in Natural History, is used in general for all fossil bodies, whether simple or compound, dug out of a mine; from whence it takes its denomination. See MINERALOGY.
MINERAL Waters. All waters naturally impregnated with any heterogeneous matter which they have dissolved within the earth may be called mineral waters, in the most general and extensive meaning of that name; in which are therefore comprehended almost all those that flow within or upon the surface of the earth, for almost all these contain some earthy or saline matter. But, strictly speaking, those waters only which hold in solution such a quantity of foreign ingredients as to give them properties which are easily recognized by the taste or smell come under the denomination of mineral waters. For the methods of analyzing mineral waters, see Chemistry Index.
Here we shall give a tabular view of the more remarkable mineral waters which have been discovered and examined.
An Alphabetical Table of the most noted Mineral Waters in Europe, exhibiting their Medicinal Properties and Contents.
| Names of Springs | Countries in which they are found | Contents and Quality of the Water | Medicinal Virtues | |------------------|----------------------------------|---------------------------------|------------------| | Abcourt | Near St. Germain's in France | A cold chalybeate water, containing besides the iron a small quantity of fossil alkali saturated with fixed air. | Diuretic and purgative. Internally used in dropsies, jaundice, and obstructions of the viscera; externally in scrofulous eruptions, ulcers, &c. | | Aberbrothick | County of Forfar in Scotland | A cold chalybeate. Contains iron dissolved in fixed air. | Diuretic and corroborative. Used in indigestions, nervous disorders, &c. | | Acton | Middlesex county, England | Contains Epsom and sea salt. Cold. | Strongly purgative, and causes a forenoon in the fundament. | | Aghaloo | Tyrone, Ireland | Sulphur, fossil alkali, and some purging salt. Cold. | Alterative and corroborant. Useful in scrofulous disorders, worms, and cutaneous diseases. | | Aix-la-Chapelle | Juliers in Germany | Sulphureous and hot. Contains aerated calcareous earth, sea salt, fossil alkali, and sulphur. | Diaphoretic, purgative, and diuretic. Used as baths as well as taken internally. Useful in rheumatism, and all diseases proceeding from a debility of the system. | | Alford or Awford | Somersetshire, England | A purging salt along with sea salt. Cold. | Strongly purgative. | | Askeron | Yorkshire, in England | Contains Epsom salt, aerated calcareous earth, and sulphur. Cold. | Diuretic. Useful when drunk in loprofy, and other cutaneous diseases. | | Antrim | Ireland | Hot and sulphureous springs and baths, resembling those of Aix-la-Chapelle. | Similar to Borrowdale water, but weaker. See Aix-la-Chapelle, and Baden, in the order of the Alphabet. | | Baden | Swabia in Germany | Hot and sulphureous springs and baths, resembling those of Aix-la-Chapelle. | Strongly purgative, three half pints being a dose. The chalybeate spring also proves purgative when the bowels contain any vitiated matter. | | Bagnigge | Middlesex, near London | Epsom salt and muriated magnesia. Cold. Another spring contains iron and fixed air. | Corroborative, and good in obstructions of the viscera. Drank from two to three pints in a morning. | | Balimore | Worcestershire in England | A fine cold chalybeate, containing iron rendered soluble by fixed air, along with some other salt supposed to be fossil alkali. | Corroborative and astringent. Drunk to the quantity of two pints, or two and a half. | | Ball or Baudwell | Lincolnshire in England | A cold petrifying water; contains aerated calcareous earth or magnesia. | Drank as purgatives, and used as hot baths. Useful in scrofulous and cutaneous disorders. | | Balaruc | Languedoc in France | Hot, and contain some purging salts. | Resembles that of Balimore in virtue. | | Ballycastle | Antrim in Ireland | Chalybeate and sulphureous. Cold. | Useful in scrofulous disorders and diseases of indigestion. | | Ballynahinch | Down in Ireland | Iron, fixed air, and sulphur. Cold. | Similar in virtue to that of Balimore. |
VOL. XIV. Part I. | Names of Springs | Countries in which they are found | Contents and Quality of the Water | |-----------------|----------------------------------|----------------------------------| | Bagneres | Bigorre in France | Earth and sulphur. Hot. | | Bareges | Bigorre in France | Sea salt, fossil alkali, calcareous earth, selenites, sulphur, and a fine bituminous oil. Hot. | | Barnet and North-Hall, Bath | Hertfordshire in England | Epson salt, and aerated calcareous earth. | | Bandola | Italy | Iron, aerated calcareous earth, selenite, Glauber's salt, and sea salt. Hot. | | Borrowdale | Cumberland in England | Iron, fixed air, fossil alkali, and a little sulphur.—Cold. | | Brentwood | Essex in England | A great quantity of sea salt, aerated calcareous earth, and some bittern. Cold. | | Bristol | Somersetshire in England | Epson salt, and aerated calcareous earth. | | Bromley | Kent in England | Calcaceous earth, sea salt, Epson salt, Glauber's salt, and selenites. Hot. | | Broughton | Yorkshire in England | Iron and fixed air. Cold. | | Buxton | Derbyshire in England | Sulphur, sea salt, Epson salt, and aerated earth. Cold. | | Caroline baths | Bohemia | A small quantity of sea salt, fossil alkali, Epson salt, and aerated calcareous earth. Hot. Here is also a fine cold chalybeate spring. | | Carlton | Nottinghamshire in England | Iron, fixed air, aerated earth, sea salt, fossil alkali, Epson salt, and Glauber's salt. Hot. | | Carrickfergus | Antrim in Ireland | Iron dissolved in fixed air, along with a bituminous oil, which gives it the smell of horse dung.—Cold. | | Carrickmore | Cavan in Ireland | Seems from its bluish colour to contain a very small quantity of copper. Cold. | | Cashmore | Waterford in Ireland | Fossil alkali, fixed air, and some purging salt. Cold. | | Castle-Connel | Limerick in Ireland | Iron dissolved in fixed air, &c. Cold. | | Castle-Leod | Ross-shire in Scotland | Aerated earth, selenites, Glauber's salt, and sulphur. Cold. |
**Medicinal Virtues.**
The waters used in baths, like those of Aix-la-Chapelle. Some of the springs purgative, others diuretic.
Diuretic and diaphoretic. Useful in nervous as well as cutaneous disorders, in old wounds and some venereal complaints. Used as baths, as well as taken internally to the quantity of a quart or three pints.
Purgative.
Powerfully corroborative, and very useful in all kinds of weaknesses. Used as a bath, and taken internally.
Gently laxative, diuretic, and diaphoretic.
Strongly emetic and cathartic. Sometimes useful in the jaundice and dropsy, scrofulous disorders, and chronic obstructions. Used likewise as a bath in cutaneous diseases. Taken in the dose of a pint, containing only about seven drachms and a half of sea salt; so that a great part of the virtue must reside in the aerated calcareous earth.
Purgative.
Used as a bath; and drank from four to eight ounces at a time, to two quarts per day. Useful in consumptions, diabetes, fluor albus, &c.
Diuretic and corroborative.
Similar to Harrowgate.
Useful in gout, rheumatism, and other disorders in which tepid baths are serviceable. Used as baths, and drank to the quantity of five or six pints per day.
Purgative, and used as baths. Of service in disorders of the stomach and bowels, scrofula, &c.
Diuretic and corroborative.
Weakly purgative.
Purgative and diuretic.
Purgative, diuretic, and sometimes emetic.
Resembles the German Spaw, and is in considerable repute.
Diuretic, diaphoretic, and corroborant; useful in cutaneous diseases. ### Names of Springs
| Name | Countries in which they are found | |-----------------------|-----------------------------------| | Cattlemain | Kerry in Ireland | | Cawley | Derbyshire in England | | Cawthorpe | Lincolnshire in England | | Chadlington | Oxfordshire in England | | Chaude Fontaine | Liege in Germany | | Cheltenham | Gloucestershire in England | | Chippenham | Wiltshire in England | | Cloves | Germany | | Clifton | Oxfordshire in England | | Cobham | Surrey in England | | Codfallwood | Staffordshire in England | | Colchester | Essex in England | | Colurian | Cornwall in England | | Conner or Cumner | Berkshire in England | | Coolauran | Fermanagh in Ireland | | Corstorphine | Mid Lothian in Scotland | | Coventry | Warwickshire in England | | Crickle Spaw | Lancashire in England | | Croft | Yorkshire in England | | Croftstown | Waterford in Ireland | | Cunley-house | Lancashire in England | | Das Wild Bad | Nuremberg in Germany | | D'ax en Foix | 15 leagues from Thoujoule in France| | Deddington | Oxford in England | | Derby | Near the capital of Derbyshire in England | | Derryinch | Fermanagh in Ireland | | Derrindaft | Cavan in Ireland |
### Contents and Quality of the Water
| Name | Contents and Quality of the Water | |-----------------------|-----------------------------------| | Iron, sulphur, and fixed air | Corroborant and diuretic. | | Cold | Gently purgative. | | Epsom salt, aerated calcareous earth, and sulphur | Gently purgative. | | Cold | Purgative, and corrects acidities.| | Iron, fixed air, and probably fossil alkali | Purgative. | | Cold | Purgative. | | Fossil alkali, sea salt, and sulphur | Cold. | | Cold | Resembles those of Aix-la-Chapelle and Buxton. | | Aerated earth, fossil alkali, and fixed air | Hot. | | Calcereous earth, iron, Epsom salt, and common salt | Cold. | | Iron dissolved in fixed air | Diuretic and corroborative. | | Iron, fixed air, and other ingredients of Pyrmont water | Djuretic and corroborant. | | Fossil alkali, and aerated calcareous earth or felenite | Gently laxative, and used as a bath for cutaneous disorders. | | Cold | Purgative, diuretic, and corroborant. | | Iron, and some purging salt | Strongly purgative. | | Sulphur, fixed air, and aerated earth | Refemblies the Askeron water. | | Epsom salt, and aerated calcareous earth | Corroborative and diuretic. | | Iron, fixed air, and aerated earth | Purgative, in the quantity of one, two, or three quarts. | | Some purging salt, and probably aerated earth; the water is of a whitish colour | Diuretic. | | Iron, fixed air, and aerated earth | Diuretic and laxative. | | Sulphur, sea salt, clay, and Epsom salt | Purgative, diuretic, and corroborant. | | Cold | Purgative, and resembling Harrowgate water. | | Iron, fixed air, and some purging salt | Purgative, and resembling Askeron water. | | Sulphur, sea salt, and aerated earth | Diuretic, purgative, and sometimes emetic. | | Aerated earth, vitriolated magnesia, and sea salt | Purgative, and resembling the Askeron water. | | Martial vitriol | Corroborant. Useful in obstructions of the viscera, and female complaints. Used as a bath, and also drank, like the Aix-la-Chapelle waters. | | Iron, fixed air, and some fine matter | Alternative, purgative in large quantity, and useful in scorbutic and cutaneous disorders. | | Similar to Aix-la-Chapelle | Corroborant. | | Hot | Diuretic and diaphoretic. | | Iron, sulphur, aerated earth, sea salt, or fossil alkali | Similar to the Askeron water. |
Q. 2 Derrylester, | Names of Springs | Countries in which they are found | Contents and Quality of the Water | Medicinal Virtues | |-----------------|----------------------------------|----------------------------------|------------------| | Derryleller | Cavan in Ireland | Similar to Swaddlingbar water | Cooling and purgative, but apt to bring on or increase the fluor albus in women. Corroborant. | | Dog and Duck | St George's Fields, London | Aerated magnesia, Epsom salt, and sea salt. | Afrigent and corroborant. | | Dorsthill | Staffordshire in England | Iron dissolved in fixed air. | | | Drigwell | Cumberland in England | Similar to Deddington. | | | Dropping-well | Yorkshire in England | Aerated earth. | | | Drumas-nave | Leitrim in Ireland | Sulphur, fossil alkali, with some purging salt. | Powerfully diuretic and anthelmintic, and of use in cutaneous and scrofulous disorders. | | Drumgoon | Fermanagh in Ireland | Similar to the former. | | | Dublin salt springs | Ireland | Sea salt and Epsom salt. | Purgative. | | Dulwich | Kent in England | Sea salt and Epsom salt. | Purgative and diuretic. Useful in nervous cases and diseases proceeding from debility. Diuretic and corroborant. | | Dunnard | 18 miles from Dublin | Iron dissolved in fixed air. | Similar to the former. | | Dunse | Scotland | Iron dissolved in fixed air, with a little sea salt and bitter. | | | Durham | England | Sulphur, sea salt, and a little aerated earth. In the middle of the river is a salt spring. | Similar to the Harrowgate water.—That of the salt spring used as a purgative. | | Egra | Bohemia | Similar to Cheltenham water. | | | Epsom | Surry in England | Vitriolated and muriated magnesia, with a small quantity of aerated calcareous earth. | Purgative, and of use in washing old sores. | | Fairburn | Ross-shire in Scotland | Sulphur, aerated earth, and Glauber's salts. | Alterative, and useful in cutaneous diseases. | | Felstead | Essex in England | Similar to Illington. | Powerfully diuretic and purgative. | | Filah | Yorkshire in England | Sea salt and aerated earth. | Similar to Harrowgate. Diuretic and laxative. | | Frankfort | Germany | Sulphur and sea salt. | | | Gainborough | Lincolnshire in England | Sulphur, iron, aerated earth, and Epsom salt. | | | Galway | Ireland | Similar to Tunbridge water. | | | Glamile | Ireland | Similar to Peterhead water. | | | Glastonbury | Somersetshire in England | Similar to Clifton water. | | | Glendy | Merns county in Scotland | Similar to Peterhead water. | | | Grantham | Down in Ireland | Iron; similar to the German Spaw. | | | Haigh | Lancashire in England | Green vitriol, iron dissolved by fixed air, with some aerated earth. | Emetic and cathartic. | | Hampstead | England | Green vitriol, iron dissolved by fixed air, and a small quantity of aerated earth. | Alterative and corroborant. The water is taken from half a pint to several pints; is better in the morning than in the middle of the day, and in cold than hot weather. | | Hanbridge | Lancashire in England | Similar to Scarborough water. | Less purgative than the Scarborough water. |
