighed 400 pounds. Olafsen mentions, that he saw one which measured five ells; and we are told by the Norwegian fishermen, that a single holibut will sometimes cover a whole skiff. This species, then, is more entitled to the epithet maximus, than that to which it is applied. Though it inhabits the Mediterranean, it arrives at a larger size in the northern seas of Europe and America. It is so voracious, that it devours rays, crabs, haddock, and even lump-fish, of which it seems to be very fond. The part of the body nearest the fins, is fat and delicate, but surfeiting; the rest of the fish is regarded as coarse food. The Greenlanders cut it into thin slips, and dry them in the sun. This fish deposits its spawn in spring, among rocks near the shore.

Smaller holibut.—Body smooth, oblong; teeth obsolete; tail roundish. Very like the preceding, but smaller, and more relished as an article of food. Native of the northern seas.

Plaice.—Body smooth, with six tubercles on the head. Readily distinguished by its very broad and flat shape, its pale brown colour above, and the orange coloured spots with which it is marked. One of eight or nine pounds is reckoned a large fish, though instances occur of their weighing 15 pounds. They spawn in the beginning of May, and are common in the Baltic and northern seas. The best are said to be taken off Rye, on the Sussex coast, and near Holland. They are in considerable request in the fish-market, though far inferior to the sole and turbot.

Flounder.—With a rough lateral line, and a series of spines at the base of the fins. Easily distinguished from the rest of the genus by the specific character; and very generally known, as it inhabits every part of the British sea, and even frequents our rivers at a considerable distance from salt water. It likewise occurs in the northern, Baltic, and Mediterranean seas. In size, it is much inferior to the plaice; but it affords a light and wholesome food.

Dab.—Scales ciliated; small spines at the origin of limanda, the dorsal and anal fins; teeth obtuse. Of a very broad, ovate shape, yellowish brown above, and white beneath. Inhabits the same seas as the plaice and flounder; but is less common, of a smaller size, and more prized as an article of food.

Smear-dab, or kit.—Yellowish brown, with smooth leathery scales; five dusky spots, white beneath. Caught on the Cornish coast.

Long dab.—Body oblong and rough, lateral line limanda-straight and broad. Much longer than the dab. Inhabits the northern seas, and is esteemed at table.

Rose-coloured flounder.—Colour of a delicate rose; rosettes, and general proportions those of a flounder. Taken in the Thames, and preserved in the Leverian museum.

Sole.—Body oblong and rough; upper jaw longest. More narrow and oblong than any other of the genus. Sometimes grows to the length of more than two feet, and to the weight of eight pounds. Its general size, however, is much smaller. Those of moderate size are generally in most request for the table; and next to the turbot, are reckoned the most delicate of the genus. The sole is an inhabitant of the northern, Baltic, Mediterranean, and American seas. On the west coast of Great Britain it attains to a much larger size than on the east. The principal sole-fishery is at Brixham, in Torbay.

Smooth sole.—White, transparent, with small, thin, diaphanus deciduous scales. Found about the coasts of Cornwall, where it is called lantern-fish.

** With eyes towards the left.

Whiff.—Body broad and rough. Native of the pandatus, northern sea.

Pearl.—Body smooth; pale brown above, marked rhombus, by scattered yellowish, or rufous spots, and white beneath. Resembles the turbot, but is inferior in size. Native of the European seas.

Turbot, or brei; pleuronectes maximus of Linnaeus.—tubercula. Body rough. This fish, which is reckoned such delicate eating, is found both in the Mediterranean and northern seas. It is broader and squarer than any of the genus, except the pearl, and is of a dark brown above, marbled with blackish spots of different sizes, and white beneath. Like the rest of this genus, the turbot generally lies in deep water, preying on worms, shell-fish, small fishes, &c. It is taken in great quantities. tities about the northern coasts of England, as well as on those of France, Holland, &c. They are so extremely delicate in their choice of baits as not to touch a piece of herring or haddock that has been 12 hours out of the sea. Though the turbot and holibut are often confounded in our markets, the former may be easily recognised by the large, unequal, and obtuse tubercles on its upper part.

In this numerous genus are also clasped trichodactylus, zebra, plagia, ocellatus, rondeletii, linguatula, glaucalis, plateoides, argentatus, barbatus, marmoratus, pavoninus, lineatus, bilineatus, ornatus, dentatus, macrolepis, passer, papillosus, argus, fellatus, and japonicus.

Gen. 13. CHETODON.

Head small; mouth narrow, with retractile lips; teeth generally fetaeous, flexible, moveable, equal, very numerous, and close; eyes round, small, vertical, and furnished with a nictitating membrane; gill-membrane from three to six-ruved; body broad, thin, compressed, covered with hard scales, and coloured; dorsal and anal fins rigid, fleshy, falcate, and generally terminated with pickles.

To avoid much unnecessary repetition, we shall observe, in general, that upwards of 60 species of chetodons have been distinctly ascertained; that they are mostly natives of the American and Indian seas; that they are distinguished by the great depth and highly compressed form of the body, which is often beautifully variegated by transverse, oblique, or longitudinal bands, and covered with strong scales, finely denticulated on the margins; and that the dorsal and anal fins are remarkably broad, and, in many species, of an unusual length.

One of the most remarkable species of this genus is the rostratus, rostratus, or beaked chetodon, with an entire tail, nine spines in the dorsal fin, an ocellated spot on the sides, and the beak cylindrical. It is of a roundish-ovate shape, about six or eight inches in length, of a whitish colour, with a dusky tinge on the back, and marked by fine transverse and nearly equidistant brown bands, with milk-white edges. It is a native of the fresh waters of India, and feeds principally on flies and other small winged insects which hover about the surface of its native waters. When it feeds a fly at a distance, alighted on any of the plants in the shallow water, it approaches very slowly, and with the utmost caution, coming as much as possible perpendicularly under the object. Then putting its body in an oblique direction, with the mouth and eyes near the surface, it remains a moment immovable. Having fixed its eyes directly on the insect, it darts at it a drop of water from its tubular mouth, but without throwing its mouth above the surface, from which only the drop seems to rise, and that with such effect, that, though at the distance of four, five, or six feet, it very seldom fails to bring its prey into the water. With the closest attention the mouth could never be discovered above the surface, although the fish has been seen to spout several drops successively, without leaving the place, or in the smallest apparent degree moving its body. This very singular mode of attacking its prey was reported to M. Hume, governor of the hospital at Batavia, and so far excited his curiosity, that he ordered a large tub to be filled with sea-water, and had some of the fishes caught and put into it. When they were reconciled to their confinement, he caused a slender stick, with a fly fastened at the end, to be placed in such a manner on the side of the vessel, as to enable the fish to strike it; and it was not without inexpressible delight, that he daily saw them exercising their skill in shooting at it, with amazing force, and seldom missing their mark. This faculty is possessed by a few other species belonging to very different genera. The flesh of the rostratus chetodon is white and well-tasted.

Angel chetodon, or angel-fish of Catesby, is of a fine catfish, gold-green colour, with the scales covered by smaller ones. The pectoral, ventral fins, and tail, are of a vivid orange; and the dorsal and anal, violet-blue at the base, and bright crimson towards the tips.—It is common off Carolina and the Bahama isles, where it is much esteemed for its delicacy.

Imperial chetodon, is a magnificent species, growing imperator to the length of a foot or more. Its ground colour is a golden-yellow, which is longitudinally, though somewhat obliquely, striped with very numerous bright blue parallel rays. It is a native of Japan, and said to be superior to the salmon in flavour.

Sea cat, or but chetodon, surpasses all the other species vesperitiae, in the great extent and breadth of the dorsal and anal fins, both which nearly equal the body itself in size, and are of a somewhat triangular shape. It is a native of Japan.

Red-striped chetodon, is distinguished by numerous setifer red stripes on the body, and an eye-shaped spot and bristle on the dorsal fin.

Three-coloured chetodon, is golden-yellow on the fore-tricolor part, jet black behind, except the tail, which is yellow, and red near the end, while the edges of the gill-covers, and of all the fins, are bright red.

Gen. 14. ACANTHURUS.

Teeth small, and in most species lobated; tail aculeated on each side. This genus comprises such species of the Linnean chetodon as, in contradiction to the principal character of that genus, have moderately broad and strong teeth, rather than slender and fetaeous ones.

Unicorn acanthurus.—Gray-brown; with a frontal unicornis horn projecting over the snout, and two spines on each side of the tail. Of the length of three feet or upwards. Its horn shaped process is strong and conical, terminating rather abruptly.—It is a native of the Indian and Arabian seas, in the latter of which it is usually seen in shoals of two or four hundred, swimming with great strength, and feeding principally on the different kinds of sea-weed. It is singular that so remarkable a fish should have been entirely overlooked by Linnaeus, even in the twelfth edition of the Systema Naturae.

The other species are denominated naevus, teuthis, nigricans, militaris, trioctegus, harparus, johai, nigro-fuscus, achilles, lineatus, umbratus, meleagris, and velifer.

Gen. 15. EQUES.

Teeth in several rows; body banded.

American knight fish.—Chetodon lanceolatus, Lin. americae. Body oblong; yellowish, with three black bands, the nasus. Thoracic first across the eyes, the second across the thorax, and fishes the third along the body. Native of the American seas.

Trichopus. Gen. 16. Trichopus.

Body compressed; ventral fins, with a very long filament.

Goramy trichopus.—Rufescent, with a silvery cast on the sides; and the second ray of the ventral fins extremely long. Native of the fresh waters of China, where it is much prized as an article of food.

Arabicus trichopus. Labrus gallus, Lin.—Greenfish, with violet and blue stripes, and second ray of the ventral fins very long. Native of the Arabian seas.

Satyrus trichopus.—With finning forehead, projecting chin, and extremely long, single-rayed, ventral fins. Native of the Indian seas.

Pallasi trichopus. Labrus trichopterus, Lin.—Brown, with pale undulations, a black spot on each side of the body and tail, and long single-rayed ventral fins. Native of the Indian seas.

Monodactylus trichopus.—Silvery, with brownish back, and short, single-rayed, rigid ventral fins. Native of the Indian seas.

Sparus. Gen. 17. Sparus.

Strong cutting or canine teeth, with obtuse and closet grinders; lips double; gill membrane five-rayed, gill covers scaly; body compressed, lateral line curved behind; pectoral fins rounded.

Of this very extensive genus, most of the species are exotic; and their history is very imperfectly known. Considerable confusion takes place with respect to the characters by which they ought to be discriminated from the labri, a family to which they are much allied. We shall briefly notice only a few of the most striking and best known species.

Gilt-head, has a lunulated spot between the eyes. A more permanent character may be affirmed from the six cutting teeth in each jaw. This species is about 15 inches long, but sometimes of a much larger size. It is of a silvery bluish cast, with gold-coloured brown, and sometimes with several brownish longitudinal stripes. The body is broad and thin, and the back elevated. The gilt-head is a native of the Mediterranean, Atlantic, and Indian seas; frequenting deep water on bold rocky shores; and living chiefly on terebraceous animals. It is said to sleep at stated times, and to be very susceptible of cold. The Greeks and Romans reckoned it a most delicate morsel, and the former held it to be consecrated to Venus.

Rose sparus, is remarkable for its beautiful rose-red colour. In size and shape, it resembles the perch. It is a native of the Mediterranean and Indian seas, in the latter of which it is said to acquire noxious qualities.

Fasciatus sparus, is of a squarish elongated shape; with transverse dusky bands, and the fins edged with black. It is a native of Japan.

Green-tailed sparus, is a native of the American seas, and a highly elegant species; having its yellowish and large scales crossed by a green band, green fins, and rose-coloured gill-covers. The green tail is strongly lunulated, and marked by minute pale specks.

A striking disposition of colours likewise distinguishes the chrysurus, or gold-tailed sparus, which is found in the seas of South America. Its general complexion is a bright rose-red, which is deeper on the back; a gold yellow stripe runs on each side from the gills to the tail, and a second on each side of the bottom of the abdomen.

Spined sparus, has the dorsal spines recumbent, and spinifer, the five in the middle filiform and elongated. It is of a reddish silvery hue, with the back and the lines on the body dusky; shape ovate; and length, a foot and a half. It inhabits the Red sea; and is reckoned a delicious fish for the table.

Squirrel sparus, squirrel-fish, or grunt.—Gray-brown, scirurus, with large scales bordered with yellow, and head marked longitudinally by numerous blue and yellow lines. According to Bloch, the blue lines also run along the body. Native of the American seas. It is the perca formosa of Linnaeus.

Indigenous sparus.—Red, yellowish on the sides; tail sub-falcipinnate. Length about ten inches. Native of the Indian seas, where, through its long tubular snout, it shoots a drop of water at the insects on which it feeds, in the same manner as the rostrated charodon.

Galilean sparus.—Greenfish, with whitish abdomen. galilaeus. Very common in the lake of Genefareth, and therefore supposed to have been the principal species in the miraculous draught of fishes recorded by St Luke.

Desfontaine's sparus.—With 23 rays in the dorsal desfontaini, 11 in the anal, and a black spot on the gill-covers. nii. Inhabits the warm waters of Caffa in Tunis, which, in January, are about 30 degrees of Reaumur's thermometer above the freezing point; but it is also found in the cold and brackish waters surrounding the date plantations at Tozzar.

Argus sparus.—Of a silvery blue; with many ocellated brown spots. A very elegant species, of which the native country is uncertain.

Climbing sparus.—Olive-green, with yellowish abdo-ctandens, men, and gold-coloured eyes. Length about a span; skin covered by a blackish mucus. "This fish (says Dr Shaw) is remarkable for its power of climbing, which it performs by the affixture of the spines of its gill-covers, moving itself at pleasure up the stems of trees growing near the waters it frequents. In this situation it was observed in the month of November 1791, at Tranquebar, by Lieutenant Daldorff, who communicated its description to Sir Joseph Banks. It was seen ascending a fissure in the stem of the palm called borafus flabellifer, growing near a pool of water, and was observed to move itself forwards by alternately applying the spiny sides of the gill-covers to the sides of the fissure, affixing itself at the same time by the spines on each side of the tail, and had already ascended to the height of more than five feet above the water when it was first observed: it was found to be very tenacious of life, moving about on dry sand, many hours after it was taken."

Gen. 18. Scarus.

Instead of teeth, the jaws are eminent, crenated, and bony, with a toothed margin; gill-membrane five-rayed, gill-cover entire, lateral line generally branch- Cretan *scarus*.—Green, yellowish beneath, with very large scales, ramified lateral line, and sublimated tail. Native of the Mediterranean and Indian seas. Common about Crete.

*Green scarus*.—Yellowish green; with large scales, edged with green; lateral line interrupted towards the tail. Native of the Japanese seas.

*Rivulatus scarus*.—Bluish, spotted with black, and marked by longitudinal yellow undulations. Native of the Red sea.

*Stellatus scarus*.—Oval, blackish; variegated with fihexagonal pale rings. Native of the Arabian seas.

*Red scarus*.—Rose-red, with silvery abdomen. Native of the Indian seas.

*Parrot scarus*.—Greenish, marked with yellowish lines, and with the edges of the fins, abdominal band, and variegations of the head, blue. Native of the Arabian seas.

*Purplish scarus*.—Dull-green, with three longitudinal ferrated purple bands on each side, and blue abdomen. Native of the Arabian seas.

*Black scarus*.—Ovate-oblong; blackish brown, with red lips, and the margin of the fins greenish-blue. Native of the Arabian seas.

