MATERIA MEDICA AND PHARMACY.

INTRODUCTION.

THAT department of medical science which treats of the nature, effects, and uses of those remedies that are employed for the prevention or removal of disease is called MATERIA MEDICA. It comprises the natural history of the articles, or an account of those circumstances by which they may be distinguished, and of the means of procuring and preserving them; their chemical history, or an account of the changes which they undergo from the action of various reagents, the mode of analyzing them, of separating their most useful principles, and of ascertaining their purity; and their medical history, or an account of their sensible effects on the animal system both in the healthy and morbid state, with their application to the practice of medicine.

The art of collecting, and preserving the various substances employed in medicine, and of reducing them to those forms that are best suited to the various purposes for which they are exhibited, is called PHARMACY. This art is practised by the trading chemist and the apothecary; and at least the principles of it form a necessary part of education to every member of the medical profession.

In the present edition of our ENCYCLOPÆDIA, it is proposed to treat of these two subjects together, since they are intimately connected, and when considered under the same treatise, will occupy much less room.

We shall divide this article into four parts; in the first of which we shall briefly treat of those articles that are employed to support life, or of diet; in the second we shall treat of remedies in general, and shall arrange them into classes according to their action on the animal economy; in the third we shall consider the methods of preparing them for exhibition, or shall lay down the general principles of pharmacy; and in the fourth we shall briefly notice each of the articles employed in medicine, whether simple or officinal, and mention the most important circumstances necessary to be known respecting them.

As the limits which have been assigned to this article are extremely confined, it cannot be expected that the subject will be treated at any great length. Contrary to usual practice, we shall dwell most on the general circumstances of materia medica and pharmacy, and shall be as brief on the individual articles, as is consistent with perspicuity and practical utility.

We shall not at present enter on a historical account of the writers on the materia medica and pharmacy. If we find room for such an account, we shall introduce it at the end of this article, where we conceive it would be most properly placed. It will be expected, however, that we should mention some of the most approved proved works on these subjects, and this we shall here do very briefly.

As one of the principal modern writers on the materia medica, it will be sufficient to mention the name of Cullen. His work is still considered as classical, and is in the hands of every medical man. Whatever we may think of the reasoning and hypothesis which it contains, and however much we may be fatigued with the prolixity of some parts of the work, we shall always set a just value on the useful facts and practical remarks with which it abounds. It is to be regretted that Dr Cullen did not prepare a second edition of the materia medica before the infirmities of age had rendered him less qualified for the work, as in many respects the first edition is preferable to the second.

There are three works which Dr Cullen warmly recommended, and which he thought so excellent that he wished them to be in the hands of all his readers. These are Dr Lewis's "Experimental History of the Materia Medica," as published in 8vo by Dr Aikin; Bergius's "Materia Medica e regno Vegetabilis;" and the "Apparatus Medicaminum" of Professor Murray of Gottingen.

Soon after Dr Cullen published the second edition of his Materia Medica, a new edition of Lewis by Aikin appeared, superior to the former chiefly in containing the improvements made by the London college in their Pharmacopoeia in 1788. Dr Lewis's work is still valuable for the facts which it contains relative to the natural history of the substances, and the action of several chemical agents on them; but from the late changes that have been made in chemical nomenclature, the language in which it is written has already become obsolete.

Professor Murray had published but a small part of his "Apparatus Medicaminum," when the last edition of Cullen's Materia Medica appeared. He, however, lived to complete that part of his work which treats of vegetable substances, of which five volumes were published during his life, and a sixth after his death, by Dr Althof. In this last volume an account is given of columba root, anguifura bark, myrrh, and several other medicines, which could not properly be introduced into the general arrangement, as the plants from which they are procured were not certainly known.

A continuation of Murray's Apparatus Medicaminum in two volumes, containing an account of mineral substances, was published by Professor Gmelin in 1795. It is very good, but will scarcely now be consulted when the improved state of modern chemistry has given rise to the production of so many excellent works on the same subject.

In 1788 Dr Donald Monro published a work on chemistry, pharmacy, and the materia medica, in three volumes 8vo, under the title of "Medical and Pharmaceutical Chemistry." At the time of its publication, it was the best work of the kind in our language; and it is still very valuable, though the late improvements in chemistry have in some measure diminished the utility of the chemical part of the work.

About ten years ago was published the first volume of a small work, entitled, A Practical Synopsis of the Materia Alimentaria and Materia Medica, by an anonymous author, who had also some time before published the Thefaurus Medicaminum. After an interval of ten years, this synopsis is at length completed by the publication of the second part of the second volume; and we consider it as one of the most useful works on the subjects on which it treats. Both it and the Thefaurus abound with excellent practical observations, but the arrangement adopted will in some respects be considered as antiquated. Of this more hereafter. As these two works are intimately connected, it is to be wished, that in a subsequent edition they should be united into one, in which form they would make two moderate 8vo volumes.

In 1824 Mr Murray, lecturer on chemistry and materia medica in Edinburgh, published his Elements of Materia Medica and Pharmacy, in two volumes, of which the second is chiefly a translation of the new edition of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, with some useful remarks. In his first volume, Mr Murray has made some ingenious observations on the general action of medicines, which, independently of the theory he adopts, we consider among the most valuable parts of his work.

Few works have had a more extensive circulation than the Edinburgh New Dispensatory, a work which New Duncan's was founded on the New Dispensatory of Dr Lewis penatary, published in 1753. Of this dispensatory several successive editions were published under the direction of Dr Webster, Dr Duncan, and Dr Rotheram, till in 1804 a new work, under the same title, was published by Dr Andrew Duncan, junior. Of this improved Dispensatory we need say little; the rapid sale of three large editions, and the call which has been made for a fourth, sufficiently evince the opinion which the public has formed of its utility and execution. It is perhaps the most complete guide to the practical apothecary which we have in any language.

In 1805 was published a small volume containing Kirby's tabular view of the Materia Medica by Dr Kirby, tables. This little work is intended as a manual to the young practitioner, and comprehends all the articles of the materia medica that are received into the Pharmacopoeias of Edinburgh, London, and Dublin, arranged into classes; and the mode of preferring them is illustrated by appropriate formulae. Owing to the indifferent state of the author's health when this volume was printed, it is disfigured by numerous typographical errors; but these are in general only literal; and such as might mislead the practitioner are corrected in the table of Errata.

Among the best foreign publications on materia medica and pharmacy we may enumerate

Arnemann's Therapeia Generalis; Mirabelli's Apparatus Medicaminum; Bouillon Lagrange Manual de Pharmacien; Swediaur's Materia Medica; Swediaur's Pharmacopoeia; and the foreign Pharmacopoeias referred to in Duncan's Dispensatory. PART I. DIETETICS.

THE subject of diet and regimen was much more attended to by the ancient physicians than it has been by those of modern times. In the writings of Hippocrates and Celsus we find some excellent remarks both on diet in general and on the particular diet that is suitable to sick people, and for many centuries these authors formed our only guides. Of late indeed, this necessary branch of the healing art has been very successfully cultivated, and several valuable works have been published on the subject. Of these we shall here enumerate a few of the more respectable.

Cullen's Materia Medica, vol. i. Plenk's Bromatologia; Synopsis of Materia Alimentaria and Materia Medica, vol. i. Fordyce on Digestion; Nisbet on Diet; Hall's Articles on Diet in Encyclopédie Methodique; Dictionary of Medicine; Beddoes's Hygeia; Sir John Sinclair's Code of Health and Longevity.

In the brief sketch that we can here give of dietetics, we shall first treat of food in general, and then mention most of the animal and vegetable substances that have been or may be employed to support life.

All food is either of an animal or vegetable origin. The former is, no doubt, more allied to our nature, and most easily assimilated to its nourishment; the latter, though digested with more difficulty, is the foundation of the former, as vegetables are the nourishment of animals, and all food is therefore properly derived from this source. In many respects, however, vegetable and animal food differ; and this difference it is proper to remark, according to the various effects it displays on different parts of the human system. In the choice of vegetable food, a much nicer selection is made by man than by any other animal; and his choice is chiefly confined to those of a mild, bland nature, and of an agreeable taste. When any other substances are selected, it is entirely for the purpose of condiment or medicine. The first difference to be observed between animal and vegetable food, is with respect to their effects on the stomach and bowels. In the stomach, vegetable food always displays a tendency to accelecy, while animal food, on the contrary, tends towards putrefaction. Hence the former is apt to produce symptoms of uneasiness, while the latter in moderate quantity is almost never felt. In the same way, facility of solution belongs to vegetable food; while from greater firmness of texture, and viscosity, animal food is apt to oppress. Nor does the latter, from its oily texture, always mix easily in the stomach with other matters; while vegetables unite readily, but frequently continue long on the stomach for want of a proper stimulus. Similar effects are produced in the bowels by these different kinds of food, as well as in the stomach. The accelecy of vegetable food is at all times apt to induce loofeness; while the same effect is never known to arise from animal food, except in a very advanced state of putrefaction. On the contrary, the body is generally kept by it in a regular state; while vegetables, from the lesser portion of them going into chyle, produce a larger proportion of feculent matter, and lie longer in the bowels from their inactive nature before being expelled.

The nourishment conveyed by both kinds of food is much the same; but the animal product is in greater quantity, and more easily digested, while the vegetable retains its more watery nature, with a portion of unassimilating saline matter, which though introduced, is again expelled by some of the excretions. The animal blood is then richer, more elaborated and stimulating, and excites a stronger action of the system than that produced from vegetables. Both products, however, equally take on an alkalinecent nature in the circulation; for the accelecy of the vegetable is confined entirely to its action on the stomach and bowels. Thus, from animal food a greater supply of nourishment is received for the wants of the system, depending on its greater quantity of oil, and its longer retention in the body than vegetable food. Agreeably to these different effects of animal and vegetable food, it is farther to be observed, that the latter is more quickly perishable than the former. Hence the tendency to obesity, which arises from animal food; while part of the vegetable aliment is very quickly carried off by urine.

The combination of a vegetable and animal diet, is certainly best suited to preserve a proper state of health and strength. There are few who subsist entirely upon vegetables, and of these few, the constitutions are generally feeble, sickly, and weak, and they are the constant victims to complaints of the stomach and bowels. Where this method of life is at all practised, it is confined to hot climates, where vegetable diet may no doubt be carried to a greater extent without injury. Some nations also have gone to the other extreme, and live entirely on animal food; and in a very cold atmosphere, this may be indulged beyond what would otherwise be safe for the health of the body, so that a mixture of vegetable and animal nourishment seems best fitted for the health of man. But the proportion in which these ought to be used, is a point equally necessary to be enquired into. The benefits that attend animal food are clearly the giving a superior strength and vigour; but, in proportion as it carries this to excess, it exposes the body to dangerous consequences, and to the production of various diseases. Hence those who exceed in the animal, or what we may term the athletic diet, are soon worn out, and fall the victims of the over proportion of strength which such living befores.

The advantages again of vegetable food, are mostly of the passive kind, and though it is difficult of assimilation, yet under certain circumstances, a tolerable degree of strength and vigour may be acquired from it. It is more favourable for the appetite than animal food, and little injury can arise from too much repletion with it. It has many advantages over animal food, as it introduces introduces no improper acrimony into the system, and counteracts the baneful effects of animal diet. It is to this preference of vegetable food that the French owe their freedom from disease in a greater degree than the English: and the best rule to secure health, perhaps, is to confine infancy and youth mostly to a vegetable diet; manhood, and the decay of life, to animal food; while near the end of life, the vegetable system should again be returned to. But, whatever kind of diet we adopt, a variety in the form of our food, as well as the nature of it, should be attended to. Thus the constant use of solid nourishment, however wholesome and nutritious, by giving the stomach more to do than is necessary, must be attended with hurtful consequences. In the same way a perseverance in the liquid aliment, however fit by its qualities for conveying chyle into the system, could not fail to prove an improper diet, by depriving the stomach of that necessary stimulus from its form, which solid food conveys. A mixture, therefore, of solid and fluent nourishment is absolutely necessary, whatever the nature of that nourishment may be, and this proportion must be regulated by the different situations of different individuals. A man who is subjected to much bodily exertion, requires certainly the proportion of solid food to exceed, and likewise to be taken in the most permanent and nutritive state. A man again accustomed to little bodily labour, and subjected to the ease and inactivity of a sedentary life, should reverse this plan, and the proportion of liquid should be increased. In the use of the different kinds of food, the same regulations are proper. Where, along with a sedentary life, the stomach rejects much vegetable food, and a tendency to acidity renders its use improper, the bad consequences of an excess of animal diet must be corrected by giving it in the most soluble and diluted form. Thus the use of soups and broths becomes highly proper, as giving the sufficient stimulus of animal food to the stomach, and at the same time presenting it in a form by which a considerable part quickly passes off, and the excess of nourishment which constant animal food would produce is greatly counteracted. It is to this cause that we may attribute the little injury which animal food is known to produce in Scotland, and also in France, where soups are much used.

With respect to the quantity of food to be actually taken, this must be regulated much by the appetite and the supply required. The appetite is the great indication of health; and where the stomach is in a healthy state, it relishes almost every kind of nourishment that is presented. This being the case, we are entirely to be regulated in the quantity taken in by the appetite. Satiety is the natural consequence of repletion, and before this takes place, the stomach itself gives the alarm.

Among popular writers it has been a common axiom that a small quantity of food is most easily digested, and that we should rise from table with an appetite. This idea proceeds entirely from the opinion that digestion is effected by the muscular power of the stomach. But it is a truth sufficiently established that this is not the case. It depends entirely on the fluid of the stomach, or gastric secretion, and is performed by the application of this fluid equally well out of the body as within the organ. Indeed we may suppose that a considerable quantity of food, when taken, by producing a greater stimulus or irritation of the stomach, will increase the gastric fluid, and thus accelerate the process of digestion. At the same time it must be observed that there is in infancy a proper foundation for this restriction. The gastric fluid in children is more active, and their stomach yields more readily to distention; the appetite, therefore, will continue longer before the sense of satiety takes place: but even here, as the diet is mostly of a diluted kind, and soon passes off, we believe that more has been attributed to the effects of repletion, as the cause of disease in children, than what it deserves.

The proper rule, in all cases, is that the body should be sufficiently nourished, whatever the nature or the quantity of the nourishment employed may be, and this is best determined by the apparent state of the body, and what is again lost by it, or the quantity of its different discharges. The body also, we may observe, is at all times under the influence of habit, and where it is accustomed to be circumscribed, it is often amazing to find what small quantities of nourishment will suffice, and even health be preserved. Of this we have a number of remarkable instances brought forward by medical writers. Nor is this confined solely to man; the inferior animals show that their bodies can accommodate themselves to similar circumstances. This being the case, the constitution of man is limited in this respect less, even in civilized life, than what has been alleged. The chief point in health is to guard against extremes; for a uniform mode of life, even where errors are conspicuous, is always less dangerous than sudden excess, either of one kind or another.

The manner of taking food also requires attention. In all solid nourishment a proper chewing should take place; this is a preparatory and necessary step to the action of the fluid in the stomach; but this chewing should not be carried, as some have advised, too far. Something should be left for the stomach to do, and this organ will be found improved by exercise and by increasing its active powers, as well as any other part of the body. Hence substances rather of difficult digestion may be at times properly presented to it.

In his choice of food man is not circumscribed like the other animals. Its respective salubrity or perniciousness he can in general judge of only by its taste. Hence, that his taste may be as little deceived as possible, most nourishing substances, we observe, are of a bland, mild nature, and contain nothing offensive to this organ. Hence too there is a certain pleasure conjoined with the gratification of appetite, which is meant both as an incentive to our taking nourishment, and also to direct us in the selection of it.

From the constitution, however, of man, experience shows that any nourishment, however unfit, may be assimilated by habit, and that wholesome and unwholesome are often merely relative terms, regulated by the existing circumstances in which individuals are placed.

The desire for solid food is much seldom carried to excess than that for fluids. Both, where they occur, are not the effect of a natural appetite, but rather of that artificial one which is created by the use of stimulants increasing the relish of food to the palate, or its stimulant effect on the stomach. This excess be- comes increased by indulgence; and a habit, of course, comes to prevail, which dilatens the stomach, relaxes its tone, and destroys its elasticity; in consequence of which disorders of this organ arise, and a general fulness and corpulency in the whole system take place.

The manner of taking food, as well as the quantity and quality, requires some attention. All extremes in taking food, should be carefully avoided; it should pass into the stomach in a slow and regular manner, blended by the process of chewing with a sufficient quantity of saliva to promote its dissolution in the stomach. If hurried over without attention to this, the difficulty of solution is increased, and the stomach is suddenly distended, and satiety produced before it is filled. The meal, therefore, becomes both deficient in quantity, and the food, from the digestive organs having more to do, remains longer on the stomach than is either necessary or proper*.

* See Nif- bet on Diet.

For more on this subject, see the articles Aliment, Food, and Drink.

After these general observations on diet, we shall take a brief survey of the principal articles employed as food, under the general heads of SOLID FOOD, DRINK, and CONDIMENTS.

A. SOLID FOOD.

I. FROM THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

CLASS I. MAMMALIA. Order 1. PRIMATES.

There are few animals of this order employed as food. In some countries, however, several species of the genus simia or ape, are eaten, particularly

Simia inuus, the Barbary ape. S. Beelzebul, the preacher monkey. S. Paniceps, the four-fingered monkey.

Some species of the bat tribe are occasionally eaten by the natives of warm climates, especially Vespertilio vampyrus, the vampire bat.

Order 2. BRUTA.

Several tribes of this order afford nourishment to uncivilized nations.

The great ant-eater (myrmecophaga jubata) is frequently eaten by the American Indians; but its flesh has a strong and disagreeable flavour.

Most species of dasypus or armadillo form an article of diet among the Indians.

The flesh of the rhinoceros bicornis, or two-horned rhinoceros, is eaten in Abyssinia; but its flesh is very finewy.

The flesh of the elephant is often eaten, both by the Abyssinians and Hottentots. See ELEPHANT, MAMMALIA Index.

Several species of trichecus, or walrus, are eatable, especially Trichecus rosmarus, or arctic walrus.

Order 3. FERA.

From this order mankind have long derived part of their nourishment, especially in the earlier periods of society.

The flesh of the common seal (phoca vitulina) was, a few centuries ago, served up at the tables of the great in this country; and it still forms the principal subsistence of the Greenlanders, Icelanders, and Kamtscha-dales.

The brown or black bear (ursus arctos) is eaten by the common people in Norway, Russia, and Poland. It is difficult of digestion, and is generally salted and dried before being used.

Of the dog tribe few species have been employed for the food of man, though the common dog is greedily eaten by the inhabitants of the South-sea islands, and is sometimes used as food in more civilized societies. See DOG, MAMMALIA Index.

Of the cat tribe, the flesh of the lion is considered as Lion. excellent food by several nations of Africa, and Kolben prefers it to most other animal food.

The common otter (lutra vulgaris) is eaten in several Roman Catholic countries, and considered as nearly allied to fish. See OTTER, MAMMALIA Index.

