in Law, is a title acquired by use and time, and allowed by law; as when a man claims any thing, because he, his ancestors, or they whose estate he hath, have had or used it all the time whereof no memory is to the contrary: or it is where for continuance of time, ultra memoriam hominis, a particular person hath a particular right against another.

There is a difference between prescription, custom, and usage. Prescription hath respect to a certain person, who by intendment may have continuance for ever; as for instance, he and all they whose estate he hath in such a thing; this is a prescription: but custom is local, and always applied to a certain place; as, time out of mind there has been such a custom in such a place, &c. And prescription belongeth to one or a few only; but custom is common to all. Usage differs from both, for it may be either to persons or places; as to inhabitants of a town to have a way, &c.

A custom and prescription are in the right; usage is in the possession; and a prescription that is good for the matter and substance, may be bad by the manner of setting it forth: but where that which is claimed as a custom, in or for many, will be good, that regularly will be so when claimed by prescription for one. Prescription is to be time out of mind; though it is not the length of time that begets the right of prescription, nothing being done by time, although every thing is done in time; but it is a presumption in law, that a thing cannot continue so long quiet, if it was against right, or injurious to another.

Scots Law. See Law, p. 675. and 702.

Theology, was a kind of argument pleaded by Tertullian and others in the 3rd century against erroneous doctors. This mode of arguing has been despised by some, both because it has been used by Papists, and because they think that truth has no need of such a support. But surely in disputed points, if it can be shown that any particular doctrine of Christianity was held in the earliest ages, even approaching the apostolic, it must have very considerable weight; and indeed that it has so, appears from the universal appeals of all parties to those early times in support of their particular opinions. Besides, the thing is in itself natural; for if a man finds a variety of opinions in the world upon important passages in scripture, where shall he be so apt to get the true sense as from contemporary writers or others who lived very near the apostolic age? and if such a man shall find any doctrine or interpretation to have been universally believed in the first ages, or as Vincentius Lirinensis words it, *semper ubique et ab omnibus*, he will unquestionably be disposed to think such early and universal consent, or such prescription, of very considerable weight in determining his opinion.

**EXTemporaneous Prescriptions.**

A Prescription, in a medical sense, signifies much the same with what in common language is called a receipt, being "a form of direction for the preparation and administration of some compound medicine." These medical receipts are commonly called formulae by physicians; and the term prescription is applied to what is written by a physician on seeing his patient, instructing the apothecary what medicines are to be prepared, how they are to be composed, and how administered to the patient. In this sense, a prescription may contain two or more formulae.

These prescriptions are almost always written in Latin, and are expressed in a peculiar style, which, though well known to physicians and apothecaries, may require the illustration of an example. The following is a specimen of a modern prescription, as it would be written by an Edinburgh and a London physician, according to the nomenclature of their respective college Pharmacopoeias.

**Edinburgh Prescription.**

For Mr ———.

Bo Pulv. Rad. Rhei palmati gr. xxv. Tartritis Potashii 3ij. Tinctura Sennae composita, Syrupi Rosei centifloriae 3a 3ij. Aquae Menthae piperitidis 3f. M.f. Potio summa mane fumenda. Jan. 31. 1809. G. F.

**London Prescription.**

Bo Pulv. Rhei gr. xxv. Kali Tartarici 3ij. Tinctura Sennae Syrupi Rosei 3a 3ij. Aquae Menthae piperitidis 3f. M. &c.

From the above examples, it will be seen that a prescription, properly so called, contains several circumstances beside the formulae or receipts, as the name of the patient, for whom the prescription is written; the signature of the physician, as G. F. for George Fordyce, &c., and the date of prescribing; none of which should be omitted, as the prescriptions are carefully preserved by the apothecary, for future reference.

It may be proper to explain some circumstances respecting the formula given in the above prescription. The Bo with which it commences signifies recipe or take; and is prefixed to all medical receipts. Then follow the several ingredients of which the medicine is to be composed, with the quantities of each. These quantities are usually marked by peculiar characters or symbols, which will be examined hereafter; and the numbers employed are usually the Roman numerals. After the ingredients have been enumerated, and their quantities specified, there follows the title of the medicine, as Potio in the present instance, signifying potion or purging draught, with M. f. prefixed to it, which stand for *mifce fiat*, or *mifce ut fiat*, mix to make; and lastly the direction how the medicine is to be taken or administered; *summo mane fumenda*; to be taken early in the morning. In England, these directions are always written in Latin, but in Scotland it is, we believe, more common to write them in English. We shall consider the propriety of this latter mode in a future part of this article.