*Blue-fripped scarus*.—Whitish, with the scales marked by transverse bluish bands, and double lateral line. Native of the Arabian seas.

*Ferruginous scarus*.—Brown-ferruginous, with the jaws and margins of the fins green, and tail even. Native of the Arabian seas.

*Sordid scarus*.—Brown-ferruginous, with darker-coloured fins, and rising, even tail. Native of the Arabian seas.

*Scaly-tailed scarus*.—Tail forked, the middle of its back befit with scales. Native of the Arabian seas.

*Schlofferian scarus*.—Gold-coloured, with five dusky spots on each side, brownish back, and nearly even tail. Native of Java.

Gen. 19. Gomphosus.

Jaws lengthened into a tubular snout; teeth small, those in the front larger.—This genus, instituted by La Cépéde, contains two species, both natives of the Indian seas, and both agreeing in the remarkable form of the mouth, which consists of a tubular process, somewhat truncated at the tip.

*Blue gomphosus*.—Entirely blue. About the size of a tench.

*Variegated gomphosus*.—Variegated with red, yellow, and blue. Smaller than the preceding.

Gen. 20. Labrus.

Teeth acute; lips not doubled; gill-membrane fixed rayed; gill-covers fleshy; the rays of the dorsal fin furnished behind with a filiform process; the pectoral fins acuminate; and lateral line straight.

From this very numerous genus, the discrimination of which has never been accomplished with accuracy, we can afford to select only a few species.

*Ceylonese labrus*, or *Ceylon wrasse*.—Green, purplish beneath, with blue head, and gill-covers variegated with purple. This beautiful fish is a native of Ceylon, where it is reckoned edible.

*Jaculator*, or *floating labrus*.—Gray, clouded with yellow; five transverse dusky bands; and lower jaw longer than the upper. Darts water on its prey, like the rottred chaetodon and infidious sparus. Native of the Indian seas.

*Scare labrus*.—Whitish, mixed with red; with transverse appendages on each side of the tail. Native of the Mediterranean; where it feeds principally on fuci, and swims in shoals. It was in high esteem with the ancients as a food, and considered by the Romans as one of the principal delicacies of the table.

*Ballan labrus*, or *ballan wrasse*.—Yellow, with fulvous spots, reflex lips, and ramentose dorsal fin. Weighs about five pounds. Appears annually in great shoals off Filey-bridge, near Scarborough.

*Ancient labrus*, *ancient wrasse*, or *old wife*.—Beak tine bent upwards; end of the tail circular. Size and habit of a tench. Native of the European seas, and usually found in deep waters, about rocky coasts. Liable to vary much in colour.

*Parraeckt labrus*.—Green, with three longitudinal fulvous stripes on each side, and yellow dorsal fin marked by a longitudinal red band. A beautiful species, which inhabits the American seas.

*Beautiful labrus*.—Red, with longitudinal, interrupted, flexuous, blue streaks; and fins edged with blue.

*Jurella labrus*.—Sides bluish, both marked by a longitudinal, fulvous, and dentated band. Length about eight inches, and form somewhat lengthened. Occurs in shoals in the Mediterranean. The more ancient ichthyologists erroneously considered it as poisonous, and as the most beautiful of the finny tribes.

Gen. 21. OPHICEPHALUS.

Head coated with dissimilar scales; body elongated.

*Punctated ophicephalus*.—Dusky, paler beneath, with punctatus, the head pierced by pores, and the body speckled with black points. Length about ten inches. Frequent rivers and lakes in India; and is reckoned a delicate and wholesome food.

*Striated ophicephalus*.—Dusky, with the abdomen striatus, and fins striated with dusky and whitish variegations. Length about twelve inches. Native of India; inhabiting lakes, and equally esteemed with the former as food.

Gen. 22. LONCHURUS.

Head scaly; ventral fins separate; tail lanceolate.

*Bearded lonchurus*.—Ferruginous-brown; with slightly lengthened nose; two beards at the lower jaw; and the first ray of the ventral fins elongated into a brittle. Length about twelve inches. Native of Surinam.

Gen. 23. SCIENA.

The whole head covered with scales; gill-membrane fixed-rayed; a furrow on the back, in which the dorsal fin is seated.

Most of the species of this genus are exotic, and but obscurely known. Cirrhosa or bearded sciæna, has the upper jaw longer than the lower, and a beard on the latter. It has the habit of a carp, and measures from one to two feet. Native of the Mediterranean. Was valued by the Greeks and Romans as an article of food.

Baffo sciæna, or baffo. Perca labrax of Lin.—Subargenteous, with brown back, yellowish-red fins, and dusky tail. Habit of a salmon. Native of the Mediterranean and northern seas; frequently entering rivers. Known to the ancients by the names of labrax and lurpus, and greatly prized, particularly by the Romans.

Gen. 24. PERCA.

Jaws unequal, armed with sharp-pointed and incurved teeth; gill-covers consisting of three plates, of which the uppermost is serrated; gill-membrane seven-rayed, the lateral line following the arch of the back; the scales hard and rough; fins spiny; and vent nearer the tail than the head.

Common perch.—The second dorsal fin with 16 rays, of a brown olive, sometimes accompanied by a slight gilded tinge on the sides, and commonly marked by five or six broad, blackish, transverse bars. This well-known fish usually measures from 10 inches to two feet, and weighs from two to four pounds, though some have weighed eight, nine, or ten pounds. The perch inhabits clear rivers and lakes in most parts of Europe, haunts deep holes in gently flowing rivers, spawns early in spring, is of a gregarious disposition, very voracious, and so tenacious of life, that it may be carried to the distance of 60 miles in dry straw, and yet survive the journey. It feeds on aquatic insects and the smaller fishes, and is preyed on by the pike, eel, &c. Its flesh is firm and delicate, and was held in repute at the table of the ancient Romans. In some of the northern countries a sort of isinglass is prepared from the skin.

Lucioperca. Sandre perch.—The second dorsal fin with 23 rays; of a larger size, and more like a pike, than the preceding. Native of clear rivers and lakes in the middle parts of Europe.

Ruffe perch, or ruffe.—Dorsal fin with 27 rays, of which 15 are spiny. Length from six to eight inches, and shape more slender than that of the common perch. Feeds on worms, insects, and young fishes, and is frequently preyed on by the pike, larger fishes, and aquatic fowls. Spawns in March and April; inhabits clear rivers in many parts of Europe, especially towards the north; and affords excellent food.

Small perch. Body ovate, compressed, rough. Scarce exceeding the length of an inch and a half. Native of the Mediterranean.

Sea perch.—The dorsal fin with 15 spiny rays, and 14 soft ones; the body variegated with dusky lines. Colour red, marked with dusky transverse lines on the sides. Inhabits the Northern, Mediterranean, and Atlantic seas, and is in high esteem for the table.

Holocentrus.

Habit of the genus perca; gill-covers fealy, serrated, and aculeated; scales in most species, hard and rough.

Sago holocentrus.—Silvery red, with longitudinal yellow lines on each side. A highly beautiful species, about a foot in length. Native of the Mediterranean, Indian, and American seas, and considered as an excellent fish for the table.

Spur-gilled holocentrus.—Subargenteous, with brown calciferous back, large scales, and spurred gill covers. Native of Japan.

Surinam holocentrus.—Brownish; with yellowish furina-clouds, red head, and anterior gill-covers ciliated with menisci. Spines. Native of Surinam, where it is reckoned one of the best fishes which the country produces.

26. BODIANUS.

Habit of the genus perca; gill-covers fealy, serrated and aculeated; scales in most species smooth.

Purple-backed bodian.—Gold yellow, with purple bodianus back. Shape like that of a trout; length about 14 inches. Native of the South American seas.

Five-spined bodian.—Rose-coloured, with silvery ab-pentacodon, and dorsal fin yellow on the fore part. Native thus of the Brazilian seas. Accounted good food.

Aya bodian.—Red, with silvery abdomen, single-aya, spined gill-covers, and lunated tail. This highly beautiful species is said to grow to the length of three feet. It is found in the Brazilian seas, and regarded as a delicacy.

Large-scaled bodian.—Gray brown, with large round macrolepid scales denticulated at the edges. Length about apidotus foot. Native of the East Indies.

Spotted bodian.—Olivaceous yellow, with blue spots maculatus, and reddish fins. Native of Japan.

Louti bodian.—Oblong lanceolate, with smallish violetaceous spots, and fins edged with yellow. Native of the Arabian seas.

Palpebral bodian.—Somewhat ferruginous, with ochre-palpebra-coloured eyes, protected by a moveable yellow valve. tus. Shape nearly that of a perch. Native of the seas about Amboyna.

Silvery bodian.—Silvery, with bluish back. Native argenteus of the Mediterranean.

Apua bodian.—Red, with the back spotted, the body apua, speckled, and the fins edged with black. Native of the Brazilian seas.

Guttated bodian, jew-fish, or jacob iversten.—Yel-guttatus, lowish brown, with body and fins marked by small ocellated deep brown spots. Native of the Indian and American seas. Esteemed as an edible fish.

Zebra bodian.—Yellowish, with the body marked by zebra, transverse, and the head by longitudinal, brown bands. Native of Japan.

Rogaa bodian.—Blackish rufescient, with black fins roga, Native of the Arabian seas.

Lunated bodian.—Blackish ferruginous, with black lunulatus, fins, whitish transparent towards the back part. Native of the Arabian seas.

Black and white bodian.—Silvery, with irregular melanoleu-transverse, black bands. Native of the Indian seas.

Star-eyed bodian.—Silvery, with yellowish back, and stellifer orbits spiny beneath. Native of the seas about the Cape of Good Hope.

Gen. 27. GASTEROSTEUS.

Head oblong and smooth, the jaws armed with small teeth; tongue short and obtuse; palate smooth; eyes moderately sized, scarcely prominent; lateral; gill-membrane membrane six or seven-rayed; gill-cover consisting of two plates, rounded and striated; body at the tail carinate at both sides, and covered with shields, distinct prickles before the dorsal fin; the back and lateral line parallel and straight; the ventral fins behind the pectoral, but above the sternum.

**aculeatus.** Common flakeback, bonflickle, sharpling, &c., with three spines on the back. Length two inches, or three at most. In the early part of summer, the gills and abdomen are of a bright red, the back a fine olive green, and the sides silvery. Lives only two or three years, is very active and very voracious, devouring the young and spawn of other fishes, worms, insects, and their larvae. The stronger inhabitants of the waters shun it on account of its spines; but it is infested by intestinal worms. In April and May it deposits its spawn in small quantities on aquatic plants, especially on the white and yellow water lily. It occurs very commonly in ponds, rivers, and marshes, and in some parts, as about Dantzig and the fens of Lincolnshire, in extreme profusion. At Spalding, according to Mr Pennant, they appear in the Welland once in seven or eight years in such amazing shoals that they are used as manure, and a man has got for a considerable time four shillings a day by selling them at the rate of a halfpenny per bushel.

**Saltatrix.** Skipping flakeback.—Eight dorsal spines connected by a membrane. Native of the seas about Carolina, where it is often observed skipping out of the water.

**Pungitius.** Smaller or ten-spined flakeback.—Ten dorsal spines. The number of spines is sometimes only nine, and sometimes, though rarely, eleven. This is smaller than the common species, seldom exceeding an inch and three quarters. It is found both in seas and lakes, and enters the mouths of rivers in spring.

**Spinachia.** Fifteen-spined flakeback.—Fifteen dorsal spines. From five to seven inches long, of a slender form, with the head produced, and somewhat tubular. Frequent shallow places in the European seas, and preys on marine insects, and the spawn and fry of other fishes.

**Spinarella.** Minute flakeback.—Four serrulated spines at the hind part of the head; the lateral ones as long as the abdomen. Native of India.

To the same genus belong japonicus, carolinus, canadus.

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**Gen. 28. Scomber.**

Head compressed and smooth; gill-membrane seven-rayed; body smooth, the lateral line carinate behind, often spinous fins towards the tail.

* Spinous finlets distinct.

**Scomber.** Common mackerel.—With five finlets. Its ordinary length is from 12 to 16 inches, though it has sometimes been found of a much greater size. Its elegant shape and the beauty of its colouring are too well known to require particular description, and its qualities as an edible fish have been long duly appreciated. It dies very soon after it is taken out of the water, exhibits for a short time a phosphoric light, and partly loses the brilliancy of its hues. It is very voracious, and makes great havoc among the shoals of herrings. It dwells in the European and American seas, chiefly affecting the regions within the Arctic circle, and appearing at stated seasons about particular ranges of coast. Its alleged migrations, like those of the herring, begin to be questioned by some acute observers, and it is more probable that it resides at the bottom of the waters during winter at no great distance from the places where it visibly abounds in summer. A film grows over its eye in winter, when it probably conceals itself in muddy bottoms, and becomes torpid. It is very prolific, and deposits its spawn among the rocks about the month of June. The tenderness of its flesh renders it unfit for carriage in a fresh state; but in Cornwall, and several parts of the continent, it is preserved by salting and pickling. Caviar is prepared from the roes on the coasts of the Mediterranean; and the celebrated garum of the Romans is said to have been a condiment prepared from this fish.

**Coly mackerel.**—Bright green and azure. Somewhat colias, smaller than the preceding, which it very much resembles. Found on the coasts of Sardinia.

**Bonito mackerel.**—Seven inferior finlets; body marked pelanitis, on each side by four black lines. Resembles the tunny, but is more slender. Frequents the Atlantic and tropical seas, persecuting flying fishes and other species, and tormented in turn by internal worms.

**Tunny.** Eight finlets above and below. Usual thynnus, length about two feet, but sometimes grows to eight, or even ten. The upper part of the body is of a dusky blue, and the abdomen silvery. The tunny is gregarious, and inhabits the Mediterranean, Northern, Indian, and American seas, preying with fierceness on all kinds of smaller fish, and persecuting the mackerel and flying fish. The Greeks and Romans admired its flesh, though rather coarse, and established their tunny-fisheries on various parts of the Mediterranean coast, where this species is still taken in great quantities. The smaller fishes are chiefly sold fresh, and the larger cut in pieces and salted.

**Spurious finlets connate.**

**Scad or Horse mackerel.**—Dorsal fin recumbent, lateral line marked. Length from 12 to 18 inches. Native of the European seas, and nearly equal to the common kind in point of flavour.

We forbear to enumerate several other species which have been recently defined, but whose history is still very incomplete, and shall terminate this abridged account of the genus by the

**Pilot mackerel, or pilot fish; gallergleus duktor of authors.** Linnæus.—Silvery bluefish, with four transverse blue bands; four dorsal spines, and tail barred with black. Length about 18 inches; general shape that of the tunny, but the head much shorter. Inhabits the American and Indian seas, and has its name from often swimming near or before sharks, which, it is said, it guides to its prey.

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**Gen. 29. Centrogastrer.**

Head compressed, smooth; gill-membrane generally seven-rayed; body depressed and smooth; fins spiny; ventral fins united by a membrane, which is furnished with four acute spines and six soft rays.

**Brownith centrogastrer.**—Brownith, whitish beneath; fuscescens, tail somewhat forked. Native of the Japanese seas.

**Silvery,** Silvery centrogaster.—Silvery, with a large brown spot on the nape, and a blackish one on the dorsal fin. Native of the Japanese seas.

Saddled centrogaster.—Finlets and dorsal fin connate. Native of the Arabian seas.