Hanlys | Names of Springs | Countries in which they are found | Contents and Quality of the Water | Medicinal Virtues | |-----------------|----------------------------------|----------------------------------|------------------| | Hanlys | Shropshire in England | Epsom, or other purging salt | Purgative. | | Harrowgate | Yorkshire in England | Sulphur, sea salt, and some purging salt. Some chalybeate springs here also. | Alterative, purgative, and anthelmintic; useful in scurvy, scrofula, and cutaneous diseases. Used externally for strains and paralytic weaknesses. | | Hartfell | Annandale in Scotland | Green vitriol, alum, and azotic gas. | Astringent and corrosive. Useful in all kinds of inward discharges of blood. | | Hartlepool | Durham in England | Sulphur, iron dissolved by fixed air, with some purging salt. | Diuretic and laxative. | | Holt | Wiltshire in England | Purging salt, with a large quantity of aerated earth. | Mildly purgative. Useful in old ulcers and cutaneous disorders. | | Joseph's well | Stock Common near Cobham in Surrey | A very large proportion of Epsom salt, and possibly a little sea salt. | Alterative, purgative, and diuretic. Drank to about a quart, it passes briskly without griping: taken in less doses as an alternative, it is a good antiscorbutic. | | Ilmington | Warwickshire in England | Aerated fossil alkali, with some iron dissolved by fixed air. | Diuretic and laxative. | | Inglewhite | Lancashire in England | Sulphur, and iron dissolved by fixed air. | Alterative. Useful in scorbutic and cutaneous diseases. | | Islington | Near London | Iron dissolved by fixed air. | Corrosive. Useful in lowness of spirits and nervous diseases. Operates by urine, and may be drank in large quantity. | | Kanturk | Cork in Ireland | Similar to the water at Peterhead. | Similar to Harrowgate; but intolerably fetid. | | Kedleston | Derbyshire in England | Sulphur, sea salt, and aerated earth. | Emetic and cathartic, in the dose of half a pint. | | Kensington | Near London | Similar to Acton water. | Similar to Swadlingbar water. | | Kilbrew | Meath in Ireland | A large quantity of green vitriol. | Similar to Hanlys chalybeate water. | | Kilburn | Near London | Fixed air, hepatic air, Epsom salt, Glauber's salt; muriated magnesia, sea salt, aerated earth, and iron. | Nature of Borrowdale water, but weaker. | | Killalher | Fermanagh in Ireland | Sulphur and fossil alkali. | A purging salt. | | Killinghanvalley| Fermanagh, Ireland | Similar to Scarborough water. | Purgative. | | Kilroot | Antrim in Ireland | Similar to the water of Peterhead. | Laxative, and useful in correcting acidities. | | Kinalton | Nottinghamshire in England | Similar to Cheltenham waters. | Operates by insensible perspiration, sometimes by spitting, sweat or urine. | | Kincardine | Merns in Scotland | Iron, fixed air, and probably some fossil alkali. | | | Kingstiff | Northamptonshire in England | Similar to Scarborough water. | | | Kirby | Westmoreland in England | Aerated fixed alkali. | | | Knareborough | See Dropping-well. | Similar to Tunbridge water. | | | Knowsley | Lancashire in England | Similar to the former. | | | Kuka | Bohemia | | | | Lancaster | England | | | | Latham | Lancashire in England | | |
Llandrindod, ### Names of Springs
| Name | Countries in which they are found | |---------------|-----------------------------------| | Llandrindod | Radnor in South Wales | | Llangybi | Caernarvonshire in North Wales | | Leamington | Warwickshire in England | | Leez | Essex in England | | Lincomb | Somersetshire in England | | Lisbeak | Fermanagh in Ireland | | Lisdonne | Clare in Ireland | | Lurna | Yorkshire in England | | Loambury | Cork in Ireland | | Macroomp | Kerry in Ireland | | Mahereberge | Cork in Ireland | | Mallow | Yorkshire in England | | Malton | Gloucestershire in England | | Malvern | Essex in England | | Markhall | Derbyshire in England | | Matlock | Essex in England | | Maudley | Lancashire in England | | Mechan | Fermanagh in Ireland | | Miller's Spaw | Lancaufshire in England | | Moffat | Annandale in Scotland | | Moss-house | Lancashire in England | | Moreton | Shropshire in England |
### Contents and Quality of the Water
| Name | Description | |---------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------| | Three springs | A purgative, sulphurous, and chalybeate | | Sea-salt | Aerated calcareous earth | | Similar to Illington water | Aerated iron, fossil alkali, and a little Epsom salt. | | Sulphur | Fossil alkali, with much iron | | Sulphur | Sulphur, and some purging salt | | Similar to Illington water | Similar to Borrowdale water. | | A hot water | Similar to that of Bristol | | Iron | Iron and fixed air in considerable quantity | | Iron | Iron. Two springs |
### Medicinal Virtues
- Useful in the scurvy, leprosy, cutaneous disorders, &c. - Useful in disorders of the eyes, scrofula, &c. - Emetic and cathartic. Useful in old sores, and cures mangy dogs. - Similar to Swadlingbar water. Emetic, cathartic, and diuretic. - Used only for washing mangy dogs and scabby horses. - Similar to Scarborough water, but is sometimes apt to vomit. - Diuretic and cathartic; used also externally. Recommended as excellent in diseases of the skin; in leprosy, scorbutic complaints, scrofula, old sores, &c. Also serviceable in inflammations and other diseases of the eyes; in the gout and stone, in bilious and paralytic cases, and in female obstructions. The external use is by washing the part at the spout several times a day, and afterwards covering it with cloths, dipped in the water and kept constantly moist; also by general bathing.
- Similar to Harrowgate. - Similar to the waters of Drumgoon. - Alterant, diuretic, and sometimes purgative. Is used as a bath, and the steam of the hot water has been found serviceable in relaxing hard tumors and stiff joints. Purges strongly. | Names of Springs | Countries in which they are found | Contents and Quality of the Water | Medicinal Virtues | |-----------------|----------------------------------|----------------------------------|------------------| | Mount d'Or | France | Warm, and similar to the waters of Aix-la-Chapelle. | Diuretic, purgative, and diaphoretic. | | Nevil Holt | Leicestershire in England | Selenite or aerated earth, and Epsom salt. | Purgative, diuretic, and diaphoretic.—Powerfully antiseptic in putrid diseases, and excellent in diarrhoea, dysenteries, &c. | | New Cartmell | Lancashire in England | Sea salt and aerated earth. | Purgative. | | Newnham Regis | Warwickshire in England | Similar to Scarborough water. | Astringent or tonic. | | Newton-Stewart | Yorkshire in England | Aerated calcareous earth or magnesia. | | | Nezdenice | Tyrone in Ireland | Similar to Tunbridge. | | | Nobber | Germany | Fixed air, fossil alkali, iron, and earth. | Diuretic, diaphoretic, and tonic. | | Normanby | Meath in Ireland | Martial vitriol. | Similar to Hartfell. | | Nottington | Dorsetshire, England | Sulphur, much fixed air, some sea salt, and Epsom salt. | Similar to Askeron water. | | Orston | Nottingham, England | Sulphur, fossil alkali, and earth. | Useful in cutaneous diseases. | | Oulton | Norfolk, England | Much fixed air, Epsom salt, and a little sea salt, with some iron. | Purgative.—It intoxicates by reason of the great quantity of air contained in it. | | Owen Breun | Cavan, Ireland | Similar to Islington. | Similar to Askeron water. | | Pancras | Near London | Sulphur, Epsom salt, and fossil alkali. | Diuretic and purgative. | | Passy | Near Paris | Epsom salt, and aerated earth. | | | Peterhead | Aberdeen county, Scotland | Similar to Pyrmont water. | Similar to Islington, but more powerful. | | Pettigoe | Donnegal, Ireland | Sulphur and purging salt. | Similar to Askeron water. | | Pitkeathly | Perthshire, Scotland | Sea salt, a small quantity of muriated and likewise of aerated earth. | Gently purgative. Very useful in scrofulous and scorbutic habits. | | Plombiers | Lorraine, France | Saline matter, probably fossil alkali, with a small portion of oil.—Warm. | Used as a bath, and for washing ulcers. Inwardly taken it cures complaints from acidity, hemorrhages, &c. | | Pontgibault | Auvergne, France | Fossil alkali and calcareous earth. | Diuretic and laxative. | | Pougues | Nivernois, France | Calcareous earth, magnesia, fossil alkali, sea salt, earth of alum, and siliceous earth. | Diuretic and laxative. | | Pyrmont | Westphalia, Germany | Aerated iron, calcareous earth, magnesia, Epsom salt, and common salt. | Diuretic, diaphoretic, and laxative. Recommended in cases where the constitution is relaxed; in female complaints, in cutaneous diseases, in nervous disorders, in the gravel and urinary obstructions; and considered as among the best restoratives in decayed and broken constitutions. | | Queen Camel | Somersetshire, England | Sulphur, sea salt, fossil alkali, calcareous earth, and bituminous oil. | Used in scrofulous and cutaneous disorders. | | Richmond | Surry in England | Similar to Acton water. | Diaphoretic and alterant. | | Rippon | Yorkshire, England | Sulphur, sea salt, and aerated earth. | | | Name of Springs | Countries in which they are found | Contents and Quality of the Water | Medicinal Virtues | |----------------|----------------------------------|---------------------------------|------------------| | Road, | Wiltshire, England | Sulphur, iron, fossil alkali, and fixed air. | Useful in scrofula, scurvy, and cutaneous disorders.—Acts as a laxative. | | St Bartholomew's well, | Cork in Ireland | Fossil alkali, iron, and fixed air. | Similar to Tilbury water. | | St Bernard's well, | Near Edinburgh | Similar to the waters of Moffat. | Somewhat congenial with Moffat and Harrowgate. In nervous and stomachic cases, analeptic and restorative; in scorbutic, scrofulous, and most dropical cases, reckoned a specific. | | St Erasmus's well, | Staffordshire, England | Aerated calcareous earth, Epsom salt, sea salt, and iron. | Similar to Borrowdale water. | | Scarborough, | Yorkshire, England | Iron, fossil alkali, and a great quantity of fixed air. | Diuretic and purgative. | | Scollensis, | Switzerland | Epsom salt. | Strongly purgative. | | Seidlitz, | Bohemia, Germany | Calcaceous earth, magnesia, fossil alkali, and fixed air. | Diuretic. Useful in the gravel, rheumatism, scurvy, scrofula, &c. | | Seltzer, | Germany | Similar to Ilington. | Emetic and cathartic. | | Sene, or Send, | Wiltshire, England | Similar to Seidlitz. | Similar to Asherton water. | | Seydchutz, | Germany | Green vitriol. | Similar to Harrowgate water. | | Shadwell, | Near London | Sulphur and purging salt. | Similar to Harrowgate. | | Shapmoor, | Westmoreland, England | Sulphur, sea salt, and purging salt. | Corroborant and alterative. Useful for walking foul ulcers and cancers. | | Shettlewood, | Derbyshire, England | Green vitriol, alum, and fixed air. | Diuretic and purgative. Serviceable in many disorders. See the article SPAW. | | Shipton, | Yorkshire, England | Fossil alkali, iron, aerated earth, Epsom salt, and sea salt. | Emetic and cathartic. | | Somersham, | Huntingdonshire, England | Green vitriol. | Similar to Nezdenice. | | Spaw, | Liege in Germany | Similar to Orston. | Alterative and laxative. | | Stanger, | Cumberland, England | Aerated earth, Epsom salt, sea salt, and muriated magnesia. | Alterative and diaphoretic. | | Stenfield, | Lincolnshire, England | Similar to Shadwell. | Similar to Shadwell. | | Streatham, | Surry, England | Sulphur, fossil alkali, and sea salt. | Purgative. | | Suchaloza, | Hungary | Sulphur, earth, sea salt, and fossil alkali. | Similar to Tarleton, but weaker. | | Sutton bog, | Oxfordshire, England | Green vitriol. | Similar to Scarborough water. | | Swadlingbar, | Cavan in Ireland | Similar to Acton. | Similar to Thoroton. | | Swansey, | Glamorganshire in North Wales | Fossil alkali, fixed air, and iron. | Purgative and diuretic. | | Sydenham, | Kent in England | Similar to Orston. | Similar to Thurik. | | Tarleton, | Lancashire in England | Iron dissolved in fixed air. | Similar to Tibshelf. | | Tewksbury, | Gloucestershire in England | Similar to Scarborough. | Tilbury, |
Tilbury, MINERALOGY
Mineralogy is that branch of natural history which has for its object the description and discrimination of inorganic or mineral substances, as they are found in the earth or on its surface.