The ingredients of which a formula is composed have been, by writers on medical prescriptions, arranged under four heads: 1. The basis of the formula, which in the present instance is the rhubarb, constituting the principal ingredient, on whose action, modified where necessary, the chief success of the medicine, in fulfilling the required indication, is to depend. 2. The adjuvant or auxiliary, added to the basis, for the purpose of increasing its power, expediting its action, or rendering it more easily soluble in the juices of the stomach; in the above formula the tartrate of potash is the principal adjuvant. 3. The corrector, added to the basis, when we wish to moderate or delay its action, to correct some unpleasant or injurious property of it, such as its odour, taste, acrimony, &c., or to prevent it from acting on the body in a different manner from that which the indication requires; thus, in the present formula, the warm tincture of senna is added, rather to correct the griping quality of the rhubarb, than to increase its action, and the syrup of roses to correct the unpleasant taste of the medicine; and the essential oil in the peppermint-water contributes to both these purposes: these, therefore, are to be considered as the correctors. 4. The constituent, or that ingredient which serves to reduce the rest into the form which is considered as most convenient for the exhibition of the medicine; in the present case the peppermint-water is the constituent, serving to reduce the medicine to the form of a potion or draught.

Medical formulae are either officinal, or extemporaneous; the former being such as are directed by authority of some public medical college to be kept in the shops of apothecaries, and the preparation of which is described in their pharmacopoeias or dispensatories; the latter such as are prescribed by the physician or surgeon as occasion may require.

Having explained the nature of a prescription, and enumerated the several circumstances which are usually the subject comprised in it, we propose, in the present article, to consider the importance of acquiring the habit of writing prescriptions with ease, elegance, and scientific accuracy; Importance of the Subject.

The previous information required by a physician, to enable him to prescribe properly in the several cases which come under his care; the general rules which we deem it necessary to lay down for attaining the art of prescribing with neatness and accuracy; and lastly, we propose to give a brief historical view of the progress of pharmacy from the revival of literature to the present time, with a critical examination of some of the best writings on this subject.

1. Before considering the importance of learning the art of prescribing, it may be proper to explain why such an art is required, or to point out the advantages to be expected from the composition of several simples in the same medicine. There are indeed a few drugs, which cannot be more efficacious in the generality of cases than when in their most simple state. Thus, crude opium in a pill, cinchona bark or ipecacuan in powder, mixed with some ordinary liquid, afford the most effectual, as well as the most simple remedies. The same may be remarked of mustard seeds, white pepper, and garlic swallowed whole, and so of a few others. In general, however, it is much more convenient, and in many cases it is absolutely necessary, to have recourse to composition. Many remedies cannot be taken or applied in their simple state, especially such as are used externally; while others are rendered more certain, safe, or expeditious, by being combined with others. Thus opium and tartarate of antimony and potash are both diaphoretics, or sweating medicines; but when combined, their effect in this way, is considerably increased (See Kirby's Tables, formula 27, and 28.). So of jalap and valerian as purgatives (Ibid. form. 49.). Opium with many patients produces headache; but if citric acid (lemon juice) be added, this unpleasant symptom seldom takes place. (Tables, formula 137.). Chemical medicines are for the most part compound from their very nature; but even such of these as are contained in the catalogues of the materia medica can seldom be employed except in composition. Mercury in its native state is nearly inert, and yet how many valuable and powerful remedies are formed by its union with other bodies. Sulphuric acid and alcohol form ether, but ether cannot be swallowed except in combination. Thus we see, that independently of neatness and convenience, which, though they ought to have their weight, are secondary considerations, there are many positive arguments to prove the utility of composition; and if composition be of use, it must surely be of some consequence to know the scientific principles on which this is to be founded.