Rhombic centrogaster.—Ventral fins one-rayed. Native of the Red Sea.

Gen. 30. Mullus.

Head compressed, sloping, covered with scales; eyes oblong, approximated, and vertical, with a nictitating membrane; nostrils small and double; jaws and palate rough, with very small teeth; tongue short, narrow, smooth and motionless; gill-membrane three-rayed; gill covers consisting of three finely striated plates; the aperture moderate; body round, elongated, red, with large and deciduous scales.

Red mullet.—Two cirri; the body red. Length from 12 to 15 inches; colour a fine rose-red, with an olive tinge on the back, and a silvery hue towards the abdomen. It is found in the Mediterranean and northern seas, is very strong and active, and feeds principally on smaller fishes, worms, and insects. The Roman epicures expended large sums in purchasing this fish for their tables; contemplated, with inhuman pleasure, the changes of its colours, during its slow expiration; and feasted on it with delight, when it was dressed with rare and costly sauces.

Striped mullet.—Two cirri, and light-yellow longitudinal lines. Nearly resembling the preceding, and equally delicate as a food. Inhabits the Mediterranean, and is sometimes found in the Atlantic.

The other species are japonicus, auriflamma, indicus, bandi, vitatus, trifasciatus, bifasciatus, maculatus, aureovittatus, and imberbis.

Gen. 31. Trigla.

Head large, mailed, with rough lines; eyes large, round, and placed near the top of the head; gape wide, palate and jaws set with acute teeth; nostrils double; gill-aperture large; cover consisting of one radiated aculeated plate; gill membrane seven-rayed; body covered with small scales; back straight, with a longitudinal furrow, spiny on both sides; lateral line near the back, straight; belly thick; ventral and pectoral fins large; at each of the latter free and articulated finger-shaped processes.

Mailed gurnard.—Double fingers, snout forked, and elongated; body mailed; length about 12 inches. Native of the Mediterranean.

Piper gurnard.—Triple fingers; nostrils tubular; length from one to two feet; bright rose-red, silvery beneath. Native of the European seas; considered as an excellent fish for the table.

Gray gurnard.—Triple fingers; back marked with black and red spots; length of the preceding. Native of the European seas, and not uncommon about our own coasts. Feeds on teflaceous and crustacean animals, spawns in May and June, and is good eating.

Tub fish, or sapphire gurnard.—Triple fingers, lateral line aculeated. Size of the gray gurnard. Native of the European seas. Occasionally springs out of the water to some distance.

Flying gurnard.—Sextuple fingers, connected by a abdominal membrane. A highly singular and beautiful species, which inhabits the Mediterranean, Atlantic, and Indian seas, where it swims in shoals, and frequently flies out of the water to a considerable distance.

The carolina, alata, minuta, cavillone, punctata, adriatica, pini, chabrontera, cucullus, lucerna, lineata, afatia, and evolans, also belong to this genus.

Gen. 32. Trachichthys.

Head rounded in front; eye large; mouth wide, toothless, descending; gill-membrane furnished with eight rays, of which the four lowermost are rough on the edges; scales rough; abdomen mailed with large carinated scales.

Southern trachichthys.—Mailed abdomen. The whole of this curious fish is strongly coated, and of a bright pink ferruginous colour. It is a native of the coasts of New Holland, and is minutely described by Dr Shaw, in his Naturalists Miscellany, and in the fourth volume of his General Zoology; a work from which we have derived much assistance in the compilation of the present article.

IV. ABDOMINAL.

The fishes of this order have the ventral situated behind the pectoral fins, or on the abdomen. They are mostly inhabitants of the fresh waters.

Gen. 1. Cobitis.

Head small, oblong, and scaleless; eye in the upper part of the head; nape flat; gill-membrane from four to six rayed; gill covers formed of a single plate, flutting close below; body covered with mucus and small deciduous scales, and variegated with bands and spots, almost equal; the tail towards the caudal fin being a little narrowed; back straight, with a single fin; lateral line scarcely visible; vent near the tail, and the tail rounded.

Common or bearded loche.—Six beards; head smooth, barbatula, and compressed. About three inches in length; mouth small, toothless, and placed beneath. Common in clear rivulets in many parts of Europe. Lives on aquatic insects, worms, &c. Spawns in spring, is very prolific, dies very soon after being taken out of the water, and even when placed for any length of time in still water. It is very delicate eating, but quickly loses its fine flavour.

Spiny loche, or the armed loche.—Six beards, a spine tenuis, below the eyes. Resembles the preceding, and is found in various parts of Europe, concealing itself below stones, feeding on worms, aquatic insects, and the spawn and fry of fishes. It is about five inches long, is tenacious of life, utters a hissing sound when handled, and is seldom eaten by man.

Great loche.—Eight beards; a spine above the eye, foelfilis. The largest of the genus, inhabiting large lakes, and marshes in the midland countries of Europe. Refuges on the approach of stormy weather.

The other known species are heteroclitia and japonica.

Gen. 2. Gen. 2. Anableps.

Head somewhat depressed; mouth terminal; teeth small, and placed on the jaws; eyes protuberant, with double pupils; gill-membrane fix-rayed.

Four-eyed anableps. Cobitis anableps of Linnaeus.—Yellowish-gray, with longitudinal black lines on each side. Length from six to eight or ten inches. Its general appearance like that of a loche; but its eyes differ from those of every known fish, each being apparently divided into two distinct eyes, united in a common receptacle; on dissection, however, this observation is found to apply only to the anterior half of the organ. This fish is a native of South America, principally frequenting the rivers of Surinam, near the sea-coasts.

Gen. 3. Amia.

Head bony, naked, rough, and furnished with futures; teeth acute, and close in the jaws and palate; two beards at the nose; gill-membrane twelve-rayed; body scaly.

Carolinian amia.—With a black spot at the tail; small, of a roundish form, and seldom eaten. Inhabits Carolina.

Gen. 4. Silurus.

Head naked, large, broad, and compressed; mouth furnished with beards; gape and throat wide; lips thick; jaws dentated; tongue thick, smooth, and very short; eyes small; gill-membrane furnished with from four to fifteen rays; body elongated, compressed, scaleless, covered with viscid slime; lateral line near the back; the first ray of the pectoral fins, or of the dorsal fin, spiny, and dentated backward.

Sly, or European silurus.—One soft dorsal fin; five beards. Grows to the length of eight, ten, or even fifteen feet, and to the weight of three hundred pounds; but its ordinary size is from two to three or four feet. It is sluggish, and usually lies half imbedded in the soft bottoms of the rivers which it frequents, with its mouth half-open, moving about its beards, which the smaller fishes mistaking for worms, lay hold of, and are entrapped. It inhabits the larger rivers of Europe, as well as some parts of Asia and Africa, but is in no high estimation as a food.

Electric. Electric silurus.—With one adipose dorsal fin, and five beards. About twenty inches long, very broad in the fore-part, depressed, and of a cinereous colour, with some blackish spots towards the tail. Is found in some rivers in Africa, and when struck, gives a galvanic shock, though not so strong as that from the torpedo and gymnus. It is used as food.

African silurus.—Brown, ash-coloured beneath, with beards longer than the body; forked tail, and eleven rays in the anal fin. The young of this species are excluded in the form of large ova, the integuments of which they soon break, but adhere to the parent till the yolk is consumed. Native of India.

Cat silurus.—The hinder dorsal fin adipose; twenty rays in the anal fin, and eight beards. Inhabits the sea and rivers of North America, preying on all kinds of smaller fishes, and not sparing even those of its own kind. Tastes like an eel, and is much relished by the Abdominal Americans.

The other species are denominated militaris, bagre, hertzbergii, inermis, galeatus, nodosus, bimaculatus, saliens, clariss, quadrivittatus, erythropterus, batrachus, foliatus, vitatus, atheneoides, alatus, mytilus, anguillaris, undecimalis, cornutus, felis, cous, carinatus, docmae, chilensis, and bajad.

Gen. 5. Platystacus.

Flatylactus.

Habit of silurus; mouth beneath, bearded with cirri; body scaleless, depressed; tail long, compressed.

Acetabulated platylactus. Silurus alfredo of Linnaeus. Cotylephorus. Grows to the length of a foot or more, has a very un-rus- couth appearance, and is remarkable for the many small acetabular processes, or suckers, with which the body is beset. Native of the Indian seas and rivers.

Smooth platylactus.—Eight beards, and plain abdominal suckers. Very like the preceding, but wants the abdominal suckers.

Warted platylactus.—Brown, marked above by longitudinal warted lines, with short anal fin. Smaller, fusiform, and less elongated than the two preceding. Native of the Indian seas.

Eel-shaped platylactus.—Brown, with longitudinal anguilla-white stripes, and the second dorsal, anal, and caudal fins united. Length twelve or fifteen inches. Native of the Indian seas.

Gen. 6. Loricaria.

Loricaria.

Head smooth, depressed; mouth without teeth, and retractile; gill-membrane fix-rayed; body covered with a hard crust.

Ribbed loricaria. Silurus coelatus of Linnaeus.—Yel-coelata. Yellowish brown, maimed with a single row of shields on each side; tail forked. This is a species of great strength and boldness, which inflicts very painful and dangerous wounds with its spines. It is a native of the Indian and American seas.

Armed loricaria.—One dorsal fin, two beards; length cata—about ten or twelve inches. Much allied to the pre-phraeta, ceding, but has a rounded tail. Native of the American seas.

Soldier loricaria. Silurus callichthys of Linnaeus.—callichthys. Brown, with depressed rounded head; double row of thys. scales on each side, and rounded tail. Native of South America, where it is in considerable esteem as a food.

Speckled loricaria.—Yellow, with brownish back; punetata. double row of scales on each side; fins speckled with black; and forked tail. Only five or six inches long, but very elegant. Native of the rivers of Surinam.

Toothed loricaria.—Lengthened; yellowish brown; dentata. with toothed, bearded mouth, and slightly pointed snout. Native of the Indian seas.

Yellow loricaria. Loricaria plecostomus of Linnaeus.—flava. Yellow, spotted with brown; two dorsal fins; and tail marked by transverse bands. Native of the Indian seas.

Gen. 7. Salmo.

Salmo.

Head smooth and compressed; mouth large; lips small; tongue white, cartilaginous, and moveable; eyes middle-fixed; lateral teeth in the jaws and tongue; gill-membrane furnished with four to ten rays; gill- cover consisting of three plates; body elongated, covered with round scales minutely striated; back straight; lateral line straight, and near the back; hinder dorsal fin adipose; ventral fins many-rayed.

Most of the fishes of this genus frequent pure and rapid streams; a few of them inhabit the sea, but enter rivers for the purpose of depositing their spawn in spring, and return to the sea in autumn. They feed on insects and other fishes, and their flesh is much relished as a food. We shall confine our notices to a few of the most important and remarkable species.

**Salmon.**

Common salmon.—The upper jaw projecting beyond the under. The general length of the salmon is from two and a half to three feet; but is said to be sometimes found the length of six feet, and Mr Pennant mentions one of 74 pounds weight as the largest he ever heard of. The general colour of both sexes is a silvery gray, of a much darker cast on the back; the sides of the male are marked with many small, dusky and copper coloured spots, while the markings on the female are larger, more distant, and roundish, or lunated. The male is also of a more slender form than the female. This fish, which is so highly esteemed for the delicacy of its flavour, and which forms such an important article of commerce, occurs chiefly in the salt and fresh waters of the northern regions, being unknown in the Mediterranean and other warm climates; but frequenting some of the rivers in France, which empty themselves into the ocean, and being found as far north as Greenland and the northern parts of North America. It quits the sea at certain periods to deposit its spawn in the gravelly beds of rivers, often ascending to a great distance from their mouths, forcing itself against the most rapid streams, and leaping with surprising agility over cataracts of a considerable height. On the river Liffey, the salmon are often observed to fall back before they surmount the cataract, which is 19 feet high; and baskets are placed near the edge of the stream to catch them as they fall. At the falls of Kilmore in Scotland, where the salmon are very numerous, the country people are accustomed to lay branches of trees on the edge of the rocks, and thus intercept such of the fish as miss their leap. Alongside one of these falls the late Lord Lovat ordered a kettle full of water to be placed over a fire, and many minutes had not elapsed before a large salmon made a false leap and fell into it. When the salmon enter the fresh water in winter, they are more or less infested with the salmon-louse, (*Lernaea salmonae Lin.*) and are then reckoned to be in high season. These insects, however, soon die and drop off, and the fish becomes lean at spawning time. The male and female unite in forming a receptacle in the sand or gravel, about 18 inches deep, for the ova, and having covered up the latter, which are not hatched till the ensuing spring, hasten to the salt water much emaciated, and soon recover their plumpness. The fry appear about the end of March, and are five or six inches in length, in the beginning of May, when they are called *salmon smelts* or *smouts*. The first flood sweeps them in immense swarms into the sea. About the middle of June, the largest of these begin to return into the rivers. Towards the end of July, they are called *gillies*, and weigh from six to nine pounds. Their food is other fish, insects, and worms; but as no food is found in their stomach during spawning time, it is probable that they neglect it during that season. The fishing season commences in the Tweed on the 30th of November, and ends about old Michaelmas day. A particular account of this fishery occurs in the third volume of Pennant's British Zoology, to which we beg leave to refer our readers.—"A person of the name of Graham (says Mr Bingley), who farms the sea-coast fishery at Whitehaven, has adopted a successful mode of taking salmon, which he has appropriately denominated *salmon-hunting*. When the tide is out, and the fish are left in shallow waters, intercepted by sand banks, near the mouth of the river; or when they are found in any inlets up the shore, where the water is not more than from one foot to four feet in depth, the place where they lie is to be discovered by their agitation of the pool. This man, armed with a three-pointed barbed spear, with a shaft of 15 feet in length, mounts his horse, and plunges, at a swift trot, or moderate gallop, boldly deep into the water. He makes ready his spear with both hands; when he overtakes the salmon, he lets go one hand, and with the other strikes the spear, with almost unerring aim, into the fish: this done, by a turn of the hand he raises the salmon to the surface of the water, turns his horse head to the shore, and runs the salmon on dry land without dismounting. This man says, that by the present mode he can kill from 40 to 50 in a day; ten are however no deplorable day's work for a man and horse. His father was probably the first man that ever adopted this method of killing salmon on horseback."—In the intestinal canal of salmon is often found a species of *tenia*, about three feet in length; and Dr Bloch mentions, that in a specimen which had been three weeks dead, he found one of these worms still living.

Gray salmon, or gray.—With ash-coloured spots, the extremity part of the tail equal. Weighs from 13 to 20 pounds. The head is larger in proportion than in the preceding species; it is a strong fish, and does not ascend the fresh water till August, when it rushes up with great violence, and is seldom taken.

Salmon trout, sea trout, or bull trout.—Marked with *trutta*-black ocellated spots, the middle brownish, six dots on the pectoral fins. The general appearance very like the common salmon, but seldom equal to it in size. Like the salmon it inhabits the European seas, passing into rivers to deposit its spawn. Its flesh, too, is of equal delicacy. The viscid mucus which covers the skin possesses the quality of exhibiting phosphoric light.