The knowledge of some mineral bodies may be considered as coeval with the earliest ages of the world. The rudest and most barbarous nations could not be ignorant of some of the properties of the substances which were most familiar to their observation; and mankind have made little progress in civilization, when they are entirely unacquainted with the nature of those matters from which some of the metals are extracted.
Precious stones, it seems not at all improbable, first attracted the notice of mankind. The richness of colour, brilliancy, lustre, and durability of these bodies, could not fail to excite admiration, and make them be sought after as ornaments, even by the least civilized people, and in countries where they are most abundant. They were well known, it would appear from the sacred writings, among the Jews and Egyptians in the time of Moses. At this period, however, both the Jews and Egyptians had advanced far in refinement.
But this knowledge was too limited to be dignified with the name of Mineralogy. It wanted that comprehensive, connected, and scientific view which could entitle it to that denomination. And indeed it may be said to be only of modern date that the knowledge of minerals rose to the rank of science, and assumed anything like a regular and connected form.
Dioecorides and Theophratus among the Greeks, and writers on Pliny among the Romans, have, it is true, described a minerals, few mineral bodies; and Avicenna, an Arabian philosopher and physician, who flourished in the end of the 10th and beginning of the 11th century, arranged those objects into four great classes, viz. 1. Stony bodies. 2. Saline bodies. 3. Inflammable bodies; and, 4. Metals—an arrangement which, it is curious to remark, must be well founded; for it has been adopted, sometimes indeed with slight deviations, by almost all mineralogical writers. writers since that period. But still the knowledge of minerals was bounded by very narrow limits.
The variety and value of mineral productions in Germany have excited more attention to these studies, and have thus rendered this knowledge of more interest and importance than in any other country. To Germany indeed it must be acknowledged that mineralogy is indebted in a great measure for its origin, and for a very ample share of its progressive improvement. George Agricola, a native of Münster, in which country he settled as a physician, lived during the first half of the 16th century. Being strongly attached by inclination to the study of minerals, he removed to Chemnitz in Hungary, where he might have an opportunity of prosecuting his favourite studies; and there, by the most unrestrained application to mineralogy, and particularly to the various operations on the metals, he became the most celebrated metallurgist of his time. He is supposed to be the first German author who professedly wrote on mineral substances. The following titles chiefly comprehend the various heads into which his works on metallurgy and mineralogy are divided, *De Ortu et Causis Subterraneorum; De Natura eorum quae affluunt ex Terra; De Natura Fossilium; de Medicati Fontibus; De Subterraneis Animalibus; De Veteribus et Novis Metallis;* and *De Re Metallica.* His arrangement of minerals is into two great divisions. 1. Simple or Homogeneous Minerals; and, 2. Heterogeneous Minerals. The first, or simple minerals, includes four subdivisions, viz. 1. Terra; 2. Succus Concretus; 3. Lapis; 4. Metallum. The second great division, the heterogeneous minerals, comprehends two subdivisions, viz. 1. Compound minerals; 2. Mixed minerals.
Several writers on mineralogy appeared in the course of the 17th century; and about the beginning of the 18th Beccher proposed an arrangement of bodies on chemical principles, or according to their constituent parts. In the year 1736, Linnæus published a system of mineralogy, in which mineral bodies are divided into three classes, viz. 1. Petreæ; 2. Mineræ; 3. Fossilia. These are subdivided into orders: the first containing three, Vitreæ, Calcareæ, Apuræ; the second containing three, Sulphureæ, Mercurialia; and the third also containing three, Concreta, Petrificata, Terra. Three years afterwards the system of Cramer appeared, according to which all mineral substances are arranged into seven classes, of which the following are the titles, 1. Metals; 2. Semimetals; 3. Salts; 4. Inflammable substances; 5. Stones; 6. Earths; and, 7. Waters. About ten years after the first publication of the mineral system of Linnæus, Wallerius professor of mineralogy at Upsal, and his contemporary, communicated to the world a more enlarged and improved arrangement of mineral bodies than any which had hitherto appeared. According to the system of Wallerius, all minerals are distributed into four classes, each of which is subdivided into four orders. The first class, Terræ, includes the orders Macæ, Pingues, Mineræ, and Arcææ; to the second class, Lapidæ, belong the orders Calcareæ, Vitreæ, Apuræ, Saxa; the third class, Mineræ, comprehends the orders Sulphureæ, Semimetalæ, and Metalæ; and the fourth, Concreta, is composed of the orders Pori, Petrificæ, Figuræ, and Calcitæ.
Of the systematic writers on mineralogy from the time of Linnæus, which have now been mentioned, and of others which the limits of this historical sketch do not permit us to notice, it is to be observed, that by all of them, although the general arrangement of Avicenna was not followed, yet in the subordinate divisions his classes were adopted, and constituted some of their orders. The classes of Avicenna were not restored till the time of Cronstedt, a Swedish mineralogist, whose system, which was published in the year 1758, they resumed the place which they formerly held. The system of Cronstedt is divided into four classes, Terræ, Salia, Phlogistica, and Metalæ. The first class, Terræ, includes 9 orders, Calcareæ, Siliceæ, Granatæ, Argillaceæ, Mitaceæ, Fluores, Effloresæ, Zeolitæ, and Magnesiaæ. To the second class, Salia, belong two orders, Acida and Alkalina. The third class, Phlogistica, consists only of one order; and the fourth class, Metalæ, is composed of two orders, Metalæ perfectæ and Semimetalæ. The system of Cronstedt, the most complete which had yet been offered to the world, and which, by comparing it with the systems accounted by some the most perfect of the present day, will be found not much different in its arrangement, continued to be read and studied for more than twenty years, and was translated into different languages. This arrangement is founded on chemical principles. The first class, for instance, is divided into nine orders already enumerated, and corresponding, as he supposed, to nine earths, of one of which the stones included in each order are chiefly composed. But as the improvements in chemical analysis led to greater accuracy of investigation, the earths which Cronstedt supposed to be simple were found to be compound. The number of simple or primitive earths was then diminished to five; and thus the number of genera, as they appeared in the *Scenographia Regni Mineralis* of Bergman, published in 1782, was also five. At that period five earths only were known. The same method of constructing the genera is still followed, so that the number of genera has increased in proportion to the number of earths which have been since discovered.
In the year 1785, a translation of Cronstedt's mineral system appeared in Germany, accompanied with notes by Werner, the celebrated professor of mineralogy at Freyberg in Saxony. Six years before this time Werner had published a separate treatise on the classification of minerals, in which he exhibited his method of describing them by means of external characters. The notes on Cronstedt's system are to be considered as a farther illustration of this method, as well as a catalogue of minerals belonging to Pabst Von Ochsen, which was drawn up by the same naturalist and published in 1791. In Germany the method of Werner, we believe, is almost exclusively adopted; and it is chiefly followed in most other countries, France excepted, where mineralogical knowledge is also greatly cultivated.
Mr Kirwan first introduced the knowledge of this system into Britain, in his treatise on mineralogy, published in 1784; and about ten years afterwards it was still farther elucidated by the same author in an improved and enlarged edition of that work. In preparing the latter edition, Mr Kirwan enjoyed the peculiar advantage of consulting one of the completeest and best arranged collections of minerals which had yet been made in any country. This is the Leakean collection of fossils, which Mr Kirwan pronounces to be the most perfect monument of mineralogical ability now extant of minerals. That the possession of this cabinet, Mr Kirwan proceeds to state, should escape the vigilance of the most learned nations, and fall to the lot of Ireland, hitherto so inattentive to matters of this nature, was little to be expected. Through the active zeal however of two of its most enlightened patriots (A), and the influence secured to them by former services of the most essential nature, the sums requisite for its purchase, and for building a repository to receive it, were obtained.* This splendid and extensive collection, we are farther informed, was made by Leake, whose name it now bears, and who was one of the earliest and most eminent of the disciples of Werner. It was arranged between the years 1782 and 1787, according to the principles of Werner, and with his assistance. After the death of Mr Leake, a catalogue was drawn up by Karsten, another of Werner's disciples. This catalogue in its arrangement corresponds to the arrangement of the cabinet, which is divided into five parts.
The first part, which is denominated the characteristic part, consists of 580 specimens. These are intended for the illustration of the external characters, or the principles of the classification.
The second, which is the systematic or ore-gnostic part, comprehends all simple minerals distributed according to their genera and species agreeable to the method then followed by Werner. This part contains 3268 specimens.
The third part, which is called the geognostic or geological, includes the substances found in the different kinds of rocks, as they are divided into primitive, transition, stratiform, alluvial, and volcanic mountains. This part of the collection is peculiarly rich in petrifications; and the whole number of specimens which it contains extends to 1100.
The fourth part is intended to illustrate the mineralogy of every country on the globe, by exhibiting its mineral productions. The order of arrangement of this part is from America to Asia, Europe, and Africa. As there are many countries yet unexplored, it is the most imperfect division of the whole collection; and indeed, as Mr Kirwan observes, it can only be completed by national opulence.
The fifth part is called the economical collection. It is formed of 474 specimens of minerals which are employed in arts and manufactures, as in architecture, sculpture, agriculture, jewellery, colouring, dyeing, clothing, pottery, glazing, enamelling, polishing of metals, furnace-building, medicine, metallurgy, &c. The whole cabinet consists of 7331 specimens.
Such is the valuable source from which Mr Kirwan derived the information detailed in his system of mineralogy. And here we are led to throw out a hint that the friends of this science could not more effectually promote its knowledge, and encourage its progress, than by establishing similar collections wherever it is taught and studied. But patriotism and power are unfortunately oftener directed to deeds of splendour and magnificence, than they are occupied in forming and accomplishing the humbler and more permanent plans of national utility.
But to resume our narrative of the history of mineralogy, we cannot help expressing our regret that Mr Kirwan has never found it convenient to revise and improve his system as he might have done, aided by the immense stock of mineralogical knowledge which has been accumulated since its first publication. This is the more to be regretted, because, notwithstanding the rapid progress of the science, and the great improvements which the system of Werner has received, no good or even tolerable account of it has yet appeared in the English language.
France, where many branches of natural history have long flourished, has contributed largely to the science of mineralogy. Even the period of war, which at first sight would appear to be extremely adverse to the tranquil pursuits of knowledge, has in this case proved peculiarly favourable to the study of mineralogy in that kingdom. The knowledge of minerals has not only been encouraged and promoted in France, by being forced to direct her attention to her own resources, while her intercourse with other countries from which she derived various commodities indispensably necessary for economical purposes was interrupted; but also by the subjugation to her overgrown power, of those parts of Europe where mineralogy has been most cultivated and improved, thus affording every facility of correspondence, and rendering accessible those mineral treasures which exhibit the best and fullest illustration of the science. The French government, indeed, whatever form it may have assumed, has invariably been impressed with the importance of mineralogy; and even during the horrors of revolution, has never failed to promote its progress, by forming and supporting extensive collections, and establishing able and enlightened teachers at the expense of the nation.