The importance of acquiring a readiness at writing a neat and scientific prescription, seems not to be generally understood. Indeed few parts of a medical education have been more neglected than this department of pharmacy, especially in Britain. In many of the continental medical schools, there is a professor appointed to give lectures on the art of writing prescriptions, while in our colleges this subject is at most confined to a single lecture from the professor of materia medica, and the student is left to learn the art as he can, by copying the prescriptions of the physicians whose clinical practice he has an opportunity of witnessing, or by attendance in an apothecary's shop.

When a gentleman has passed through the usual course of education at a medical school, and has received a diploma, it is supposed that he is fully qualified to enter on his career with confidence, and proceed with success. Let us for a moment consider what are his usual qualifications. He has, we shall suppose, acquired a tolerably accurate knowledge of the structure and functions of the human body; he has been made acquainted with the nature, properties, and, so far as known, the mode of action of the various simple and compound bodies, which, as medicines, food, and poisons, exert an influence on the animal economy; he has been instructed in the general nature of disease, the various symptoms or appearances by which its presence is indicated, and the general means to be employed for their removal. He has more particularly taken a view of many of the maladies to which the human frame is subject; has seen them exerting their influence on patients, and has frequently witnessed the effects of remedies in expelling them from the system, or in alleviating the distresses which they occasioned. Here, it will be said, is a complete physician, and such, to a superficial observer, he may appear. With all this knowledge, however, (and without all this no man is qualified for the active duties of the profession) many gentlemen are still deficient in a most important point, the capacity of applying this knowledge to actual practice. A physician may be able to distinguish a disease at a glance; he may be prompt and accurate in forming his indications of cure, and may be well acquainted with the general nature of the remedies by which these indications are to be fulfilled, and still, if he be not master of the form and method in which these are to be exhibited; if he be not familiar with the practice of writing prescriptions, he will often be placed in a most unpleasant predicament, and will not unfrequently expose himself to the ridicule of those who are far his inferiors in knowledge and abilities, by writing prescriptions which, though they contain the essential means of cure, yet wanting the mode and fashion of the day, will be read with a smile, or perhaps be imperfectly understood, by the apothecary or the druggist to whom they are presented.

This, however, is an inconvenience which, as it may not be attended with serious effects, is trifling in comparison of some which he will encounter.

From a want of habit in prescribing, or from a want of some medical or chemical information, which we shall presently explain, he will be often liable to jumble together substances which, though when single, they are possessed of similar medical properties, may, when combined, exert an action greater or less than he had intended to produce, or even altogether of an opposite nature.

By way of illustration let us suppose a young practitioner, at his first outset, called to a patient labouring under tetanus, or that disease of which a locked jaw is one of the most obvious symptoms. The patient is in the most distressing situation, and it is expected that every renewal of the spasm will end in those convulsions which most frequently bring on the fatal termination of this formidable disease. How is he to act? The remedies to be employed are evidently antispasmodics, and of these he has heard opium and mercury highly recommended in this disease. Which of these is he to employ, or is he to make a trial of both? He determines to give opium: in what form is he to order its administration? That of pill is the most obvious; but perhaps the patient cannot, in the ordinary state of his health, swallow pills, and every effort of the muscles of deglutition, increases... Importance of the disease. He must then prescribe it in a liquid form. Shall he order it in the form of laudanum to be given by the attendants, or shall he prescribe draughts or a mixture, with a certain proportion of *tinctura opii*? What is the dose of the opium? He knows that a person affected with this disease can bear a large dose. Is he to give this large dose at once, or is he gradually to increase it? In a short time the patient can perhaps no longer swallow even liquids. Can he administer opium in any other form? He has heard of opiate clysters. What is the best formula for them? Is the same quantity of opium as when taken by the mouth, sufficient for a clyster? Again, if the patient cannot swallow, how is he to be supported? By nutritive injections. How is the physician to prescribe a nutritive injection? Should it be large or small in quantity? and is there any mode of making the bowels retain it for a sufficient time, to draw from it the proper nourishment? We might carry this illustration, simple as it is, to a much greater length; but we forbear, that we may not be thought tedious.

We need say little to persuade those who are at all acquainted with the practice of physic, that it is the duty of every physician who values the comfort and safety of his patient, or who has any regard for his own reputation and respectability, to spare no pains in enabling himself to write a prescription with facility, perspicuity, and neatness.