Common trout.—With red spots, the lower jaw rather longer than the upper. The general length of this species is from 12 to 15 or 16 inches; the ground colour yellowish gray, darker on the back, and marked on the sides by several straggling, round, bright-red spots, each surrounded by a tinge of pale blue gray. The colouring however, is subject to considerable variety. The trout is a common inhabitant of European streams and lakes, preferring those that are clear and cold, living on worms, small fishes, and aquatic insects, and their larvae. Like the salmon, it occasionally springs over obstacles in its course. It usually spawns in September or October. Those which are in most request for the table, are natives of the clearest waters.—The gillaroo trouts which are found in the lakes of Galway, in Ireland, are not specifically different from the common, but their stomachs acquire an extraordinary degree... Chap. IV.

Ichthyology.

Abdominal gree of thickness and muscular force, a circumstance which is ascribed to their living much on shell-fish, and swallowing small stones.

Hucho. Hucho salmon.—Oblong, two rows of teeth in the palate, marked with slightly blackish spots. More slender shaped than the common salmon, and its flesh not so firm. Inhabits the Danube, the Bavarian and Austrian lakes, and the rivers of Russia and Siberia.

Alpinus. Alpine trout, or char.—Back black, sides bluish, belly reddish yellow. Length about a foot. In great request for the table. Native of the Alpine lakes and rivers, as well as of those of Germany, Lapland, Sweden, &c. Found in some of the lakes of Cumberland and Westmorland, Loch Leven in Scotland, &c.

Felixelinus. Salvelin trout, or red char.—About a foot in length, the upper jaw longest. Inhabits nearly the same regions as the preceding, and is equally esteemed for the delicacy of its flavour.

Eperlanus. Smelt salmon, or smelt; spirling or sparring of the Scotch.—Head transparent, 17 rays in the anal fin. Of an elegant, tapering form, and of a very peculiar flavour, which some compare to rushes, others to violets, and others to cucumbers. It varies in length, from six to 12 inches, inhabits the seas of Europe, and ascends rivers for the purpose of spawning, early in spring. In the Thames and the Dee, however, they are taken in great quantities in November, December, and January. There is a smaller variety which abounds in the north of Europe.

Gwiniad. Gwiniad salmon, or gwiniad.—The upper jaw longest, 14 rays in the dorsal fin. Resembles a trout, but is thicker in proportion. Inhabits the lakes of the Alpine parts of Europe, and those of Cumberland, Wales, and Ireland. It occurs also in Loch Lomond, in Scotland, where it is called powan. A fisherman at Ullswater is said to have taken between seven and eight thousand of this species at one draught. Its usual length is from ten to twelve inches. According to Dr Bloch, the gwiniad also inhabits the northern sea, and the Baltic.

Albulus. Moravula salmon.—Jaws without teeth, the under one longest. Length about five inches; shape like that of a trout, but more slender. Native of several of the European lakes, and much esteemed as a food. At Lochmaben, the only place in Scotland where it occurs, it is called iwangs. According to tradition, it was brought to Lochmaben, from England, in the time of Robert Bruce.

Thymallus. Grayling salmon, or grayling.—Upper jaw the longest, 23 rays in the dorsal fin. About the length of 18 inches. Frequent the clearer and colder rivers in many parts of Europe and Asia, particularly those which flow through mountainous countries. It is an elegant species, voracious, and of quick growth; spawns in April and May; has white, firm, and fine flavoured flesh, and is considered to be in highest season in the middle of winter.

To this genus also belong lenok, nehna, taifmen, erythrinus, phinoc, salmutes, schefferi, mulleri, gaudenii, salminarius, carpio, lepechinii, lacustris, umbla, argentinus, arcticus, flagonitis, rivalis, stromii, saurus, tumbil, fucien, granulatus, denticus, gibbosus, notatus, bimaculatus, immaculatus, cyprinoides, niloticus, egyptius, pulverulentus, angulatus, rhombus, gastrorheicus, falcatus, fasciatus, friderici, unimaculatus, melanurus, fulvus, migratorius, autumnalis, wartmanni, rostratus, nasus, marina, pedel, pildchan, mudchan, schokur, mulleri, vimba, oxyrhinchus, leucichthys, and edentulus.

Gen. 8. Acanthotus.

Body elongated, without dorsal fin. Several spines on the back and abdomen.

Acanthotus. Snouted acanthotus.—Gray, with the back transversely barred with brown. The only known species of this genus. The specimen described by Bloch measured two feet and a half. Native of the Indian seas.

Gen. 9. Fistularia.

Fistularia. Snout cylindrical, with jaws at the apex; gill membrane seven-rayed.

Slender fistularia or tobacco-pipe fish.—Tail bifid and tabacaria. Fertiliser. Length three or four feet, shape resembling that of an eel; the head about nine inches long, from the eyes to the tip of the mouth. From the middle of the curvature of the tail, proceeds a very long and thickish brittle, like whalebone, which gradually tapers to a very fine point. The spine of this singular fish is also of a very peculiar structure, the first vertebra being of immoderate length, the three next much shorter, and the rest gradually decreasing as they approach the tail. It infests its long snout into the hollows of rocks, under stones, &c., to lay hold on the smaller fishes, worms, and sea insects on which it chiefly feeds. Inhabits America and Japan, and is edible.

Chinese fistularia, or chinese trumpet fish.—Simple chinensis. Rounded tail. Body thicker in proportion than in the preceding species. Native of the Indian seas, though its fossil impressions have been found under the volcanic strata of Monte Boka, near Verona.

Paradoxical fistularia.—Finely reticulated, with paradoxes, slightly prominent lines, and lanceolate tail. Length from two to four inches, body angular, and the whole fish bearing a close resemblance to a Synognathus. Native of the Indian seas.

Gen. 10. Esox.

Esox. Head somewhat flat above; mouth and gullet wide; jaws dentated, unequal; the upper plane, under punctured; tongue broad and loose; palate smooth; eyes round, middlesized, and lateral; nostrils double; near the eyes rays; body elongated, covered with hard scales, convex above, compressed at the sides; lateral line straight, nearest the back, scarcely conspicuous; dorsal and anal fins very short and opposite.

Sea-pike, or spit fish.—Two dorsal fins, the anterior spiny. Of a filvery bluish colour, dusky on the back, and slightly tinged with yellow on the head and about the gills. Grows to the length of nearly two feet. Inhabits the Mediterranean and Atlantic; and has somewhat the flavour of the cod.

Bony-scaled pike.—Upper jaw the longest, scales bony. This last character gives it a very singular appearance. It attains to the length of three to four feet, inhabits the American lakes and rivers, is very voracious, and is an excellent fish for the table.

Common pike, or pickerel.—Snout depressed, and nearly equal. Head very flat; the teeth very sharp and numerous, being disposed not only in front of the upper jaw, Abdominal jaw, but in both sides of the lower, in the roof of the mouth, and often on the tongue, amounting to at least 700. The ordinary colour of this fish is pale olive gray, deepening on the back, and marked on the sides by several yellowish spots; the abdomen is white, slightly spotted with black. According to Pennant, the largest specimen of English growth weighed 35 pounds. Those of Lapland sometimes measure eight feet. It is a proverbially voracious species. "We have known one, (says Mr. Pennant), that was choked by attempting to swallow one of its own species that proved too large a morsel. Yet its jaws are very loosely connected, and have on each side an additional bone like the jaw of a viper, which renders them capable of greater dilatation when it swallows its prey. It does not confine itself to feed on fish and frogs; it will devour the water rat, and draw down the young ducks as they are swimming about.

In a manuscript note, which we found, p. 244. of our copy of Plott's History of Staffordshire, is the following extraordinary fact: "At Lord Gower's canal at Trentham, a pike seized the head of a swan as was feeding under water, and gorged so much of it as killed them both. The servants perceiving the swan with its head under water for a longer time than usual, took the boat, and found both swan and pike dead."—The smaller fishes manifest the same uneasiness and horror at the presence of the pike, as little birds at the sight of the hawk or owl. If we may credit some naturalists of name, the longevity of the pike is not less remarkable than its voracity. Rzaczynski, in his Natural History of Poland, tells us of one that was 90 years old; but Gefner relates, that in the year 1497, one was taken near Hailburn, in Swabia, with a brazen ring affixed to it, on which were these words in Greek characters: "I am the fish which was first of all put into this lake by the hands of the Governor of the Universe, Frederick the Second, the 5th of October 1230."—The pike spawns in March and April, and is said to be of very quick growth.

Gar-pike, gar-fish, or horn-fish.—Both jaws subulated. General length from two to three feet, the body slender, and the belly flat. The back is of a very fine green, beneath which is a rich changeable blue and purple cast, while the sides and belly are of a bright silver colour. The jaws are very long and slender, and the edges of both are armed with numerous short slender teeth. Native of the European seas, arriving in shoals on the British coasts, preceding the mackerel. The spine and bones acquire a green colour by boiling, notwithstanding which it is eaten with perfect safety.

The other species are barracuda, vulpes, malabaricus, synodus, hepterus, argenteus, gymnocephalus, brasiliensis, chirocentrus, chinensis, auroraividis, becuna, saurus, cepedianus, chilenis, viridis, and flomias.

Gen. 11. POLYPTERUS.

Gill-membrane single-rayed; dorsal fins numerous.

Nilotic polypterus.—Green, with the abdomen spotted with black. Of a long and serpentine shape, the body being nearly cylindrical, and covered with strong and adhering scales. The pectoral and ventral fins are attached by a fealy base; and the dorsal, to the number of 16, 17, or 18, and of an ovate shape, run along the whole length of the back. Native of the Nile, and one of the best fishes which that river produces, but very rare. The Egyptians call it bichir.

Gen. 12. ELOPS.

Head smooth; numerous small teeth in the margin of the jaw and in the palate; gill-membrane with 30 rays, and armed in the middle externally with five teeth.

Saury elops, great saury, seines-fish, or sea gally-wasp-saurus.—The tail armed above and below with a spine. About 14 inches long, and has some resemblance to a salmon, but wants the adipose fin. Native of the American seas.

Gen. 13. ARGENTINA.

Teeth in the jaws and tongue; gill-membrane eight-rayed; vent near the tail; ventral fins with many rays.

Pearl-bladdered argentine.—Anal fin nine-rayed. Asphyrana. Small brilliant fish, inhabiting the Mediterranean, and affording, by its air-bladder and scales, some of the best kind of filvery matter used in the preparation of artificial pearls.

The other species are gloffodonia, carolina, and machnata.

Gen. 14. Atherina.

The upper jaw somewhat flat; gill-membrane six-rayed, a filvery stripe along the side.

Mediterranean atherine.—About 12 rays in the anal hepsetus. fin. An elegant species, of the length of six or seven inches, and shaped like a smelt. Native of the Mediterranean and Red seas. Also found on the coast of Southampton, where they are often called by the name of smelts.

To the same genus belong menidia, shama, japonica, brotonii, and pinguis.

Gen. 15. Mugil.

Lips membranaceous, the under one carinated within; no teeth, but a denticle above the opening of the mouth; gill-membrane 7-rayed; gill-layers smooth, rounded; body whitish.

Mullet, or common mullet.—Five rays in the first cephalurus. dorsal fin.—Length from 12 to 16 inches; colour bluish gray, darker on the back, and filvery on the abdomen. Very common in the Mediterranean and northern seas, chiefly haunting the shallows near the shores, and feeding on marine worms, insects, and plants. It likewise occurs in the Indian and Atlantic oceans. In the spring and early summer months, it ascends rivers. The roe is often prepared into an inferior kind of caviar, called botargo; and the fish itself, though not fashionable in our own country, is reckoned excellent for the table. In plentiful seasons, it is dried and salted.

The other species are crenilabis, albulia, malabaricus, tang, plumieri, caeruleomaculatus, chilenis, and chanos.

Gen. 16. Exocoetus.

Head fealy, no teeth; jaws convex on both sides; gill-membrane ten-rayed; body whitish, belly angulated; pectoral fins very long, adapted to flying; the rays carinated before.

Oceanic. Abdominal Oceanic flying fish.—Abdomen carinated on both sides. Of a bright silver colour, gradually deepening into purplish brown on the back; the pectoral fins dusky, the dorsal and anal yellowish, and the ventral fins and tail reddish. It is a native of the American and Indian seas, but occasionally observed in the Mediterranean; Pennant mentions an instance of its being seen about the British coasts. The largeness of the air-bladder, and the peculiar structure of the mouth, which can be closed while the jaws are open, assist its power of flight.

Mediterranean flying fish.—The ventral fins reaching to the tail. The general length of this species is from 12 to 15 or 16 inches; and its general shape is not unlike that of a herring, to which it is also compared as an eatable fish. It is of a bright silvery cast, with a blue or dusky tinge on the upper part. It is frequently observed in the Mediterranean and Atlantic, sometimes singly, and sometimes in shoals. During the decline of its flight, it sometimes falls into ships; the height, however, at which it generally exercises its flight, is about three feet above the surface of the water. From the length and size of the pectoral fins, it is enabled to continue this motion through the air to the distance of 200 or 300 feet, when the fins becoming dry, it is again obliged to have recourse to the water. Here it is persecuted by the dorado, bonito, dolphin, and other predatory fishes, while, in its aerial career, it is equally harassed by the gull and the albatross.

American flying fish.—Silvery bluish, with the ventral fins situated on the middle of the abdomen. Native of the Atlantic ocean.

Commerfordian flying fish.—With a dark blue spot on the dorsal fin. Native of the Indian seas.

Gen. 17. Polynemus.

Head compressed and fealy; snout very obtuse and prominent; gill-membrane with five or seven rays, separate finger-like processes at the pectoral fins.

Paradise polyneme, the fish of Paradise, or mango fish.—Seven fingers, and forked tail. Grows to the length of about 12 or 15 inches, and the thoracic filaments are very long, the outer ones often extending beyond the tail, and the others gradually shortening. It inhabits the Indian seas, and is reckoned by much the most delicate fish at Calcutta.

Plebeian polyneme.—Five fingers, the first reaching beyond the vent, the others gradually shorter. Resembles a mullet, except that the head is much blunted. It sometimes measures upwards of four feet, is a native of the Indian and American seas, and is considered as an excellent fish for the table.

Quinquarius, niloticus, decadastylus, indicus, tetradastylius, virginicus, commerfordii, and plumieri, compose the rest of the genus.

Gen. 18. Clupea.

Head compressed; mouth compressed, and denticulated within; jaws unequal, the upper furnished with serrated side-plates; tongue short, rough, with teeth turned inwards; eyes middle-sized, round and marginal; gills internally fetaeous, their covers consisting of three or four plates, the membranes eight-rayed; body compressed, elongated, covered with abdominal scales; lateral line straight, near and parallel to the back; under part of the abdomen forming a serrated ridge; ventral fins often with nine rays, caudal long and forked.