Of the works on mineralogy which have appeared in France, we shall only mention the treaties of Brochant, Haüy, and Brongniart. They are the sources from which the information in the following treatise is chiefly derived, and they may be recommended as the best guides to the study of this department of natural history.
The system of Brochant is formed entirely on the principles of Werner's classification, and is undoubtedly the most perspicuous account of the system of the German mineralogist which has yet been published. The principles on which the elaborate and ingenious method of arrangement proposed by the celebrated Haüy have been already detailed. (See Crystallization). Here we shall only remark that the study of the regular forms of minerals with a view to methodical arrangement, was successfully prosecuted by Bergman and Romé de Lille; but has been extended and carried to the highest degree of perfection by the sagacity, profound physical knowledge, and mathematical address of the Abbé Haüy. But although the mineral system of Haüy this distinguished philosopher be founded on characters the most certain and the most uniformly permanent, yet
(A) The Right Honourable John Forster, late Speaker of the Irish House of Commons, and the Right Honourable W. B. Cunningham. it may be doubted whether the previous knowledge necessary to understand it, and in some cases the difficulty of applying its principles in ascertaining some of the most essential characters, may not preclude this work from being so generally and practically useful as other systems. The scientific mineralogist however will always regard it as a monument of indefatigable industry and patient research which has rarely been equalled, and will derive from it the most material aid in his studies.
The system of Hauy consists of four classes. I. The first class consists of substances which are composed of an acid united to an earth or an alkali, and sometimes to both; and it contains three orders; 1. Earths combined with an acid; 2. Alkalies combined with an acid; and, 3. Earths and alkalies combined with an acid. II. This class includes only earthy substances, but sometimes combined with an alkali. It constitutes the siliceous genus of other systems. III. The third class comprehends combustible substances which are not metals. It is divided into two orders; the first containing simple, and the second compound combustibles. IV. The metals form the fourth class. It is divided into three orders, which are characterized by different degrees of oxidation. Besides these classes there are three appendices. The first contains those substances whose nature is not sufficiently known to have their places accurately assigned in the system. The second appendix includes aggregates of different mineral substances. It is divided into three orders. The first treats of primitive rocks; the second of secondary and tertiary rocks; and the third of breccias. The third appendix is devoted to the consideration of volcanic products. This is divided into six classes; but it is to be observed, that the volcanic products of this mineralogist comprehend, not only such substances as are universally allowed to have a volcanic origin, but also basalts, traps, and other minerals, the origin of which is still questioned.
The system of Brongniart takes a wider range than Brongniart's other systems, including substances which are not treated by writers on mineralogy. It is divided into five classes. The first contains those substances, excluding the metals, which are combined with oxygen. It contains two orders; the first including air and water, and the second the acids. The second class, which treats of saline bodies, is divided into two orders: the first comprehends the alkaline salts, and the second the earthy salts. The third class, containing the stones, is divided into three orders: the first, hard stones; the second magnesian; and the third argillaceous. The fourth class contains the combustible substances, which are divided into two orders; first compound, and second, simple combustibles. The fifth class includes the metals, which are divided into two orders; first, the brittle, and second the ductile metals. The treatise of Brongniart, notwithstanding some peculiarities in the classification which are not quite familiar to us, will be found one of the most useful that has hitherto appeared, not only on account of the accuracy of the descriptions, which are divested of every kind of redundancy, but also on account of the interesting geological difficulties which are introduced, as well as numerous and important practical details in metallurgy and other useful arts.
The following treatise will be divided into two parts. The first part will contain the classification and description of minerals; and the second part will be destined to the analysis of minerals and to metallurgy, or the method of extracting metals from their ores.
PART I. OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS.
The method to be followed in this treatise is nearly that of Werner, all the material parts of which we shall freely borrow from the work of Brochant already noticed, as the best on the subject which we have had an opportunity of consulting. We shall however occasionally avail ourselves of any useful information which may be derived from the mineralogy of Kirwan, Brongniart, and Hauy; and in particular we shall infer the essential characters of the species given by the latter.
The universal characters employed by Werner in the description of minerals are seven in number: 1. Colour; 2. Cohesion; 3. Unctuosity; 4. Coldness; 5. Weight; 6. Smell; 7. Taste. The table and the illustrations which follow are chiefly taken from Weaver's translation of Werner's treatise on that subject.
In the following table is exhibited the arrangement of the generic external characters of fossils. ### MINERALOGY
#### Common Generic External Characters.
I. The Colour.
II. The Cohesion of the particles, in relation to which Fossils are distinguished into
| Solid | and | Fluid. | |-------|-----|--------| | Solid | and | Friable. | | Particular generic characters of solid Fossils. | Particular generic characters of friable Fossils. | Particular generic characters of fluid Fossils. |
#### External Appearance.
- The external Form. - The external Surface. - The external Lustre.
#### Appearance of the Fracture.
- The internal Lustre. - The Fracture. - The form of the Fragments.
#### Appearance of the distinct Concretions.
- The Form of the distinct Concretions. - The Surface of Separation. - The Lustre of Separation.
#### General Appearance.
- The Transparency. - The Streak. - The Stain.
#### Characters for the Sight.
- The Hardness. - The Solidity. - The Frangibility. - The Flexibility. - The Adhesion to the Tongue.
#### Characters for the Touch.
- The Friability. - The Fluidity. - Wetting of the fingers.
#### Characters for the Hearing.
- The Sound. - The Ringing. - The Creaking. - The Rustling.
#### Remaining Common Generic External Characters.
- III. The Unctuousness. - IV. The Coldness. - V. The Weight. - VI. The Smell. - VII. The Taste.
---
**EXTERNAL CHARACTERS of Minerals arranged according to their respective generic characters, and illustrated by appropriate examples.**
#### Common Generic External Characters.
I. THE COLOUR.
The most obvious of the external characters of minerals, is colour; it is also one of the most certain characters, and often serves as the principal distinguishing mark of many mineral substances. In deriving the characters of minerals from colour, three things are considered: 1. The several principal colours, with their varieties. 2. The shade of colour. 3. The tarnished colours.
#### I. Principal Colours.
The several principal colours are not derived from the division of the solar ray by means of the prism, but are such as are considered simple in common life. The principal colours are the eight following; viz. white, gray, black, blue, green, yellow, red, and brown.
A. **White** is the first principal colour, and it includes the following eight varieties.
1. **Snow white**, as snow white quartz, white lead ore, Carrara marble.
2. **Reddish**. 2. Reddish white, as porcelain earth, reddish white quartz.
3. Yellowish white, as white amber, zeolite, chalk.
4. Silver white, as native silver, native bismuth, and arsenical pyrites.
5. Grayish white, as several kinds of gypsum, quartz, and foliated granular limestone.
6. Greenish white, as white amianthus, talc, and calcareous spar.
7. Milk white, as calcedony, opal, and milk white quartz.
8. Tin white, as native quicksilver, native antimony, and white cobalt ore.
B. Gray is the second principal colour, and its varieties are the following.
1. Lead gray, as in common galena, compact galena, gray antimonial ore, and vitreous copper ore.
2. Bluish gray, as in bluish gray clay, bluish gray marble, and bluish gray limestone.
3. Pearl gray, as in quartz, calcedony, and porcelain jasper.
4. Reddish gray, as in granular limestone and feldspar.
5. Smoke gray, as in gray hornstone, and in dark gray flint.
6. Greenish gray, as in cat's eye, prehnite, and some varieties of argillaceous schistus.
7. Yellowish gray, as in yellowish gray calcedony, yellowish gray tripoli.
8. Steel gray, as in specular iron ore, gray copper ore, striated gray ore of manganese.
9. Ash gray, as in quartz, wacken, and some varieties of argillaceous schistus.
C. Black, which is the third principal colour, is divided into the six following varieties.
1. Grayish black, as in basalt, black limestone, and black flint.
2. Brownish black, as in black blende, tin-stone crystals, black cobalt ore, and bituminous shale.
3. Dark black, or velvet black, as in Iceland agate or obsidian, schorl, and jet.
4. Iron black, as in micaceous iron ore, magnetic iron stone, and sometimes in antimonated silver ore.
5. Greenish black, as in pitchstone, hornblende, and serpentine.
6. Bluish black, as in aluminous shale, black cobalt ore, dull black lead ore.
D. Blue is the fourth principal colour, including seven varieties.
1. Indigo blue, as in blue martial earth.
2. Prussian blue, as in the sapphire and blue rock salt.
3. Azure blue, as in lapis lazuli, and azure copper ore.
4. Violet blue, as in fluor spar, amethyst, and in rock salt.
5. Lavender blue, as in a variety of porcelain, jasper, and lithomarga.
6. Smalt blue, as in light azure copper ore, and blue martial earth.
7. Sky blue, as in light azure copper ore, blue native vitriol, and sky blue fluor spar.
E. Green is the fifth principal colour, of which there are the following varieties.
1. Verdigris green, as in green copper ore, green fluor spar.
2. Celadon green, as in the Brazilian beryl, and in pure green earth.
3. Mountain green, as in actinolite, hornstone, and in most beryls.
4. Emerald green, as in fibrous malachite and fluor spar.
5. Leek green, as in actinolite, jade, and prasiolite.
6. Apple green, as in chrysoberyl, prehnite, and nickel ore.
7. Grass green, as in some varieties of chrysoprase and some green lead ores.
8. Pitiachio green, as in chrysoberyl, iron shot green copper ore.
9. Asparagus green, as in chrysoberyl, and some varieties of green lead ore.
10. Olive green, as in green lead ore, serpentine, pitchstone, and garnet.
11. Blackish green, as in dark green serpentine.
12. Canary green, as in green lead ore, micaceous uranite ore, and green steatites.
F. Yellow is the sixth of the principal colours. It includes 12 varieties, which are the following.
1. Sulphur yellow, as in native sulphur and some varieties of serpentine.
2. Lemon yellow, as in yellow orpiment, and some yellow lead ores.
3. Gold yellow, as in native gold.
4. Bell metal yellow, as in iron pyrites.
5. Straw yellow, as in calamine and bismuth ochre.
6. Wine yellow, as in Saxon topaz and yellow calcareous spar.
7. Ifabella yellow, as in calamine and sparry iron ore.
8. Ochre yellow, as in iron ochre, yellow jasper, and calamine.
9. Orange yellow, as in red orpiment and red lead ore.
10. Honey yellow, as in amber fluor spar and calcedony.
11. Wax yellow, as in yellow lead ore, common opal, and calcedony.
12. Braf's yellow, as in copper pyrites, and native gold.
G. Red is the seventh principal colour, and it includes the following 15 varieties.
1. Morning or aurora red, as in red lead ore, red orpiment.
2. Hyacinth red, as in the hyacinth, and a variety of brown blende.
3. Brick red, as in porcelain jasper.
4. Scarlet red, as in light red cinnabar.
5. Copper red, as in native copper.
6. Blood red, as in Bohemian garnet, and red carnelian.
7. Carmine red, as in red copper ore, and clear red cinnabar.
8. Cochineal red, as in cinnabar, sometimes jasper, and red quartz.
9. Crimson red, as in ruby, oriental garnet, and red cobalt ore.
10. Columbine red, as in precious garnet, and red cobalt ore.
11. Flesh red, as in feldspar, red gypsum, red quartz, and flesh red barytes.
12. Rose I. Rose red, as in red zeolite, rose red quartz, and ruby.
13. Peach blossom red, as in striated and earthy red cobalt ores.
14. Cherry red, as in red antimony ore and ruby.
15. Brownish red, as in red argillaceous iron stone, and red earthy iron stone.
H. Brown is the eighth and last of the principal colours. It is divided into the eight following varieties.
1. Reddish brown, as in brown tin stone, and brown blende.
2. Clove brown, as in rock crystal, brown iron ore, and thumertonite.
3. Hair brown, as in wood tin ore from Cornwall.
4. Yellowish brown, as in brown iron ochre and jasper.
5. Tombac brown, or pinchbeck brown, as in brown mica.
6. Wood brown, as in bituminous wood, a variety of asbestus.
7. Liver brown, as in brown cobalt ore, and brown jasper.
8. Blackish brown, as in lowland argillaceous iron ore, mineral pitch, and bituminous wood.
II. Shade or Intensity of Colour.
Colours may be determined by the relation in which they stand to each other with regard to intensity or shade. Thus among the principal colours, there are some which are light, as white and yellow; and some which are dark, as blue and black; and besides, the varieties of the principal colours differ from each other in respect to shade. Thus among the blue colours, indigo blue is dark, azure blue clear, and sky blue light; and even the varieties may afford a diversity of shade, as, for instance, clear canary green, light canary green.