To those who, previous to their attending medical lectures, have been for some time in an apothecary's shop, instructions for the writing of prescriptions may be thought useless or impertinent. In the daily habit of perusing and copying formulæ from the hands of various physicians, it may be thought "custom hath made it in them a property of easiness." Certainly, with respect to form and method, doses and proportions, they can require but little information. But after all, this knowledge is merely imitative; they have learned to write prescriptions as a parrot learns to speak, and unless they have added considerable chemical knowledge to their practical information, they can only copy what they have seen, and will often find themselves very much at a loss.

This is considering the matter in the fairest point of view, taking it for granted that they have been under a master who had abilities, leisure, and inclination to give them all the necessary information; to point out to them how particular formulæ were suited to particular indications; to show them why one is preferable to another, and how they should distinguish a scientific from an empirical prescription.

How seldom is this the case, and how easy it is for a young man to be several years in an apothecary's shop, and learn but little, we leave to the judgment of others to decide. We trust it would not be difficult to show, that many of the formulæ which they have witnessed, may be simplified or improved; that many of them are unscientific, and not a few absurd.

We would, however, by no means be understood to consider attendance on a shop as an unnecessary part of a medical education; far from it. We are of opinion that every one who intends to practise medicine, whether it be as surgeon, apothecary, or physician, should for some time accustom himself to the preparing of medicines, and the keeping of an apothecary's day-book: and we conceive that a young practitioner without this experience, will commence practice under considerable disadvantages. By perusing, copying, and preparing the formulæ of various practitioners, the student certainly acquires a readiness at prescription which he cannot so easily and imperceptibly attain in any other way. To those who have had little opportunity of profiting in this way, and their number is by no means small, the instruction intended to be conveyed in the following observations will be peculiarly adapted; and probably such as have passed some time behind a compter, will learn something which had before escaped their notice, or will at least be convinced that the subject admits of considerable improvement by the application of recent chemical discoveries.

It may be thought, that such as have, during their hospital residence at college, given diligent attention to hospital practice, will there have received all the information on the subject of prescription which is necessary for private practice. But those who are familiar with both will readily agree, that what is sufficient for the one, is by no means calculated for the other. The inexperienced physician, accustomed to the hospital routine, thinks it sufficient if he prescribe the proper quantities of the proper medicines in the most simple form. Is an emetic required? He will order gr. xv. or 3i of powdered ipecacuanha. Is a gentle diaphoretic indicated? He would prescribe 3i of *mitura salina* to be taken every four hours. Were his future practice to be confined to an infirmary, to the negroes of a West India plantation, or the crew of a man of war, this might be sufficient; but if he aim at extensive or genteel practice, he will find it necessary to take a much wider range.

II. The subject of extemporaneous prescription may be considered as constituting the finishing part of a physician's education; so far, at least, as we can say, that the study of a profession, for the perfect attainment of which the father of medicine has declared life too short, may admit of a completion. This is truly the practical part of a physician's duty; it is this for which all his previous studies are intended to prepare him. Having acquired a knowledge of diseases and their remedies, he is, when entering on the active duties of his profession, to apply that knowledge to the best advantage, so as to cure or relieve his patient in the easiest, safest, and most expeditious manner. It is not merely the mechanical business of penning a medical receipt, which he might copy from his memory or his *vade mecum*, that we are here considering as the practical duty of a physician. It is the adapting of the means which he prescribes to the peculiar case that is under his care; the modifying his prescription according to the circumstances of the patient; the age, sex, temperament, peculiarity of constitution, season, climate, and many other circumstances; the choice of remedies, and the necessary variation of them; it is these which constitute the duty of a practical physician, so far as relates to the business of prescription.

Before a physician can attempt to prescribe for his patient, it is requisite that he possess much previous information.

In the first place, he must be well acquainted with the nature and seat of the disease, the cure or alleviation of which he is about to attempt; with the symptoms which usually appear in similar cases, and the variations which are likely to take place, with the causes, so far as known, known, which predispose to the disease, or which remotely or immediately have a tendency to produce it; with the probable termination of such a case, and the general indications of cure. This knowledge presupposes an acquaintance with anatomy, physiology, and pathology, without a competent share of which a physician can no more effect a cure of a disease, than an algebraist can accomplish the solution of an equation, while he is ignorant of its terms.