Herring.—Without spots; the under jaw the long-harengus. In size, this well-known fish is found to vary very considerably, though the general length may be reckoned from 10 to 12 or 13 inches. The back is of a dusky blue or greenish, and in the recent or living fish, the gill-covers are marked by a reddish or violet-coloured spot. The scales are rather large, and adhere slightly. The fins are rather small, and the tail is much forked. In most specimens, the anal fin has 17 rays. The herring inhabits the northern seas of Europe, and the Atlantic ocean, and is seldom found farther south than the coast of France. Its food principally consists of small fishes, sea worms, and a minute species of crab, cancer halecium, which abounds in the Norwegian seas. When it has fed on this last, its intestines are filled with the red ova of the infect, and is unfit for being salted. At spawning time its stomach is always empty, which seems to indicate that, like the salmon, and some other fishes, it is, at that season, quite negligent of food. Herrings spawn at different seasons, some in spring, some in summer, and some in autumn, when they approach our shores in immense shoals. But the reality of their long and periodical migrations is by no means ascertained. On the contrary, it is more probable, that, like the mackerel, they pass the winter in deep water, or in the soft mud at the bottom, at no very great distance from the shores. They are, in fact, found about some of the European coasts at almost every season of the year; and the alleged rapidity of their northern voyages greatly exceeds the swiftest progress of which they are capable. They are the ceaseless prey of several of the cetaceous tribe of animals, of various fishes, and of different sorts of sea fowl, particularly of the gannet, or folan goose. Notwithstanding the great importance of this fish to the inhabitants of modern Europe, we find no certain description of it in any of the Greek or Roman writers. The Dutch engaged in the herring-fishery in 1164, and the discovery of the pickling process is ascribed to William Beukelen, of Biervlet, near Sluys. He died in 1397; and Charles V., in honour of his memory, paid a solemn visit to his tomb.

Pilchard.—Silvery, with dusky back, and large pilchardus strongly adherent scales. Very like the preceding, but smaller and thicker, with larger scales, and the dorsal fin placed exactly in the centre of gravity. Very frequent on some of the European coasts. Usually visits the shores of Cornwall in vast shoals, about the middle of July, and disappears on the commencement of winter. On the 5th of October, 1767, there were included in St Ives' Bay 7000 hogheads, each of which contained 35,000 fish, in all 24 millions.

Sprat.—With 16 or 17 rays in the dorsal fin. A sprattus, very small species, like the fry of herring; but it has a strongly serrated abdomen, and only 48 vertebrae in the back-bone, whereas the herring has 50. Inhabits the northern and Mediterranean seas, and approaches the shores in countless swarms, in autumn.

Shad.—Black spots on the sides, the snout bifid. In aleogetes, general appearance resembles the pilchard; but is much larger, Abdominal larger, and much thinner in proportion. Native of Filles, the Mediterranean and northern seas. In spring, it ascends rivers for the purpose of depositing its spawn. Like the herring, it dies almost immediately on being taken out of the water. Though prepared for the table in many countries, it is rather coarse and insipid.

Anchoy.—The upper jaw longest. Usual length from three to four inches, of a somewhat lengthened form, and covered with large, thin, and easily deciduous scales. Native of the Mediterranean, northern, and Atlantic seas. Spawns from December to March. It is in great request as a pickle, the bones dissolving entirely in boiling. The principal anchovy fishery is about the small island of Gorgona, near Leghorn.

The remaining species are malabarica, africana, fenris, thirifa, gigantea, atherinoides, setirostris, dorab, tuberculata, chrysoptera, fasciata, nesus, macrocephala, and tropica.

Gen. 19. Cyprinus.

Without teeth; mouth in the apex of the head, and bifurcated; gill-membrane three-rayed; body smooth and whitish; ventral fins generally nine-rayed.

Most of the cyprini inhabit the fresh waters, and are much esteemed as food. They live on clay, mould, worms, insects, and leguminous and aquatic plants, though some of them also prey on other fishes. Most of them spawn in April or May.

Barbel.—Anal fin seven-rayed, four beards; second ray of the dorsal fin serrated on both sides. Has somewhat the habit of a pike, and is usually found in deep and rapid rivers in most of the middle and southern parts of Europe. It is easily distinguished by its two pair of long and unequal beards. Its ordinary length is from 18 inches to two feet. Though capable of swimming with strength and rapidity, it sometimes allows itself to be taken by the hand by divers employed for that purpose. It is a coarse fish; and the roe is said to operate as an emetic and cathartic.

Carp.—Anal fin nine-rayed, four beards, the second ray of the dorsal fin serrated behind. The most common colour of this species is a yellowish olive, much deeper on the back, with a gilded tint on the side. In our own country it measures from 12 to 16 inches in length; but in warmer climates attains to a much larger size, and sometimes weighs from 20 to 40 pounds. It feeds chiefly on worms and water insects, and frequents the lakes and small rivers in the southern parts of Europe, usually decreasing in size the farther it is removed into a northern region. It is very tenacious of life, and may be kept for a considerable time in any damp place, though not immersed in water; and well authenticated instances are quoted of its attaining to the age of more than a century. It is said to have been introduced into England about the year 1514. In Germany and Poland, it is cultivated as a considerable article of commerce. A carp of three pounds weight will produce 237,000 ova, and one of nine pounds, 621,600. A green pigment is obtained from its bile, and isinglass from its air bladder. It is reckoned one of the most delicate of fresh-water fishes. A variety occurs in some parts of Germany, with very large scales, and termed by Bloch rex cyprinorum.

Gudgeon.—Anal fin eleven-rayed, two beards. General length from four to five or six inches; the body thick and somewhat cylindrical, for the most part of a pale olive brown above, the sides silvery, and the abdomen white. This is a very prolific species, and deposits its spawn, at intervals, in the spring. Inhabits small lakes and gently flowing rivers in most parts of Europe, and is particularly abundant in some parts of Germany, especially in autumn. In request for the table.

Tench.—Anal fin with 25 rays; tail entire; body slimy; two beards. The ordinary length of the tench is about 12 or 14 inches; but it varies considerably both in size and colour, according to its situation. It resides in stagnant waters with muddy bottoms, in most parts of the globe, deposits its minute greenish ova in May and June, is very prolific, of quick growth, and is supposed by some to hibernate in the mud of the waters which it inhabits. It is reputed a delicate fish for the table. In Mr Daniel's Rural Sports, we find the following remarkable passage. "A piece of water, at Thornville Royal, Yorkshire, which had been ordered to be filled up, and wherein wood, rubbish, &c. had been thrown for years, was, in November, 1801, directed to be cleared out. Persons were accordingly employed; and, almost choked up by weeds and mud, so little water remained, that no person expected to see any fish, except a few eels; yet nearly 200 brace of tench, of all sizes, and as many perch, were found. After the pond was thought to be quite free, under some roots there seemed to be an animal, which was conjectured to be an otter; the place was surrounded, and on opening an entrance among the roots, a tench was found of a most singular form, having literally assumed the shape of the hole, in which he had of course for many years been confined. His length from fork to eye, was two feet nine inches; his circumference, almost to the tail, was two feet three inches; his weight 11 pounds, nine ounces and a quarter; the colour was also singular, his belly being that of a char, or a vermillion. This extraordinary fish, after having been inspected by many gentlemen, was carefully put into a pond; but either from confinement, age, or bulk, it at first merely floated, and at last, with difficulty, swam gently away. It is now alive and well."

Crucian.—Anal fin ten-rayed, lateral line straight. Length from eight to ten inches; shape very deep, with considerable thickness; colour deep olive yellow, with a silvery tint on the abdomen. Inhabits ponds and large stagnant waters in many parts of Europe. Grows slowly, and is much infested by the lernaea cyprinacea. Spawns but once in two years, and is in considerable esteem as an eatable fish.

Golden carp, or gold fish. Two anal fins, the caudal transverse and forked. This favourite ornament of our houses and gardens, is a native of the southern parts of China, and exists in its natural state in a large lake in the province of Kiang, whence it has been diffused over the country, and cherished with fondness and attention. It is said to have been first introduced into England in 1691. In its domestic state, it is subject to very considerable variations in colour, form, and even number of fins. It may be fed with fine bread crumbs, small worms, water-snails, yolk of eggs dried and powdered, &c. and should be supplied with a frequent change of water. Abdominal Minnow.—Anal fin eight-rayed; a brown spot at the tail; body transparent. A small but elegant and familiar species, frequenting the small gravelly streams in many parts of Europe and Siberia. In our own country it appears first in March, and disappears about the beginning of October, when it secretes itself in the mud. It is gregarious, and fond of warmth, often swimming in shoals near the surface of the water, in clear hot weather. It feeds on herbs and worms, is very prolific, and of a delicate flavour, though seldom prepared for the table, on account of its smallness. It is more frequently used as bait for other fishes.

Dace, or dare.—Eighteen rays in the anal, and nine in the dorsal fin. Length from six to eight or ten inches. In manners, allied to the roach, and inhabits lakes and rivers in many parts of Europe. Little esteemed for the table.

Roach.—Anal fin with 12 rays; ventral rays of a blood-red colour. Silvery, with a cast of dull yellow, more dusky on the upper parts; fins red. Frequent deep, still, and clear rivers in most of the middle parts of Europe, often appearing in large shoals, preceded by one or more, apparently stationed as a kind of guard. It spawns about the middle of May, and is very prolific. It usually weighs about a pound, or a pound and a half. Its flesh is white, firm, and well tasted, but not held in any great repute.

Orfus.—Thirteen rays in the anal fin. Length from 10 to 12 inches, or more. Resembles the gold-fish, and kept in small ponds on account of its beautiful appearance. Native of many parts of Germany, Russia, &c.

Rudd.—Anal fin with 15 rays; fins red. About 8 or 10 inches long. Native of several parts of Europe, in lakes and rivers with a gravelly bottom. Reputed edible, and in season in summer.

Chub.—Fourteen rays in the anal fin; snout rounded. Resembles the tench, but has a more lengthened form, and a thicker head in proportion. Ordinary length from 14 to 18 inches. Native of many parts of Europe, and not uncommon in Great Britain, occurring chiefly in clear and rapid rivers. Rather coarse and unpalatable, and apt to acquire a yellow colour in boiling.

Bleak.—Twenty rays in the anal fin. Length five or fix inches; shape slender; colour bright silvery. From its scales is prepared the filvery matter used in the manufacture of artificial pearls.

Bream.—Twenty-seven rays in the anal fin; the fins brown. Of a very broad or deep shape, and from two feet to two and a half long. Of an olive hue, with a pale or flesh-coloured tinge on the under parts. Inhabits the lakes and rivers of many parts of Europe. As an article of food, it is reckoned rather coarse and insipid.

Besides the above, this genus likewise comprehends the rondeletii, gibelo, blisco, ballerus, pomeranicus, fimbriatus, cirrhosus, fulvatus, americanus, loricata, farenus, griseogine, bynni, bulatma, capata, caucus, malchur, fulce, buphtalmus, quadrifilus, tincuncus, ferrugineus, nigro-auratus, viridis-violaceus, punctatus, amarus, sericeus, cepio, cultratus, cephalus, alpinae, idris, nasus, ferta, dobula, lanceolatus, murfa, regius, laeo, leptocephalus, catastomus, falian, clupeoides, gonorynchus, aphyo, and rivularis.

Gen. 20. Mormyrus.

Cartilaginous Fishes.

Snout produced; mouth terminal; teeth several, and emarginated; aperture without gill-cover; gill-membrane single-rayed; body scaly.

In consequence of Geoffroy's recent investigations, this hitherto obscure genus is ranked in the abdominal order; and the number of species has been increased from three to nine. They are all natives of the Nile.

Anguilliform mormyrus, has a sharp snout, equal anguill-jaws, 26 rays in the dorsal fin, and a bifid acute lobed tail.

The other species are kannume, oxyrhynchus, salahia, bebe, herfe, cyprinoides, bané, and hasselfiquitii.

V. CARTILAGINOUS.

The fishes of this order have their fins furnished with cartilaginous rays. Their lungs are more similar to the gills of fishes than to the pulmonary system of the mammalia and amphibia; and in some of the genera are found both lungs and gills.

Gen. 1. Ostracion.

Ostracion.

Teeth pointing forward; body mailed by a bony covering.

Triquetral or three-sided trunk-fish.—Body triangular-triangular, and unarmed. This species is of a trigonal shape, measures about 12 inches in length, and except to within a small distance from the tail, is completely enveloped in a bony covering, divided into hexagonal spaces. Its prevailing colour is brown, with a white spot in the centre of each hexagon, which is also marked by fine rays diverging from the centre to the edges. Native of the Indian and American seas, and highly esteemed as an edible fish among the East Indians.

The generic characters of the trunk-fishes are readily recognised; but the specific marks are not easily ascertained. Dr Shaw enumerates, in addition to the preceding, trigonus, biaculeatus, cornutus, tricornis, quadricornis, turritus, concatenatus, nafus, cubicus, meleagris, auritus, striatus, tuberculatus, and gibbosus.

Gen. 2. Tetradon.

Tetradon.

Jaws bony, divided at the tip; body roughened beneath; no ventral fins.

The fishes of this genus, like the diodon, have the power of inflating their body at pleasure, by means of an internal membrane for that purpose; and during the time of inflation, the small spines dispersed over their sides and abdomen are raised in such a manner as to operate as a defence against their enemies. They are chiefly natives of the tropical seas, though sometimes seen in the higher northern and southern latitudes, and are supposed to live principally on the crustaceous and testaceous animals.

Electric tetradon.—Body brown above, yellow on the electric side, sea green beneath, and varied with red, green, and white spots. Length seven or eight inches. Inhabits rocky places among the corals, in the Indian and American seas; and, when touched, affects the hand with a galvanic shock.

Ocellated Ocellated tetrodon.—Dull green; whitish beneath, with a black crescent over the shoulders, and spot on the back, both edged with yellow. Inhabits the Indian seas, and sometimes the adjoining rivers, particularly those of China and Japan. It is of a very poisonous nature; and the emperor of Japan prohibits his followers, under very severe penalties, from eating it. The fceleratus is also reputed highly noxious.

The other species are lagodephalus, lineatus, hispidus, teledineus, spengleri, honkenti, oblongus, laevigatus, pelatus, punctatus, meleagris, and rostratus.

Gen. 3. Diodon.

Jaws bony, undivided; body beset with moveable spines.

Porcupine diodon.—Of a spherical form, with triangular spines. Of a considerable size, sometimes measuring two feet in length. It possesses the power of inflating and contracting itself at pleasure, remarkable instances of which property it is said to exhibit when taken with a line and hook. Its flesh is coarse, though sometimes eaten by the inhabitants of the West-Indian islands.

Oblong diodon.—With round spines. Nearly allied to the preceding, and considered as poisonous.

The remaining species are denominated orbicularis, plumieri, and lituratus.

Gen. 4. Cephalus.

Jaws bony; body terminating abruptly, so as to resemble the head of a fish.

Short snuff-fish, or short diodon. Tetrodon mola of Linnaeus.—Body suborbicular, very short and broad, terminating abruptly on the hind part, where it is edged by a shallow fin. The general colour brown, with a silvery cast on the sides and abdomen. Native of the northern seas, where it sometimes arrives at the length of eight or even ten feet, and to the weight of 500 pounds. Also a native of the Atlantic and Ethiopian sea. It is said to exhibit a strong phosphoric light during the night. The oblong is probably only a variety of this species, as La Cépéde has observed intermediate gradations between the two. The variegated is distinguished by whitish undulations and spots; and the pallasiain by its silvery hue, brownish back, and spiny carinated abdomen.

Gen. 5. Syngnathus.

Snout subcylindrical, with terminal mouth; body lengthened, jointed, and mailed; no ventral fins.

Great pipe-fish, or longer pipe-fish.—Caudal, anal, and pectoral fins radiated; body hexangular. Generally from twelve to fifteen inches long, but sometimes from two to three feet; of a very slender form, and of a pale yellowish brown colour, with broad alternate zones of a deeper brown. In spring, as in others of this genus, the eggs appear in an appropriate channel at the lower part of the abdomen, and the young are excluded from them completely formed. Native of the European seas. The typhle, or smaller pipe-fish, seems to be only a variety.