The young of the sea otter (lutra marina) are said to be delicate eating, not easily to be distinguished from lamb.

Several species of didelphis or opossum are considered by the natives of South America as equally good food with the flesh of the hare or rabbit, especially Didelphis Virginiana, the Virginian opossum.

The kangaroo (macropus major) forms a chief part of the animal food used by the natives of New Holland; but the flesh is very coarse.

The common hedgehog (erinaceus europaeus) is occasionally used as food; and its flesh is said to be extremely delicate.

Order 4. GLIRES.

The common porcupine (hystrix cristata) is eaten in Sicily and Malta, and is frequently introduced to the polite tables at the Cape of Good Hope.

Several species of cavia are used as food in Guiana, Cavia. Brazil, and other parts of South America, especially Cavia cobaya, the Guinea pig. C. paca, the spotted cavy. C. aguti, the long-nosed cavy, and C. aperea, the rock cavy.

The flesh of the beaver (castor fiber) is employed as food in America, and is said to be good eating. It is preferred by drying it in the smoke.

The alpine marmot (arctomy, marmota) affords nourishment to the poorer inhabitants of the Tyrol, Savoy, and other parts of the Alps; and, besides this, three other species are eatable, viz.

Arctomys monax, the Maryland marmot. A. bobac, bobak; and A. citellus, the cajan, or earleaf marmot.

Several species of sciurus, or squirrel, may be eaten, especially the common squirrel (sciurus vulgaris), which is much used in Sweden and Norway, and its flesh is said to resemble that of a barn-door fowl.

The common jerboa (dipus jaculus) is eaten by the Arabs, who esteem its flesh among their greatest delicacies.

Most species of lepus, or the hare tribe, are used as common food, especially Lepus timidus, the common hare, and L. cuniculus, the rabbit.

Of these the flesh of the rabbit is softer and more digestible than that of the hare; but it is not so nourishing. Part I.

Order 5. PECORA.

It is from this order that the principal part of animal food, in civilized countries, is derived. Almost all the animals contained in this order form excellent food.

Some species of camelus, or the camel tribe, are eaten, especially

Camelus dromedarius, the Arabian camel. C. glama, the glama, whose flesh is said to resemble mutton.

Of the genus cervus, the following species are most used, viz.

Cervus alces, the elk, eaten in Norway, Lapland, and Sweden, where its flesh is much esteemed. It is very nourishing, but lies long on the stomach.

C. elaphus, the common stag. The flesh of this animal, when full grown, is well known under the name of venison, and is very digestible, wholesome, and nourishing. The animal should not be killed till he is above four years old, and the flesh is fatted and best flavoured in the month of August.

C. tarandus, the rein deer. The flesh of this species forms the principal nourishment of the Laplanders; the tongues are excellent when salted and smoked, and the milk is sweet and nourishing.

C. dama, the fallow-deer. The flesh of this species is a variety of venison, and nearly resembles that of the flag. The buck is preferred.

C. capreolus, the roebuck. The flesh of the roebuck is considered as inferior to that of the last species.

Of the genus antilope, almost all the species afford excellent food; but the following is most generally employed, viz.

Antilope rupicapra, the chamois.

The flesh of the young ibex (capra ibex) is said to be excellent food.

Of the common goat (capra hircus) only the young are employed as food; and a roasted kid is a very common dish in America and the West Indies. Of goat's milk we shall speak hereafter.

Ovis aries, the common sheep. Mutton is well known to be a highly nutritious and wholesome meat. It is perhaps more universally used than any other animal food. Tup mutton has such a strong smell and disagreeable taste, and is, besides, so exceedingly tough and difficult of digestion, that it is never eaten but by those who cannot afford to purchase mutton of a better quality. Ewe mutton, if it be more than between two and three years old, is likewise tough and coarse. Wedder-mutton, or the flesh of the castrated animal, is most esteemed, and is by far the sweetest and most digestible. Lamb being less heating and less dense, is better suited to weak stomachs; but this applies only to the flesh of lambs that have not been robbed of their blood by repeated bleedings, or reared by the hand with milk adulterated with chalk, in order to make the meat appear white. Such practices to render the food pleasing to the eye, at the expense of its alimentary properties, cannot be too much reprehended.

Bos taurus, the common bull and cow. The flesh of the bull has a strong disagreeable smell, and is dry, tough, and difficult of solution in the stomach. Bull-beef is rarely eaten. But the flesh of the ox, or castrated animal, called ox-beef, is a highly nourishing and wholesome food, readily digested by healthy persons, and constituting a principal part of the common diet of the inhabitants of this and many other countries. It is the most strengthening of all kinds of animal food. Cow-beef is not so tender nor so nourishing, nor so digestible as ox-beef. Veal is tender and nourishing; but not so easily digested, nor so well suited to weak stomachs, as is commonly imagined. It is matter of just complaint, that the same injurious methods are practised in the rearing and management of calves, as have been already noticed under the article Lamb. By such treatment the quality of the flesh is much depraved. What is called beef-tea, is prepared by putting a pound of the lean part of beef, cut into very thin slices into a quart of water, and boiling it over a quick fire about five minutes, taking off the scum. The liquor is afterwards poured off clear for use. This makes a light and pleasant article of diet for weak and delicate people. On some occasions spices may be advantageously added to it. Gravy soup is very nourishing, but is heavy and heating. It is used as a clyster, as well as taken into the stomach. Calves-feet jelly is highly nutritious and demulcent.

Besides the common ox, the following species are employed as food, viz.

Bos americanus, the American bison. B. moschatus, the musk bull. B. bubalus, the buffalo. B. caffer, the cape ox, and B. grunniens, the yak.

Order 6. BELLEAE.

The flesh of the horse may be eaten, but is very coarse. Mare's milk is often used medicinally, but is considered as inferior to that of the afs.

Afses milk is light, and well suited to weak sto- Afses milk. machs. It is commonly employed in consumptive cases; and Hoffman recommends it in gout, rheumatism, jaundice, debility of the bowels, disorders of the urinary passages, and in fluor albus.

The flesh of the tapir (tapir americanus) is much Tapir. esteemed by the inhabitants of South America, but is inferior to our beef.

The flesh of the wild boar is dense, but sufficiently Hog. tender, very nourishing, and more savoury than that of the domestic hog. But as the general properties of both are the same, they will be here noticed together. The flesh of the wild boar is in season in the month of October. The head is esteemed the finest part. The flesh of the young animal is reckoned a great delicacy. The common or domestic boar. The sow. The flesh of the sow is strong, and makes bad bacon. It is the flesh of the castrated animal that is in common use, and that is known by the name of pork. On account of the fat or lard with which it abounds, it is not very easily digested. It is a very savoury food, and affords a strong nourishment, suited to persons who lead an active or laborious life. The too frequent and long continued use of this meat favours obesity, produces foulness of the stomach and bowels, and occasions disorders of the skin. The flesh of the sucking pig is reckoned a great delicacy, is very nourishing; but by reason of the thick and flimsy juice with which it abounds, it is not very readily digested in the stomach, and therefore is by no means a proper food for weak and sickly persons. Bacon is a coarse and heavy, but nutritive food, only fit to be taken in considerable quantity by robust and labouring people. When it constitutes a principal part of the daily diet, it brings on disorders similar to those which arise from the immoderate use of pork. In consequence of the fat or lard with which it abounds, the flesh of the swine tribe is more or less laxative. Upon the whole, it may be said of pork, that the occasional and sparing use of it is sufficiently salutary; but that it cannot be made a principal part of the daily diet, without producing disorder in many constitutions, and particularly in those who are of a melancholic temperament, and lead a sedentary life.

The flesh of the different species of this genus is edible, especially that of the Sus tajaffu and S. babyrussa.

CLASS II. BIRDS. Order 2. PICÆ.

Of this order only two species are generally used as food.

Corvus frugilegus, the rook. The young of this bird is very similar to the pigeon, but is rather inferior in flavour and digestibility.

P. viridis, the green woodpecker. The flesh of this and some other species is palatable, but of difficult solution.

Order 3. ANSERES.

Of this order the principal species that are eaten belong to the genus anas, of which all the species may be used for food; but the following are most generally employed, viz. anas cygnus, the wild swan. A. olor, the tame swan. A. anser, the goose. A. bernicla, the brent goose. A. molchata, the Mutecoy duck. A. penelope, wigeon. A. ferina, pochard. A. crecca, teal. A. bolchas, wild duck. A. domestica, the tame or common duck.

Alca arctica, puffin. A. tarda, the razor-bill. A. cirrhata, the tufted auk.

Pelicanus bassanus, the faland goose.

Larus marinus, the black-backed gull.

Of these the swan, the goose, the wigeon, the teal, the wild and tame duck, are the most digestible; the barnacle, the puffin, the faland goose, and the black-backed gull, are very fat, heavy, and have generally a fishy taste.

Order 4. GRALLÆ.

Of this order most of the genera furnish very good and favourite food. The following are most commonly used, viz.

Scolopax rusticola, the woodcock. S. gallinago, the snipe. S. gallinula, the jack snipe. S. glottis, the great plover, or green-shank. S. tetanus, the spotted snipe. S. limosa, the stone plover. S. lapponica, the red godwit.

Tringa pugnax, the ruff and reeve. T. vanellus, the lapwing or balfard plover. T. cinclus, the purre. T. squatartha, the gray plover, or sandpiper.

Charadrius marmellus, the dotterel. C. pluvialis, the green plover. C. oedicnemus, the thick-kneed bustard. C. hemantopus, the long-legged plover.

Fulica fulca, the brown gallinule. F. chloropus, the common water-hen. F. porphyrio, the purple water-hen.

Order 5. GALLINÆ.

This order furnishes the principal part of the food which we derive from the class of birds. The following species afford excellent nourishment, viz.

Pavo cristatus, the peacock.

Meleagris gallopavo, the turkey.

Penelope cristata, the guhan.

Crax alector, the crested curassow.

Phasianus gallus, the common fowl. Ph. colchicus, common pheasant.

Numida meleagris, the Guinea hen.

Tetrao urogallus, the wood grouse. T. tetrix, the black cock, or black game. T. lagopus, red game. T. perdix, the common partridge. T. coturnix, the quail.

Order 6. PASSERES.

The following species of this order may be employed as food, viz.

Columba domestica, the common pigeon, and C. palumbus, the ring dove.

Alauda, the lark. All the species.

Turdus vilocevorus, the mistel thrush. T. pilaris, the fieldfare. T. merula, the blackbird.

Loxia curvirostra, the sfeidapple, or crossbill. L. cothrauthes, the grosbeak or hawfinch. L. chloris, the green finch.

Emberiza nivalis, the snow bunting. E. miliaria, the bunting. E. hortulana. E. citrinella, or yellow hammer.

Fringilla celebs, the chaffinch. F. montifringilla, the brambling, or bramble-finch. F. domestica, the house sparrow. F. montana, the tree sparrow.

Motacilla modularis, the hedge sparrow. M. ficedula, the epicurean warbler. M. cenanthe, the wheatear. M. rubrita, the whin-chat. M. rubicula, the stonechat. M. phoenicurus, the redstart. M. erithalus, the redbait.

Hirundo eculenta, the eculent swallow.

After this enumeration of birds, we must say something respecting the nutritious properties of eggs.

It is probable that the eggs of all the birds which we have mentioned, and perhaps of most others, might be employed as food; but custom and convenience have given the preference to those of the common hen, the guinea hen, and the duck. The fluid contents of an egg consist of the white and the yolk. The former very much resembles the lymph of the blood, or the coagulable part of milk. The latter, viz. the yolk, is an animal mucilage, composed of oil, coagulable lymph and water. It is miscible with cold water, so as to form an emulsion. The oil is separable from the yolk, boiled till it becomes hard, by means of prelure*. pint or two of cold water, adding to it afterwards a glass of Rhenish or any other light wine, and a little lemon juice, to give it a flavour. This egg-emulsion without the wine, is a good remedy in coughs, hoarseness, spitting of blood, coliciveness, &c.

Both the white and yolk of eggs are very indigestible when boiled to hardness. Eggs should be subjected to as little of the art of cookery as possible. The lightest as well as the simplest mode of preparing them for the table, is to boil them only as long as is necessary to coagulate slightly the greatest part of the white, without depriving the yolk of its fluidity. This is what is called poaching them; and in this way they fit well upon most stomachs.

CLASS III. AMPHIBIA. Order 1. REPTILES.

This class furnishes but few articles of food, and of these the following are the most usually employed, viz. Testudo mydas, the green turtle, T. ferox. T. graeca, the land turtle. Rana esculenta, the edible frog, or green water-frog. Lacerta agilis, common green lizard. L. scincus, the scink.

Order 2. SERPENTS.

Coluber viper, the viper. C. perus, the adder. Of these the turtle is well known as a most nourishing and palatable food. The eculent frog, though not very nutritious, tastes much like chicken; the viper and adder are chiefly used in soups, which are considered as great reforatives.

CLASS IV. FISHES.

It is probable that almost all the different species of fish might be employed as food, but the following are chiefly eaten, viz.

Order 1. APODES.

Murana anguilla, the common eel. M. conger, the conger eel. Ammodytes tobianus, the sand lance, or sand eel.

Order 2. JUGULARES.

Callyonimus lyra, the gemmos dragonet. C. dracunculus, the sordid dragonet. Trachinus draco, the weever.1 Gadus æglefinus, the haddock. G. catlarias, the turbot. G. morrhua, the cod-fish. G. barbatus, the pont. G. merlangus, the whiting. G. pollachius, the pollack. G. molva, the ling. G. lota, the burbot.

Order 3. THORACICI.

Zeus faber, the dory. Pleuronectes hippoglossus, the halibut. P. platea, the plaice. P. fleus, the flounder. P. limanda, the dab. P. solea, the sole. P. maximus, the turbot. Chaetodon rostratus, the jaculator. C. imperator, the emperor of Japan. Sparus maena, Perca fluviatilis, the perch. Scomber, the mackerel.

Mullus barbatus, the red surmullet. M. surmulletus, the striped surmullet. Trigla lyra, the piper.

Order 4. ABDOMINALES.

Cobitis barbetula, the loach, or groundling. Salmo salar, the salmon. S. trutta, the sea trout. S. fario, the trout. S. alpinus, the charr. S. salvelinus, the salmon trout. S. umbla. S. eperlanus, the smelt. S. albula, the whiting. S. thymallus, the grayling. Efox lucius, the pike. Mugil cephalus, the mullet. Clupea harengus, the herring. C. sprattus, the sprat. C. alofa, the bhad. C. encrasicolus, the anchovy. Cyprinus barbus, the barbel. C. carpio, the carp. C. gobio, the gudgeon. C. tinca, the tench. C. cephalus, the chub. C. leuciscus, the dace. C. rutilus, the roach. C. erythrophthalmus, the rud. C. alburnus, the bleak, and C. brama, the bream.

Order 6. CHONDROPTERYGII.

Accipenser sturio, the sturgeon. A. ruthenus, the starlet. A. huso, the ifingslas fish. Raia batis, the skate. Petromyzon marinus, the lamprey. P. fluviatilis, the lesser lamprey. P. branchialis, the lampern, or pride.

The wholesomeness of fish in diet has been much of late disputed. According to some, it is the most delicious general food of any; and according to others, it is without strength or substance. It is certainly not adapted to be the sole diet of the laborious clas, but it makes an excellent addition to vegetable food; for instance, with potatoes, or other roots, what can be more acceptable than a salted or smoked herring, to give a relish to such insipid diet? It is said, indeed, that one barrel of salted herrings will, in this way, go as far as three barrels of salted beef. Fresh fish is certainly well calculated for sedentary people, and those who reside in towns; and at all events, it is fortunate to have such a resource for food in a populous country, to be made use of when any exigency requires such aid.

The texture of fish, in general, is more tender than that of flesh. They have nothing of a fibrous structure, like flesh; of course, they are more easily digested than meat, especially such as are not of a viscid nature.

It is a singular circumstance regarding fish, that, though we require vegetables with our meat, we hardly ever take them with fish. Cullen says, that by way of experiment he has taken apples along with fish, but found them to disturb digestion.

The objections to fish, however, are numerous. The nourishment derived from them it is said, is incomplete; not so stimulating, nor so congenial to the nature of man, as either birds or quadrupeds; some classes of them also, as shell-fish, salmon, &c. are more indigestible than meat; and fish, in general, has a stronger tendency to putrefaction than meat. But the faults of fish are somewhat corrected by the manner in which they are commonly eaten. In a fresh state, sauces and pickles of an acid nature are employed with them, and when dried, the action of the stomach is promoted by salt and spices. Fish, compared with flesh, is less nourishing; and the more viscid sorts hard- er of digestion. Hence many are under the necessity, after salmon, &c. to have recourse to a dram of some spirit or other to carry them off*.

CLASS V. INSECTS.

Of insects properly so called, none are used in substance as food, except various species of cancer, viz. Cancer maenas, the common crab. C. pagurus, the black-clawed crab. C. gammarius, the lobster. C. altercus, the craw fish. C. ferratus, the prawn. C. crangon, the shrimp, and C. iquala, the white shrimp. Under this class we may rank honey, the produce of the bee, which in its general elementary properties agrees with sugar, to be afterwards noticed. It is, however, rather more heating, and will not agree with many stomachs. It is best eaten from the comb, as the wax seems to correct its unpleasant effects.

CLASS VI. VERMES. Order 2. MOLLUSCA.

The sepia sepiola, and the echinus eculentus, are the only edible genera of this order of worms, and even these are a coarse and by no means a nourishing food.

Order 3. TESTACEA.

Cardium edule, the common cockle. Ostrea edulis, the common oyster. Mytilus edulis, the eatable mulete. Helix pomatia, the common snail. Of these, the oyster and the snail are the most wholesome and digestible.

As occupying a middle rank between animal and vegetable food, we shall here notice milk and its various products.

Milk is the proper and natural food of the young of all animals of the mammalia class; and cows milk makes a principal part of the daily diet of a great proportion of the human race, both in the infant and adult state. On account of the abundance of oily and cheesy matter which it contains, cow's milk is to infants by no means so well suited as human milk; but as the mode of living in civilized society often depraves the quality of woman's milk, or prevents its secretion, cows milk in too many instances becomes a necessary substitute. On such occasions, as it is too heavy to be given alone, it should be diluted with water: and as it is disposed to become more acetic than human milk, and from that cause to produce gripings and other disorders of the bowels in young children, it will often be useful to mix with it decoctions of animal substances, such as chicken or veal broth, or decoction of hart-horn shavings; of which last two ounces should be boiled in a quart of water, over a gentle fire, till the whole is reduced to a pint; when, after it is become cold, it will be of the consistence of a light jelly. This, mixed with about twice its quantity of cows milk, with the addition of a little sugar, forms for young subjects a proper aliment, approaching nearly to the nature of human milk.

Milk is used medicinally in consumptions, especially in their early stage; in gouty affections, after the paroxysm is gone off, in smallpox, diluted with water, as the common drink; in measles, especially the malignant kind, diluted in the same manner; in gonorrhoea, lues venerea, and during a mercurial salivation in cancerous affections; in cases where mineral and animal poisons, have been swallowed; in cases of strangury and dysury from the absorption of cantharides, &c.; in fluor albus; in many spasmodic and nervous disorders.