Here it ought to be remarked, that the peculiar shade of colour in a mineral is frequently owing to its greater or less transparency, the paleness being in proportion to the degree of transparency, and the darkness to the degree of opacity. The degree of lustre also in minerals produces great variety in the shade of colour.
In discriminating the shade or intensity of colour, four degrees have only in general been adopted. These are the following. 1. Dark. 2. Clear. 3. Light. 4. Pale.
1. Dark, as in Bohemian garnet, which is dark blood red.
2. Clear, as in green hornstone, which is clear mountain green.
3. Light, as in red carnelian, which is light blood red.
4. Pale, as in aquamarine, which is pale mountain green.
III. Tarnished Colours.
Tarnished colours afford peculiar characteristic marks of many minerals. By tarnishing, is meant a difference in the colour of the surface after exposure to the air from what the fresh fracture of the mineral exhibits.
Some minerals are always found tarnished in their natural position in the earth, as in common galena, gray ore of antimony and blende; some tarnish on every fresh fracture being made, as in native arsenic and copper pyrites; while others are tarnished in both cases, as Classification in native arsenic, and purple copper ore.
The colours of tarnished minerals are divided into:
1. Simple, and 2. Variegated.
1. Simple Tarnished Colours afford five varieties.
a. Gray is the tarnished colour of white cobalt ore, and steel gray of brown hematites.
b. Black is the tarnished colour of native arsenic, brown hematites, and gray cobalt ore.
c. Brown is the tarnished colour of native silver, which is white.
d. Reddish, of native bismuth, the fresh fracture of which is silver white.
e. Yellowish, of white cobalt ore, and argentiferous arsenical pyrites.
2. Variegated Tarnished Colours include four varieties.
a. Pavonine tarnished, as in copper pyrites, purple copper ore and common pyrites.
b. Iridescent tarnished, as in gray antimonial ore, galena, specular iron ore.
c. Columbine tarnished, as in copper pyrites.
d. Steel-coloured tarnished, as in gray cobalt ore.
IV. The Play of Colour.
The play of colour in a mineral can only be observed in full sunlight or in a strong light. By this is understood that property which some minerals possess of refracting from particular spots the different rays of light. This effect is produced by the peculiar association of the molecules of the mineral, and the various degrees of its transparency. Accidental causes, however, produce a similar effect, such as flight rifts, cracks, &c.
The play of colour is remarkable in the diamond and in the opal, and sometimes in rock crystal.
V. The Mutable Reflection of Colour.
This is distinguished from the play of colour by the mineral exhibiting in the same spot a change of colour according to the position of its surface being varied, producing a different angle with the incident rays of light. This change takes place, 1. On the surface; 2. Internally.
1. The superficial mutable reflection is finely exemplified in Labrador stone, and in a variety of marble which contains petrified shells.
2. The internal mutable reflection of colour appears in cat's eye, precious opal, and moonstone.
VI. The Mutation of Colour.
This is distinguished from the tarnish; in which latter the surface only undergoes a change of colour, but in the mutation of colour, the effect penetrates the mineral, and sometimes pervades the whole. This affords two varieties.
1. The fading of colour.—By this is meant that the colour of a mineral becomes paler when it is exposed to the light, heat, or is undergoing decomposition. Examples of these changes may be observed in striated red cobalt ore, which exposed to the air becomes pale brownish; blue fluor spar becomes green; chrysoberyl becomes light green; pearl gray silver ore becomes clear brown.
2. The perfect change of colour is often the consequence of fading, when one colour is lost, and a new one appears, as in light-coloured flaky iron ore; earthy gray ore of manganese, and argillaceous iron stone.
VII. Delineations of Colours.
The delineations of colours are observed on simple minerals, the same specimen containing several colours, which pass through its interior, according to certain delineations. Of these delineations the following nine varieties are described.
1. Dotted, when fine points of another colour are dispersed over the surface, as in serpentine, and some varieties of jasper.
2. Spotted, when the points or spots are of the size of a lentil to that of a sixpence, or from one-fourth to one inch in diameter. The spots are round and regular, or irregular. a. Regular, as in some varieties of serpentine, and in argillaceous schistus. b. Irregular, as in a variety of marble from Bayreuth.
3. Nebulous or cloudy, when the spots are large and irregular, forming with the ground colour the appearance of clouds, as in calcinedony and jasper.
4. Flamy, when the spots are large, and drawn in one direction to a sharp point, as in striped jasper and some marbles.
5. Striped, when large spots are drawn in the same direction, and run parallel through the whole specimen. There are two varieties. a. Straight or curved striped, as in straight striped jasper. b. Broad or linear, as in linear striped agate, calcinedony, &c.
6. Annular, when the stripes form concentric circles, as in jasper, carnelian, and flints.
7. Dendritic, when the delineation resembles the trunk of a tree separating into ramifications, as in fleatites, some limestones, Egyptian marble, and calcinedony.
8. Ruinout, when the delineation presents the appearance of ruins, as in Florentine or landscape marble.
9. Veined, when the delineation consists of variously coloured narrow stripes, crossing each other in different directions, forming sometimes the appearance of a net, as in marble, serpentine, and jasper.
II. THE COHESION OF THE PARTICLES.
The cohesion of the particles in minerals is the second common generic character, which is observed by the sight, and also by the touch. According to this property, minerals are divided into solid, friable, and fluid; but these properties also belong to the particular generic characters of minerals, to be afterwards described.
Particular Generic External Characters of Solid Minerals.
1. The External Appearance.
In the external appearance of a mineral, three things are to be observed, the external form, the external surface, and the external lustre.
a. The external form of a mineral is that figure or shape of the natural surface, which its primitive individuals are found to possess. The external forms of solid minerals are distinguished into common, particular, regular or crystallized, and extraneous.
1. Common External Shape.
When a mineral exhibits no resemblance to any known substances in common life, it is said to be of a common form. Of common forms there are five kinds.
A. Massive, when a mineral is of an indeterminate form, or amorphous, and of nearly equal dimensions, from the size of a hazel nut to the greatest magnitude, and when it is incorporated with another solid mineral, it is said to be massive. Solid minerals are most frequently found of this external form, and some are never found otherwise, as in teatites, common pit-coal, galena, and copper pyrites.
B. Diffused, or interspersed, when a mineral, without any particular form, is in small pieces not exceeding the size of a hazel nut, incorporated with another solid mineral. This affords three varieties. a. Coarsely interspersed, in size of a hazel nut to that of a pea, as in copper pyrites. b. Finely interspersed, from the size of a pea to that of a grain of millet, as in tintstone, in granular quartz. c. Minutely interspersed, from the size of a grain of millet till it is scarcely perceptible to the eye, as in interspersed native gold.
C. In angular pieces, of which there are two varieties. a. Sharp-cornered, as in calcinedony and in quartz. b. Blunt-cornered, as in common opal.
D. In grains. Detached minerals, from the size of a hazel nut to that which may be distinguished by the eye, are said to be in grains. These are distinguished, according to size, into a. In grofs grains from the size of a hazel nut to that of a pea, as in lowland argillaceous iron ore. b. Large grains, from the size of a pea to that of a hemp seed, as in precious garnet, magnetic iron sand. c. Small grains, from the size of hemp seed to that of millet, as in the above minerals.
E. In minute or fine grains, such as are smaller than millet seeds, as platinum, native gold, tintstone.
b. According to the form, which is in a. Angular grains, as in magnetic iron sand. b. Rounded grains, as in platinum and native gold.
c. According as they inhore in other minerals. In this respect they are, a. Loose, b. Partially, or γ. Wholly.
F. In plates, distinguished into a. Thick plates, as in red silver ore. b. Thin plates, as in vitreous silver ore.
F. In membranes or flakes, when the thickness does not much exceed that of paper, divided into a. Thick, as in native silver. b. Thin, as in iron pyrites. c. Very thin, as in vitreous silver ore.
2. Particular External Forms.
The forms which come under this denomination exhibit a greater or less resemblance, both to natural and artificial objects. They are called particular, because, like the former, they are not usual or common. There are five kinds of particular external forms, viz. elongated, rounded, flattened, impressed, and confused.
A. Elongated. Of this there are 11 varieties.
a. Dentiform, as in native silver, and dentiform vitreous silver ore.
b. Filiform, as in native silver, and vitreous silver ore.
c. Capillary, resembling hairs, as in native gold and native silver.
d. Reticulated, as in native silver, native copper, and a variety of galena.
e. Dendritic, which is either regular or irregular, as in native silver and native copper.
f. Coralliform, as in calcareous stalactites, commonly known by the name of flox ferri, and brown haematites.
g. Stalactiform, as in calcareous sinter, brown iron stone, and calcedony.
h. Tubuliform, as in compact brown iron stone, and galena.
i. Fissuliform, as in martial pyrites.
k. Fruticose, or arbusciform, as in black iron stone, and compact gray ore of manganese.
l. Matroform, having the figure of a chemical matrix, as in black haematites, and gray ore of manganese.
B. Rounded, of which there are five varieties.
a. Botryform, resembling a bunch of grapes, as in black cobalt ore, malachite, and copper pyrites.
b. Globular, of which there are five varieties.
c. Perfectly globular, as in pisolite, and white cobalt ore.
d. Elliptical, as in quartz and flint.
e. Amygdaloid, as in zeolite and green earth.
f. Spheroidal, as in Egyptian jasper and calcedony.
g. Imperfectly globular, as in carnelian and calcedony.
h. Kidneyform, as in red haematites, native arsenic, and malachite.
i. Bulbous or nodular, as in nodular flint and martial pyrites.
j. Liquiform, as in a singular variety of galena, from Freyberg.
C. Flattened. Of the particular forms of this denomination there are three kinds.
a. Specular, as in compact galena, and compact red iron stone.
b. In laminae or leaves, which form is peculiar to metals, as in native gold and silver.
c. Peletinated, as in quartz from Schenmitz.
D. Impressed. Particular forms of these afford six varieties.
a. Cellular, of which there are several kinds, as,
1. Hexahedral, as in quartz; 2. Polyhedral, as in cellular quartz and calcareous spar.
b. Round cellular, as, 1. Parallel round, as in quartz; 2. Spongiform, as also in quartz; 3. Indeterminate, as in brown iron stone; 4. Double, as in quartz and hepatic pyrites; 5. Veiny, as in white cobalt ore.
b. With impressions, which are,
1. Cubical, as in quartz and fluor spar.
2. Pyramidal, as in quartz, fluor spar, and vitreous silver ore.
3. Conical, as in native arsenic and quartz.
4. Tabular or prismatic, as in quartz.
5. Globular, as in vitreous silver ore.
Vol. XIV. Part I. point, and of a base having as many sides as the crystallization has lateral planes; as in quartz, calcareous spar, and amethyst.
6. The Table, which is composed of two parallel lateral planes, much larger in comparison than the other planes; the extreme planes being indeterminate in number, small, and narrow; as in tabular crystallized specular iron ore, calcareous spar, and heavy spar.
7. The Lens, consists of two lateral planes only, differing according as the lateral planes are differently curved. Of this there are two kinds: 1. The common lens, composed of two convex lateral planes; and, 2. The selliform, consisting of one convex and one lateral plane, somewhat resembling a saddle. Crystals of both kinds are observed in sparry iron ore and calcareous spar.
III. Differences in each kind of primary forms.
These primary forms differ from each other according to simplicity, position, number of planes, size of the planes, angles under which they meet, direction of the planes, and fulness of the crystal.
1. Simplicity. This distinction is confined to the pyramid, which is either,
A. Simple, as in light red silver ore, gray copper ore, quartz, amethyst; and
B. Double, in which those of the one pyramid are either,
a. Set on the lateral planes of the other, and this a. directly, or b. obliquely; or b. on the lateral edges of the other. Examples of this are observed in double pyramidal vitreous silver ore, galena, rock crystal, ruby, and diamond.
2. Position, which is either
A. Erect, which is very common; or, B. Inverted, which has only been observed in simple hexahedral pyramidal crystals of calcareous spar.
3. Number of planes, in the primary form, is in some determinate, and in the others variable. Here are to be considered,
A. The kind of planes, as
a. In the prism and pyramid, in which the lateral planes vary; and, b. In the table, in which the extreme planes vary.