Sea-horse, or sea-horse pipe-fish.—Tail quadrangular, without a terminating fin; body heptangular and tuberculated. General length from six to ten inches; body much compressed; colour greenish brown, varied with darker and lighter specks. In its living state, the head and tail are carried nearly straight, but when dry or contracted, it resembles the skeleton of a horse. It is a native of the Mediterranean, northern, and Atlantic seas.

Foliated pipe-fish.—Blackish olive, with white specks, foliatus, and leaf-shaped appendages. These last are situated on very strong, rough, square spines or procotyles attached to the back, tail, and abdomen, and give the whole animal a very grotesque and anomalous appearance. This curious species is a native of the Indian seas; but nothing particular seems to be known relative to its habits or natural history.

The ophidion, biaculeatus, pelagicus, aquoreus, and barbarus, require no particular description.

Gen. 6. Pegasus.

Mouth beneath, with a retractile proboscis; upper jaw elongated, denticulated, ensiform under the snout and linear; gill-aperture fimple, placed before the pectoral fins; body compressed, articulated with bony inclosures, and covered with a hard crust; ventral fins placed behind the pectoral.

Little or dragon pegasus.—Snout conical. Only three draconis, or four inches long, with large pectoral fins, which enable it to support itself for some moments in the air, when it springs occasionally over the surface of the water. Native of the Indian seas.

Flying pegasus.—Snout ensiform and denticulated. Length three inches. Native of the Indian seas.

Swimming pegasus.—Snout ensiform and unarmed. Length three or four inches; more slender than the preceding. Native of the Indian seas.

Gen. 7. Centriscus.

Head produced into a very narrow snout; no teeth; the lower jaw longest; gill aperture waving; body compressed; abdomen carinated; ventral fins united.

Mailed or shielded trumpet-fish.—Back smooth, with scutatus, a hard shield, like a thin plate; eight inches long. Native of the Indian seas.

Snipe centriscus.—Body scaly and rough; tail straight scolopax, and extended. Smaller than the preceding. Native of the Mediterranean and Indian seas. Ranked among edible fishes.

Light-armed centriscus.—Half-shielded, silvery, with velatus, subrecumbent dorsal spine. Length about two inches. Native of the Indian seas.

Gen. 8. Balistes.

Head compressed, and an apparent continuation of the trunk, in some species, armed with a spine between the eyes; mouth narrow; eight teeth in each jaw; the two foremost longer than the rest; three interior teeth on both sides, resting against as many lateral ones; gill-aperture narrow, above the pectoral fins; gill-covers wanting; gill-membrane two-rayed; body compressed, carinated on the sides, with scales growing on the skin, and rough with sharp prickles. Most of the species of this genus are natives of the Indian and American seas. They can in some degree inflate their abdomen by means of a strong bone, rough with small prickles, which lies under the skin. They feed on other fishes. Some of them are very large, and some remarkable for the brilliancy and variegations of their colours. In general, they are reckoned poisonous.

**Unicorn file-fish.**—A fin of one ray on the head; rays of the caudal fin carinated. The body is of an oval form, from one to two feet long, and covered all over with very minute spines. The general colour is gray, inclining to brown on the upper parts, and varied with irregular wavings and spots. Just above the eyes is a single spine of considerable length, a little recurved, and serrated on the hind part. Its food chiefly consists of crustaceous and teetfishaceous animals.

**Mediterranean file-fish.**—Violet-gray, with red or blue variegations, single ventral fin, and rounded tail. Length of the preceding, and shape ovate. Almost the only species found in the European seas. The rays of the first dorsal fin are continued as to act in concert with considerable force in raising the fin at the pleasure of the animal.

**Ancient file-fish, or old wife.**—First dorsal fin three-rayed, ventral fin longitudinal; caudal bifid. Length from one to two feet, or more; general colour yellowish-olive, paler beneath. Several blue streaks on the front and cheek, and some transverse and longitudinal strips on the body. This species is supposed to have obtained its name from the mouth, when viewed in front, or from the slightly murmuring noise which it utters when first taken.

**Undulated file-fish.**—Black, but waved by oblique red lines. Observed about the shores of Sumatra by Mr Mungo Park.

The other forms described by the most recent ichthyologists are, *hilpidus*, *tomentosus*, *papillatus*, *chinenis*, *ringens*, *lituratus*, *levis*, *fonnerati*, *bicolor*, *wirefasciatus*, *unimaculatus*, *cinereus*, *maculatus*, *aculeatus*, *verrucosus*, *biaculeatus*, *forepatus*, *signatus*, *punctatus*, *capillatus*, *kleinii*, *curaquius*, and *affinis*.

**Gen. 9. Cyclopterus.**

Head obtuse; mouth standing forward; tongue short and thick; jaws armed with small sharp teeth; gill-membrane four-rayed; gill-cover of one plate; body short, thick, and scaleless; ventral fins united into an orbicular membrane.

**Lump sucker, lump fish, sea-owl or cock-paddle.**—Body angulated, with bony tubercle; grows to the length of 19 inches, and to the weight of seven pounds. It is of a deep and very thick shape, and swims edge-wise; the back is sharp and elevated, and the belly flat. There are four rows of large tubercles, and the whole skin is rough with smaller ones. On the upper part of the back is a thick ridge, destitute of spines. Beneath the pectoral fins is an oval aperture, surrounded with a fleshy muscular substance, edged with small filiform processes, which act as clappers. By means of this organ it adheres very strongly to any thing it pleases. The belly is of a bright crimson colour. Inhabits the northern, American, and Indian seas. Deposits its orange-coloured ova near the shore in April and May. The Greenlanders boil the roe, which is cartilaginous, very large, and eat both it and the fish. In England, the latter is sometimes stewed, but is flabby and insipid. The lump suckers are frequently devoured by seals, which leave the skins; numbers of which, thus emptied, may often be found in the spring, along those districts of shore which are frequented by this species. "It is easy," (adds Mr Pennant), "to distinguish the place where seals are devouring this or any unctuous fish, by a smoothness of the water immediately above the spot."

The *pavoninus*, or *pavonian sucker*, agrees with this species in all particulars, except size, and is, therefore, probably only a variety. The *gibbosus* of Willoughby, or *pyramidal sucker*, seems also to belong to the same species, and to be distinguished only by the pyramidal elevation of the back.

**Small sucker.**—Body naked; snout marked above the minutus mouth by three tubercles. A very small species, which inhabits the Atlantic ocean, and seems to be allied in habit to the common lump-fish. The body is compressed, of a whitish colour, and has two white unequal tubercles on each side.

**Unctuous or snail sucker.**—Body naked; dorsal, anal, *luparis*, and caudal fins united. The length varies from five to eighteen inches. The shape is elongated, thick, compressed; the skin thin and lax, and covered with a viscid humour, like a snail. It is brownish, with darker stripes above, white beneath, and slightly yellow on the head and sides. It inhabits the northern seas, and sometimes ascends rivers.

**Cornish or jura sucker, or lesser sucking-fish.**—Of a cornubi-purplish brown colour, with lengthened front. About six inches long; skin without scales, and slippery. Native of the European seas. Found by Dr Borlase on the coast of Cornwall, and by Mr Pennant in the sound of Jura.

**Bimaculated sucker.**—Body without scales; pectoral *bimacula* fins placed very high; a round black spot on each side, of the ventral membrane. About an inch and a half long; the colour of the head and body fine pink. Inhabits the sea about Weymouth.

The remaining known species of this genus are, *dentex*, *gelatinosus*, *ventricosus*, *lineatus*, and *hispinosus*.

**Gen. 10. Lophius.**

Head depressed; many sharp-pointed teeth; tongue broad, and armed with teeth; eyes on the upper part of the head; nostrils small; gills three; one lateral aperture; pectoral fins placed on the long branchiae; dorsal and anal fins opposite, and near the tail; body scaleless, covered with a thin and lax skin; vent in the middle; no lateral line.

The fishes of this genus are of a singularly uncouth appearance; the body being thick and shapelike; the head excessively large, and the fins short and broad.

**European or common angler, frog-fish, toad-fish, pike-fishing frog, sea-devil, &c.**—Depressed; head rounded. The ordinary length of this species is from two to four feet, though it sometimes measures six or even seven feet. Its form resembles that of a tadpole. The skin of the trunk is smooth, but that of the upper parts marked by various inequalities. The eyes are large and whitish; the lower jaw is considerably longer than the upper. Two or three long thread-like processes proceed... Cartilagi- proceed from the upper part of the head, and some shorter ones from the back; while the edges of the body are fringed at intervals with shorter appendages of somewhat similar nature. The upper surface is brown, with deeper or pale variegations, and the under surface whitish. The frog-fish inhabits the European seas; swims slowly; lies in ambush; in shallows, half-concealed by sea-plants or mud, and decoying its prey by moving its worm-like processes. It feeds on the dog-fish and smaller fishes. The cornubienfis, cornifis, or long angler, or fishing-frog of Mount's bay, described by Borlase and Pennant, is so nearly allied to this that it may be regarded as only a variety.

Harlequin angler, or American toad-fish.—Compressed; of a yellowish brown colour, with irregular blackish spots, and beards on the head and body. This, which is one of the most grotesque and singular of fishes, is a native of the Indian and American seas, growing to the length of ten or twelve inches, and in manners resembling the European angler.

The other species are, marieatus, vesperilio, striatus, pictus, marmoratus, and commerfoni.

Gen. II. Accipenser.

Head obtuse; mouth placed under the head; retractile, toothless; four beards under the snout and before the mouth.

The fishes of this genus are among the largest of the tribe. They are all inhabitants of the sea, though some occasionally ascend rivers in great shoals. All the species are large, seldom measuring, when full grown, less than three or four feet in length. Their flesh is reckoned delicate and nutritious; and they form a very considerable article of commerce on the banks of the Caspian sea, and many parts both of Europe and America. They feed principally on worms and other fish.

Common surgeon.—Snout obtuse; the transverse diameter of the mouth equal to the longitudinal; the beards on the snout near the end of it; lips bifid. Of a long, slender, and pentagonal form, attaining sometimes to eighteen feet in length, and weighing five hundred pounds. The whole length of the body is covered by five rows of large, strong, and bony tubercles, rounded at the base, radiated from the centre, and terminated above by a sharp curved point in a reversed direction. The whole skin, on the upper parts and sides, is also roughened with very small tubercles of a similar structure. The general colour is cinereous above, and whitish or yellowish beneath. Though generally a sluggish fish, it sometimes springs out of the water with great force. It feeds on fishes, particularly the herring, salmon, mackerel, and coal-fish. It spawns in spring, and is amazingly prolific, Lewenhoeck having found in the roe of one of them 150,000,000,000 ova! It inhabits the ocean, the Mediterranean, and the Red, Black, and Caspian seas, especially such parts of them as are not remote from the estuaries of large rivers, which they occasionally ascend in great multitudes. In some of the rivers of Virginia they are so numerous that six hundred have been taken in two days merely by a pole, with a strong hook fixed to the end of it. The flesh is very delicate, white, and firm, and when roasted, is said to resemble veal. In this country it is usually served in a pickled state, being imported from America and the Baltic. It is sometimes, however, cartilaginous fish taken in our rivers in the salmon-nets. The surgeon was a fish in high repute with the Greeks and Romans, and according to Pliny, was brought to table with much pomp, and ornamented with flowers, the slaves who carried it being also ornamented with garlands, and accompanied by music. Caviar is made of the dried and salted roe. The skin makes a good covering for carriages.

Sterlet surgeon.—Brownish, with the sides spotted rufus, with pale red, and the body shielded above by a triple series of tubercles. The smallest and most delicate species of the genus. Native of the Caspian sea; found also in the Volga and Ural, and occasionally in the Baltic. In seasons when this fish happened to be unusually dear, Prince Potemkin paid three hundred rubles for a single tureen of sterlet soup, which formed the mere prelude to his repast.

Ifinglofs surgeon, or beluga.—Snout very obtuse, hupo, transverse diameter of the mouth less than the longitudinal; beards near the mouth; lips not cleft. Larger than the common species, and sometimes measuring 25 feet in length. The tubercles are smaller than those of the flurio, and seem to fall off with age. Inhabits the northern, Caspian, and Mediterranean seas. Ifinglofs is prepared from its sound or air-bladder, and an inferior sort from the skin, tail, stomach, and intestines. See ICHTHYOCELLA.

To these may be added schypa, and stellatus; the first perhaps only a smaller variety of flurio, and the latter distinguished by the star-like marks on its head.

Gen. 12. Chimæra.

Head sharp-pointed; spiracles solitary, in four divisions under the neck; mouth under the head; upper lip with five divisions; fore teeth like cutting teeth, two in each jaw; body long, with a single spine on the back; the tail ending in a brittle, and longer than the rest of the body.

Sea mongrel, northern chimæra.—Punctured folds below the snout. A singularly grotesque species, inhabiting the northern and Atlantic ocean; frequenting the deepest recesses, preying on smaller fishes and mollusca and telescopa; and rarely approaching the shore, except during the breeding season. It is from three to four feet long, of a lengthened and compressed form, tapering to the tail, which is produced into a long and slender filament. The head and eyes are very large; and at the base of each ventral fin, in the male, is a lengthened process, rough with numerous sharp prominences in a reversed direction. The whole body is of a yellow-brown above the lateral line, and of a bright silvery colour beneath it, variegated with numerous irregular deep brown or blackish spots and patches. Its flesh is considered as coarse and uneatable.

Elephant fish, or southern chimæra.—Snout produced calor hyphen beneath into an inflected lip. Native of the southern chus. seas.

Gen. 13. Squalus.

Head obtuse, from four to seven semilunar spiracles on the sides of the neck; eyes oblong, half covered, placed before the temporal opening; mouth in the under part of the head, armed with several rows of ferrated ferrated sharp-pointed teeth, some of which are moveable, some fixed, and of different forms; body oblong, round, rough, with slender prickles; ventral fins, for the most part, less than the pectoral, close placed about the vent, and in the males about the organs of generation.

The animals which compose this tribe are entirely marine, and more frequent in the hot than in the temperate climates. In general they are solitary, and often wander to great distances, devouring almost every thing that comes in their way, and that they are capable of swallowing. Some of them will follow vessels several hundred leagues for the carcases and offals. They sometimes attain to an enormous size, as they often weigh from one to four thousand pounds each. Some few species are gregarious, and live on the mollusca and other marine worms. They are all viviparous, and like the rays, protrude their young in pellucid horny cases, terminated at the four corners by long, slender filaments, and which are generally found twisted round corallines, sea-weed, and other fixed substances. Their flesh is tough, coarse, and unfavourable, that even the young are hardly eatable. Their bodies emit a phosphoric light in the dark.

**Panther shark**, greater or spotted dog-fish.—Nostrils surrounded by a small lobe, and a vermiform appendage, ventral fins separated. Three or four feet long; brownish, with red or black spots; body cylindrical, but compressed at both extremities; skin rough, and when dried, used for polishing and other purposes. Inhabits the sea almost everywhere. The female breeds frequently, and brings about nineteen young at a time.

**Spotted shark**, or lesser spotted dog-fish.—Nostrils surrounded by a small lobe and a vermiform appendage; ventral fins united. Length from two to three feet. Colour pale brick-red, with very numerous small dusky spots. Very common in the European seas, very voracious, and a great annoyance to the fishermen. According to Pennant, it breeds from nine to thirteen at a time. Its liver is said to be highly noxious, inducing long continued stupor, succeeded by an universal itching and loss of the cuticle.