When milk is used medicinally, it is often serviceable to dilute it with Pyrmont, Seltzer, or some other proper mineral water; and to prevent acidity, and make it fit easier on the stomach, lime water, and some of the distilled aromatic waters, are occasionally mixed with it. To obviate coliciveness, which milk is apt to induce, it is often proper to mix brown sugar, or magnesia with it, to boil it with oatmeal, veal broth, &c. In general, milk is improper in inflammatory fevers, unattended with putridous eruptions; in bilious fevers; in scrophulous cases; and in rickets.

The following are the principal products and preparations of milk in dietetic and medicinal use; cream and butter are well known; nor can it be necessary to notice how much they disorder the stomach and bowels when taken too freely.

Curds taken in considerable quantity, are highly offensive to the stomach, and not unfrequently prove the cause of obstructions and inflammations of the bowels.

Cheese varies according to the kind of milk from which it is prepared, according to the quantity of oil and whey which the coagulable matter contains, and lastly according to its age. In general, it is an aliment suited only to strong stomachs, and to such persons as use great and constant exercise. In the higher orders of society, it is used chiefly as a condiment. Toasted cheese is not easily digested by weak stomachs; and for those who can be hurt by indigestion, or heated by a heavy supper, it is a very improper diet*.

Butter-milk is milk which has been deprived of its oily matter by churning or agitation. It is nourishing, cooling, and diluent. It is used in cachexies, atrophies, consumptions, &c.

Whey is the watery, saccharine part of milk, freed in a great measure from the butyaceous and caseous matter. It is lightly nutritive, diluent, aperient, and diuretic. It is given in consumptions, dyfenteries, jaundice, &c. alone, or mixed with mineral waters, and sometimes impregnated with the juices of medicinal herbs. Wine whey, tartar whey, mustard whey, will be particularly noticed in their proper places.

Sugar of milk is a saline substance, obtained from the whey by evaporation. It has been properly called the essential salt of milk. It has been much extolled by some writers as a remedy in consumptions; but as it is contained in whey, it is evident that preparation must possess all its virtues, and therefore that the trouble of obtaining it separate must be unnecessary†.

II. FROM THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.

Vegetable food is more ancient than any other. As of vegetable the food of animals, it is the foundation of all table food our nourishment, for by it those animals are nourished, in general, which in turn afford sustenance to man. Indeed there are no circumstances under which a diet of animal food should be solely employed. This has been confirmed by every experiment made; and the confinement of a person only for a few days to this mode of living, has induced such symptoms as obliged him to desist. Besides this, by stimulating to an extreme degree, the springs of life are by animal diet urged on too fast; and preternatural, and of course weakening exertions of the system ensue, which induce, from their excess, an early decay. Thus childhood is prematurely ushered by it into manhood; and the powers of manhood, soon exhausted, display the infirmities and progress of age, at a period when vigour and strength should still be in perfection. A diet of vegetable food is, on the contrary, conducive to long life. It neither accelerates the vital energy, nor ripens the fruit before its time, but with a slow and regular step brings forwards the different stages in their due season, and with all the advantages which their proper maturity ought to confer on them. At the same time, while we thus point out the good effects of a vegetable diet, in arresting the progress of life, and giving a greater permanence to existence, we by no means approve of it as a diet to be entirely trusted to.

Declamers on the exclusive use of vegetable diet have not taken into view the various and new circumstances of situation in which man is now placed. He is no longer the child of nature, nor the passive inhabitant of one genial spot, as when he was first formed. He is now a citizen of the world at large; exertion and toil are his constant attendants, and he requires a more ready and assimilated nourishment than vegetable food can convey. In many situations also, the vigour of his system is weakened by extremes of temperature, which demand, to counteract them, the most stimulant and invigorating food he is capable of acquiring. The excellence of vegetable food used alone is therefore confined to a mild temperature and a passive state, and there it certainly deserves that preference which humanity and philosophy have bestowed upon it. Considering vegetable food as conveying a nourishment insufficient for our present civilized situation, we shall next state the inconveniences that attend its being used in excess. The first inconvenience of vegetable food already noticed, is its constant tendency to acescence; but this is hurtful only when it takes place to a morbid degree. If a natural tendency to acescence prevails in the stomach, as a step towards assimilation, it cannot fail to be noxiously increased by the sole use of vegetables; and the counteracting of this state, or checking the tendency to fermentation, must be the great secret in the regulation of vegetable diet. This secret no doubt depends on the preventing, by our choice of vegetables, excess in the proportion of fermentable or saccharine matter, and in exciting the action of the stomach, so that the vegetable food may not be too long retained upon it.

The next inconvenience alleged against vegetable diet is its difficulty of assimilation. That vegetable aliment is more difficult in being reduced to nourishment, seems generally admitted, and in the end it produces a greater quantity of faeces. When received into the stomach it is likewise specifically lighter than the gastric fluids. Hence it floats near the top of the stomach, and causes irritations. This uneasiness is not felt for some time after its reception, but afterwards it begins to operate on the upper orifice of the stomach. The difficulty, however, of assimilation that attends vegetable food, may be got the better of by a proper selection of it; and it will also be chiefly felt in weak stomachs, and will by no means affect the vigorous and robust.

A third inconvenience of vegetable food is its extrication of a considerable quantity of air, by which the stomach becomes distended, often to an enormous degree, and much uneasiness is produced in the adjacent organs. This extrication of air is common to all vegetables; it varies, however, extremely in different kinds of them; and it is from this circumstance that the flatulence and torpor is experienced, which succeeds a full meal of them. Hence all vegetables that contain much of it should undergo a previous preparation before being used as food.

These, then, are the chief inconveniences attending a vegetable regimen; while on the contrary, to counterbalance them, this species of diet is always found to promote or sharpen the appetite, and to keep the stomach in an active state. Neither are any constitutional disorders the consequence of it, as happens from animal food, for whatever morbid symptoms arise under its use are confined almost entirely to the stomach and bowels, and seldom carry any hurtful effects to the system at large. Neither do any evils arise from occasional excesses in its use; and the mischiefs of repletion or overfulness are avoided by it, unless in cases of extreme indolence, or where a continued course of intemperance is pursued as to the quantity taken. By its moderate stimulus it counteracts the disposition to an inflammatory state, and in many cases proves highly serviceable, in checking the violence, and arresting the progress of many constitutional diseases. Independently of its nature, it is of great importance to the stomach, by giving that proper diffusion which this organ requires in order to its healthy action.

The wisdom of nature has provided that the extent of vegetable food should be much greater than that of animal food, as the former is the foundation of nourishment for all the animated creation. Hence we find that there is scarcely any vegetable that does not afford nourishment to some animal; and there are many which, though naturally of a deleterious quality, can, by proper preparation, be converted into nourishment to man. Man, more than any other animal, is distinguished as to the choice of food which he makes; and in this selection he is generally determined by his taste, between which and the stomach nature has established such a sympathy, that what is disagreeable to the one, is seldom very digestible by the other. Hence inclination is to be particularly studied in every case of weakness of the stomach.

Among the other properties of vegetable food, it has been especially considered by all authors as having most influence on the powers of the mind, and in preserving a delicacy of feeling, a liveliness of imagination, and an activeness of judgment; but in proportion to these superior qualities, it must be observed, this state of body is equally the attendant of timidity, fluctuation, and doubt. Animal food, in the other extreme, gives a strong vigour and firmness of purpose, fitted for the most active exertions of life. By a mixture of diet these two extremes come to be counteracted; the body possesses a proper share of vigour; and, correspondent to it, the mind displays a firmness and capacity suited to every valuable purpose. The diet, then, then producing this state may be properly called temperance, without limiting the individual to an exact portion of either kind of food, or tying him up by the absurd and sickly system of Cornaro; and this state will be properly regulated by the experience and feelings of each individual, both in regard to the quantity and quality of his nourishment.

In the use of vegetable food, as well as animal, attention must be paid both to the proportion of it taken, and also to the state in which it is used. The first of these must be regulated by the three circumstances of season, way of life, and climate. With respect to the first—in summer the quantity of vegetable food should be always increased, whatever our habits may be; the propriety of this is evidently pointed out by nature, from its abundance at this period. This increase of vegetable food is also the more necessary if the appetite is naturally keen and healthy, as a more strongly nourishing aliment would at this time expose to all the effects of putrefaction, which the increase of the vegetable diet will, on the contrary, counteract.

The way of life must also regulate a good deal the proportion of vegetable nourishment. An essential circumstance in the use of all diet, as we formerly remarked, is the production of such a diffusion of the stomach and bowels as may enable them to act properly on their contents. In the sedative and inactive, it is particularly desirable that this diffusion should be produced by food of a less nourishing kind, and that no more nourishment be received than what the wants of the system require. Hence in these cases, a vegetable diet is to be preferred, while in the active and laborious, the plan should be reversed.

It is a fact sufficiently established, that the proportion of vegetable food should be in a great measure regulated by the climate, as there is no doubt that the mortality of warm climates is aggravated by the use of too much animal food; and that a diet of a vegetable and acescent nature with a large proportion of condiment, such as we find used by the inhabitants of those countries, is best suited to the preservation of health; for by this excess of condiment, the morbid effects on the stomach and bowels, natural to vegetable food, are counteracted, and the chyle formed from them passes into the circulation in a proper state for supporting the body in such a situation. On the other hand in a colder region a permanence of nourishment is required, which animal food particularly conveys; and as this nourishment is less apt to disorder the stomach or bowels, no great portion of condiment is necessary either as a stimulus to the organ, or in order to avoid any hurtful consequences that may arise. The proportion, therefore, of vegetable food is clearly pointed out to be small, and chiefly of the farinaceous or least acescent kind.

* The state in which vegetable food is used is of equal importance with the proportion of it taken. Thus vegetable food particularly requires to be used in a fresh state; for, by being kept, many kinds of vegetables lose their peculiar flavour, their taste and smell, and in consequence of this become indigestible; this is particularly the case with the pulses, with herbs, and with fruits *.

* See Nif. Diet.

To these general remarks we shall subjoin a catalogue of esculent plants from Bryant's Flora Dietetica, distributed according to the method of that author, into roots, shoots, stalks, leaves, flowers, berries, stone fruit, apples, legumens, grain, nuts, and fungules.

I. ESCULENT ROOTS.

Sect. 1. Roots now or formerly made use of as Bread.

Arum colocasia, Egyptian arum. A. esculentum, eatable arum. A. peregrinum, edders. Calla palustris, water dragons. Convolvulus batatas, Spanish potatoes. Dioscorea sativa. D. alata. D. bulbifera, Indian yams. Jatropha maniot, Indian bread. Nymphaea lotus, Egyptian lotus. Sagittaria fagittifolia, common arrowhead. Solanum tuberosum, common potatoes. Yucca gloriosa, Adam's needle. Polygonum divaricatum, eastern buckwheat.

Sect. 2. Roots occasionally eaten as Condiments, or for other family purposes.

Amomum zingiber, common ginger. Allium cepa, common onion. A. afcalonicum, shallot. A. scorodoprum, rokambole. Apium petrofelinum, common parsley. Bunium bulbocastanum, earth nut or pig-nut. Beta rubra, red beet. Brassica rapa, common turnip. B. rapa punicea, purple-rooted turnip. B. rapa flavescens, yellow-rooted turnip. B. rapa oblonga, long-rooted turnip. Campanula rapunculus, rampion. Cochlearia armoracia, horse-radish. Carum carvi, caraway. Cyperus esculentus, rush nut. Daucus carota, carrot. Eryngium maritimum, sea holly, or eryngo root. Guilandina maringa, Ceylon guilandina. Helianthus tuberosus, Jerusalem artichoke. Ixia chinenis, spotted ixia. I. bulbifera, bulb-bearing ixia. Lathyrus tuberosus, earth nut. Orobus tuberosus, heath peas. Orchis mascula, male orchis. Pastinaca sativa, the parsnip. Raphanus sativus, the radish. Scorzonera hispanica, viper's grass. Sium filifolium, skirrets. Lilium martagan, martagan lily. Tulipa geffneriana, common tulip. Tragopogon pratensis, yellow goat's-beard. T. porrifolium, purple goat's-beard.

II. ESCULENT SHOOTS, STALKS, SPROUTS, AND PITHS.

Sect. 1. SHOOTS and STALKS.

Asparagus officinalis, asparagus. Anethum azoricum, sweet azorian fenel. Angelica archangelica, angelica. Arctium lappa, burdock. Aclepia syriaca, greater Syrian dogbane. Apium graveolens, smallage. A. dulce, garden celery. Campanula pentagonia, Thracian bell-flower. Cynara cardunculus, cardoon, or chardoon. Carduus marianus, milk thistle. Chicus cernuus, Siberian nodding chicory. Chenopodium bonus henricus, English mercury. Convolvulus foddanella, sea bindweed. Cucubalus behen, flattening poppy. Epilobium angustifolium, reedbey willow herb. Humulus lupulus, wild hops. Onopordura acanthium, cotton thistle. Rheum rhaboticum, rhabotic rhubarb. Smyrnium olusatrum, common alexanders. S. perfoliatum, round-leaved alexanders. Saccharum officinarum, sugar-cane. Sonchus alpinus, mountain sow-thistle. Tamus communis, black briary. Tragopogon pratense, yellow goat's-beard. T. porrifolium, purple goat's-beard.

Sect. 2. SPROUTS and PITHS. Areca oleracea, cabbage-tree. Arundo bambos, bamboo-cane. Brassica oleracea, common cabbage. B. O. viridis, green savoy cabbage. B. O. faba, white savoy cabbage. B. botrytis, cauliflower. B. B. alba, white cauliflower. B. B. nigra, black cauliflower. B. fabellica, Siberian broccoli. B. praecox, early battersea cabbage. B. rapa, common turnip. Cyperus papyrus, paper rush. Cyrcas circinalis, figo palm-tree. Portulaca oleracea, purslane. P. latifolia, broad-leaved garden purslane. Smilax aspera, red berry, rough pine-weed.

III. ESCULENT LEAVES. Sect. 1. COLD SALADS. Apium petroselinum, parsley. A. crispum, curled-leaved parsley. Allium cepa, common onion. A. schaenoprasum, cives. A. oleraceum, wild garlic. Artemisia dracunculus, tarragon. Alfime media, common chick-weed. Borago officinalis, borage. Cacalia ficoides, fig marigold-leaved cacalia.' Cichorium endivia, endive. C. endivia crispa, curled-leaved endive. Cochlearia officinalis, scurvy grass. Erythium alliaria, Jack by the hedge. E. barbara, winter cress or rocket. Fucus facchinarius, sweet fucus or sea belts. F. palmatus, handed fucus. F. digitatus, fingered fucus. F. esculentus, edible fucus. Hypochaeris maculata, spotted hawk-weed. Lactuca sativa, lettuce. Leontodon taraxacum, dandelion. Lepidium sativum, garden cress. L. virginicum, Virginian scatatic cress. Mentha fativa, curled mint. M. viridis, spearmint. Oxalis acetofella, wood sorrel. Poterium sanguisorba, garden burnet. Primula veris, common cowslips, or paigles. Rumex scutatus, round-leaved sorrel. R. acetosa, common sorrel. Salicornia europea, jointed glasswort, or saltwort.

Scandix cerefolium, common chervil. S. odorata, sweet cicely. Sedum reflexum, yellow stonecrop. S. rupestre, St Vincent's rock stonecrop. Sifymbrium nafturtium, water-cress. Sinapis alba, white mustard. Tanacetum balsamita, coltsnary. Valeriana locusta, lamb's lettuce. Veronica beccabunga, brooklime. Ulva lactuca, green laver.

Sect. 2. BOILING SALADS. Amaranthus oleraceus, esculent amaranth. Arrhen eculentum, Indian kale. Atriplex hortensis, garden orach. A. hortensis nigritans, dark green garden orach. A. hortensis rubra, red garden orach. Anethum foeniculum, common fennel. A. dulce, sweet fennel. Brassica oleracea, cabbages. B. napus, colewort. Chenopodium bonus henricus, English mercury. Cnicus oleraceus, round-leaved meadow thistle. Corchorus olitorius, common Jews mallow. Crambe maritima, sea colewort. Jatropha maniot, cassava. Malva rotundifolia, dwarf mallow. Mentha viridis, spearmint. See Sect. i. Phytolacca decandra, American nightshade. Ranunculus ficaria, pilewort. Raphanus sativus, common radish. Salvia sclarea, garden clary. Spinacia oleracea, common spinach. S. O. glabra, smooth spinach. Thea bohea, bohea tea. T. viridis, green tea. Urtica dioica, common stinging nettle.

Sect. 3. POT HERBS. Apium graveolens, celery. A. petroselinum, par-fley. Allium porrum, leeks. Brassica oleracea, cabbages. Beta vulgaris alba, white beet. Crithmum maritimum, rock samphire Hydrophus officinalis, common hyssop. Oxalis acetofella, wood sorrel. Ozzyum baflicum, sweet-scented basil. Origanum marjorana, common marjoram. O. marjorana tenuifolia, fine-leaved sweet marjoram. O. heracleoticum, winter sweet marjoram. O. onites, pot marjoram. Picris echioides, common ox-tongue. Rosmarinus officinalis, common rosemary. R. hortensis, garden rosemary. Salvia officinalis, green and red sage. S. minor, tea sage. Satureja hortensis, summer savory. S. montana, winter savory. Scandix cerefolium, common chervil. S. odorata, sweet cicely. Sonchus oleraceus, common sow thistle. Thymus vulgaris, common thyme. T. mastichinus, moistic thyme.

IV. ESCULENT FLOWERS. Calendula officinalis, common marigold. Caltha palustris, marsh marigold. Capparis spinosa, esper bush. Carthamus tinctorius, safflower. Carlina acaulis, dwarf carline thistle. Cynara cardunculus, cardoon. Cynara scolymus, green or French artichoke. C. hor-tensis, globe artichoke. Cercis filiquastrum, common Judas-tree. Helianthus annuus, annual sunflower. Onopordum acanthium, cotton thistle. Tropaeolum majus, Indian cress. T. minus, smaller Indian cress.

V. ESCULENT BERRIES.

Sect. 2. Indigenous or Native Berries.