B. The number of planes, which in the prism and pyramid are found,
a. Trihedral, having three planes, as in the trihedral prism of sapphire, and the trihedral pyramid of gray copper ore.
b. Tetrahedral, having four planes, as in the tetrahedral prism of arfvedson pyrites, and in the double tetrahedral pyramid of ruby and galena.
c. Hexahedral, as in the hexahedral prism and pyramid of calcareous spar.
d. Octahedral, as in the octahedral prism of topaz; and in the double octahedral pyramid of garnet and zeolite.
The table occurs,
a. Quadragonal, having four extreme planes, as in heavy spar, yellow lead ore, and calamine.
b. Hexagonal, having six extreme planes, as in mica and heavy spar.
c. Octagonal, or with eight extreme planes, as in yellow lead ore and heavy spar.
4. The size of the planes, in relation to each other, which are said to be
A. Equal, or
B. Unequal; and this latter is either indeterminate, or determinate.
a. Indeterminate, which is observed in the lateral planes of the hexahedral prism of rock crystal.
b. Determinately unequal, as in prismatic white lead ore, and hexahedral prismatic calcareous spar. In this latter the following varieties are observed.
a. Alternately broad and narrow. b. The two opposite broader; and, c. The two opposite narrower.
5. Angles under which the planes are associated. These are angles of the lateral edges, of the extreme edges, and of the summit.
A. Angles of the lateral edges. These are,
a. Equiangular, as in the icosahedral crystals of iron pyrites.
b. Rectangular, as in cubical fluor spar.
c. Oblique angular, as in rhombohedral calcareous spar.
d. Unequiangular, as in the hexahedral prism of rock crystal, and in the octahedral prism of topaz.
A. Angles of the extreme edges are,
a. Equiangular, as in the hexagonal table of mica.
b. Rectangular, as in the quadrangular table of heavy spar.
c. Oblique angular, which is either, a. Parallel, as in the tetrahedral prism of feldspar; or, b. Alternate oblique angular, as in copper pyrites.
d. Unequiangular, as in the hexagonal table of prehnite.
C. Angles of the summit, which are confined to the pyramid, and present the following varieties.
a. Very obtuse, when the angle is from $150^\circ$ to $130^\circ$, as in tourmaline.
b. Obtuse, when the angle is from $130^\circ$ to $110^\circ$, as in calcareous spar.
c. Rather obtuse, from $110^\circ$ to $90^\circ$, as in honey stone.
d. Rectangular, as in zircon.
e. Rather acute, from $90^\circ$ to $70^\circ$, as in quartz.
f. Acute, from $70^\circ$ to $50^\circ$, as in calcareous spar.
g. Very acute, from $50^\circ$ to $30^\circ$, as in sapphire.
6. The direction of the lateral planes. These are either straight or curved.
A. Straight planes are even surfaces, and are the most common.
B. Curved planes are distinguished according to position and form.
a. Position, which is, a. Inwardly curved or concave; or, b. Outwardly curved or convex; and, c. Inwardly and outwardly curved, or concave and convex. The first is observed in fluor spar, the second in diamond, and the third in sparry iron stone.
b. The form is either, a. Spherical, as in brown spar; b. Cylindrical, in which the curvature runs, i. Parallel to the sides, as in iron pyrites, or, ii. Parallel to the diagonal, as in fluor spar; and, c. Conical, as in gypsum.
7. The fulness of the crystal. Crystals are either full and perfect, or hollowed at the extremity, or throughout.
A. Full or perfect crystals, which is most commonly the case.
B. Hollowed. B. Hollowed at the extremity, as in calcareous spar, green lead ore, &c.
C. Hollow through the whole crystal, as in prismatic beryl.
§ Modifications of the primary form.
The changes or alterations which take place on the principal or fundamental form, are three; truncation, bevelling, and acumination.
I. Truncation. In the truncation are to be considered the parts and the determination.
1. The parts of the truncation are the planes, the edges, and the angles.
2. The determination of the truncation relates to,
a. The situation as it occurs at the angles or edges of the primary form.
b. Its magnitude, which, in relation to the planes of the primary form, is small or large; in the one case the angles or edges are said to be slightly, in the other deeply truncated.
c. The application of the truncation, which is either direct or oblique. The edges of cubical iron pyrites afford an example of oblique truncation.
d. The direction of the truncation, which presents either an even or a curved surface.
Cubical galena, with truncated angles; tetrahedral prismatic tin stone crystals, with truncated edges; double tetrahedral pyramidal tin stone crystals, with truncated edges, are instances of truncation.
II. Bevelling, in which the parts and determination are also to be considered.
1. The parts of the bevelling are, the planes, the edges, and the angles. The bevelling edges are distinguished into the proper bevelling edge, which is formed by the conjunction of the bevelling planes, and the bevelling edges formed by the junction of the bevelling planes with the lateral planes of the primary form.
2. The determination of the bevelling, in which is to be observed,
A. Its situation as it takes place, a. At the extreme planes, which is confined to the prism and table; b. At the edges, which is met with in the hexahedron, prism, pyramid, and table; and, c. At the angles, which is a very rare occurrence.
B. Its magnitude, which is said to be slight or deep.
C. The angle under which the bevelling planes conjoin, which is said to be, a. Acutely, b. Rectangularly, or, c. Obtusely bevelled.
D. The continuation of the bevelling, which is either uninterrupted, or interrupted. Of the latter case there are two varieties, when it is once or twice interrupted. The lateral edges of double trihedral pyramidal calcareous spar are once interruptedly bevelled; and the obtuse extreme edges of quadrangular tabular heavy spar, are twice interruptedly bevelled.
E. The application, a. Of the bevelling itself, which is either direct or oblique (the former is the most common, and the latter occurs in prismatic bafatic hornblende); and, b. Of the bevelling planes, which are set, either on the lateral planes, or on the lateral edges.
III. The acumination, in which are also to be considered the parts of the acumination and the determination.
1. The parts of the acumination consist of,
A. The acuminating planes B. The acuminating edges; which are distinguished into, a. Proper edges of acumination, formed by the junction of the acuminating planes; b. The extreme edges of acumination; c. The edges between the acuminating and lateral planes. C. The angles of acumination.
2. The determination of the acumination relating to,
A. Its situation, as it occurs at, a. The solid angles; or, b. At the extreme planes of the primary form. The acumination of the prism is always at the extreme planes; of the cube usually at the angles, and of the pyramid generally at the summit.
B. The planes themselves, in which are to be observed,
a. Their number, which is either equal to, or fewer than those of the primary form. In the hexahedral prism of calcareous spar and garnet, and in the trihedral prism of tourmaline, the acumination is by three planes; in the tetrahedral prism of jargon and hyacinth, by four planes; in the hexahedral prism of calcareous spar and rock crystal, by six planes; and in tetrahedral prismatic topaz, by eight planes.
b. Their relative size, which is either equal or unequal. In quartz and rock crystal, the planes of acumination are generally indeterminately unequal; and in heavy spar they are determinately equal.
c. Their form, which is determinate, as in hyacinth and calcareous spar; or indeterminate, as in jargon and wolfram.
d. Their application, which is either on the lateral planes of the primary form, as in jargon and hyacinth, or on the lateral edges, as in calcareous spar and garnet.
C. The summit of the acumination, which is, a. Obtuse, as in hexahedral prismatic garnet; b. Rectangular, as in tetrahedral prismatic jargon; or, c. Acute, as in hexahedral prismatic calcareous spar.
D. The magnitude of the acumination, which is said to be, a. Slightly acuminated, as in gray copper ore and copper pyrites; or, b. Deeply, as in fluor spar, with the angles acuminated by 6 planes.
E. Determination of the acumination; which is either a point or a line. The first is the most common; and the last is met with in prismatic white lead ore and heavy spar.
γ. Manifold modifications of the primary form.
In these modifications crystals are either, 1. Situated beside each other; or, 2. Placed the one above the other.
But in describing a crystallization, the number of its planes in general, and of each kind in particular, and their figure, if determinate, may be noticed, to render the description more accurate. As, for instance, cubical galena, with truncated angles, consists of 6 octagonal and 4 triangular planes.
And still further, in explaining the form of crystallizations, by way of addition may be mentioned,
1. The different modes of determination of which they are capable. Two different modes may in some cases be adopted.
a. The representative, by which is understood the description of a crystallization according to its apparent form; or,
b. The derivative, which is founded on the consideration of its derivation, and its relation to the other crystals of the same mineral. The prismatic crystallization of the tourmaline is representatively an enneahed- dral prism, and derivatively a tribedral prism, with the three lateral sides bevelled.
But, in general, the chief or essential form of a crystallization is determined by, a. The largest planes; b. The greatest regularity; c. The most frequent occurrence of the crystallizations; d. The affinity to the other primary forms; e. The suitability and peculiarity of its modifications; and, f. The greatest simplicity in the mode of determination.
2. The transitions from one primary form into another. These arise,
a. From the gradually increased extent of the modifying planes, and the decreased extent of the primary planes; or,
b. From a change in the relative size of the planes; or,
c. From a change in the angles under which the planes are associated; or,
d. From the convexity of the planes; or,
e. From the aggregation of crystals.
3. The difficulties which are opposed to the exact determination of crystals. These proceed, a. From their compression, some planes being uncommonly large or small; or, b. From their penetrating each other, as in tin-flake crystals; or, c. From their partial concealment, as in feldspar, hornblende, and garnet; or, d. From their being broken, as often happens in the crystallization of precious stones; or, e. From their extreme minuteness.
C. The aggregation of crystals. According to this, crystals are either,
a. Single, in which case they are, a. Loose or detached, as in precious stones, cubical iron pyrites, &c.; b. Inhering or inlaying in another mineral, as feldspar in porphyry; or, c. Adhering, as in quartz crystals; or,
b. Aggregated, which are either regular or irregular.
a. Regular or determinate; such are, 1. Twin crystals, as in flurolite or cross stone; and, 2. Triple crystals, as in calcareous spar and ruby: but this is very rare.
b. Many singly aggregated crystals, are such crystals as are, 1. Heaped upon one another, as in calcareous and fluor spar; 2. Adhering laterally, as in amethyst crystals; and, 3. Implicated one in the other, as in gray antimonial ore, and in the hexahedral prisms of calcareous spar.
γ. Many doubly aggregated crystals are distributed according to the form they assume; such as the following, are enumerated.
1. Scopiform, when aggregated, needle-like, and capilliform crystals diverge from a common centre, as in zeolite, striated red cobalt ore, and capilliform pyrites.
2. Fusiform, which is composed of double scopiform, with a common centre, as in calcareous spar, zeolite, and prehnite.
3. Acicular or columnar. Elongated, equally thick prisms adhering laterally together, are of this description, as in acicular heavy spar, and a variety of white lead ore.
4. In a row, like a string of pearls, as in pyramidal crystals of quartz.
5. Bud-like, in simple pyramids whose bases are connected, and whose joints are directed towards each other, as in bud-like druse of quartz.
6. Globular, a casual aggregation, consisting mostly of tables or cubes, arranged in a globular form, as in octahedral iron pyrites.
7. Amygdaloid, when the tables are externally accumulated, smaller upon smaller, as in heavy spar.
8. Pyramidal, which takes place chiefly in prisms nearly parallel, the summits inclining to each other; the central prism being the highest, as in calcareous spar.
9. Rose-like, composed of thin tables, on whose lateral planes others are assembled, and arranged in a rose-like appearance.
D. The magnitude of crystals, which is determined,
a. According to the greatest dimension, as a. Of an uncommon size, in crystals which exceed two feet, as in quartz and rock crystal; b. Very large, from two feet to six inches, as in rock crystal and calcareous spar; γ. Large, from six to two inches, as in iron pyrites, fluor spar, and garnet; δ. Of a middling size, from two inches to half an inch, which are very common; ε. Small, from half an inch to one-eighth of an inch, also very common; ζ. Very small, from one-eighth of an inch to such as may be distinguished by the naked eye, as in corneous silver ore, and very small tin stone crystals; η. Minute, whose form cannot be distinguished by the naked eye, as in native gold and green lead ore.
b. According to relative dimensions, when compared with others; and this is distinguished into a. Short or low, and long or high; b. Broad and narrow, or elongated; γ. Thick and thin, or slender; δ. Needle-like and capilliform; ε. Spicular, and ζ. Globular or tessular.
4. Extraneous external forms, or petrifications, which are divided into petrifications of animals, and petrifications of vegetables.