**Tope.—** Teeth nearly triangular, and denticulated on the upper margin. Grows to five feet or more, is round and elongated, and often weighs upwards of 27 pounds. It is of a lighter or darker cinereous hue above, and whitish below. It smells very rank, and is so bold as to pursue its prey to the very edge of the shore. It inhabits the European ocean, and is frequently seen about the British coasts.

**Hammer-headed shark**, or balance-fish.—Head very broad and transverse, somewhat in the shape of a hammer. This deformed species measures from five to fifteen or seventeen feet. The body is rather slender, and somewhat cylindrical; the head dilated on each side to a great extent, with the eyes which are very large, placed at each extremity. It is brown above, and paler, or whitish beneath. Native of the Mediterranean and Indian seas, where it attacks such as are accidentally exposed to its fury, or are incautiously bathing or swimming in its neighbourhood. The natives of Otaheite, trifling to their dexterity in swimming, appear to hold it in contempt.

**Heart-headed shark.**—Head very broad and heart-shaped. In other respects greatly allied to the preceding, but is much more rare, and chiefly inhabits the South American seas.

**Blue shark.**—Sides of the tail smooth, a cavity on glaucus, the back of the tail. Of a more slender and elegant shape than the other species, measures from ten to fourteen feet, is of a blue-green above and white beneath. It is very bold and voracious; inhabits the European seas, and frequents several of the British coasts, especially those of Cornwall during the pilchard season.

**Porbeagle shark.**—A longitudinal fold on each side of the tail. Length from three to eight feet; shape fusiform, round, except near the tail, where it is depressed; colour deep on the back, and white or silvery beneath. Inhabits the sea about Cornwall. The manenfish, or Beauman's shark of Pennant, is now regarded only as a variety of cornubicus.

**Basking shark.**—With conical teeth, not serrated, maximus. Body slender, and from three to twelve yards in length, of a deep lead colour above, and white below. The upper jaw is blunt at the end, and much longer than the lower. The mouth is furnished with a great multitude of small teeth, of which those in front are much bent, and the remote ones conical and sharp pointed. It has two dorsal, two pectoral, two ventral fins, and one small anal fin. This species inhabits the northern seas, and derives its name from its propensity to lie on the surface of the water, as if to bask in the sun, generally on its belly, and sometimes on its back. It feeds on sea-plants and medusa, and betrays none of that ferocity of disposition which characterizes most of the shark tribe; on the contrary, it seems so little afraid of mankind, as often to suffer itself to be patted and stroked. These animals frequent our seas during the warm summer months, and appear in shoals on the Welsh and Scottish coasts, after intervals of a certain number of years. They are observed in the frith of Clyde and among the Hebrides in small troops of seven or eight, or more commonly in pairs, about midsummer, and disappear about the latter end of July. They swim very deliberately, and generally with their upper fins above water. Sometimes they may be seen sporting among the waves, and springing several feet above the surface. They are pursued and taken by the fishermen for the sake of the oil contained in the liver; that vitulus sometimes weighing a thousand pounds, and yielding eight barrels of oil, and two of useless sediment. When pursued, they do not quicken their motion till the boat is almost in contact with them, when the harpooner strikes his weapon into the body, as near the gills as he can. Sometimes they remain in the same place till the united strength of two men is exerted to force the instrument deeper. Then they plunge headlong to the bottom, and frequently coil the rope round their bodies, and endeavour to get rid of the harpoon by rolling on the ground. Discovering that these efforts are vain, they swim with such strength and rapidity, that one instance has occurred of a basking shark towing to some distance a vessel of 70 tons burden, against a fresh gale. They sometimes run off with 200 fathoms of line, and two harpoons in them, and will employ the men from 12 to 24 hours before they are subdued. A large fish has afforded the captors a prize. Cartilaginous Fishes. "A male of this species (says Dr. Shaw) was taken in the year 1801, at Abbotsbury in Dorsetshire, entangled in a fishing seine, and after a violent resistance, was dragged ashore. It is said to have received 17 musket-balls before it expired; its length was 28 feet, and its circumference in the thickest part about 20 feet; its tail, from point to point, near eight feet; the teeth, according to its proprietor, who took the pains to count them, amounted to the number of four thousand." The skin makes excellent flagging.

White shark.—Triangular ferrated teeth. This species, so remarkable for its powers of destruction, is a native of most seas, but occurs more frequently in the warm than the cold latitudes. It arrives at the length of more than 30 feet, and is rather thicker and broader than most of its congeners. The mouth is very wide, and furnished on the margin of each jaw with from three to six rows of strong, flat, triangular, sharp-pointed, and finely ferrated teeth, which can be raised or depressed at pleasure. The general colour of the animal is a pale ash, darker or browner on the upper parts. So great is the strength of the tail, that a young shark of six feet in length, is able by a stroke of this part to break a man's leg; hence it is usual for sailors to cut off the tail the instant they drag a shark on board. Gillius quotes a specimen which weighed four thousand pounds, and another in whose belly was found an entire human body; and Muller affirms, that in one taken at the isle of St Margaret, there was found a horse which had probably been thrown overboard from some ship. The size of the foetal teeth of this species, so often found in the isle of Malta, &c., affords a convincing proof of the enormous specimens which have once existed. Sharks are the dread of sailors in all hot climates, where they constantly attend the ships, in expectation of what may drop overboard; and a man who has that misfortune is almost instantly devoured. In the pearl-fisheries of South America, every negro, to defend himself against these animals, carries with him into the water a sharp knife, which, if the fish offers to assault him, he endeavours to strike into its belly, on which it generally swims off. The officers who are in the vessels keep a watchful eye on these voracious creatures, and on discovering them, shake the ropes fastened to the negroes, to put them on their guard. Many, when the divers have been in danger, have thrown themselves into the water, with knives in their hands, and hastened to their defence: but too often all their dexterity and precaution have been of no avail.

Saw-snouted shark, or sawfish.—With a long flat snout, set with teeth on both sides through its whole length. Inhabits the southern and northern oceans, grows to fifteen feet in length, and is readily distinguished by its produced and saw-like snout, which is often preserved in museums.

Picked shark, or picked dogfish.—Dorsal fin spinous; body somewhat round. Length from three to four feet; colour brownish ash above and white beneath; rough, with minute prickles, hooked backwards. Common in the European seas, especially about the coasts of Scotland and Norway. When split and dried, it is eaten by the common people.

Angel-shark, or angelfish.—Pectoral fins very large and emarginated before. A deformed species, with large head and pectoral fins, and depressed body, attaining to five or eight feet in length. It is a native of the European seas, and is extremely voracious, fierce, and dangerous. It produces twelve or thirteen young at a birth.

The other known species of this genus are vulpes, bellaria, mytilus, spinax, centrina, philippinus, cinereus, spinosus, tabella, cirrhaeus, barbatus, africanus, ocellatus, griseus, americanus, squamosus, denticulatus, punctulatus, zebra, groenovianus, tentaculatus, and semi-jagittatus.

Gen. 14. Spatularia.

Spiracles single on each side of the neck, concealed by a large gill-cover; snout produced, and shaped like a spatula; mouth beneath the head, large, and furnished with sharp ferrated teeth.

Reticulated spatula.—In habit and appearance this reticulata, remarkable species is allied to the sharks, but distinguished by its thin snout, of the form of a spatula, and nearly equal in length to the whole remainder of the animal. Its history and manners are very imperfectly known.

Gen. 15. Raia.

Spiracles on the under part of the neck, ten on each side, oblique; mouth under the head, small, acuminated, as if continuous with the breast, transverse and dentated; body thin, depressed, and of a rhomboid figure.

The species of this genus are entirely confined to the sea, and, being destitute of an air bladder, live chiefly at the bottom, generally in deep water, covering themselves in winter in sand or mud. They live on shellfish, or other animal substances that fall in their way. Some of them become of a size so large as to weigh two hundred pounds and upwards. They seldom produce more than one young at a time, which, as in the sharks, is inclosed in a four-cornered capsule, ending in slender points, but not, as in the former, produced into long filaments. The liver is large, and often produces a great quantity of oil. They are mostly edible.

Torpedo, torpedo ray, cramp ray, cramp fish, &c.—torpedos. Wholly smooth. The body of this species is of a somewhat circular form, slightly convex above, marked along each side of the spine by several small pores; about eighteen inches or two feet in length, and for the most part of a pale reddish brown on the upper surface, sometimes marked by five large circular and dusky spots, and whitish or flesh-coloured beneath. It inhabits most seas, but seems to thrive best in the Mediterranean, usually lying in water of about forty fathoms depth, in company with some of its congeners. It preys on smaller fish, which it is supposed to stupefy by its electric or galvanic faculty. This property, which has been so much exaggerated both by ancient and modern writers, is nevertheless sufficiently remarkable. From some experiments which were made by Mr Walde on a very stout and healthy fish, it appears that no spark could be discovered to proceed from it, and that pith-balls were never found to be affected by it. When insulated, it gave a shock to persons who were likewise insulated. have to add fullonica, eglanteria, acut, nigra, picta, undulata, alba, marginata, chagrinea, aquila, guttata, fuscous, cincta, lynna, cuculus, sphen, tuberculata, poecilina, diabolus, manatia, girona, fabroniana, bankiana, fimbriata, maculata, bicolor, sineyris, rhinobatos, thouiniana, djedjenis, and cuvieri.

Gen. 16. PETROMYZON.

Head more slender than the body; mouth larger above than below; teeth orange-coloured, hollow within, surrounded with a fleshy rim, curved above, broad below; seven spiracles at the sides of the neck; a furtive opening at the back part of the head; no pectoral or ventral fins.

Lamprey, great lamprey, or sea lamprey.—Mouth marinus, within covered with papillae; the hinder dorsal fin separate from the tail. In general appearance, approaches nearly to the eel tribe, especially to the muræna. Though it sometimes exceeds three feet in length, the British specimens are usually of inferior size. Its general colour is a dull brownish olive, clouded with yellowish white variegations; the fins are tinged with dull orange, and the tail with blue. On the top of the head is a small orifice for the discharge of the superfluous water taken in at the mouth and gills. Among the cartilaginous fishes, none is so destitute of all appearance of real bone as the lamprey, in which, the spine itself is no other than a mere soft cartilage, without any processes or protuberances. The heart, instead of being inclosed in a soft pericardium, as in other animals, is guarded by a strong cartilaginous one; and the liver is of a fine grass-green colour. It inhabits the ocean, and ascends rivers chiefly during the latter end of winter and the early months of spring. It is viviparous; and the young are of slow growth. Though capable of swimming with rapidity, it is more commonly seen attached by the mouth to some large stone or other substance, and that with such power of adhesion, that a weight of more than twelve pounds may be raised without forcing the fish to forego its hold. It is supposed to live principally on worms and young fish. Like the eel, it is remarkably tenacious of life, the several parts, when cut in pieces, continuing to move, and the head strongly attaching itself for several hours to a stone, though by far the greater part of the body be cut away from it. "As an article of food, (observes Dr Shaw), the lamprey has for many ages maintained its credit as on exquisite dainty; and has uniformly made its appearance at the most splendid of our ancient entertainments. The death of King Henry I. it is well known, is attributed to a too luxurious indulgence in this his favourite dish. It still continues to be in high esteem; and we are told by Mr Pennant, that the city of Gloucester continues to send yearly, at Christmas, a present of a rich lamprey pie to the king. It sometimes happens that the lampreys at that season are so rare, that a guinea is demanded for the price of a single fish. They are most in season during March, April, and May, and are observed to be much more firm when fresh arrived from sea than when they have been a considerable time in fresh water. They are found in several of the British rivers, but that which is most celebrated for them is the Severn."

Lesser lamprey, or lampern.—The hinder dorsal fin angulated. Cartilaginous fishes, brown or dusky, sometimes clouded, or mixed with blue; the upper part of the body marked by numerous annular lines, and the whole under sides silvery. Inhabits the sea, and ascends, in spring, most of the European rivers, in which it is found much more frequently and plentifully than the great lamprey. It is often potted with the latter, and by some preferred to it, on account of its milder taste. The Dutch purchase vast quantities of this species as bait for their cod and turbot fisheries. In the river Baufer, in Courland, great quantities are taken from beneath the ice, with nets; they are much larger than those found elsewhere, and are packed in snow, and sent to any distance; and, when put into cold water, recover themselves. This species is so tenacious of life, that it will live many days out of the water.

Minute lamprey or pride.—The hinder dorsal fin linear; the lips behind lobated. Has a worm-like appearance; measures from four to seven inches in length; is not observed to adhere to other bodies; inhabits the European rivers, and is more frequent in the IJssel than elsewhere, in England.

The remaining species are planeri, ruber, sanguifuga, argentus, plumbeus, and bicolore.

Gen. 7. GASTROBRANCHUS.

Body eel-shaped; mouth beneath, with numerous pectinate teeth; two spiracles beneath the abdomen.

Blind gastrobranchus. Myxine glutinosa, Lin.—Livid, paler beneath; with eight beards at the mouth. Removed to the class of fishes, in consequence of Dr Bloch's accurate examination of its external and internal structure. In general appearance, in the situation of the mouth, and in the orange colour of the teeth, it approaches very near to the lamprey. But it is remarkable for the total want of eyes, no vestige of any such organ being discoverable by the most attentive examination. The body is destitute of scales, lateral line, and fins, except that shallow one which forms the tail. Beneath the body, from head to tail, runs a double row of equidistant pores. The spiracles, which are a pair of oval apertures, are situated beneath the body, at some distance from the head. This singular species is said to enter into the bodies of such fishes as it happens to find on the fisherman's hooks, and which consequently have not the power of escaping its attack, and by gnawing its way through the skin, to devour all the internal parts, leaving only the bones and the skin remaining. Such is its uncommon glutinous nature, that, if put into a large vessel of sea water, it soon renders the whole so viscous, as easily to be drawn out into the form of threads. It inhabits the northern seas, and seems also to occur in those of the southern hemisphere.

Dombeyan gastrobranchus.—Head tumid. Much larger than the European species; the head rounded, and larger than the body; four beards on the upper lip, the number of those on the lower uncertain, the specimen being described in a dried state. Eyes and nostrils imperceptible. Native of the South American seas. Observed by M. Dombey, and described by La Cépéde from the dried skin in the Paris museum.

Before we conclude this article, it may be proper to direct the reader's attention to M. Nouel's paper relative to two methods of multiplying fishes. The first consists in conveying from the lakes to the rivers, and from the rivers to the lakes, fish found only in one of them; the second, in introducing into fresh water, as it were infensibly, and by means of artificial ponds, fish produced in salt water, giving the preference to those species, which, by their habits and manner of living, might be most adapted to this kind of naturalization.

The first of these methods has been successfully practiced in Germany, with regard to the trouts, in ponds and clear stagnant waters, with a bottom of sand or gravel. Perch and trout have, in like manner, been conveyed into lakes and rivers in Scotland, and have thriven remarkably well. The carp, which affects a warm temperature, has been successively introduced into the rivers and ponds of Prussia, Denmark, and England. M. Poivre first brought the gourami of Bengal into the isle of France, where it has greatly multiplied.