Arbutus uva urfi, bear-berry. A. alpina, mountain strawberry. A. unedo, common strawberry. Berberis vulgaris, common barberry. Crategus aria, white bean tree. C. terminalis, maple-leaved service or sorb. Fragaria vesca vel sylvestris, wood strawberry. F. northumbriensis, Northumberland strawberry. F. imperialis, royal wood strawberry. F. granulata, minion wood strawberry. F. pratensis, Sweed's green strawberry. F. molchata, hawbury strawberry. F. molchata hermaphrodita, royal hawbury. F. chinensis, Chinese strawberry. F. virginiana, Virginian scarlet strawberry. F. V. coccinea, Virginian scarlet-blossomed strawberry. F. V. campestris, wild Virginian strawberry. F. chiloensis, Chili strawberry. F. C. devanensis, Devonshire strawberry. Juniperus communis, common or English juniper. J. arbor, Sweed's juniper. Ribes rubrum et album, red and white currants. R. nigrum, black currants. R. grossularia, gooseberries. Rosa canina, dog's rose, or hep-bush. Rubus idaeus, raspberry. R. I. albus, white raspberry. R. I. laevis, smooth-flaked raspberry. R. coriaceus, dewberry. R. fruticosus, common bramble. R. chamaemorus, cloudberry. R. arcticus, fleshy strawberry. Vaccinium myrtillus, blackworts, or bilberry. V. vitis idea, redworts. V. oxyccocos, cranberry.

Sect. 2. Foreign Berries, often raised in gardens and hovels.

Annona muricata, sour sop. A. reticulata, custard apple. A. squamosa, sweet sop. Bromelia ananas, pine apple. B. ananas pyramidato fructu, sugar-loaf pine-apple. B. karatas, the penguin. Caecus opuntia, prickly pear. C. triangularis, true prickly pear. Capsicum annum, annual Guinea pepper. C. frutescens, perennial Guinea pepper. Carica papaya, the papaw or popo. C. posopofa, pear-shaped papaw. Chrysophyllum caineto, star-apple. C. glabrum, sapadillo, or Mexican medlar. Citrus medica, common citron. C. limon, common lemon. C. americana, the lime tree. C. aurantium, common orange. C. ducumanus, shaddock orange. Crateva marmelos, Bengal quince. Diospyros lotus, Indian date plum. D. virginiana, piphamn plum. Ficus carica, common fig. F. humilis, dwarf fig. F. carpicifus, hermaphrodite-fruited fig. F. fructu fulco, brown-fruited fig. F. Fructu violaceo, purple-fruited fig. F. Fycomorus, lycomore, or Pharaoh's fig. Garcinia mangostana mango/een. Morus nigra, black-fruited mulberry. M. rubra, red-fruited mulberry. M. alba, white-fruited mulberry. Musa paradisiaca, plantain tree. M. sapientum, banana, or small fruited plantain. Melipilus germanica, medlar. Mammee americana, the mamme. Malpighia glabra, smooth-leaved Barbadoes cherry. M. puniceifolia, pomegranate-leaved malpighia. Passiflora maliformis, apple-shaped granadilla. P. laurifolia, bay-leaved passion flower. Pfidium pyriforum, pear guava, or bay plum. P. pomiferum, apple guava. Solanum lycopersicum, love apple. S. melongena, mad apple. S. sanctum, Palestine nightshade. Sorbus domestica, true service tree. Trophis americana, red-fruited bucephalon. Vitis vinifera, common grapes. V. apyrena, Corinthian currants.

VI. ESCULENT STONE FRUIT.

Sect. 1. STONE FRUIT of Europe.

Amygdalus persica, the peach. A. nucipersica, the nectarine. Cornus mascula, male cornel, or cornelian cherry. Olea Europea, manured olive. O. sylvestris, wild olive. Prunus armeniaca, the apricot. P. cerasus, wild red cherry. P. domestica, the plum tree. P. insititia, the bullace tree. Rhamnus zizyphus, common jujube.

Sect. 2. STONE FRUIT exotic.

Chrysobalanus icaco, cocoa plum. Coccoloba uvifera, sea-side grape. Cordiamyxa, clustered sebseten, or Assyrian plum. C. sebsetena, rough-leaved sebseten. Corypha umbraculifera, umbrella palm. Elais guineensis, oil palm. Eugenia jambos, Malabar plum. Grias cauliflora, anchovy pear. Laurus persea, avigato pear. Mangifera indica, mango tree. Phoenix daëtylifera, common date. Rhamnus jujuba, Indian jujube. Spondias lutea, yellow Jamaica plum.

VII. ESCULENT APPLES.

Sect. 1. APPLES of Herbaceous Plants.

Cucumis melo, musk melon. C. melo albus, Spanish white melon. C. M. levis, smooth green fleshed melon. C. M. flavus, yellow winter melon. C. M. parvus, small Portugal musk melon. C. M. pilosus, hairy-skinned melon. C. M. reticulatus, netted-skinned melon. C. M. striatus, late small striated melon. C. M. tuberosus, Part I.

Dietetics. rosus, warded cantaloupe. C. M. turbinatus, top-shaped melon. C. M. virens, green-rind melon.

Cucumis chale, Egyptian melon. C. sativus, common prickly cucumber. C. sativus albus, white prickly cucumber. C. S. longus, long prickly cucumber. C. flexuosus, green Turkey cucumber.

Cucurbita lagenaria, bottle gourd. C. citrullus, water melon. C. pepo, common pompion. C. P. oblongus, long pompion. C. verrucosa, warded gourd. C. melopepo, Spanish melon.

Melothria pendula, small creeping cucumber.

Sect. 2. APPLES of Trees.

Achras sapota, oval-fruited sapota. Averrhoa carambola, goa apple. A. bilimbi, bilimbia. Punica granatum, pomegranate tree. Pyrus communis, pear-tree. P. malus, the crab-tree. P. cydonia, quince-tree.

VIII. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.

Sect. 1. PODS and SEEDS of Herbaceous Plants.

Arrachis hypogaea, American ground nut. Cicer arietinum, the chick pea. Dolichos soja, East India kidney bean. Ervum lens, lentil. Lotus edulis, incurved podded bird's-foot trefoil. L. tetragonolobus, square-podded crimson pea. Lupinus albus, white flowering lupine. Phaseolus vulgaris, common kidney bean. P. V. coccineus, scarlet-flowering kidney bean. P. albus, white-flowering kidney bean. Pisum sativum, common garden pea. P. umbellatum, crown pea. P. quadratum, angular-stalked pea. P. maritimum, sea pea. Vicia faba, common garden bean.

Sect. 2. PODS and SEEDS of Trees.

Cassia fistula, sweet cassia, or pudding-pipe tree. Ceratonia siliqua, carob, or St John's bread. Coffee Arabica, Arabian coffee. C. occidentalis, American C. Cytisus cajan, pigeon pea. Epipendrum vanilla, sweet-scented vanilla. Hymenaea courbaril, baftard locust tree. Tamarindus indica, the tamarind.

IX. ESCULENT GRAINS AND SEEDS.

Triticum aestivum, summer or spring wheat. T. hybernum, winter or common wheat. T. turgidum, short thick-spiked wheat. T. polonicum, Poland wheat. T. spelta, German or spelt wheat. T. monococcum, St Peter's corn. Avena sativa, manured black oat. A. nuda, naked oat. Hordeum vulgare, common barley. H. distichon, long-eared barley. H. hexastichon, square barley. H. zeocriton, battle-dore or sprat barley. Secale cereale, Common rye. Coix lacryma-jobi, Job's tears. Cynosurus cerocanus, Indian cock's foot grass. Festuca filiflora, flote fescue grass. Holcus forghum, Guinea corn, or Indian millet. Nymphea nelumbo, Egyptian bean. Oryza sativa, rice. Panicum miliaceum, common millet. P. Italicum, Italian millet. Phalaris canariensis, canary grass, or canary seed. Polygonum fagopyrum, buck wheat. Quercus efcetus, cut-leaved Italian oak. Q. phellos, carolinian willow-leaved oak. Sesamum orientale, eastern sesamum. S. Indicum, Indian sesamum. Sinapis nigra, black mustard. S. arvensis, wild mustard or charlock. Zea mays, Maize, or Indian wheat. Zezanea aquatica, water zezania.

X. ESCULENT NUTS.

Amygdalus communis, sweet and bitter almond. Anacardium occidentale, cashew nut. Avicenna tomentosa, colern anacardium, or Malacea bean. Corylus avellana, hazel nut. Cocos nucifera, cocoa nut. Fagus castanea, common chestnut. Juglans regia, common walnut. J. nigra, black Virginian walnut. Jatropha curcas, Indian physic nut. J. multifida, French physic nut. Pinus pinea, stone or manured pine. Pistacia vera, pistachia nut. P. narbonensis, trifoliolate-leaved turpentine tree. Theobroma cacao, chocolate nut. Trapa natans, Jesuit's nut.

XI. ESCULENT FUNGUSES.

Agaricus campestris, common mushroom. A. pratinus, the champignon. A. chantarelle, chantarelle agaric. A. deliciosus, orange agaric. A. cinnamomeus, brown mushroom. A. violaceus, violet mushroom. Lycoperdon tuber, the truffle. Phallus eculentus, the morel.

For the botanical arrangement and characters of these plants, see the article BOTANY. For a particular account of the individuals as articles of diet, we must refer our readers to Bryant's Flora Dietetica, Cullen's Materia Medica, vol. i. the synops of Materia Alimentaria and Materia Medica, and Sir John Sinclair's Code of Health and Longevity, vol. i. The preparation and use of bread have already been treated of at considerable length under that article. The use and best methods of preparing potatoes are given under AGRICULTURE, No 288, &c.

B. DRINK.

Drinks may be divided into common water, vegetable infusions or decoctions, fermented liquors, animal fluids, and animal infusions or decoctions. The two last have been already spoken of, and water will be considered hereafter. We shall here only make a few observations on the second and third heads.

The vegetables employed for infusions or decoctions used as drink, are chiefly tea, coffee, and chocolate.

All the various kinds of tea imported into this coun-Tea, try, try, come under the denominations of bohea and green; and even these are supposed to be the produce of the same species of plant; though Linnaeus has described them as specifically different, founding the distinction on the number of their petals. Others have observed a difference in the leaves. Still, however, it is uncertain whether these are not merely accidental differences, occasioned by diversity of soil, situation, and culture. While the present narrow and jealous policy of the Chinese continues, many interesting particulars respecting the natural history of this plant must remain unknown to Europeans.

It had been well for the inhabitants of Great Britain, if the tea-leaf had never found its way to this country; they would not then have been tormented, as thousands of them now are, with an incurable train of nervous symptoms, with stomachic and bowel complaints, with headache, &c. To the abuse of tea-drinking may be ascribed, in a great measure, the increased frequency of consumptions; and many of the disorders of children, and especially hydrocephalus, tabes mefenterica, rickets, &c. may be traced to the same source.

The tea-leaf, when fresh from the tree, is evidently poisonous. It is true that it loses some of its acrimony by drying: but even in the state in which it is sent to this country, it retains much of its narcotic nature. What serious mischief, then, are they bringing upon themselves, who, as is the case with too many of the lower classes of society, make it a principal part of their daily subsistence! The money which should go to purchase wholesome and substantial food, is squandered away in procuring what of itself affords no nourishment at all; for whatever nourishment is derived from the infusion of tea, is owing to the sugar and milk which are added to it; and were it not for these additions, its deleterious effects would be much sooner and much more powerfully felt.

The time, it is to be hoped, is not far distant, when the poor shall be enlightened upon this important point. The next generation will hardly believe that their predecessors lavished away so much money, and took such extraordinary delight in defrauding their bodies of their proper and natural aliment, and in bringing upon themselves infirmity and disease. Let the rich and the intemperate indulge, if they choose, in the narcotic draught; to their heated and oppressed stomachs it may not do harm; it may even afford momentary relief. But let the poor abstain from it. They are not surcharged with high-feasted food. They have no feverish thirst, no feverish heat to allay, after their noon-day repast. To them it is totally unnecessary as a help to digestion, and as an article of sustenance it is worthless and improper. They would, therefore, be better, infinitely better, without it.

Besides its narcotic quality, there is another property of the tea-leaf which renders its continued use injurious to the constitution; we mean its astringency. Add to these the warm water, and we have, in this unnatural beverage, the infusion of tea, three different powers concurring to disorder first the organs of digestion, and ultimately the whole system.

If it be asked, what are they who have been long accustomed to tea to substitute in its place; we answer milk, milk-porridge, gruel, broth, cocoa, or the like for breakfast; and in the afternoon, milk and water, orgeat, or lemonade in the summer, and coffee in the winter.

It should be understood, that the preceding remarks apply to the general abuse of tea as an article of sustenance; for its occasional employment in a dietetical and medicinal way in some kinds of sickness, is often of use. Thus, the simple infusion, without sugar or milk, is a good diluent and feative in ardent fevers; and as it promotes perspiration and urine, it is frequently drunk with advantage in colds, catarrhs, rheumatism, headache, &c. It is also serviceable in cases of surfeit and indigestion*.

For the use and abuse of coffee, see the article COFFEE.

Chocolate is more nourishing and less heating than coffee. It is commonly made too thick, but when of a proper degree of strength, it is a very palatable and wholesome beverage, though on account of its oily quality it proves oppressive and cloying to some stomachs. See CHOCOLATE.

Cocoa is in fact only a weak chocolate; and being less pure than the former, weak chocolate might properly be substituted for it.

Of fermented liquors we shall mention only malt liquors, wine, and ardent spirits.

Well fermented malt liquors, whether from barley or other grain, provided they be not too strong, are wholesome, refreshing, and strengthening drinks. As these liquors are very nutritious, they are chiefly suited to persons who lead a busy and active life. With sedentary and bilious persons they do not agree so well; and they are improper for the corpulent and asthmatic, and those who are liable to giddiness or other complaints of the head. They are better when of a middle age, than when kept very long. Beer made from the infusion of malted groats, or malted rye, is lighter and more diuretic than the common barley beer. Spruce beer is a powerful diuretic and anticoagulitic; it is, however, too cold for some constitutions. Bottled-beer is, on account of the fixed air which it contains, more refreshing than the barrelled. It is frequently prescribed as an antiseptic and restorative in low fevers and convalescencies; but care must be taken, during the use of it, that it do not operate too freely by stool. London porter, with the common properties of malt-liquor, possess such stomachic and diuretic qualities, as give it a preference over common beer and ale, in many cases. Being strongly impregnated with bitters of a narcotic kind, it is apt to induce drowsiness, and consequently is improper wherever there is a tendency to cephalalgia, apoplexy, or other affections of the head (A).

(A) We cannot pretend to decide whether the prejudices that have for some time prevailed against the whole-fom-nets of London porter are well founded or not; but if its composition be such as given under the article BREWING, we are decidedly of opinion that it is a liquor quite unfit for constant drink. Part I.

A temperate use of wine is conducive to the health. All the functions, both of body and mind, are roused and facilitated by it. It has a powerful effect upon the organs of digestion, upon the circulation, and upon the nervous system, promoting digestion, strengthening the action of the heart and arteries, and raising the spirits. Such is its beneficial operation, when taken sparingly. In excessive quantities it has opposite effects, destroying the stomach, inducing emaciation and debility, and occasioning inflammation and obstruction in the liver, lungs, &c. whence gout, palsy, dropfy, consumptions, diabetes, &c.

In a dietetical view, wines are to be considered as they are, either acid or sweet, soft or austere. The acid wines, of which the Rhenish and Hock are the most noted, are the least heating, and the most diuretic. The sweet, such as the Frontinian, Malaga, Tent, Cape, are heating and sudorific. The soft, or acidodulcecent wines, such as Champagne, Claret, Burgundy, Madeira, &c. are less stimulating than the sweet, and more cordial than the acid wines. Of the astringe and astringent, that which is most used in this country is the red Port, which, when it has not been mixed with too large a proportion of brandy, is a generous and stomachic wine, well suited to the generality of British constitutions.

Perry and cyder hold a middle place between wine and malt liquor. They are less nutritious than the latter, and less cordial than the former.

In small quantities ardent spirits are a powerful cordial and corroborant, raising the pulse, strengthening the stomach, promoting digestion, and preventing flatulence. Taken sparingly, and diluted with water, they supply the place of wine, and with some constitutions agree better, as they are not like wine, disposed to create acidity. The abuse of them is productive of the same pernicious effects as those which arise from an excessive indulgence in wine, but in a greater degree. French brandy is the most bracing and stomachic; gin and rum the most diuretic and sudorific. Arrak, which is distilled from rice, is more heating than the two last. Whisky is considered as a lighter spirit than any of the former, from its containing less essential oil, and it therefore agrees better with most stomachs. The qualities of all these several sorts of spirits are improved by long keeping*.

On the general subject of drink, see the article DRINK.

C. CONDIMENTS.

CONDIMENTS are those substances which are taken with our food, to promote digestion, or to correct some hurtful property in the food taken. They are usually divided into saline, saccharine, aromatic, and oleaginous.

Of the saline condiments, the principal are common salt and vinegar.

Common salt, by its stimulant action on the throat, gullet, and stomach, seems to promote the secretion of saliva and of the gastric juice, and thereby facilitates digestion. It also appears, when taken in small quantity, to increase the solubility of most food, but when taken too plentifully, it renders the food hard and difficult of solution. Salted meats and fish are unwholesome when made a constant article of diet.

Vinegar in small quantities is a grateful and salutary stimulus to the stomach, correcting the putrefaction of animal food, and the flatulence of vegetable. Its use is improper in many valetudinary cases, especially for calculous and gouty persons; in consumption and chlorosis; to rickety patients and young children.

Pickles may be considered as merely receptacles for vinegar, except in as far as the vegetables of which they are composed are in their nature warm and aromatic, as the onion.

Sugar is nutritious, antiseptic and laxative, and is considered as promoting the solution of fat in the stomach; but as it is very fermentable, it is apt, in many constitutions, to produce flatulence, heat, and thirst. Its unlimited use seems to be one cause of the increased and increasing frequency of bilious and hypochondriacal disorders. Chlorotic girls, rickety children, hysterical women, and all who are troubled with acidity in the stomach and bowels, should abstain from it; and those who are anxious to preserve their teeth white and sound, should not make free with it. To these observations, however, there are some constitutions which furnish exceptions. Thus we are told, that one of the dukes of Beaufort took, for the space of 40 years, nearly a pound of sugar every day; yet it neither disordered any of the viscera, nor injured the teeth, and he lived to attain the age of 70.

The aromatic condiments consist chiefly of the foreign spices, as pepper, Cayenne pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, cloves, ginger, and of a few garden roots and seeds, such as garlic, leek, onion, horseradish, and mustard. Of these we shall take notice under their proper heads in the Materia Medica.

The oleaginous condiments consist merely of olive oil and butter.

Oil when used as a seasoning to raw vegetables, checks their fermentation in the stomach, and thereby prevents them from proving too flatulent. Used in this manner, in small quantities, it proves a help to digestion; but when taken in considerable quantities, it has an opposite effect, and lays the foundation for bilious complaints.

The moderate use of melted butter with boiled vegetables, is, in general, by no means unwholesome; but butter it frequently disagrees with bilious and hypochondriacal people.

The proper method of preparing food, constitutes the art of cookery, on which we shall present our readers with the following general remarks, taken from Sir John Sinclair's Code of Health and Longevity.

The primeval inhabitants of the earth certainly ate both their vegetable and animal food raw; and to this day some of the African nations, the Esquimaux Indians, the Patagonians and Samoecides, devour raw flesh and fish, and drink the blood of the animals. Raw flesh produces great bodily vigour, ferocity of mind, and love of liberty.