A. Petrifications of animals, or zoolites, as
a. Of the class mammalia, the parts of which commonly found are the bones, the teeth, horns, and skeletons. Such are the bones of the elephant and the rhinoceros, which are found in Siberia, and the bones of the mammoth from North America.
b. Of birds, petrifications of which are very rare. Some skeletons of aquatic birds have been met with in limestone near Oening.
c. Of amphibious animals, such as those of the tortoise, found in the same vicinity as the bones of the elephant; of frogs and toads, in the lime stone of Oening; and of an animal resembling a crocodile in aluminous shale near Whitby in Yorkshire.
d. Of fishes, of which whole fishes, skeletons, and impressions, have been found in different places.
e. Of insects, petrifications of which are not very common, excepting insects, such as crabs, which have been frequently observed.
f. Of vermes, of which numerous petrifications are found belonging to the orders testacea, crustacea, and corallina or corals.
B. Petrifications of vegetables, which are less numerous in the mineral kingdom than those of animals. These are distinguished into
a. Petrified wood, the most usual of which are petrifications of the trunk, branches, or roots of trees, and commonly commonly consisting of siliceous substances, as woodstone, jasper, horn stone.
II. Impressions of leaves and plants, which are not uncommon in the strata of coal countries, particularly in the flint, sandstone, the argillaceous iron stone, and the coal itself.
II. The external surface, which is the second particular generic character of solid minerals; and this is,
1. Uneven, having irregular elevations and depressions, as in calcadony. 2. Granular, when the elevations are small, round, and nearly equal, as in stalactitical brown haematites. 3. Drusy, having minute, prominent, equal crystals on the surface, as in iron pyrites and quartz crystals. 4. Rough, when the elevations are minute and almost imperceptible, as in cellular quartz. 5. Scaly, when the surface is composed of slender splinters like scales, as in chrysolite. 6. Smooth, as in haematites and fluor spar. 7. Streaked, which is either singly or doubly streaked.
A. Singly streaked surfaces are, a. Transversely, as in rock crystals; b. Longitudinally, as in topaz and prismatic flint; c. Diagonally, as in specular iron ore; and d. Alternately, as in iron pyrites.
B. Doubly streaked, which is, a. Plumiformly, or like a feather, as in native silver and native bismuth; and b. Retiformly, as in gray cobalt ore.
8. Rugo. Of slight linear elevations, as in calcadony.
III. The external lustre, in which are to be determined,
1. The intensity of the lustre, which is distinguished into different degrees, as A. Resplendent, which is the strongest kind of lustre, as in native quicksilver, galena, and rock crystal. B. Shining, as in gray copper ore, heavy spar, and pitchstone. C. Weakly shining, as in iron pyrites, fibrous gypsum, and garnet. D. Glimmering, as in earthy tale, in the fracture of flint, and of steatites. E. Dull, as in most friable minerals, as in earthy lead ore, mountain-cork, chalk, &c.
2. The kind of lustre, which is either common or metallic.
A. The common lustre belongs chiefly to earthy stones and salts. It is distinguished into a. Glossy, as in quartz and rock crystal. b. Waxy or greasy, as in opal, and in yellow and green lead ores. c. Pearly, as in zeolite. d. Diamond, as in white lead ore and diamond. e. Semimetallic, as in mica and haematites.
B. Metallic lustre, which is peculiar to metals and most of their ores, as native gold and native silver, copper pyrites, and galena.
Appearance of the fracture.
Here, as in the external appearance, three kinds of characters present themselves; I. The internal lustre; II. The fracture; III. The form of the fragment.
I. The internal lustre, the characters of which are to be determined in the same manner as the external lustre.
II. The fracture, which is either compact or jointed.
1. The compact fracture, which is distinguished into splintery, conchoidal, uneven, earthy, and hackly.
A. Splintery, which is either a. Coarse splintery, as in quartz, prase, and jade; or b. Fine splintery, as in hornstone and fine splintery limestone.
B. Even, which happens in minerals that are usually opake, and have only a glimmering lustre, as in compact galena, calcadony, and yellow carnelian.
C. Conchoidal, which is distinguished, a. According to the size, into large and small. b. According to the appearance, into perfect and imperfect; and c. According to the depth into deep and flat.
Flint, opal, jasper, and obsidian, afford examples of the conchoidal fracture.
D. Uneven, which is either, a. Of a coarse grain, as in copper pyrites. b. Of a small grain, as in gray copper ore, and c. Of a fine grain, as in arfvedson pyrites.
E. Earthy, which is the common fracture in earths and stones, as in marl, chalk, limestone.
F. Hackly, in which the fracture exhibits sharp points, which is peculiar to the metals, as in native gold and native copper.
2. The jointed fracture. This is divided into the fibrous, striated, foliated, and slaty.
A. The fibrous fracture, in which are to be observed, a. The thickness of the fibres, as they are coarse, fine, or delicate, as gypsum, fine fibrous malachite, and in wood-tin-ore. b. The direction of the fibres, which are straight, as in red haematites, and gray antimonial ore; or curved, as in black haematites, and fibrous rock salt. c. The position of the fibres, which is a. Parallel, as in rock salt and amianthus; b. Diverging, which is i. Stelliform, as in black haematites, and fibrous zeolite; or 2. Scopiform, as in fibrous malachite; or γ. Promiscuous, as in gray antimonial ore. d. The length of the fibres, which is α. Long, as in gypsum and amianthus; or β. Short, as in red haematites.
B. Striated, in which are to be considered, a. The breadth of the striae, which are, α. Narrow, as in azure copper ore; β. Broad, as in actynolite and hornblende; or γ. Very broad, as in sapphire and zeolite. b. The direction of the striae, which is either, α. Straight, as in gray ore of manganese; or β. Curved, as in zeolite and actynolite. c. The position of the striae, which is α. Parallel, as in abefusus and hornblende; β. Diverging, which is distinguished into stelliform, as in iron pyrites and zeolite, or scopiform, as in actynolite and limestone; or γ. Promiscuous, as in gray antimonial ore and actynolite. d. Length of the striae, as being α. Long striated, as in abefusus and gray antimonial ore; or β. Short striated, as in actynolite. C. The foliated fracture, in which are to be determined,
a. The magnitude of the folia, as being a. Large foliated, as in mica and specular gypsum; b. Scaly foliated, which is distinguished into 1. Coarse, 2. Small, and 3. Fine scaly foliated, as in micaceous iron ore and gypsum; c. Granularly foliated, which is distinguished into 1. Grofs, 2. Coarse, 3. Small, and 4. Fine granularly foliated, as in sparry iron ore, blende, and calcareous spar.
b. The perfection of the folia, as being a. Perfectly foliated, as in feldspar; b. Imperfectly foliated, as in topaz; or c. Concealed foliated, as in emerald.
c. The direction of the folia, which is a. Straight, as in large foliated blende; or b. Curved foliated. The latter is distinguished into 1. Spherically curved, as in heavy spar; 2. Undularly curved, as in talc; 3. Petaloidally curved, as in galena; or 4. Indeterminately curved, as in mica and specular gypsum.
d. The passage or cleavage of the folia, which is,
a. According to the angle which one passage forms with another; and this is either, 1. Rectangular, or 2. Oblique angular; or,
b. According to the number of the cleavages, and is either,
1. A single cleavage, as in mica and talc; 2. A double cleavage, as in feldspar and hornblende; 3. A triple cleavage, as in calcareous spar and sparry iron ore; 4. A quadruple cleavage, as in fluor spar; 5. A sextuple cleavage, as in yellow, brown, and black blende.
D. The flaty fracture, in which are to be determined the thickness and direction of the lamellae.
a. The thickness of the lamellae, which is either,
a. Thick, or b. Thin flaty.
b. The direction of the lamellae, as being either,
a. Straight, or b. Curved flaty; the latter being distinguished into, 1. Undularly, or 2. Indeterminately curved.
In some minerals which possess distinct parts, two kinds of fracture may be observed. Thus, in fibrous gypsum, and in red and brown haematites, both the fibrous and foliated fracture appear; the fibres are then intersected by the folia under a certain angle. In topaz, the transverse fracture is foliated, and the longitudinal fracture is conchoidal.
III. The form of the fragments, which is either regular or irregular.
1. Regular fragments, as when they are,
A. Cubical, as in galena and rock salt.
B. Rhomboidal, in which case the fragments are
a. Specular on all the planes, as in heavy spar;
b. On four planes, as in feldspar and hornblende; and,
c. On two planes, as in specular gypsum.
C. Triangular fragments, &c.
D. Trihedral pyramidal fragments are rarely to be seen distinctly, excepting in fluor spar.
E. Dodecahedral fragments, as in blende.
2. Irregular fragments, as when they are,
a. Cuneiform, as in wood-tin-ore, and malachite.
B. Specular, as in amiantus.
C. Tabular, as in mica and talc.
D. Indeterminate, which are the most common among solid minerals, and are distinguished into
a. Very sharp edged, as in obsidian, common opal, and rock crystal.
b. Sharp edged, as in hornstone and quartz.
c. Moderately sharp edged, as in limestone.
d. Rather blunt edged, as in flintites; and
e. Blunt edged, as in chalk and fuller's earth.
3. The appearance of the distinct concretions.
In determining this character, the form of the distinct concretion, the surface of separation, and the nature of separation, are to be considered.
I. The form of the distinct concretions, which is either granular, lamellar, columnar, or pyramidal.
A. Granular, distinct concretions are distinguished,
1. Round granular, which is either a. Spherically round, as in roe stone and pifolite; or b. Lenticularly granular, as in argillaceous iron stone; or c. Elongated round granular, as in quartz; and,
b. Angularly granular, which is either a. Common, as in galena and calcareous spar; or b. Elongated angularly granular, as in hornblende and granular lime-stone.
B. With regard to the size of the concretions. These are,
a. Grofs granular, as in zeolite and blende.
b. Coarse granular, as in mica, galena, and pifolite.
c. Small granular, as in roe stone and garnet; and
d. Fine granular distinct concretions, as in granular limestone and galena.
2. Lamellar distinct concretions. The differences to be observed here are, with respect to the direction or form, and the thickness.
A. With respect to the direction or form, they are either,
a. Straight lamellar: and again either quite straight, as in some galena and heavy spar; or fortification-like, as in some amethyst and calcedony.
b. Curved lamellar, which is either indeterminate, as in galena and specular iron ore; reniform, as in fibrous malachite and native arsenic; or concentric, which is either spherical concentric, as in calcedony and pifolite, or conically concentric, as in some stalactites and haematites.
B. With regard to the thickness, as being
a. Very thick, the concretions exceeding one-half inch, as in amethyst and heavy spar.
b. Thick, the concretions being between one-half and one-fourth inch, as in heavy spar and native arsenic.
c. Thin, between one-fourth and one-half inch, as in calcedony.
d. Very thin, from a line to a thickness just perceptible to the naked eye, as in specular iron.
3. Columnar distinct concretions, which are distinguished with regard to the direction, thickness, form, and position.
A. The direction, which is either,
a. Straight columnar, as in schorl and calcareous spar; and,
b. Curved columnar, as in argillaceous iron stone, and specular iron ore.
B. The thickness is distinguished into,
a. Very thick, when the diameter exceeds two inches, as in basalt and quartz.
b. Thick b. Thick columnar, from two inches to one-fourth inch, as in amethyst and calcareous spar.
c. Thin, from one-fourth to one-half inch, as in calcareous spar and argillaceous iron stone.
d. Very thin, the thickness being less than a line, as in schorl and columnar argillaceous iron stone.
C. The form of the concretions being either
a. Perfectly columnar, as in argillaceous iron stone.
b. Imperfectly, as in amethyst.
c. Cuneiform columnar, as in calcareous spar and arsenical pyrites.
D. The position of the concretions, which is either
a. Parallel columnar, as in schorlite, or
b. Diverging or promiscuous columnar, as in schorl and arsenical pyrites.
4. Pyramidal distinct concretions. This form of concretion is very rare, and has been observed only in the basalt of Iceland, Faro, and Bohemia.
II. The surface of separation, which is distinguished into
1. Smooth, as in wood tin ore.
2. Rough, as in native arsenic.
3. Uneven, as in galena and blende; and
4. Streaked, which is either,
A. Longitudinally streaked, as in schorl and schorlite.
B. Transversely and fortification-like, as in amethyst and specular iron ore.
III. The lustre of separation. This character is to be determined in the same manner as the external lustre.
4. The General Appearance.
This comprehends three particular generic characters, the transparency, the streak, and the stain.