"Our rivers (says this judicious writer), do not contain more than about twenty indigenous species, and some migratory fishes, which at certain periods of the year ascend to a certain distance from their mouths, or, like the salmon, swim towards their sources as far as they can. The small rivers possess still fewer species; the greatest part even are confined to the tench, the trout, eels, and some smaller fish of little value. How advantageous would it be to introduce into these rivers a multitude of foreign fish, which, in these waters could find aliment more agreeable to their taste, and which would enjoy a temperature as analogous to their wants, as favourable to their reproduction!

"The Seine, which I shall take as an example, nourishes many species of salmo and cyprinus: but how many other fish of the same kind might be propagated in it? If the Seine possesses the salmon, it wants the thymallus, the umber of Auvergne, the lavaretus, the murcena of Germany, the grille of Scotland, the pala of Switzerland, the ferra of the lake of Geneva, &c. Why should not the carp of the lago di Guarda, and the schwartz-ritter of the lakes of Berchtoldgaden, an excellent kind of salmon, highly praised by Baron de Moll, a naturalist of Salzburg, succeed in France, if that bottom, to which they are most attached, were procured for them, at the foot of the Cevennes or the Vôges? Why might they not be afterwards gradually introduced into our small rivers? Can it be believed, that the numerous tribe of the trout kind, which swarm in the rivers of Scotland, would refuse to supply our colonies with their species? No. There can be no doubt that they would bring thither that fecundity, abundance, and riches, which render them so valuable to their native streams. The case would be the same with the boudelles and higlings presented to us by the lakes of Switzerland, and with the gudgeon, the cyprinus ballarum, and the salmo umbra, bred in the rivers of Lower Germany. Let us open, then, with these countries a philosophical and liberal exchange of the best fish of France for those of which we wish to be possessed."

Nature herself seems to point to the success of the second method. In many instances, salmon and sturgeon have habituated themselves to a fresh-water residence. Natali- dence. Pallas discovered the sea-dog in the lake Bai- kal; and Liancourt found the herring in several of the rivers of North America. It likewise deserves to be remarked that the large plaice, transported from the North sea to the ponds of East Friesland, have increased by myriads, and imparted great value to water which was formerly unproductive.

"In the year 1799, (continues M. Nouel), I had the honour of reading, in one of the fittings of the National Institute, a memoir on the means and advantages of naturalizing the herring, a salt-water fish, in the waters of the Seine, near its mouth, &c. The account of the processes for accomplishing this end, which I there pointed out, are not susceptible of analysis, and cannot, therefore, be introduced into this essay; it will be sufficient for me to say, that the report of La Cépéde, Cuvier, and Tissier, was entirely in their favour. At present, I am still more convinced of the efficacy of the means which I then proposed; and I have no doubt that, if artificial ponds were formed on the edges of rivers, the experiment would be attended with complete success. 'Every man,' (says Dr Franklin), 'who catches a fish, draws from the water a piece of money.' Let not the maxim and example of this philosopher be lost to posterity; let them rather produce fruit, like strong and vigorous seed sown in a fertile soil. Having observed in New England, that the herrings ascended from the sea into one river of that country, while a single individual was never seen in another river, separated from the former by a narrow tongue of land, and which communicated also with the sea, this philosopher took the leaves of some plants on which the herrings had deposited their ova, already fecundated, and conveyed them to the river which was deprived of the annual visit of these fish. The success of this experiment surpassed his expectations; the ova were completely productive; and the following year the river was peopled with a numerous shoal of herrings, which, since that time, have continued to frequent it.

"This fish is not the only one which I wish to see naturalized in fresh water; to the herring I would add several species of pleuronectes—also the mullet, goby, whiting, gar-fish, and perhaps, one or two species of the gurnard. I would pay the greatest attention possible to the nature of the water proper for each species. This happy choice is the principal condition, and that which could ensure success; but I would select in particular for this colonization, the fish found in lakes, which, though little known, are more numerous than is commonly supposed, and ought to be so."

By the adoption of this plan, which is susceptible of more ample development, society would gain an increased quantity of provision, and the naturalist would multiply his opportunities of observation.

For the modes of preserving fish in cabinets, see Preserving Fish, means of.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate CCLXXIX.

Explanation of Terms.—a, (fig. 2.) pectoral fins; b, ventral fins; c, anal fins; d, caudal fin, or tail; e, e, dorsal fins; f, bony plates that cover the gills; g, branchiostegal rays and their membranes; h, lateral or side line.

Fig. 1. Anguilla Conger. Conger Eel.—Example of apodous fishes, in which the ventral fins are wanting. The lance or sand-eel, the wolf-fish, and sword-fish, belong to this order.

Fig. 2. The Haddock, an example of jugular fishes, in which the ventral fins b, are placed before the pectoral fins a. To this order belong the dragonet, the cod-fish, the blenny, &c.

Fig. 3. The Father-lasher, an example of thoracic fishes, in which the ventral fins a, are placed beneath the pectoral b; as in the bull's-head, the dory, the mackerel, the perch, &c.

Fig. 4. The Minnow, an example of abdominal fishes, having the ventral fins a, placed behind the pectoral fins b. To this order belong the salmon, the herring, the carp, &c.

Fig. 5. The Dog-fish, an example of cartilaginous fishes, in which the muscles are supported by cartilages instead of bones, and which breathe by means of apertures placed near the neck instead of gills; a the lateral apertures.

Fig. 6. Gymnotus Electricus, Electrical Gymnotus, or Cramp-fish.

Fig. 7. Trichiurus Lepturus, Silvery Trichiurus.

Plate CCLXXX.

Fig. 8. Anarhichas Lupus, Sea-wolf.

Fig. 9. Odontognathus Aculeatus.

Fig. 10. Ammodytes Tobianus, Sand-eel.

Fig. 11. Ophidium Barbatum, Bearded Ophidium.

Plate CCLXXXI.

Fig. 12. Sternoptyx Diaphana, Transparent Sternopyx.

Fig. 13. Leptocephalus Morrisii, Morris Launce.

Fig. 14. Stylephorus Chordatus, Chordated Stylephorus.

Fig. 15. Callionymus Dracunculus, Sordid Dragonet.

Fig. 16. Uranoscopus Scaber, Bearded Star-gazer.

Fig. 17. Trachinus Draco, Dragon Weever.

Fig. 18. Gadus Molvo, Ling.

Fig. 19. Blennius Pholis, Smooth Blenny.

Fig. 20. Kurtius Indicus, Indian Kurtius.

Fig. 21. Echeneis Remora, Indian Remora, or Longest Sucking-fish.

Plate CCLXXXII.

Fig. 22. Coryphaena Hippurus, Dolphin.

Fig. 23. Macrourus Rupestris, Long-tailed Imminset.

Fig. 24. Cottus Scorpius, Lasher, Bull-head, or Father-lasher.

Fig. 25. Scorpaena Antennata, Antennated Scorpaena.

Fig. 26. Zeus Faber, Common Dory.

Fig. 27. Pleuronectes Platessa, Plaice.

Fig. 28. Chetodon Rostratus, Beaked Chaetodon.

Fig. 29. Acanthurus Unicornus, Unicorn Acanthurus.

Fig. 30. **ICHTHYOLOGY**

Plate CCLXXXII.

Fig. 30. *Eques Americanus*, American Knight-fish. Fig. 31. *Trichopus Satyrus*, Satyr Trichopus.

Plate CCLXXXIII.

Fig. 32. *Labrus Cyanopterus*, Blue-finned Labrus. Fig. 33. *Sciana Unimaculata*, Single-spotted Sciana. Fig. 34. *Perca Cernua*, Ruffe, or Ruffe Perch. Fig. 35. *Gasterosteus Spinachia*, Fifteen-spined Stickle-back. Fig. 36. *Mullus Auriflamma*, Oriflamme Surmullet. Fig. 37. *Trachichthys Australis*.

Fig. 38. *Cobitis Tienia*, Spiny loche. Fig. 39. *Esox Aurico-siridis*, Gold-green Pike. Fig. 40. *Exocetus Volitans*, Oceanic Flying-fish.

Plate CCLXXXIV.

Fig. 41. *Ostracion Cornutus*, Horned Trunk-fish. Fig. 42. *Diodon Brevis*, Short Sun-fish. Fig. 43. *Centriscus Scopulax*, Snipe Centriscus. Fig. 44. *Pegasus Draconis*, Dragon Pegalus. Fig. 45. *Accipenser Hufo*, Ifinglass Sturgeon. Fig. 46. *Squalus Canicula*, Panther Shark.

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**INDEX**

A

**ABDOMINAL fishes**, order of, p. 96 *Acanthonotus*, characters of, 99 species of, ib. *Acanthurus*, characters of, 91 species of, ib. *Accipenser*, characters of, 106 species of, ib. Age of fishes, 78, 79 *Amia*, characters of, 97 species of, ib. *Ammodytes*, characters of, 81 species of, ib. *Anarchichas*, characters of, 82 species of, ib. *Anableps*, characters of, 81 species of, ib. *Anatomy of fishes*, 97 *Circulation in fishes flow*, ib. *Anchovy*, see *Clupea*, 68—73 *Ancient writers on fishes*, 102 *Angel-fish*, see *Chatodon*, 66 *Apodal fishes*, order of, 91 *Argentina*, characters of, 79 species of, ib. *Artedi*, a writer on fishes, 100 *Atherina*, characters of, 66 species of, ib. B

*Balistes*, characters of, 100 species of, ib. *Band-fish*, see *Cepola*, 104 *Belon's history of fishes*, 87 *Blennioides*, 66 *Blennius*, characters of, 102 species of, ib. *Bodianus*, characters of, 85 species of, ib. *Body of fishes*, form of, 86 *Branchial opercles*, membrane, ib. *Bream*, see *Cyprinus*, 94 *Bullhead*, see *Cottus*, ib. C

*Callionymus*, characters of, 68 species of, ib. *Carp*, see *Cyprinus*, 69 remarkably prolific, 89 *Cetilaginous fishes*, order of, 87 *Cepola*, characters of, 87 species of, ib. *Centrifex*, characters of, 104 species of, ib. *Centrogaster*, characters of, 95 species of, ib. *Cephalus*, characters of, 104 species of, ib. *Chatodon*, characters of, 91 species of, ib. *Charr*, see *Salmo*, 97 red, ib. *Chinese trumpet-fish*, see *Fistularia*, 74 *Circulation in fishes flow*, ib. *Clupea*, characters of, 101 species of, ib. *Coal-fish*, see *Gadus*, 84 *Cobia*, characters of, 96 species of, ib. *Cod*, common, see *Gadus*, 84 *Chub*, see *Cyprinus*, 102 *Cock-paddle*, see *Cyclopterus*, 105 *Conger eel*, species of muræna, 80 *Coryphaena*, characters of, 88 species of, ib. *hippurus*, or dolphin, history of, ib. *Cottus*, characters of, 89 species of, ib. *Cramp-fish*, see *Gymnotus*, 80 *Cyclopterus*, characters of, 105 species of, ib. *Cyprinus*, characters of, 102 species of, ib. D

*Diodon*, characters of, 104 species of, ib. *Dolphin*, see *Coryphaena*, 88 *Dory*, see *Zeus*, 89 *Dragon weever*, see *Trachinus*, 84 *Dragonet*, see *Callionymus*, 83 Duration or age of fishes, 78, 79 E

*Echeneis*, characters of, p. 88 species of, ib. remora,ingular history of, ib. *Eel*, snake, 78 common, see *Muræna*, 95 conger, ib. *fand*, see *Ammodytes*, 104 *Elops*, characters of, 91 species of, ib. *Eques*, characters of, 99 species of, ib. *Esox*, characters of, 100 species of, ib. *Exocetus*, characters of, 99 species of, ib. *Eyes of fishes*, anatomy of, 69 F

*File-fish*, see *Balistes*, 104 *Fins of fishes*, 70 *Fishes*, ancient writers on, 66 moderns, ib. history of, by Belon, 67 Rondelet, Aldrovandus, Willoughby, Artedi, ib. arrangement of, by Klein, Linnaeus, ib. La Cépède on, Pennant, anatomy of, 68 form of the body of, ib. head of, ib. eyes of, ib. opercles of, branchial membrane of, ib. trunk of, ib. fins of, skeleton of, 70 muscles of, ib. viscera of, 71 physiology of, 72 respiration of, effects of air on, ib. ib. Index.

Fishes, sense of seeing of, hearing of, touch of, taste of, smelling of, motions of, instruments of motion of, migration of, mostly voracious, oviparous, eggs of, immense, great age of some, systematic exposition of, orders of, Fistularia, characters of, species of, Flounder, see Pleuronectes, Flying-fish, see Exocoetus,

G Gadus, characters of, species of, Gasterosteus, characters of, species of, Gastrobranchus, characters of, species of, Gills, the organs of respiration in fishes, Gilt-head, see Sparus, greatly prized by the Greeks and Romans, Gobiomorus, characters of, species of, Gobius, characters of, species of, Gold-fish, or gold-carp, see Cyprinus, Gomphosus, characters of, species of, Grayling, see Salmo, Gudgeon, sea, or goby, see Gobius, Gurnard, see Trigla, Gymnetrus, characters of, species of, Gymnotus, characters of, species of,

H Haddock, see Gadus, Hake, species of gadus, Head of fishes, anatomy of, Hearing, sense of, in fishes, Heart of fishes, anatomy of, Herring, see Clupea, history of, first pickled, Holibut, see Pleuronectes, Holocentrus, characters of, species of,

I Ichthyology, definition of, difficulties in the study of, ib. Imminset, see Macrourus, Jugular fishes, order of,

K Knight-fish, see Eques, Kurtius, characters of, species of,

L Labrus, characters of, species of, La Cépède, a writer on fishes, his arrangement, Lamprey, or sea-lamprey, see Petromyzon, Leptoccephalus, characters of, species of, Ling, species of gadus, Loche, see Cobitis, Lophius, characters of, species of, Loricaria, characters of, species of, Lump-fish, or lump-fucker, see Cyclopterus,

M Macrourus, characters of, species of, Mackerel, see Scomber, Membrane, branchial, Merian, Mad. too credulous on the transformation of fishes, Metamorphoses of fishes, Miller's thumb, see Gobius, Modern writers on fishes, Minow, see Cyprinus, Mormyrus, characters of, species of, Motion of fishes very rapid, instruments of, Migration of fishes doubted, Monopterus, characters of, species of, Morris launce, see Leptocephalus, Mugil, characters of, species of, Mullus, characters of, species of, barbatus, esteemed much by the Romans, Multiplication of fishes, methods proposed, Muræna, helena, a Roman luxury, Muscles of fishes,

N Novell, M. his plan for the multiplication of fishes, Nourishment of fishes,

O Odontognathus, characters of, species of,

P Pegasus, characters of, species of, Perca, characters of, species of, Perch, see Perca, Petromyzon, characters of, species of, Physiology of fishes, Pike, see Esox, voracity of, Pilot-fish, see Scomber, Pilehard, see Clupea, Plaice, see Pleuronectes, Platycephalus, characters of, species of, Pleuronectes, characters of, species of, Polynemus, characters of, species of, Polypterus, characters of, species of,

R Raia, characters of, species of, Ray, a writer on fishes, Remora, or sucking-fish, see Echeneis, marvellous account of, among the ancients, Reproduction of fishes, Respiration of fishes, performed by gills, effects of, on the air, Roach, see Cyprinus, Roe, or ova of fishes,

S Salmo, characters of, species of, Salmon hunting, trout, Saury, see Eleops, Sand-eel, or sand lance, see Ammotytes, Scarus, characters of, species of, Scomber, characters of,

Vol. XI. Part I.