In general, however, animal food undergoes some preparation before it is consumed. It is hardly to be credited the shifts which some tribes have been put to, in order to obtain that object, as putting heated stones in the bellies of pigs to roast them, or burning the straw in order to parch the grain. From these humble attempts, the great refinements of cookery, which is properly a branch of chemistry, originated.

It is certain that cookery is an useful art. By it many articles are rendered wholesome, which could not otherwise have been eaten; but by it, at the same time, it must be acknowledged, that some articles are rendered unwholesome, which would otherwise have produced nourishing food.

By cookery, our foods are rendered more palatable and digestible, and when prepared in a simple manner, more conducive to health.

Cookery may be considered under two general heads, the simple, and the refined or compound.

The first, though apparently easy, requires a considerable degree of attention and experience; and the second is an art of so diversified and extensive a nature, that it is rarely carried to any considerable degree of perfection, and it would have been no loss to human nature if it had never been invented.

Simple cookery includes the following modes of dressing meat: 1. Roasting. 2. Boiling. 3. Stewing. 4. Broiling. 5. Frying. 6. Baking; and, 7. Digesting.

1. Roasting was certainly the first mode invented to prepare animal food; for boiling is a more complicated process, and required the art of manufacturing vessels that could withstand the effect of heat. Roasting, it is well known, requires a greater proportion of heat than boiling, and more skill in the preparation. By the application of fire, a considerable proportion of watery substance is exhaled from the meat. In order to be done properly, the roasting should be conducted in a gradual manner, and the heat moderately but steadily applied, otherwise exudation rather than roasting, takes place. Roasted meat is certainly the best means of confirming the flesh and tasting the natural juices of the meat. It is also peculiarly calculated for birds of every sort, and for young and tender meat, taking off its viscosity, and giving it a firmness and dryness that otherwise it would not possess.

Roasted meat, at least of the larger kinds, as beef, mutton, and venison, is preferred in England, and boiled or baked meat in France. The meat of England has not, perhaps, the same flavour as that of France, but it is larger, richer, and fatter, and appears to more advantage in a roasted state. Besides, coal fires are better adapted for that process of cookery than wood or peat. It is found, indeed, that meat, roasted by a fire of peat or turf, is more sodden than when coal is employed for that purpose.

Our meat in England (Cadogan asserts) is generally over-done, and particularly over-roasted. In regard to over-roasting, the action of fire, if continued too long, has a tendency to change mild animal flesh into something of another quality; the fat, in particular, becomes bitter and rancid. The less, therefore, that all flesh meat undergoes the power of the fire, the milder and wholesomer it is. This doctrine, however, is denied by Falconer. He admits, that meat little done is the most soluble, but at the same time contends, that it is exceedingly alkaline, and runs quickly into putrefaction. Hence the French, who live in a warm climate, find it necessary not only to eat a great quantity of bread, to prevent the putrefying effect of animal food, but also to have their meat thoroughly boiled and roasted.

2. Boiling is also an excellent mode of preparing animal food, rendering it more soluble, without destroying, if properly done, its nutritious qualities, and being peculiarly calculated for weak stomachs. But however useful moderate boiling may be in these respects, yet, when carried to an extreme, every thing soluble is extracted, the nutritious parts are conveyed to the liquor, and the meat itself is left behind infipid, dense, and unfit for nourishment.

Young and viscid food, as veal, chickens, partridges, &c. are more wholesome when roasted than boiled, and easier digested; but beef and mutton are easier digested when boiled than roasted; consequently boiling such meat is better calculated for weak stomachs. Boiling is particularly applicable to vegetables, rendering them more soluble in the stomach, and depriving them of a considerable quantity of air, so injurious to weak stomachs.

The usual mode of preparing fish for the table is by boiling, roasting rendering them more indigestible.

It is proper to observe, that those who are trained to athletic exercises, have their meat roasted or broiled, and not boiled; as it is supposed, that, when boiled, a great part of the nutritive juices of the meat is lost in the water.

3. Stewing is reckoned the mode by which the greatest quantity of nourishment is derived from the meat. By this plan the texture of the meat is rendered more tender, its soluble parts are not fully extracted, and it is left in a state abundantly rapid and nourishing, while the soup also, or fluid, contains a sufficient proportion of the animal extract.

4. Broiling consists in exposing meat to the near application of a naked fire, by which means its outer surface immediately hardens, before the heat has penetrated the whole. This prevents any excess of exhalation; and the meat, when done, is rendered sufficiently tender. It is peculiarly suited for steaks, which are, comparatively speaking, eaten in a juicy and almost in a raw state.

5. Frying is a process that renders meat more indigestible than any other, and indeed, might be included under the head of compound cookery. It is performed by cutting meat into thin slices, and putting it into a vessel over the naked fire. As the lower surface of the meat would thus be burnt or hardened, some fluid matter, generally of an oily nature, is introduced, which acquires, from the heat, a burnt or empyreumatic taste, and becomes hardly miscible with the fluids in the stomach. It requires, therefore, the addition of stimulants to enable the stomach to digest it.

6. Baking consists in the application of heat in a dry form, but in a vessel covered with a paste instead of its being exposed to the open air. Any considerable exhalation is thus prevented, and the meat, by the retention of all its juices, is rendered more rapid and tender. But baked meat fits heavy on some stomachs, from the greater retention of its oils, which are in a burnt state. It requires, therefore, the additional stimulus of spices and aromatics, to render it lighter, and to increase the power of the stomach to digest it.

7. Digesting is the last discovered process of simple cookery. cookery. It is performed in a close vessel, and resembles boiling, being conducted in a very high temperature, while, from the closeness of the vessel, the advantages of stewing are procured. It is not, however, much in use.

Besides these various simple modes of preparing animal food, there is another, which it may here be proper to take notice of, namely, when animal food is dissolved in water, and formed into a gelatinous solution or jelly. This substance is of a viscid nature, and though it contains much nourishment, yet is difficult of digestion, and of course less calculated for diseased or weak stomachs than is commonly imagined. Nor are those jellies, which are the mucilaginous extracts of certain parts of animals, as hawthorn, very digestible; indeed, a too liberal use of them has often proved injurious. They can only be recommended for the sick, accompanied with a quantity of stale bread. To those who require an article of that sort, more especially if their stomachs are weak, simple beef tea, properly prepared, is the most nutritive balsam that can be administered.

It may also be proper to observe, that even after provisions have been dressed in the kitchen, they have often to undergo some operations of cookery at the table; this is principally by the addition of some of the various sorts of seasoning or condiments.

One would imagine, that all the various modes of preparing food above enumerated, might satisfy the most luxurious appetite; but, instead thereof, the ingenuity of man has been exerted to discover a number of other preparations. Hence, a system of refined or compound cookery has been invented, more flattering to the palate than favourable to the health.

It would be improper to touch upon processes which it is impossible for any writer on dietetics to mention with any degree of approbation. Some dishes may be prepared, variously compounded, which may occasionally be tasted, and plain sauces may be a useful addition to fish and vegetables; but the generality of ragouts, made dishes, and the like, are of a poisonous quality, and cannot be too anxiously avoided by those who entertain any anxiety for the preservation of their health*.

The foregoing observations on diet are adapted chiefly to persons in health; but it is of great importance for a medical man to know what is the most proper diet for the sick and for convalescents. To treat this subject properly would occupy more room than we can allot to it, we shall, therefore, only insert here the following remarks by the late Dr Heberden, with which we shall conclude this part of the article.

"Many physicians appear to be too strict and particular in the rules of diet and regimen, which they deliver as proper to be observed by all who are solicitous either to preserve or recover their health. The common experience of mankind will sufficiently acquaint any one with the sorts of food which are wholesome to the generality of men; and his own experience will teach him which of these agrees best with his particular constitution. Scarcely any other directions besides these are wanted, except that, as variety of food at the same meal, and poignant sauces, will tempt most persons to eat more than they can well digest; they ought therefore to be avoided by all who are afflicted with any chronical disorders, or wish to keep from them. But whether meat should be boiled or roasted, or dressed in any other plain way, and what sort of vegetables should be eaten with it, we never yet met with any person of common sense who did not appear fitter to choose for himself than we could direct him. Small beer, where it agrees, or water alone, are the properest liquors at meals. Wine or spirits mixed with water have gradually led on several to be sots, and have ruined more constitutions than ever were hurt by small beer from its first invention.

"In fevers a little more restraint is necessary, but not so much as is often enjoined. The stronger sorts of meat and fish are most usually loathed by the sick themselves, nor could they be eaten without offending the stomach, and increasing the distemper, while it is at all considerable; but in its decline the sick are often desirous of some of the milder sorts of meat, and no harm follows from indulging their desire. The English are said to eat more meat when they are well than most other nations; but were remarkable, so long ago as the time of Erasmus, for avoiding it more scrupulously when they are sick than any other people. How highsoever the fever be, the sick may be safely nourished with weak broths and jellies, and with any vegetable substances, if we except the acid and aromatic, or with the infusions or decoctions prepared from them; and we know no reason for preferring any of these to the rest. Eggs and milk have been, we know not by what authority, forbidden in all fevers; but as far as our experience goes, they both afford innocent food in the world, where they are grateful to the patients.

"The feverish thirst is best allayed by pure water, which may be drunk either warm or cold, at the option of the sick person, and he may drink as much as he pleases; but we see no advantage in persuading him to gorge himself with liquids, as is often done, against his inclination and stomach. If water be deemed too insipid, currant jelly, and a variety of syrups, may be dissolved in it; or apples sliced or roasted, tamarinds, lage, or baum, or toasted bread, may be infused in it; or decoctions may be made of oatmeal, barley, or rice; or the water may be made into an emulsion with the oily feeds; all which, with a variety of similar substances, merely correct its insipidness, but in other respects leave it just what it was.

"There is scarcely any distemper, in every stage of which it may not be safely left to the patient's own choice, if he be perfectly in his senses, whether he will fit up, or keep his bed. His strength and his case are chiefly to be attended to in settling this point; and who can tell so well as himself, what his case requires, and what his strength will bear?

"Doubts are often raised about the propriety of changing the linen in sicknese, just as there have been about changing the foul air of the sick chamber by any of the means which could purify and refresh it. There can be very little reason to fear any mischief from the cold which the sick may feel while their clean linen is putting on; for their attendants, with common care, will do this as safely as many other things which must necessarily be done for them. But some have a strange opinion of harm from the smell of the soap perceivable in linen after it has been washed, and therefore allow not their patients, when they change their linen, even to put on fresh, but such only as have been worn, or lain in, by other persons. By this contrivance indeed the smell of the soap might be taken off; but few cleanly people would think they gained any advantage by the change. Now, if a faint smell of soap were noxious, then soap-makers and laundry servants must be remarkably unhealthy, which is contrary to experience; nor is it less so, that the sick are injured by the cleanliness of what they wear; on the contrary, the removing of their foul things has often diffused over them a sense of ease and comfort, which has soon lulled them into a quiet and refreshing sleep *."

PART. II. OF THE GENERAL: ACTION OF REMEDIES AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION.

WE shall not attempt any new or original disquisition on the action of remedies, but shall merely state the most generally received opinions on the subject. We shall begin with the doctrine of the disciples of Cullen, which has been well expressed by Dr Percival in the following propositions.

1. Medicines may act on the human body by an immediate and peculiar impression of the stomach and bowels, either in their proper form, in a state of decomposition, or a change in the arrangement of their parts.—The sympathy of the stomach with the whole animated system is obvious to our daily experience, that it cannot require much illustration. After fasting and fatigue, we feel that a moderate quantity of wine instantly exhilarates the spirits, and gives energy to all the muscular fibres of the body. It has been known even to produce a sudden and large augmentation of weight, after much depletion, by rousing the absorbent system to vigorous action. Such power is peculiar to living mechanism; and is properly denominated by physicians, the vis medicatrix nature. But apparent as is the sympathy of the stomach, the laws by which it is governed are very insufficiently understood; and we have hitherto learned only from a loose induction of facts, that the nerves of this delicate organ seem to be endowed with diversified sensibilities; that impressions made by the same or different substances, have their appropriate influence on different and distant parts; and that the stomach itself undergoes frequent variations in its states of irritability. A few grains of sulphate of copper, taken internally, excite instantly the most violent contractions of the abdominal, and other muscles concerned in vomiting. A dose of ipecacuanha, as soon as it produces nausea, abates both the force and velocity of the heart, in its vital motion; and affects the whole series of blood vessels, from their origin to their minutest ramifications, as is evident by the paleness of the skin under such circumstances, and by the efficacy of emetics in stopping hemorrhages. The head, when disordered with vertigo, sometimes derives sudden relief from a tea-spoonful of ether, administered in a glass of water. An incessant cough has been known to attack the lungs, in consequence of the stimulus of a pin, which had been unwarily swallowed. Of the action of medicines on the stomach, under decomposition or recomposition, we have an example familiar to every one, in carbonate of magnesia. For this earth, by neutralizing the acid in the prime vise, acquires a purgative quality, and at the same time yields a gas of great salubrity, as an antiemetic, tonic, and antiseptic.

2. Medicines may pass into the course of circulation in one or other of the states above described, and being conveyed to different and distant parts, may there produce certain appropriate effects.—Chemistry furnishes us with numberless cases in which substances undergo changes, and take new forms more remarkable than can be effected by digestion, retaining till the materia prima, and being capable of resuming the original arrangement of their particles, and consequently their original qualities. Now, a body altered in its texture by digestion, and carried into the system with aliment, may acquire specific powers of acting on particular found or diseased parts. Thus, if we suppose cantharides to be changed in form and texture, when mixed with the chyle, the lymph, or the blood, they may still, in that form and texture, be peculiarly adapted to excite strangury in the urinary passages, or, we may conceive that this new modification of their particles may again be altered, and their original composition restored by a subsequent chemical change in the kidneys. The sensible qualities of any body are no certain marks of its medicinal action. Peruvian bark does not owe its efficacy in fevers to its bitters, for stronger bitters are not possessed of its febrifuge powers. Antimony, though infipid, produces a violent action on the nerves of the stomach, and yet if applied to the eye, an organ equally sensible, it is altogether inert. To what perceptible property in opium are we to ascribe its narcotic powers? or is there in the sweet taste of acetate of lead, any indication of a deadly poison? Numberless instances may be adduced to prove the uncertainty of reasoning otherwise than from observation, concerning the action of medicines, and the peculiar sensibility of different parts of our system to their impression. Following experience, therefore, as our guide, let us notice a few facts that may elucidate the subject before us. It is well known that madder root, when taken by an animal, carries its tingling qualities to the bones, affecting neither the skin, the muscles, the ligaments, nor the fat. Consequently this tingling quality is left unchanged by digestion; or perhaps it is again recovered, when arrived at the bones, by some new arrangement of parts produced by the chemistry of nature. Extract of logwood, taken internally, sometimes gives a bloody hue to the urine. But the astringency of it does not seem to accompany its colouring matter. We recollect no instance where, in the milk either of a nurse, or of an animal, was tinged with madder or logwood. This affords some presumption, that the pigment does not subsist in its proper form, in the blood; but that it is recovered by a subsequent change in the disposition of its constituent particles. And if one substance stain the bones, by being carried into contact with them, another may, in an analogous manner, produce in them fragility or diffusion. Therapeutic solution. In the disease termed by the French ergot, and which, with some probability is ascribed to the use of a species of unfound corn, the bones lose the earthy matter that enters into their texture; the gums become soft, and are easily broken. This effect is gradual, and probably arises from some unknown quality in the corn, which is either not taken away by digestion, or is resumed in the juices that circulate through the osseous vessels. A change in the proofs of vegetation may communicate a solvent power to an effulent feed. Mustard acquires this by its natural growth, and is capable of rendering even ivory soft and fragile. How far it would produce such an effect on the bones of a living body, if used as the chiefarticle of diet, we have no experience on which to ground any satisfactory conclusion.

Sulphur, whether externally or internally used, produces a cure in the itch. In each way, therefore, we may presume its operation to be similar. But when taken into the stomach, there can be no doubt that it undergoes a change in the modification of its parts, and that it does not circulate through the blood vessels either in the form or with the properties of sulphur. Yet when conveyed to the surface of the body, it evidently appears to recover its original powers, communicating its peculiar odour to the perspiration, tingling fever, and curing cutaneous defecations. The same holds true of the sulphuric acid, when administered in large doses. It seems to lose oxygen in the animal body, and to pass off by the pores, as hepatic air, or as volatilized sulphur. Even when given to nurses, it proves an effectual remedy for the itch, both in them and the children whom they suckle. Mercury combined with sulphur into the black sulphuret, has frequently been regarded as inert. Instances, however, have occurred in which, under this form, though accurately prepared, it has produced salivation; an evident proof, according to Dr Percival, of a chemical change in the sulphuret, by which the mercury was restored to its original powers. That mercury is capable of being reduced to the metallic form, and of collecting in considerable quantity in the human body, is proved by the concurrent testimony of many authors, who inform us that fluid mercury has been found in the carious bones of venereal patients. A salivation is sometimes produced by antimony. Dr James assured Sir George Baker, that he knew fix instances of its being produced by his febrile powder, though he had left mercury out of its composition long before they occurred. Indeed, as the patients thus affected had neither their teeth loosened, nor their breath rendered offensive, there is no reason to suppose that the salivation was owing to a mixture of mercury in the powder.

Most persons have experienced the effects of asparagus on the urine. This takes place very speedily and strongly, though only a small quantity has been eaten. The smell is much more disagreeable than asparagus itself; and as the odorous particles conveyed to the kidneys must be greatly diluted in their passage, it is probable that a new combination of particles takes place in the urinary organs; and that the odorous part of the secretion differs in its form and quality from what subsisted both in the chyle and in the blood.

There are certain medicines which, when swallowed, quickly manifest themselves in the discharges, with some of their original qualities. A strong solution of therapeutical, when taken in considerable quantities, renders the urine alkaline and lithontriptic, and the same excretion becomes impregnated with carbonic acid, if water impregnated with that acid be drunk freely. Dr Percival speaks of a patient to whom fix grains of balsam of Tolu were given thrice a day, and whose urine was strongly scented by this small quantity. Garlic affects the breath, though it be applied only about the wrists; and the milk of a nurse is easily tainted with it. A purgative given to a woman that luckless will sometimes produce no effect on her bowels, but will operate strongly on those of her infant. A still more convincing proof that there may be a renovation of the original qualities of a body, after it has undergone the proofs of digestion, and other subsequent changes, is deducible from these facts; that butter is often impregnated with the taste and smell of certain vegetables on which the cows have pastured; that the milk of such cows discovers no disagreeable flavour, any more than the whey or cheese prepared from it. Now, butter is formed, first by a spontaneous separation of cream, and secondly, by a fermentation of it; that is, by a twofold and successive new arrangement of its elementary parts. By these changes, the originally offensive materials in the food of the cow seem to reanimate their proper form and nature.