I. The transparency, which is distinguished into the following five degrees.
1. Transparent, which is either,
A. Common, as when objects appear single through a transparent mineral; or,
B. Doubling, when objects appear double, as in calcareous spar, or double refracting spar, jargon, and chrysolite.
2. Semitransparent, as in opal and calcadony.
3. Translucent, as in flint, cat's eye, and fluor spar.
4. Translucent at the edges, as in hornstone and foliated gypsum.
5. Opake, which is peculiar to minerals of a metallic lustre, as in malachite and jasper.
II. The streak, which is either,
1. Of the same colour, or,
2. Different from that of the mineral, and whose lustre is the same; or,
B. More or less different.
In red silver ore the streak is a dark crimson red; in cinnabar, scarlet red; in green lead ore, greenish-white; in red lead ore, clear lemon yellow.
III. The stain. With respect to this character, minerals are distinguished into such as,
1. Simply stain, and this either strongly or weakly, as gray ore of manganese, and red scaly iron ore; and into such as
2. Both stain and mark, as chalk and plumbago; and
3. Such as do not stain.
Characters for the Touch.
Characters of this description are, hardness, flexibility, and adhesion to the tongue.
I. The hardness, which is determined by the following degrees.
1. Hard, as when a mineral gives fire with steel, but cannot be scraped with the knife. This character is distinguished into,
A. Hard, when the file makes a considerable impression, as in feldspar and schorl.
B. Very hard, on which it makes a weak impression, as in rock crystal and topaz.
C. Extremely hard, on which the file makes no impression, as diamond and emery.
2. Semihard may be slightly scraped with a knife, but gives no fire with steel, as red copper ore, blende, limestone.
3. Soft, easily scraped with the knife, as in galena, mica, asbestos.
4. Very soft, which receives an impression from the nail, as in gypsum, chalk, talc.
II. The solidity, according to which solid minerals are distinguished into,
1. Brittle, when the particles are in the highest degree coherent and immoveable, as in quartz, gray copper ore, and copper pyrites.
2. Sectile, when the particles are coherent but not perfectly immoveable among one another, as in plumbago and galena.
3. Malleable, when the integrant particles are coherent and also more or less moveable among one another, as in the most of the native metals.
III. The frangibility, with regard to which solid minerals are either,
1. Very difficultly frangible, as native metals, and massive common hornblende.
2. Difficultly frangible, as in pate, massive quartz, and asbestos.
3. Rather easily frangible, as iron pyrites, vitreous copper ore.
4. Easily frangible, as in galena, opal, and heavy spar.
5. Very easily frangible, as in amber and pitcoal.
IV. The flexibility, according to which solid minerals are,
1. Flexible, which is distinguished into,
A. Common, as in malleable minerals, amianthus, gold ore.
B. Elastic, as in mica, elastic mineral pitch from Derbyshire.
2. Inflexible, such minerals as break when the direction of the fibres is changed.
V. The adhesion to the tongue, according to which some minerals possess this property
1. Strongly, as in hydrophane.
2. Rather strongly, as in bole and lithomarga.
3. Weakly, as talc.
4. Very weakly, as in clay.
5. No adhesion at all, as is the case with most minerals.
Characters for the Hearing.
I. The sound, which is distinguished into
1. Ringing or founding, as in native arsenic and common slate.
2. Creaking, as in native amalgam when pressed with the finger.
3. Rustling. 3. Rubbing, as in passing the finger over mountain cork and farinaceous zeolite.
2. Particular generic characters of friable minerals.
The characters included under this title are the external form, the lustre, the appearance of the particles, the stain and the friability.
I. The external form, which is either massive, as in porcelain earth; interfused, as in black silver ore; as a thick or thin crust, as in black copper ore; semi-form, as in red and brown fealy iron ores; dendritic, as gray ore of manganese; or reniform, as pure clay and earthy talc.
II. The lustre, which is determined as in solid minerals; but here it is distinguished,
1. With regard to intensity, as A. Glimmering, as in earthy talc and fealy iron ore; and, B. Dull, as in earthy lead ore and lithomarga.
2. With regard to the kind, as it is common or metallic.
III. The appearance of the particles, which is either,
1. Dusty, as in black copper ore, iron ochres. 2. Scaly, as in earthy talc.
IV. The stain is distinguished in friable minerals as being either,
1. Strong, as in fealy iron ore. 2. Weak, as in earthy lead ores.
V. The friability, with regard to which friable minerals are either,
1. Pulverulent, as earthy lead ores, and blue martial earth. 2. Loosely coherent, as fealy iron ore and clays.
3. Particular generic characters of fluid minerals.
These characters relate to the external form, the lustre, the transparency, the fluidity, and the wetting of the fingers.
I. The external form, which is either,
1. In globules; and, 2. Liquiform; both which characters belong to native mercury.
II. The lustre, which is determined as formerly explained, and is either 1. Common; or 2. Metallic, as in native mercury.
III. The transparency, of which three degrees are distinguished in fluid minerals: 1. Transparent, as in naphtha; 2. Turbid, as in petroleum; 3. Opake, as in native mercury.
IV. The fluidity, which is characterized by being,
1. Perfectly fluid, as mercury, and, 2. Cohesive, as in mineral tar.
V. The wetting of the fingers. 1. Some fluid minerals wet the fingers, as mineral tar; and, 2. Some do not, as native mercury.
Remaining Common Generic External Characters.
The remaining common generic characters are the unctuousness; the coldness; the weight; the smell; and the taste.
III. The unctuousness, of which there are four degrees.
1. Meagre, as is the case with most minerals. 2. Rather greasy, as pipe clay. 3. Greasy, as fullers earth and steatites. 4. Very greasy, as talk and plumbago.
IV. The coldness, which includes three degrees.
1. Cold, having the coldness of quartz, as hornstone, jasper, marble. 2. Rather cold, as serpentine, gypsum.
3. Slightly cold, as amber, pitcoal, and chalk.
By this character cut and polished stones may be distinguished, where some of the other characters are lost; and by it also natural gems may be distinguished from those which are artificial.
V. The weight.—This character is most accurately discovered by taking the specific gravity of a mineral by means of a hydrometric balance. See Hydrodynamics. But when this cannot be had recourse to, a mineral is examined by lifting it in the hand and comparing its weight, thus estimated by the feeling, with its volume, by which means an approximation may be made to its specific gravity. Five degrees of this mode of estimating the weight of minerals have been affirmed.
1. Supernatant, such minerals as swim in water, as naphtha, mountain cork. 2. Light, such minerals as have a specific gravity between 1,000 and 2,000, (taking water at 1,000) as amber, mineral pitch, and pitcoal. 3. Rather heavy, are such minerals as have a specific gravity between 2,000 and 4,000, which is the case with most kinds of stones, as amianthus, rock crystal, mica, fluor spar, diamond. 4. Heavy, when the specific gravity is from 4,000 to 6,000, as in most metallic ores, such as gray copper ore, red hematites, white lead ore, and in some others as heavy spar. 5. Extremely heavy, when the specific gravity exceeds 6,000, which includes the native metals, as native gold, native copper, and native silver, and some others, as galena, tinstone crystals, sulphurated bismuth, and vitreous silver ore.
VI. The smell is characteristic of only a small number of minerals. It is observed either,
1. Of itself without addition, and is, A. Bituminous, as mineral pitch and naphtha. B. Slightly sulphureous, as in native sulphur and gray antimonial ore. C. Bitterish, as in ochre kept close shut up for some time. D. Clayey, as in yellow chalk. 2. After breathing on a mineral, which should be cold and breathed upon strongly and quickly, when the smell perceived is, A. Clayey bitter, as in hornblende and some felsites. 3. After rubbing or striking, when the smell emitted is, A. Urinous, as in flintstone after rubbing. B. Sulphureous, as in pyrites. C. Garlic, as in irnical pyrites and white cobalt ore. D. Empyreumatic, as in quartz and pitcoal.
VII. The taste, which is characteristic of one class of minerals, only, viz. the salts; and it is either,
1. Sweetish saline, as rock salt. 2. Sweetish astringent, as native alum. 3. Sourish astringent, as native vitriol. 4. Bitter saline, as native Epsom salt. 5. Cooling saline, as native nitre. 6. Lixivious, as native alkali. 7. Urinous, as native sal ammoniac.
Besides the characters which we have now illustrated, some others are occasionally and successfully employed in the description of minerals. These have been brought under under the denomination of physical, chemical, and empirical characters.
1. Physical. The most common of the physical characters is the property which some minerals possess of exhibiting signs of electricity and magnetism. Some minerals become electric by being heated, and others by friction; and the electricity thus excited is in some vitreous or positive, and in others resinous or negative. Some minerals, too, and particularly some varieties of iron ore, are distinguished by being attracted by the magnet. Such are magnetic pyrites, and magnetic iron sand. By filing a mineral so fine that the particles shall swim on water, and then applying a magnet, the slightest degree of magnetic effect may be observed. Among the physical properties of minerals also, may be reckoned the phosphorescence, which is produced by friction, as in some varieties of blende; or by exposure to heat, as fluor spar, and some calcareous spars. To these characters also belongs the peculiar property of Lemnian earth and some other stones, which being thrown into water split into pieces with a crackling noise; and the property of some opals and other stones, of acquiring a higher degree of transparency when they are immersed in water, hence called hydrophanes.
2. Chemical characters.—By some simple experiments, the nature of many mineral substances may be easily and quickly ascertained, and particularly by means of acids. Thus, the nitrous acid is employed to discover whether a mineral effervesces, from which character the nature of the mineral can be more certainly known than by any other. Ammonia, or the volatile alkali, dissolves copper, and assumes a blue colour. Acetic acid is successfully employed as a test of lead, which communicates to the acid a sweetish taste. By means of heat, and particularly by the use of the blowpipe, much knowledge may be obtained of the nature of minerals. Some are volatilized; in others the colour is changed; and while some are nearly fused at different temperatures, others burn with a flame of peculiar colours.
3. Empirical characters.—Among these characters, the most common is the peculiar efflorescence which takes place in some ores. In copper ores the efflorescence is green or blue; in iron ores, brown, yellow, or red; in cobalt, peach blossom red; and in arsenic, white.
Characters for the distinction of minerals may be obtained from the circumstance of certain minerals being found generally accompanying others; as native arsenic with orpiment; gray copper ore with copper pyrites, and gray silver ore; red copper ore with native copper; white cobalt ore is rarely found without nickel; and by attending to this circumstance, it will not be mistaken for arsenical pyrites.
For the sake of brevity, Mr Kirwan, and others after him, have adopted a method of expressing some of the characters by means of numbers. The following table exhibits some of these characters and corresponding numbers.
| Replendent, denoted by the number | 4 | |----------------------------------|--| | Shining | 3 | | Weakly shining | 2 | | Glimmering | 1 | | Dull | 0 |
Fragments, when the form is indeterminate.
| Very sharp-edged | 4 | | Sharp-edged | 3 | | Rather sharp-edged | 2 | | Rather blunt | 1 | | Perfectly blunt | 0 |
Transparency.
| Transparent | 4 | | Semitransparent | 3 | | Tranlucent | 2 | | Tranlucent at the edges | 1 | | Opake | 0 |
Hardness.
| Of chalk, denoted by | 3 | | Yielding to the nail | 4 | | May be scraped with a knife | 5 | | Yields more difficulty to the knife | 6 | | Scarcely yields to the knife | 7 | | Does not give fire with steel | 8 | | Gives feeble sparks with steel | 9 | | Gives lively sparks | 10 |
But it is obvious that this abridged mode of expressing these characters, by means of numbers, can only be advantageously employed by those who have made themselves quite familiar with the different numbers corresponding to the different shades of character, and who can thus recollect them with facility and precision. To others this method of description, by requiring constant reference to the explanation, may prove rather embarrassing, so that what is gained in brevity may be lost in perplexity. We propose, therefore, still to retain the verbal mode of expression in preference to the numerical.
Table of Minerals arranged in the order of their Genera and Species, each Genus being divided into Families or Groupes, the characters of which latter are derived from their external properties according to the method of Werner.
First Class.
EARTHS & STONES.
I. DIAMOND Genus. Diamond.
II. ZIRCON Genus. Zircon. Hyacinth.
III. SILICEOUS Genus. Chrysoberyl Family.
Chrysoberyl. Chrysoelite. Olivine. Coccolite. Augite. Veluvian.
Garnet Family.
Leucite. Melanite. Garnet. a. Precious. b. Common. c. Bohemian or Pyrope. Grenatite or Staurolite.
Ruby Family.
Ceylanite. Spinel. Sapphire. Corindum. Adamantine spar. Emery.
Schörl