The prescriber must also be familiar with the Materia Medica and pharmacy, from which he learns the natural history, the chemical and medical properties of the various simple substances employed in medicine; their usual doses and their officinal compounds, as contained in the pharmacopoeia of the country in which he resides; as it is these articles that are to form the ingredients of which the medicines he prescribes are to be composed. As without considerable practical experience few men are able to retain all the requisite information respecting each article of the Materia Medica, it would be of great advantage to the young prescriber to have by him a tabular sketch, which might, within a small compass, contain the information more immediately necessary for writing a prescription. Nothing is found to assist the memory, or to facilitate the attainment of knowledge, more than these tabular views; and so much is the learned world convinced of this, that such views are daily becoming more fashionable, and are now applied to almost every branch of science. It was with the intention of assiting the young practitioner in writing prescriptions, that Dr Kirby, a few years ago, published Utility of his tables of the Materia Medica, containing a concise tabular view of the most material circumstances respecting the view of various simple and compound medicines admitted into the catalogues of the London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Pharmacopoeias. In this volume the articles are arranged under 18 classes; the titles and order of which are much the same with those given in our article Materia Medica; and of each article are given the systematic name, the synonymous pharmaceutical name, the country in which it is produced, or from which it is brought; the part employed in medicine; the form in which it is commonly administered, and the usual doses of the simple, and of the several officinal compounds. In the original draught of these tables, the circumstances above mentioned were arranged in columns; but it was found, that the difficulty and consequent expense of printing the work in that form would be so great, as nearly to counterbalance the advantage which might be derived from it. We are, however, of opinion that the arrangement in columns is better adapted to strike the eye, and we shall here give a specimen of such an arrangement, taken from one of the shortest classes in the above work (A).

### Table of Expectorants

| SIMPLIES | OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS | |----------|------------------------| | **I. VEGETABLES.** | **Dose.** | **CASES.** | | 5. CEPHAELIS IPECAUCANHA. | Vinum Ipecacuanhae. Ed. Lond. Dub. | Dr. 1 or 2. | | Ipecacuanha. Ed. Lond. Dub. | | Peripneumonia and asthma. | | 6. NICOTIANA TABACUM. Ed. Nicotiana. Lond. Dub. | Acetum Scillae Maritimae. Ed. | Dr. 2 to 4. | | America. Leaves. Smoke and extract. | Acetum Scillae. Lond. Dub. | In composition. | | 8. SCILLA MARITIMA. Ed. Scilla. Lond. Dub. | Syrupus Scillae Maritimae. Ed. | | | South of Europe. Root fresh or dried. Conserve, powder, pill, &c. | Oxymel Scillae. Lond. Dub. | Gts. 30 to 40. | | | Conserva Scillae. Lond. | Gts. 10 to dr. 1. | | | Tinctura Scillae. Lond. | Gr. 10 to 15. | | | Pilulae Scilliticae. Ed. | About a tablespoonful. | | | Syrupus Allii. Dub. | Oz. 1 to 2. | | | Lac Ammoniaci. Lond. | | | | Conserva Ari. Lond. | Dr. 1/2 to 1. | | 13. ALLIUM SATIVUM. Ed. Allium. Lond. Dub. | Syrupus Colchici autumnalis. Ed. | Dr. 2 to 10z. | | Fresh root Substance. Dr. 1 to 2. | Oxymel Colchici. Lond. Dub. | Do. |

(A) The simples in the first columns of the above table have numbers prefixed to them. To explain why these do not follow each other in a regular series, it is necessary to mention, that the articles marked 5, 6, 8, 11, and 12, are, in the tables of Materia Medica from which this specimen is altered, inserted in a former class, viz., emetics. ### SIMPLIES

| I. VEGETABLES | COUNTRY | PART | FORM | DOSE | |---------------|---------|------|------|------| | 17. Ferula Asafoetida, Ed. | Persia | Gumrefin. | Pill, mixture. | Grs. 10 to 15. | | 18. Hyssopus Officinalis | Britain | Herb. | Tea. | | | 19. Marrubium Vulgare | Do. | Leaves | Domestic syrup. | | | 20. Myrrha, Ed. Lond. Dub. | Arabia | Gumrefin. Powder or pill. | 10 grs. to 1 dr. | | | 21. Pimpinella Anisum, Ed. | Asia | Seeds | Infusion, oil. | | | 22. Polygala Senega, Ed. | America | Root | Decoction. | | | 23. Styrax Benzoin, Ed. | Sumatra | Balsam | Pill. | | | 24. Alcohol, Ed. | Spt. Vinous Rectificatus. | | | |

### OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS

| Dose. | CASES | |-------|-------| | Lac Asa foetida. Lond. | 1 oz. to 2. Hooping cough. | | Oleum Volatile Pimpinellae Anisi, Ed. | Gt. 2 to 6. Croup and pneumonia. | | Acidum Benzoinicum, Ed. | Grs. 1 to 2. | | Sal Benzoini, Dub. Flores Benzoini, Lond. | | | Tinctura Benzoinis Composita, Lond. | Gt. 15 to 30. Catarrh. | | Aether Sulphuricus, Ed. Dub. | Vapour inhaled. Asthma. | | Aether Vitriolicus, Lond. | | | Tartar Antimonii, Ed. | Gr. ¼ to ½ repeated. | | Tartarum Antimoniatum, Dub. Antimonium Tartratum, Lond. | | | Vinum Tartaritis Antimonii, Ed. | Dr. ¼ to ¼. | | Vinum Antimonii Tartarifati, Lond. | | | Sulphuretum Antimonii Precipitatum, Ed. | Gr. 3—5. | | Sulphur Antimonii Precipitatum, Lond. Sulph. Ant. Fuscum, Dub. | | | Sulphur Sublimatum Lotum, Ed. Dub. | Gr. 15 to dr. ¼. Asthma. | | Flores Sulphuris, Lond. | | | Trochisci Sulphuris, Lond. | Ad libitum. | | Oleum Sulphuraturn, Ed. Dub. | Gt. 10—20. | | Sulphas Zinci, Ed. Dub. Zincum Vitriolatum, Lond. | Gr. ¼ to ¼ thrice times a day. Consumption and hooping cough. |

---

The above table contains eight columns. In the first are written the scientific and corresponding pharmaceutical names of the several simple substances, distributed into departments, according as they are taken from the vegetable or the mineral kingdom, and arranged alphabetically; in the second is written the name of the country where the article is found, or from which it is procured; in the third the part of the simple usually employed in medicine; in the fourth the form in which it is usually administered; in the fifth the dose of the simple. In the sixth column are arranged all the officinal preparations of each simple which properly belong to the class of expectorants, and named according to the nomenclature of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, with the corresponding synonymous names of the other two colleges; in the seventh are given the usual doses of these compound medicines, and in the eighth are noted the diseases to which the simple or its compound is more peculiarly adapted.

The use of such tables is pretty obvious. Having before him all the remedies that are suited to answer any particular indication, as in the present instance, that of promoting expectoration, the prescriber can select such articles as are best suited to the particular case in hand, or or which can be most easily procured; and he has at once before him the circumstances respecting it which it is most necessary he should know.

It is next required of a prescriber, that he be thoroughly acquainted with therapeutics, a part of the institutions or principles of medicine, which instructs him in the nature and effects of the various classes of medicines as suited to different indications of cure.

An extensive acquaintance with the elementary parts of chemistry is also necessary, as the subject of extemporaneous prescription forms a part of pharmacy, which is essentially a chemical art. It is therefore impossible for a physician to be a scientific prescriber without a competent share of chemical knowledge, as for the captain of a ship to be a scientific sailor, without a knowledge of astronomy and navigation. It is certainly possible for a physician to write a prescription without having studied chemistry, and for a sailor to conduct a vessel to the West Indies without being acquainted with the mathematical principles of navigation; but these men are both empirics; they have a certain mechanical way of proceeding, which they have learned by long experience, and much more severe labour than it would have cost them to acquire a knowledge of the scientific principles of the arts which they profess.