After venesection the serum of the blood has sometimes appeared as white as milk, whilst the coagulum retained its natural colour. This whiteness has been shewn to arise from oleaginous particles floating in the circulating fluids, and may serve to explain a fact recorded by a writer of good authority, on the natural history of Aleppo, that in certain seasons when oil is plentifully taken, the people become disposed to fevers, and infarctions of the lungs, which symptoms wear off by retrenching this indulgence. Some years ago cod-liver oil was annually dispensed amongst the sick of the Manchester hospital, to the amount of 50 or 60 gallons. The taste and smell are extremely nauseous, and it leaves upon the palate a favour like that of putrid fish. This remedy is more salutary when it operates by perpiration; and the sweat of those to whom it is administered, always becomes strongly tainted with it. An oil of the same kind forms no inconsiderable part of the food of many northern nations; and it is said to penetrate and imbue the deepest recesses of the body.

Dr Wright relates an experiment to prove that chalybeates do not enter the blood. He forced a dog that had fasted 66 hours, to swallow a pound of bread and milk, with which had been mixed an ounce and a half of sulphate of iron. An hour afterwards he opened the dog, and collected from the thoracic duct about half an ounce of chyle, which assumed no change of colour when tincture of galls was dropped into it, though it acquired from the same tincture a deep purple, when a quarter of a grain of sulphate of iron was dissolved in it. This experiment is usually deemed decisive in support of the opinion that chalybeates exert their operation solely on the stomach, and that the vigour they communicate to the system arises exclusively from their tonic powers on the alimentary canal, and from the sympathy of the stomach with various other parts of the body. Dr Percival was of opinion, that the tonic action and sympathy above mentioned, did not preclude the immediate agency of the steel on the remote parts of the human frame, as this remedy, in other forms capable of being introduced into the circulation, may exert considerable energy as a stimulant or astringent; and in his opinion, the experiment adduced proves that the iron did not exist in the chyle, in the state of a salt capable of striking a black colour with galls. Neither does the oxide of iron, nor the glats of iron, possess this power, yet, though changed, they are both capable of being restored to the metallic state. Perhaps with equal reason it might be premised by one ignorant of chemistry, that the sulphate of iron contains no iron, because it is not acted on by the magnet.

With the foregoing experiments of Dr Wright, Dr Percival contrasts those made by the celebrated Dr Musgrave, who injected into the jejunum of a dog that had, for a day before, but little meat, about 12 ounces of a solution of indigo in fountain water, and, after three hours, opening the dog a second time, he observed several of the lacteals of a bluish colour, which, on stretching the mesentery, did several times disappear, but was most easily discerned when the meletery lay loose; an argument that the bluish liquor was not properly of the vessels, but of the liquors contained in it. A few days after this, repeating the experiment in another company, with a solution of stone blue in fountain water, and on a dog that had been kept fasting 36 hours, he saw several of the lacteals become of a perfect blue colour, within very few minutes after the injection. For they appeared before he could sew up the gut.

About the beginning of March following, having kept a spaniel fasting 36 hours, and then syringing a pint of deep decoction of stone blue with common water, into one of the small guts; and after three hours, opening the dog again, he saw many of the lacteals of a deep blue colour: several of them were cut, and afforded a blue liquor, some of the decoction running forth on the meletery. After this he examined the ductus thoracicus, and saw the receptaculum chyli, and that ductus, of a bluish colour; not so blue indeed as the lacteals, from the solution mixing, in or near the receptaculum, with lymph, but much bluer than the ductus used to be, or than the lymphatics under the liver were, with which he compared it.

Stone blue is a preparation of cobalt, potash, and white lead, which being converted into glats, is ground into fine powder. If such a substance can pervade the lacteals, we may conclude that they are permeable to other bodies, besides those designed for nutrition, and capable of assimilation with the blood. This argument from analogy, receives great additional force from the known fact that mercury, and various other active remedies, may be conveyed into the body through the absorbents of the skin, a system of vessels similar to those above mentioned, in their structure, uses, and termination. In a case of hydrocephalus internus, on which Dr Percival was consulted, a child under one year of age received, by successive frictions, 4 ounces 6 drams and 2 scruples of strong mercurial ointment between the 8th of February and the 7th of April 1786. One scruple was administered each time; the operation took up more than half an hour, and the part to which the ointment was applied, was always previously bathed with warm water; precautions which seemed to secure the full absorption of the mercury. The child recovered without any symptoms of salivation, and continued perfectly well. The doctor repeatedly observed, that very large quantities of mercurial ointment may be used in infancy and childhood, without affecting the gums, notwithstanding the predisposition to a flux of saliva, at a period of life incident to dentition.

Whence is it that a medicine so irritating as mercury, can be conveyed into the course of circulation, when even milk, or the mildest liquors, if transfused into the blood vessels, have been found to produce convulsions and death? Is it that what passes by the lymphatic and lacteals is carried into the thoracic duct, and there mixed with a large portion of the chyle and lymph, by which its acrimony is leached and diluted, or its chemical properties changed, before it enters the mals of blood? For the absorbents of the skin, and of the intestines, seem to require a capacity to bear the stimulus of these extraneous bodies to which, in both situations, they are exposed.

3. Medicines introduced into the course of circulation may affect the general constitution of the fluids; produce changes in their particular qualities; superadd new ones; or counteract the morbid matter with which they may be occasionally charged.—By observations on the hemorrhages which have been sustained without destruction to life; from experiments made on animals, by drawing forth all their blood; and by a computation of the bulk of the arteries and veins, the mals of circulating fluids has been estimated at 50 pounds in a middle-sized man, of which 28 pounds are supposed to be red blood. Fluids bearing so large a proportion to the weight of the whole body, have assuredly very important offices in the animal economy. Endued with the common properties of other fluids, they are subject to mechanical laws; being variously compounded, they are incident to chemical changes; and, as they are contained in a living vascular system, their motions become subject to the influence of nervous energy*.

The followers of Dr Brown explain the operation of civil* medicines on the principle of their all acting as stimulants in a greater or less degree. This doctrine, with some modification, is thus detailed by Mr Murray.

"Medicines, in general, operate by stimulating the living fibre, or exciting it to motion. This proposition has even been stated as universal, and was received as the axiom, in a system superior, perhaps, to any, in conveying just and precise ideas on the nature of life, and the affections to which it is subject. Medicines, in common with all external agents, are, according to this system, incapable of directly altering the state of the vital power: they can only excite the parts possessed of that power to action; and however diversified their effects may appear to be, such diversities are to be referred merely to the different degrees of force in which they exert the general stimulant power they possess.

"This proposition cannot, however, be received in an unlimited sense. From the exhibition of different medicines, very different effects are produced, which cannot be satisfactorily explained from the cause assigned,—the difference in the degree of stimulant operation. They differ in kind so far, that even in the greater number of cases, one remedy cannot by any management of dose Therapeutic dose or administration, be made to produce the effects which result from the action of another.

"It is therefore necessary to admit of some modifications of the general principles above stated, and the following are perhaps sufficient to afford grounds for explaining the operation of remedies, and for establishing a classification of them sufficiently just and comprehensive.

"1. Stimulants are not to be regarded as differing merely in the degree of the stimulant operation which they exert. An important distinction exists between them, as they are more or less diffusible and permanent in their action. A stimulus is termed diffusible, which, whenever it is applied, or at least in a very short time after, extends its action over the whole system, and quickly produces its full exciting effect. A diffusible stimulus is generally also transient in its action; in other words, the effect, though soon produced, quickly ceases. There are others, on the contrary, which, though equally powerful stimulants, are slow and permanent. These varieties, which are sufficiently established, serve to explain the differences in the power of a number of the most important medicines; and they lay the foundation for the distinction of two great classes, narcotics and tonics, with their subordinate divisions of antispasmodics and astringents, both consisting of powerful stimulants; the one diffusible and transient, the other slow and permanent in their operations.

"There is a difference between stimulants, in their actions being directed to particular parts. Some, when received into the stomach, quickly act upon the general system; others have their action confined to the stomach itself, or at least, any farther stimulant effect they may occasion, is slow and inconsiderable; while a third class consists of those which operate on one part, often without producing any sensible effect on the stomach or general system. Some thus act on the intestinal canal, others on the kidneys, bladder, vessels of the skin, and other parts; the affection they excite in these, being the consequence, not of any stimulant operation equally extended over every part, but of one more particularly determined. This difference in the action of stimuli is the principal foundation of the distinctions of medicines into particular classes. Cathartics, for instance, are those medicines which, as stimuli, act peculiarly on the intestinal canal; diuretics, those which act on the secreting vessels of the kidneys; emmenagogues, those which act on the uterine system; diaphoretics, those which exert a stimulant action on the vessels of the skin. With these operations, medicines, at the same time, act more or less as general stimulants, by which each individual belonging to any class is thus rendered capable of producing peculiar effects; and many of them, by a peculiarity of constitution in the patient, or from the mode in which they are administered, frequently act on more than one part of the system, by which their effects are still farther diversified. Medicines, when thus determined to particular parts, are sometimes conveyed to those parts in the course of the circulation; more generally their action is extended from the stomach, or part to which they are applied, by the medium of the nervous system."

Whatever medical system we may adopt, it is obvious that medicines can act on the human system only in two general modes; either as it is composed of inert matter, or as it forms a living organised system. In the first mode, medicines may act either mechanically or chemically; in the second, they act entirely through the medium of the vital principle.

The order in which the several subjects of the materia medica have been considered, is very different in different writers; and which is the most proper, has been disputed about, while many are of opinion that it is of little consequence which of them is followed. It has been generally thought proper to follow a plan, in which the subjects are, according to a certain affinity, brought together, so that a number of them might be, for the purpose of medicines, considered under the same view. Thus, Dr Boerhaave considered them in the order of the botanical system he had formed, and Linnaeus in the order of his own system, in which he is followed by Bergius.

It has been thought proper to follow the botanical affinities, in so far only as they can be thrown into arrangement of natural orders; and this, therefore, has been attempted by the learned Professor Murray of Gottingen: but from the imperfection of the botanical affinities in pointing out a familiarity of medicinal virtues, this plan will not always unite subjects in the latter point of view; and when we consider that there are yet many plants which do not enter into any natural order, these must be disposed of in an arbitrary manner, and probably in an unconnected state. It must be owned, however, that though the scheme of botanical affinities does not entirely answer the purpose, yet it will fill go a certain length, and ought not to be neglected in the subdivision of any general plan that may be assumed.

It has been supposed by some to be a more eligible plan to unite the several substances, as they happen to be related by their sensible qualities; this method Carreuther and Gleditch have attempted. This certainly may have its use; but from what is said above regarding the imperfection of this scheme for investigating virtues, it will appear that it will not always unite subjects that ought to be united under the same view; and it will be found, that in the authors mentioned, who have executed it in the best manner possible, the defined effect is by no means produced.

From the difficulty of rendering any of those plans alphabetically exact and perfect, some writers have deserted all of them, and thought it best to throw the several articles into an alphabetical order, as Newmann and Lewis have done. If, however, there can be any advantage from bringing subjects of some affinity together, this alphabetical order is the most unfit for the purpose, as by separating similar substances, it must be perpetually distracting to the student. It can therefore have no advantage but that of a dictionary, in referring readily to any particular subject that may be enquired after; but this advantage can be obtained in every plan by means of an index, which cannot be saved even in an alphabetical work, as the different names under which the same substances are known necessarily requires an index comprehending all those different names.

Similar to those of the alphabetical order, are those plans which, after arranging the several articles of the materia medica according to the part of the plant employed, as roots, leaves, &c. have thrown these again into an alphabetical order, as Aliton and Vogel have Therapeutics; but it is obvious that this establishes no connexion between the subjects that follow one another, and can have no advantage over the alphabetical order. Further, by separating the consideration of the several parts of vegetables, it will both separate subjects that ought to be considered together, and will occasion unnecessary repetition.

Dr Cullen was of opinion that, as the study of the materia medica is truly the study of the medicinal virtues, so the plan that arranges the several substances according to their agreeing in some general virtues, will be the best adapted to acquiring the knowledge of these, and will most readily inform the practitioner what different means he can employ for his general purpose. It will also inform him how far the several similar substances may differ in their degree of power, or how far, from the particular qualities assigned to each, he may be directed or limited in his choice.

As it seems proper that every practitioner ought, as far as possible, to practise upon general indications; so it is evident that his study of the materia medica is especially to know the several means that can answer these. Such a plan, therefore, must be the most proper for giving a student instruction; and if, while medicines are arranged according as they answer general indications, the particulars be likewise thrown together as far as possible according to their sensible qualities and botanical affinities, this plan will have the advantage of any other that has been proposed for presenting together the subjects that ought to be considered at one and the same time, and give the best means of recollecting every thing that relates to them.

Dr Cullen's plan of arrangement is as follows.

He first divides all the substances contained in the materia medica into two general heads, the first comprising alimentary substances, or meats, drinks, and condiments; the second comprising medicines properly so called. These latter he considers as they act on the solids or the fluids. Those which act on the solids he distinguishes into such as act on the simple solids, under which he ranks astringents, tonics, emollients, and eucharotics; and those which act on the living solids, under which he classes stimulants, sedatives, including narcotics, refrigerants, and antipalpmodics. Of those medicines which act on the fluids, he conceives that some operate by producing a change on their fluidity, as attenuants and insipidants; or, on the mixture of their component parts, by correcting acrimony, either in general, as demulcents, or in particular as antacids, antalkalines, and antiseptics. Others he supposes to act by producing an evacuation of superabundant fluids; and under this head he includes erribines, fialagogues, expectorants, emetics, cathartics, diuretics, diaphoretics, and emmenagogues.

In his general classification, Dr Cullen has been followed by several writers on the materia medica and therapeutics. Some of the titles of his classes have indeed become obsolete, and his order has been almost totally changed by succeeding writers.

Of those who have copied Dr Cullen's arrangement with some modification, there is perhaps none that deserves more attention than the anonymous author of the "Thesaurus Medicaminum," and a "Practical synopsis of the materia alimentaria and materia medica." This author distributes the articles of the materia medica Therapeutico into 12 classes; 1. Evacuants, comprising erribines, fialagogues, expectorants, emetics, cathartics, diuretics, diaphoretics, emmenagogues; 2. Emollients, comprising diluents and emulcients; 3. Absorbents; 4. Refrigerants; 5. Antiseptics; 6. Astringents; 7. Tonics; 8. Practical Stimulants; 9. Antipalpmodics; 10. Narcotics; 11. Anthelmintics; and, 12. Heterocrites; this last being formed to include those articles that could not properly be reduced under the former heads.

On this classification we may remark, that the general term of evacuants might have been omitted, and its subdivisions might have properly been made distinct classes, as the articles they contain frequently act a more important part, than merely producing an evacuation of fluids. The class of absorbents includes those which Cullen calls antacids, and perhaps this latter term is to be preferred, as it is more explicit and better understood. The class antiseptics might also have been omitted, and the substances it contains might more properly have been arranged under other heads.

Mr Murray's arrangement, which is very ingenious, is founded principally on the doctrine of universal stimulus, and he thus explains the principles on which it is established.

"Those stimulants, which exert a general action on the system, may first be considered. Of these there are two well-marked subdivisions, the diffusible and the permanent; the former corresponding to the usual classes of narcotics and antispasmodics; the latter, including likewise two classes, tonics and astringents. In these there is a gradual transition passing into the one from the other, from the most diffusible and least durable stimulus, to the most flow and permanent in its action.

"The next general division is that comprising local stimulants; such are the classes of emetics, cathartics, expectorants, fialagogues, erribines, and epispastics. These all occasion evacuation of one kind or other, and their effects are in general to be ascribed, not to any operation exerted on the whole system, but to changes of action induced in particular parts.

"After these, those few medicines may be considered whose action is merely mechanical or chemical. To the former belong diluents, demulcents, and emollients. Anthelmintics may perhaps be referred with propriety to the same division. To the latter, or those which act chemically, belong antacids or absorbents, lithontriptics, eucharotics, and perhaps refrigerants.

"Under these classes may be comprehended all those substances capable of producing salutary changes in the human system. Several classes are indeed excluded which have sometimes been admitted; but these have been rejected, either as not being sufficiently precise or comprehensive, or as being established only on erroneous theory.

"The subdivisions of these classes may sometimes be established on the natural affinities existing among the substances arranged under each; on their chemical composition; their resemblance in sensible qualities; or, lastly, on distinctions in their medicinal virtues, more minute than those which form the characters of the class. In different classes one of these methods will frequently be found preferable to any of the others." Mr Murray's arrangement will best be understood from his own table.

A. GENERAL STIMULANTS. a. Diffusible. { Narcotics. Antispasmodics. b. Permanent. { Tonics, Astringents.

B. LOCAL STIMULANTS. Emetics. Cathartics. Emmenagogues. Diuretics. Diaphoretics. Expectorants. Sialagogues. Erthines. Epipaticks.

C. CHEMICAL REMEDIES. Refrigerants. Antacids. Lithontriptics. Elacharotics.

D. MECHANICAL REMEDIES. Anthelmintics. Demulcents. Diluents. Emollients *.

It would be improper here to omit the classification of the ingenious Dr Darwin, which was published in his Zoonomia. He distributes the articles of the materia medica under seven heads, according to his opinion of their mode of operation. They are as follows.

1. Nutrientia, or those things which preserve in their natural state the due exertions of all the irritative motions.

2. Incitantia, or those things which increase the exertions of all the irritative motions.

3. Secernentia, or those things which increase the irritative motions which constitute secretion.

4. Sorbentia, or those things which increase the irritative motions which constitute absorption.

5. Invertentia, or those things which invert the natural order of the successive irritative motions.

6. Revertentia, or those things which restore the natural order of the inverted irritative motions.

7. Torpentinia, those things which diminish the exertions of all the irritative motions.

The nutrientia he thus enumerates according to what he conceives to be their degree of nourishing power. I. 1. Venison, beef, mutton, hare, goose, duck, woodcock, snipe, moor-game. 2. Oysters, lobsters, crabs, shrimps, mushrooms, eel, tench, barbolt, smelt, turbot, sole, turtle. 3. Lamb, veal, sucking-pig. 4. Turkey, partridge, pheasant, fowl, eggs. 5. Pike, perch, gudgeon, trout, grayling. II. Milk, cream, butter, butter-milk, whey, cheese. III. Wheat, barley, oats, pea, potatoes, turnips, carrots, cabbage, asparagus, artichoke, spinach, beet, apple, pear, plum, apricot, nectarine, peach, strawberry, grape, orange, melon, cucumber, dried figs, raisins, sugar, honey. With a great variety of other roots, seeds, leaves, and fruits.

IV. Water, river-water, spring-water, calcareous earth. V. Air, oxygen, azote, carbonic acid gas. VI. Nutritive baths and clysters, transfusion of blood.

VII. Condiments. Under incitantia (or stimulants) he ranks the following articles. I. Papaver somniferum, poppy, opium. Alcohol, wine, beer, cyder. Prunus lauro-cerasus, laurel; distilled water from the leaves. Prunus cerasus, black cherry; distilled water from the kernels. Nicotiana tabacum, tobacco & the essential oil, decoction of the leaf. Atropa belladonna, deadly nightshade; the berries. Datura stramonium, thorn apple; the fruit boiled in milk. Hyoscyamus reticulatus, henbane; the seeds and leaves. Cynoglossum, hounds-tongue. Menispernum, coccus, Indian berry. Amygdalus amarus, bitter almond. Cicuta, hemlock. Conium maculatum ? Strychnos nux vomica ? Delphinium staphisagria ?

II. Externally, heat, electricity.

III. Ether, essential oils.

IV. Oxygen gas.

V. Passions of love, joy, anger.

VI. Labour, play, agitation, friction.

The secernentia he distinguishes into diaphoretics, sia-secernentia-lagogues, mild diuretics, mild cathartics, mild er-thines, which, as they will be enumerated presently, it is unnecessary to mention here; and besides these, he enumerates the following circumstances acting on the other secretions.

Secretion of mucus of the rectum is increased by cantharides, by spirit of turpentine.

Secretion of subcutaneous mucus is increased by blisters of cantharides, by application of a thin slice of the fresh root of white briony, by finapifms, by root of horse-radish, cochlearia armoracia, volatile alkali.

Secretion of tears is increased by vapour of sliced onion, of volatile alkali. By pity, or ideas of hopeless distress.

Secretion of sensorial power in the brain is probably increased by opium, by wine, and perhaps by oxygen gas added to the common air in respiration.

The sorbentia he divides into those which affect the skin, as sulphuric or muriatic acids, various acid fruits, and opium; and the oxides of lead, zinc, and mercury, applied externally.

II. Such as affect the mucous membranes, as the juice of flies and crab-apples, cinchona, and opium, internally; and externally the sulphate of copper.

III. 1. Such as affect the cellular membrane, as Peruvian bark; wormwood, artemisia maritima, artemisia absinthium; worm-feed, artemisia santonicum; chamomile, anthemis nobilis; tanley, tanacetum; bogbean, menyanthes trifoliata; centaury, gentiana centaurum; gen- tian, gentiana lutea; artichoke leaves, cynara scolymus; hop, humulus lupulus.

2. Orange peel, cinnamon, nutmegs, mace.

3. Vomits, iquill, digitalis, tobacco.

4. Bath of warm air, of steam.

IV. Such as affect the veins, as water-cress, flosfimbrium nefurtinum aquaticum; mustard, finapis; scurvy-gras, cochlearia hortensis; horse radish, cochlearia armoracia; cuckoo flower, cardamine; dog's-gras; dandelion, leontodon taraxacon; celery, opium; cabbage, brasifca. Chalybeates, bitters, opium, after sufficient evacuation; and externally vinegar, friction, and electricity.

V. Such as affect the intestines, including several astringents, and of the antacid earths.

VI. Such as affect the liver, stomach, and other vifcera, as oxide of iron, filings of iron, sulphate of iron, sulphate of copper, sulphate of zinc, calomel, tartrate of antimony and potash, acetate of lead, and white arsenic.

VII. Such as affect venereal ulcers, including various preparations of mercury.

VIII. Such as affect the whole system, as evacuations by venefaction and cathartics, followed by the exhibition of opium.

IX. External sorbentia, as solutions of mercury, zinc, lead, copper, iron, arsenic, or metallic oxides applied in dry powder. Bitter vegetables in decoctions and in dry powders, applied externally; as Peruvian bark, oak bark, leaves of wormwood, of tanley, chamomile flowers or leaves. Electric sparks or shocks.

X. Bandage spread with emplastrum et minio, or with carpenter's glue mixed with one-twentieth part of honey.

XI. Portland's powder, and the use of hops in beer, both of which, when continued, are pernicious.

Invertentia. Under the class of invertentia Dr Darwin ranks the ordinary emetics, violent cathartics, violent erthines and fialagogues; violent diuretics, and cold sudorifics, such as poisons, fear, and approaching death.

His catalogue of revertentia is as follows:

Inverted motions which attend the hysterick disease, are reclaimed, 1. By musk, caflor. 2. By aafectida, galbanum, sagapenum, ammoniacum, valerian. 3. Essential oils of cinnamon, nutmeg, cloves, infusion of pennyroyal, mentha pulegium, peppermint, mentha piperita, ether, camphor. 4 Spirit of hartshorn, oleum animalis, sponge burnt to charcoal, black snuffs of candles, which consist principally of animal charcoal, woodfoot, oil of amber. 5. The incitantia, as opium, alcohol, vinegar. 6. Externally the smoke of burnt feathers, oil of amber, volatile salt applied to the nostrils, blisters, finapins.

II. Inverted motions of the stomach are reclaimed by opium, alcohol, blisters, crude mercury, finapins, camphor and opium externally, clysters with aafectida.

III. Inverted motions of the intestinal lymphatics are reclaimed by mucilaginous diluents, and by intestinal sorbentia, as rhubarb, logwood, calcined hartshorn, Armenian bole; and, lastly, by incitantia, as opium.

IV. Inverted motions of the urinary lymphatics are reclaimed by cantharides, turpentine, rosin, the sorben-

tia, and opium, with calcareous earth, and earth of Therapeulam, by oil externally, warm bath.

V. Inverted motions of the intestinal canal are reclaimed by calomel, aloe, crude mercury, blisters, warm bath, clysters with aafectida, clysters of ice water; or of spring water further cooled by salt dissolved in water contained in an exterior vessel? Where there exists an introfuction of the bowel in children, could the patient be held up for a time with his head downwards, and crude mercury be injected as a clyster to the quantity of two or three pounds?

The torpentinia he divides into 13 general heads. 1. Torpentinia. Venefection and arteriotomy; 2. Cold water, cold air, and the respiration of air with a diminished proportion of oxygen; 3. Vegetable mucilages; 4. Vegetable acids; 5. Animal mucus, hartshorn jelly, veal and chicken broth, and perhaps oil, fat and cream; 6. Mineral acids; 7. Silence and darkness; 8. Invertentia in small doses, as nitre, emetic tartar, and ipécacuanha, given so as to induce nausea; 9. Antacids, as soap, alkalies, and earths; 10. Medicines preventive of fermentation, as sulphuric acid; 11. Anthelmintics; 12. Lithontriptics; and, 13. Various external remedies, as the warm bath, poultices, oil, fat, wax, plasters, oiled silk, and carbonic acid gas on cancers and other ulcers.

We were for some time at a loss what arrangement we should follow in the present article. It was evidently necessary to adopt one that should, as much as possible, prevent repetition; and it therefore appeared improper to treat particularly of the articles of the materia medica under the usual classes. The alphabetical order would prevent repetition; but it seemed little adapted to the plan of a systematic treatise. On the whole, we have judged it best to arrange the individual articles in two methods; 1st, Into classes according to their supposed operation on the system; and in this view consider their general uses; and, 2dly, To treat of them more particularly under an arrangement similar to that of Linnaeus. In the remainder of this part of the article, we shall therefore consider the general action and use of the various classes of remedies, adopting, with the exclusion of emmenagogue, the arrangement followed in Dr Kirby's Tables of the Materia Medica; and in a succeeding part we shall consider the individual articles under the four heads of animal, vegetable, mineral, and gaseous substances.

Class I. Emetics.

Emetics are such medicines as are calculated to excite vomiting, and thus discharge the contents of the stomach.

Table of Emetics.

I. ANIMAL PRODUCTS.

Murias ammoniae, muriate of ammonia. Aqua carbonatis ammoniae, water of carbonate of ammonia.

II. VEGETABLE PRODUCTS.

Anthemis nobilis, chamomile flowers. Afarum europaeum, a/arabaccia. Centaurea benedicta, holy thistle. Cephaëlis ipecacuanha, ipecacuanha. Vinum ipecacuanhae, ipecacuanha wine. Nicotiana tabacum, tobacco in oysters. Olea europea, olive oil. Scilla maritima, squill. Acetum scillae maritimae, vinegar of squills. Sinapis alba, mylard.

III. MINERAL PRODUCTS. Sulphas cupri, sulphate of copper. Sulphuretum antimonii, sulphuret of antimony. Oxidum antimonii cum sulphure vitrificatum, vitrified oxide of antimony with sulphur. Vinum antimonii, antimonial wine, L. Tartris antimonii, tartrate of antimony. Vinum tartritis antimonii, wine of tartrated antimony. Sulphas zinci, sulphate of zinc.

The general effects produced by emetics are, a sensation of uneasiness in the stomach, followed by sickness, retching and vomiting. During the nausea, the pulse is feeble, quick, and sometimes irregular, and the countenance is pale; but when the vomiting comes on, the pulse grows quicker, and the face flushed. After the vomiting has ceased, the sickness or nausea commonly goes off entirely, though it sometimes remains in a distressing degree. The patient feels languid, heavy, and disposed to sleep. The skin usually feels moist, and the pulse continues weak for some time, but gradually grows fuller and slower.

To consider emetics merely as evacuants of the stomach, would be to take a very contracted and imperfect view of their effects; for if traced through the whole of their operation in the various diseases in which they are employed, their influence over the human body appears so manifold and extensive, that they may be justly reckoned amongst the most powerful instruments which the Materia Medica affords. Hence, besides their use as cleansers of the alimentary canal, they serve to induce sweating in fevers; to favour expectoration in disorders of the lungs; to promote abortion in cases of dropy; and to remove certain obstructed conditions of the viscera, such as jaundice and suppression of the menses; also in cases of glandular and lymphatic obstructions, and in some cases of pulmonary consumption. By means of their peculiar action on the nervous and vascular system, they allay the spasms in asthma, and check the discharge of blood in hemorrhages from the lungs and uterus. In the first of these, viz. in spitting of blood, they have been given with advantage by Dr Robinson, and still more lately by Dr Stoll of Vienna; who says, that in such cases ipecacuanha sometimes acts like a charm, seeming to close the open vessels of the lungs sooner and more effectually than any other remedy. In the other, viz. in uterine hemorrhagy, small doses only of these medicines, so as to excite sickness, but not vomiting, are found to answer best. But in both these instances they should be administered with caution, since it sometimes happens that they do more harm than good. Dr Cullen once met with an accident of this kind, in which the vomiting increased the hemorrhagy to a great and dangerous degree.

Dysentery is to be added to the number of diseases in which emetics have a peculiarly beneficial effect.

When there is much visceral inflammation; where there are symptoms of great accumulation in the vessels of the head; in the advanced stages of pregnancy, and in cases of intestinal hernia, medicines of this class are to be avoided. And, in general, persons who have weak and delicate stomachs should be cautious of employing them too freely, since, as Dr Cullen has remarked, frequent vomiting renders the stomach less fit to retain what is thrown into it, and even weakens its powers of digestion*.

CLASS II. EXPECTORANTS.

Those medicines are called expectorants, that are employed to promote the excretion of pus or mucus from the windpipe and lungs. In general they are emetics given in smaller doses, though there are several medicines, especially some of the gum resins, that are considered to act in this way, without any tendency to excite vomiting.

The following articles are usually employed in this country as expectorants.

I. VEGETABLE PRODUCTS.

Cephaëlis ipecacuanha, ipecacuanha. Nicotiana tabacum, tobacco. Scilla maritima, squill. Acetum scillae maritimae, vinegar of squill. Syrupus scillae maritimae, syrup of squills. Oxymel scillae, oxymel of squill. Tinctura scillae, tincture of squill. Pilulae scillitiae, squill pills. Conferva scillae, conserve of squill. Allium sativum, garlic. Syrupus allii, syrup of garlic. Ammoniacum, gum ammoniac. Lac ammoniaci, milk of ammoniac. Arum maculatum, snake-robin. Conferva arui, conserve of arum. Colchicum autumnale, meadow saffron. Syrupus colchici autumnalis, syrup of colchicum. Oxymel colchici, oxymel of colchicum. Ferula afaestida, afaestida. Lac afaestida, milk of afaestida. Hyssopus officinalis, hyssop. Marrubium vulgare, horehound. Myrrha, myrrh. Pimpinella anisum, aniseed. Oleum volatile pimpinellae anisi, oil of aniseed. Polygala senega, seneka root. Decoction polygalæ senegae, decoction of seneka. Styrax benzoin, benjamin. Acidum benzoicum, benzoic acid. Tinctura benzoes composita, compound tincture of benjamin. Alcohol, spirit of wine. Æther sulphuricus, sulphuric æther.

II. MINERAL PRODUCTS.

Sulphuretum antimonii, sulphuret of antimony. Tartris antimonii, tartrite of antimony. Vinum tartritis antimonii, wine of tartrite of antimony. Sulphuretum antimonii precipitatum, precipitated sulphuret of antimony. Sulphur sublimatum, flowers of sulphur. Sulphur sublimatum lotum, washed flowers of sulphur. Oleum sulphuraturn, sulphurated oil. Petroleum sulphuraturn, sulphurated petroleum. Trochisci sulphuris, sulphur lozenges.

III. GASEOUS PRODUCTS. Gas hydrogenium, hydrogen gas. Gas hydrogewium carbonatum, carbonated hydrogen gas. Vaporis aquae calidae inhalatio, inhaling the steams of warm water.

The mode in which expectorants promote the excretion of pus or mucus from the lungs, does not appear to be well understood. Some suppose that those which are properly emetic, operate by the sympathy that exists between the stomach and lungs, and that the rest operate by some specific action. Mr Murray supposes that there are various modes of operation by which certain remedies will appear to promote expectoration, and which will give them a claim to the title of expectorants.

Thus, in certain diseases the exhalant vessels in the lungs seem to be in that state, by which the exhalation of fluid is lessened, or nearly stopped, and in such cases expectoration must be diminished. Any medicine capable of removing that constricted state, will appear to promote expectoration, and will at least relieve some of the symptoms of the disease. It is apparently by such a mode of operation, that antimony, ipecacuanha, squill, and some others, promote expectoration in pneumonia, catarrh, and asthma, the principal diseases in which expectorants are employed.

There is a case of an opposite kind, that in which there is a redundancy of mucus in the lungs, as occurs in humoral asthma, and catarrhus senilis. In these affections, certain expectorants are supposed to prove useful. If they do so, it is probably by being determined more particularly in their action to the pulmonary vessels, and by their moderate stimulus diminishing the secretion, or increasing the absorption, thus lessening the quantity of fluid, and thereby rendering the expectoration of the remainder more easy. The determination of these substances to the lungs is often perceptible by their odour in the air expired. A similar diminution of fluid in the lungs may be effected by determining to the surface of the body; and those expectorants which belong to the class of diaphoretics probably act in this manner.

Expectorants, then, are to be regarded, not as medicines which directly assist the rejection of a fluid already secreted, but rather as either increasing the natural exhalation where it is deficient, or diminishing the quantity of fluid where it is too copious, either by stimulating the pulmonary vessels, or by determining to the surface. In both cases expectoration will appear to be promoted or facilitated*.

The definition of these remedies points out the cases to which they are applicable, viz. those in which an accumulation of pus or mucus takes place in the bronchial cells, as catarrh, pneumonia in its supplicative stage, peripneumonia notha, asthma, and phthisis pulmonalis or consumption.

CLASS III. DIAPHORETICS.

Diaphoretics are those remedies that are intended to promote, keep up, or restore the excretion of perspiration, and only increase the inefinble perspiration, while others act more powerfully, and under favourable circumstances, excite sweating. Hence we may divide them into two orders.

A. THE MILDER DIAPHORETICS.

I. ANIMAL PRODUCTS. Murias ammoniae. Aqua carbonatis ammoniae. Carbonas ammoniae, carbonate of ammonia. Alcohol ammoniatum, ammoniated alcohol.

II. VEGETABLE PRODUCTS. Anthemis nobilis, chamomile tea. Centaurea benedicta, holy thistle tea. Myrrha. Allium sativum. Acidum acetosum, acetic acid or vinegar. Acidum acetum destillatum, distilled vinegar. Aqua acetitis ammoniae, water of acetated ammonia. Arctium lappa, burdock decoction. Artemisia abrotanum, southern-wood tea. Arifolochia serpentina, snake-root. Tinctura arifolochiae serpentinae, tincture of snake-root. Daphne mezereum, mezereum. Decoctum daphnes mezerei, decoction of mezereum. Dorfenia contrayerva, contrayerva. Pulvis contrayervae compositus, compound powder of contrayerva. Fumaria officinalis, fumitory. Laurus sassafras, sassafras tea. Salvia officinalis, sage tea. Sambucus nigra, elder. Succus baccii sambuci spissatus, inspissated juice of elder. Smilax farfarae, farfara. Decoctum smilacis farfarae, decoction of farfara. Solanum dulcamara, bitter sweet decoction. Superataras potash, superatarate of potash, or cream of tartar.

B. STRONGER DIAPHORETICS, OR SUDORIFICS.

I. ANIMAL PRODUCTS. Moschus moschiferus, musk. Mistura moschata, musk mixture.

II. VEGETABLE II. VEGETABLE PRODUCTS.

Aconitum neomontanum, aconite. Succus spissatus aconiti napelli, inspissated juice of aconite. Guaiacum officinale, guaiacum wood and resin. Decoctum guaiaci officinalis compositum, compound decoction of guaiacum. Tinctura guaiaci officinalis, tincture of guaiacum. Tinctura guaiaci ammoniata, ammoniated tincture of guaiacum. Laurus camphora, camphor. Mistura camphorata, camphorated mixture. Emulsi camphorata, camphorated emulsion. Papaver somniferum, opium. Tinctura opii, tincture of opium. Tinctura opii camphorata, camphorated tincture of opium. Tinctura opii ammoniata, ammoniated tincture of opium. Pulvis ipecacuanhae et opii, powder of ipecacuan and opium. Rhododendron chrysanthum, yellow-flowered rhododendron.

III. MINERAL PRODUCTS.

Sulphuretum antimonii, sulphuret of antimony. Tartris antimonii, in small doses. Vinum tartratis antimonii. Sulphuretum antimonii preparatum. Sulphur stibii fuscum, brown sulphuret of antimony. Oxidum antimonii cum phosphate calcis, oxide of antimony with phosphate of lime, or James's powder. Antimonium calcinatum, white oxide of antimony. Calx stibii praecipitatum. D. Precipitated oxide of antimony, or powder of Algaroth. Sulphur sublimatum, flowers of sulphur. Sulphur sublimatum lotum. Sulphur praecipitatum, precipitated sulphur, or milk of sulphur. Hydrargyrum, mercury. Hydrargyrum purificatum, purified mercury. Submurius hydrargyri, vel calomelas, submuriate of mercury, or calomel. Balneum calidum, hot bath. Balneum vaporis, vapour bath.

Diaphoretics act in one of two ways; some by exciting an increased action of the exhalant vessels of the skin immediately, or by sympathy with other parts, as the application of heat, the warm bath, friction, &c.; while others promote perspiration, by increasing the general force of the circulating system, and thus acting on the exhalant vessels of the skin.

The action of diaphoretics is assisted by moderate warmth and by tepid diluent liquors frequently taken.

The immediate effects of these medicines are partly a diminution of the quantity of fluids in the body, but principally a change of the determination of blood from other parts to the surface. They perhaps also in-

crease the action of the absorbents, and thus remove the spasmodic constriction of the subcutaneous vessels.

The cases to which diaphoretic medicines are best adapted, are inflammatory fevers, rheumatism, asthma, dyspepsia, obstinate diarrhoea, and protracted dysentery. They are injurious in typhus fever, especially towards its commencement.

Where the force of the circulation is very great, it is proper, before the exhibition of diaphoretics, to premise the use of some other evacuation, as bleeding or purging.

CLASS IV. DIURETICS.

These are such medicines as promote or increase the excretion of urine.

The principal diuretics are these.

I. ANIMAL PRODUCTS.

Lyta vesicatoria, cantharides. Tinctura meloe vesicatorii, tincture of cantharides. Oniscus aelius, millepedes, or wood-lice.

II. VEGETABLE PRODUCTS.

Asarum europaeum, asarabacca. Nicotiana tabacum, tobacco. Scilla maritima, squill. Tinctura scillae, tincture of squill. Colchicum autumnale, meadow saffron. Syrupus colchici, syrup of colchicum. Oxymel colchici, oxymel of colchicum. Acetum colchici, vinegar of colchicum. Polygona senega, seneka root. Decoctum polygonae senegae, decoction of seneka. Acetum acetoium, acetic acid. Acetas potash, acetate of potash. Daphne mezereum, mezereum. Decoctum daphnes mezerei, decoction of mezereum. Smilax farfarae, farfarilla. Decoctum farfarae compositum, compound decoction of farfarilla. Solanum dulcamara, bitter/sweet. Superatartras potash, superatrate of potash. Allium cepa, onion. Cissampelos pareira, pareira brava. Cochlearia armoracia, horseradish. Copaifera officinalis, balsam of Copaiba. Cynara scolymus, artichoke. Digitalis purpurea, foxglove. Juniperus communis, juniper. Spiritus juniperi communis compositus, compound spirit of juniper. Oleum juniperi communis, oil of juniper. Juniperus lycia, olibanum. Leontodon taraxacum, dandelion. Pinus sylvestris, common turpentine. Oleum volatile pini purissimum, purified oil of turpentine. Pinus larix, Venice turpentine. Spartium scoparium, green broom. Ulmus campestris, elm bark. Decoctum ulmi, decoction of elm bark. III. MINERAL PRODUCTS.

Hydrargyrum, mercury. Murias hydrargyri, corrosive muriate of mercury.

Nitras potassae, nitrate of potash. Nitrum purificatum, purified nitre. Acidum nitrosum, nitrous acid. Spiritus etherei nitro, spirit of nitrous ether.

The operation of diuretics is greatly promoted by plentiful dilation, which should by no means be withheld from dropical patients, though, for many years past, the contrary method has too much prevailed. The medical world is much indebted to Sir F. Milman, for the pains he has taken to shew the propriety of indulging such patients in the free use of liquids. In confirmation of the propriety of this method, the observation of the late Dr Cullen may be added. He has remarked that he always thought it absurd in physicians to employ diuretics while they enjoined an abstinence from drink, which is almost the only means of conveying these diuretics to the kidneys. Whenever, therefore, he employed diuretics, he at the same time advised drinking freely; and he was persuaded that drinking largely often contributed to the cures he made.

It is obvious, says Mr Murray, that a diuretic effect will be produced by any substance capable of stimulating the secreting vessels of the kidneys. All the saline diuretics seem to act in this manner. They are received into the circulation, and passing off with the urine, stimulate the vessels, and increase the quantity secreted.

There are other diuretics, the effect of which appears to arise not from direct application, but from an action excited in the stomach, and propagated by nervous communication to the secreting urinary vessels. The diuretic operation of liquor, and of several other vegetables, appears to be of this kind.

There is still, perhaps, another mode in which certain substances produce a diuretic effect, that is, by promoting absorption. When a large quantity of watery fluid is introduced into the circulating mass, it stimulates the secreting vessels of the kidneys, and is carried off by the urine. If, therefore, absorption be promoted, and if a portion of serous fluid, perhaps previously effused, be taken up, the quantity of fluid secreted by the kidneys will be increased. In this way digitalis seems to act. Its diuretic effect, it has been said, is greater when exhibited in dropfy, than it is in health.

On the same principle may probably be explained the utility of mercury in promoting the action of several diuretics.

The action of these remedies is promoted by drinking freely of mild diluents. It is also influenced by the state of the surface of the body. If external heat be applied, diuresis is frequently prevented, and diaphoresis produced. Hence the doses of them should be given in the course of the day, and the patient, if possible, be kept out of bed.

The direct effects of diuretics are sufficiently evident. They discharge the watery part of the blood, and by that discharge they indirectly promote absorption over the whole system*.

Diuretics are now seldom employed, except in cases Therapen of dropfy, and here they not unfrequently fail of success. They are, however, occasionally used in calculous or gravelly complaints, in gonorrhoea, to diminish plethora, or check profuse perspiration.

CLASS. V. CATHARTICS.

Cathartics are those medicines which promote or increase the evacuation of excrementitious matter, or of ferous fluids, from the bowels.

There are two principal objects which modern physicians have in view in the administration of cathartics; one is, merely to empty the bowels, and bring off the excrementitious matter contained in them, which is already out of the course of circulation; the other, to stimulate the exhalant vessels of the bowels, and thus promote an increased secretion of serous fluids which they pour into the alimentary canal; in this way diminishing the general mass of fluids in the body. Hence these medicines are naturally divided into laxatives and purgatives, the latter of which are often termed drastic purgatives. It is true that these orders of cathartics differ only in degree of power, as such a quantity of a laxative may be given as to induce purging, while the dose of a purgative may be so diminished as to prove only gently laxative. As, however, the division is useful in some respects, we shall here preserve it, and shall distribute our list of cathartics into laxatives and purgatives.

A. LAXATIVES.

I. ANIMAL PRODUCTS.

Mel, honey. Mel delpumatum, clarified honey.

II. VEGETABLE PRODUCTS.

Anthemis nobilis, chrysers of chamomile decoction. Olea europaeæ, olive oil. Superatartras potassae, superatartrate of potash. Tartras potassae, tartrate of potash. Tartras potassae et sodae, tartrate of potash and soda, or Rochelle salt. Cassia fistula. Electuarium cassiae, electuary of cassia. Cassia fenna, senna. Pulvis fennæ compositus, compound powder of senna. Electuarium cassiae fennæ, electuary of senna. Infusum fennæ simplex, simple infusion of senna. Infusum fennæ tartarifatum, tartarized infusion of senna. Infusum tamarindi cum fenna, infusion of tamarinds with senna. Tinctura fennæ composita, compound tincture of senna. Ficus carica, figs. Fraxinus ornus, manna. Syrupus mannae, syrup of manna. Prunus domestica, prune. Rosa damascena, damask rose. Syrupus rose centifoliae, syrup of damask roses. Saccharum officinarum, brown sugar. Tamarindus indica, tamarinds. Viola odorata, sweet violet. Syrupus viole odoratæ, syrup of violets.

III. MINERAL PRODUCTS. Sulphur sublimatum, flowers of sulphur. Sulphur sublimatum lotum. Sapo hispanus, Castile soap.

B. PURGATIVES.

I. ANIMAL PRODUCTS. Cervus elaphus, hart/born. Phosphas soda, phosphate of soda.

II. VEGETABLE PRODUCTS. Nicotiana tabacum, clisters of tobacco, or of tobacco smoke. Sambucus nigra, elder. Pinus sylvestris, laris clisters of turpentine. Aloe perfoliata, foccotrine aloes. Pulvis aloes cum canella, powder of aloes with canella. Pilulae aloeticae, aloetic pills. Pilulae aloes cum colocynthide, pills of aloes with colocynth. Vinum aloes foccotrinæ, aloes wine. Tinctura aloes foccotrinæ, tincture of foccotrine aloes. Bryonia alba, bryony. Convolvulus jalapa, jalap. Pulvis jalapæ compositus, compound powder of jalap. Extractum jalapæ, extract of jalap. Tinctura convolvuli jalapæ, tincture of jalap. Convolvulus scammonia, scammony. Pulvis scammonii compositus, compound powder of scammony. Pulvis scammonii cum aloe, powder of scammony with aloes. Electuarium scammonii, electuary of scammony. Cucumis colocynthis, colocynth, or bitter apple. Extractum colocynthidis compositum, compound extract of colocynth. Gratiola officinalis, hedge hyssop. Helleborus niger, black hellebore. Extractum hellebori nigri, extract of black hellebore. Helleborus foetidus, stinking hellebore. Iris pseudacorus, common flag. Linum catharticum, purging flax. Momordica elaterium, wild cucumber. Succus spiflatus momordici elaterii, elaterium. Rhamnus catharticus, buckthorn. Syrupus rhamni cathartici, syrup of buckthorn. Rheum palmatum, rhubarb. Infusum rhei palmati, infusion of rhubarb. Vinum rhei palmati, rhubarb wine. Tinctura rhei palmati, tincture of rhubarb. Tinctura rhabarbari composita, compound tincture of rhubarb. Tinctura rhei et aloes, tincture of rhubarb and aloes.

Tinctura rhei et gentianæ, tincture of rhubarb and gentian. Ricinus communis, castor oil. Stalagmitis cambogoides, gamboge.

III. MINERAL PRODUCTS. Sulphuretum antimonii, sulphuret of antimony. Tartris antimonii, in very small doses. Hydrargyrum, mercury. Submurias hydrargyri, submuriate of mercury. Submurias hydrargyri præcipitatus, precipitated submuriate of mercury. Pilulae hydrargyri, mercurial pills. Nitras potassa. Sulphas potassa, sulphate of potash. Murias soda, sea salt. Sulphas soda, sulphate of soda, or Glauber's salt. Sulphas magnesiae, sulphate of magnesia, or Epsom salt.

The operation of a purgative medicine on the intestinal canal, may be considered as threefold: First, it stimulates the mucular fibres of the intestines, quickens their action, and thus increases the natural peristaltic motion of the bowels, in consequence of which their contents are more quickly discharged. Secondly, the exhalant vessels are stimulated by it, which terminate in the inner coat of the intestines, and it excites them to pour forth a greater discharge of fluids, as well as the mouths of the excretory ducts of the mucous glands, by which the natural mucus of the intestines is greatly augmented; and hence the evacuations by stool are not only quicker, but the excrementitious matter is thinner and more copious. Thirdly, the stools are rendered still more abundant, by an additional portion of the fluids furnished by the neighbouring villæra, the liver, pancreas, &c. to which the stimulus of a purgative, of the more active sort in particular, extends. It is probable that these effects are communicated to the whole range of the intestinal canal, from the upper orifice of the stomach to the lower extremity of the rectum, or anus.

From the view we have now taken of the primary effects of cathartics on the bowels, we may easily understand how far they may prove useful in some diseases, and injurious in others; and how we may vary the degree of their activity under different circumstances.

When we consider the great length of the alimentary canal, with the numerous vessels and mucous follicles, as well as the hepatic and pancreatic ducts, which open on its internal surface, it will be evident that purgatives, even though they be not very stimulant, may occasion a great general evacuation, and consequent diminution of the mass of fluids, by opening at once all those outlets. From this it appears, that next to bloodletting, purging will form one of the most active remedies in acute inflammatory diseases, where we wish to avoid an over diffusion of the vessels, and restrain the preternatural increase of the powers of the circulating lymph. Accordingly, purging constitutes a principal part of what is termed the cooling regimen. In these cases the more drastic purgatives are to be avoided, as their use would be attended with so much stimulating effect on the system in general, as to counterbalance the advantage we should derive from their diminishing the mass of fluids. Again, the change in the distribution of the blood from other parts of the system to the bowels, is another circumstance attending the use of purgatives, which renders them of considerable importance in several diseases. It seems to follow, that if an evacuation be made from one set of vessels, the influx of fluids to these will be increased in order to supply it, and, consequently, the influx to other parts of the system will be diminished. Upon this principle, Dr Cullen explains the utility of purgatives in disorders of the head, which originate from over-fulness or over-activity, and in mental affections, mania, phreny, headache, &c.

The influx of fluids in the vessels of the abdomen, which supply the intestines, being increased by purging, the influx will be proportionally diminished in the vessels which carry blood to the head, and both the quantity and impetus of the blood in the head will thus be lessened.

The good effects of cathartics in the small pox, and some other inflammatory affections of the skin, are probably to be attributed chiefly to their removing local irritation, and producing a considerable depletion, and thus diminishing the general fever that usually attends those diseases.

When the contents of the bowels are morbidly retained, either in consequence of their peristaltic motion being unusually slow from a torpid state of the muscular fibres, or from a relaxed state of the bowels, favouring an accumulation of faeces, from a deficiency of bile, or from habitual neglect, the use of cathartics is indicated, to prevent more serious complaints that may be the consequence of this cistiveness. The kind of cathartics to be employed depends on the nature of the cause producing the constipation, or particular circumstances attending it. If, for example, the cistiveness be attended with a debilitated habit, with symptoms of great nervous mobility, flatulence, or other signs of a debilitated state of the alimentary canal, some of the warmer aromatic cathartics will be proper, as aloes, rhubarb, or such preparations of these as contain an aromatic in their composition. If the cistiveness seems to arise from a deficiency of bile, the aloetic and mercurial purgatives are indicated.

In cases where the cistiveness has arisen from some accidental cause, as in colic, dysentery, enteritis, it will be necessary to vary the cathartics according to the nature of the affection, or the cause by which it has been produced. See COLIC, DYSENTERY, and ENTERITIS, MEDICINE Index.

Cathartics exert a particular action on the absorbent vessels, by which these are enabled to take up a greater quantity of fluid than in their natural state. Hence the use of drastic purgatives in dropy. The action of cathartics in this way does not appear to be well understood. Dr Cullen, treating of this subject, observes that, as in every cavity of the body there is an inhalation and exhalation constantly going on, it is presumed that there is some balance constantly preserved between the secretory and absorbent powers; so that if the former are increased, the latter will be also; and, therefore, that when the secretions are, upon occasion, much increased, the action of the absorbents may be particularly excited. This explains, why purging often excites the action of the absorbents, to take up more copiously the fluids that were otherwise stagnant in the adipose membrane, or other cavities of the body, and thereby often proves a cure of dropy. This explanation is perhaps little more than an implicit statement of the fact. It is certain, however, that obfice, or dropy of the abdomen, has been often affected by means of acrid drastic purgatives, such as gamboge, scammony, &c. when diuretic remedies have failed. But it is obvious that these remedies can only be administered to those who retain considerable strength of constitution, debilitated neither by inveterate intemperance, old age, nor a long disease.

The attention of practitioners has been lately particularly directed to the use of purgatives in several diseases, in which they were formerly either not employed at all, or not used to any extent, in consequence of a valuable publication by Dr James Hamilton, senior physician of the Edinburgh infirmary. Dr Hamilton having observed that in several spasmodic diseases, especially in chorea, or St Vitus's dance, there was commonly a considerable collection of black offensive faeces in the bowels, was led to conceive that this must prove a very powerful irritating cause in protracting these diseases; and as, in common with other practitioners, he had experienced great want of success from the usual administration of tonic medicines in these affections, he was led to try the effect of purgatives given to such an extent as to produce complete evacuation of the bowels. The plan succeeded entirely to his satisfaction, and by this treatment he finds chorea is speedily cured, generally in 10 days or a fortnight. Besides chorea, Dr Hamilton has been very successful in the administration of purgatives in cases of typhus, scarlatina, fever, marasmus, chlorosis, hematemesis, hysteria, tetanus, and fevers, and other chronic affections. He was originally induced to pursue his new method of treating typhus, by observing that the antimonials, which were formerly largely employed in this disease, appeared to be most serviceable when they operated upon the bowels. This led him to suspect, that any purgative medicine might be substituted in their place, and that the debilitating effect of vomiting and sweating might thus be avoided. Experience has fully confirmed these conjectures, and after a trial of some years he is thoroughly persuaded, that the full and regular evacuation of the bowels relieves the oppression of the stomach, and mitigates the other symptoms of fever. He has accordingly almost entirely given up the administration of other remedies, and trusts to the exhibition of frequent and copious purgatives. It might have been apprehended, that this plan of treatment would have aggravated the debility, which constitutes a striking symptom of typhus; but ample experience has proved that this is not the case. The purgatives which Dr Hamilton * has employed in fever are calomel, calomel and jalap, and crystals of tartar, aloes, solutions of mild neutral salts, infusion of fennel, and sometimes the two last medicines conjoined.

Cathartics are among the most efficacious remedies that are employed with a view to promote or restore the menstrual evacuation; and accordingly they form the chief part of those remedies that are commonly call- Part II.

Therapeutic emmenagogues. With this view the drastic purgatives are chiefly given, as aloes, bryony, black hellebore, and some of the preparations of mercury.

There is another use of cathartics that may be referred to a mechanical operation, viz. their expelling worms from the bowels. See ANTHELMINTICS.

CLASS VI. ERRHINES.

158 Definition of errhines.

Those medicines are termed errhines that are employed to promote an increased discharge of mucus from the nostrils. The principal errhines are the following.

159 Table of errhines.

I. VEGETABLE PRODUCTS.

Asarum europaeum, asarabacca. Pulvis asari europaei compositus, compound powder of asarabacca. Cephalic snuff. Nicotiana tabacum, tobacco. The ordinary snuffs. Iris florentina, Florentine orris. Lavandula spica, lavender flowers. Origanum majorana, sweet marjoram. Rosmarinus officinalis, rosemary. Teucrium marum, mastich. Veratrum album, white hellebore.

II. MINERAL PRODUCTS.

Hydrargyrum, mercury. Subfulphas hydrargyri flavus, yellow sulphate of mercury, or turbeth mineral.

160 Effects and uses of errhines.

The evacuation produced by the action of errhines is sometimes procured without any sneezing, but frequently attended with it. This, however, implies no difference, but merely that of stronger or weaker stimulus in the medicine employed. The sneezing that occurs may have particular effects by the concussion it occasions; but it does not vary the evacuation induced by the medicine, excepting that with sneezing there is commonly a larger evacuation produced.

This evacuation often goes no further than to restore the natural evacuation when interrupted; but it commonly goes farther, and increases the evacuation beyond its usual measure; and that not only for some time after the medicine has been applied, but also for some following days.

This evacuation not only empties, but also produces a larger excretion from the mucous follicles of the Schneiderian membrane; but, agreeably to the laws of the circulation, this must produce an influx of fluids from the neighbouring vessels, and in some measure empty these. By this it often removes rheumatic congestions in the neighbouring vessels, and particularly those in which the toothach often consists.

But not only the more nearly adjoining vessels are thus relieved, but the effect may extend further to the whole of the branches of the external carotid; and we have known instances of headaches, pains of the ear, and ophthalmias, cured or relieved by the use of errhines. How far their effects may extend, cannot be exactly determined; but it is probable that they may operate more or less on the whole vessels of the head, as even a branch of the internal carotid passes into the nose; and independent of this, it is not improbable that our errhines may have been of use in preventing apoplexy and palsy; which at least is to be attended to so far, that whenever any approach to these diseases is suspected, the drying up of the mucous discharge should be attended to, and if possible restored *.