It is of the utmost importance that a physician should be able to assign a reason for every article which he inserts in his prescriptions; that he should, as correctly as possible, know what part each will act in the composition of the medicine, and what effect the whole compound will produce on his patient; in short, that he should not prescribe a certain formula merely because he has seen it prescribed by others in similar cases, but should form his prescription on scientific principles, and from the result of reason and reflection. In the present improved state of chemistry this is more peculiarly necessary, and it also become much more easy. Not many years ago physicians had scarcely a clue to guide them in their prescriptions, except that of experience; they saw certain results take place, and certain effects produced, but why these results took place, or how these effects were brought about, they were almost entirely ignorant. The reasoning employed by old writers on pharmacy concerning the preparation and operation of compound medicines, is to a modern chemist highly entertaining. We shall not swell this article by specimens of such reasonings, but shall refer those who wish to amuse themselves in this way, to Strother's Lectures on the Rationale of Medicine; Quincy's Complete Dispensatory; Fuller's Pharmacopoeia Extemporanea, and the Pharmaceutical works of Dr. Willis.

When a physician sits down to write a prescription, he should imagine the preparation going on under his eye, and should know whether or not the materials which he is ordering will act chemically on each other; and if they do, what changes will be produced. It very frequently happens that from the union of two or more substances there arises a compound possessed of very different properties, and which is likely to produce very different effects from any of the component articles. The result will sometimes be advantageous, sometimes inert, and sometimes injurious. It is the business of the prescriber to be acquainted with the advantages and disadvantages of these combinations, that he may avail himself of the former, and avoid the latter. This desirable object is to be attained only by a correct and extensive knowledge of chemical affinity. This will teach what substances are capable of combining together, or of decomposing what are already united; and will inform us whether we can derive any advantage from their action.

For want of this chemical knowledge many of the common formulae prescribed by some of our best practical writers, errors in are much less simple and scientific than they might be made by an attention to chemical principles. The famous tonic remedy, commonly called Griffith's myrrh mixture, so much, and we believe, so justly extolled in cases of general debility, was originally composed in the following manner.

\[ \begin{align*} \text{R. Myrrhae dr. j. Solve terendo in mortario cum} \\ \text{Aqua Alexeteriae simp. unc. vi. fs.} \\ \text{— cujuilibet Spirituofae dr. vi. vel unc. j.} \\ \text{Dein adde} \\ \text{Salis Absynthii, dr. fs.} \\ \text{— Martis, gr. xii.} \\ \text{Syrupi simplis, dr. ij. m *}. \\ \end{align*} \]

From the gravity with which the author speaks of this composition, and the various proportions he allows of the salt of wormwood and the salt of steel, together with the different methods of mixing the ingredients, it is pretty clear that he had no idea that any of them were superfluous or unnecessary, nor probably was he aware that the two salts act on each other, and undergo a mutual decomposition. It seems therefore to be quite an empirical prescription. Analyzing it according to our present chemical knowledge, we know that the principal part of it consists of an emulsion of myrrh, containing in suspension a quantity of carbonate of iron, and having dissolved in it a small quantity of sulphate of potash, and perhaps a little subcarbonate of potash. Now, as there is no reason to believe that the two last are of any consequence in the medicine, it would surely be much more scientific to form a medicine of myrrh and carbonate of iron, with the addition of such cordials and syrups as may add to its tonic power, and render it palatable. A medicine of this kind is the following.

\[ \begin{align*} \text{R. Pulv. Myrrh. dr. i.} \\ \text{Carbonat. Ferri praecip. dr. } \frac{1}{2} \\ \text{Syrup. Citri Aurant. unc. } \frac{1}{2}. \text{ Simul tere, et adde} \\ \text{Aqua Menth. piper. unc. 6.} \\ \text{Tinctur. Cinchon. compof. unc. i. M +}. \\ \end{align*} \]

In Dr Strother's 19th lecture there is noticed a medicine which was then considered as a valuable nostrum in the cure of smallpox. The principal ingredients are, spirit of salt (muriatic acid), and salt of hartshorn (impure carbonate of ammonia). A tyro in modern chemistry need not be told that this medicine contains muriate of ammonia, produced by the combination of the acid with the alkali. If, therefore, such a medicine is useful in smallpox, it would surely be much less laborious, and much more scientific, to employ the muriate of ammonia, commonly called sal ammoniac, which we have prepared to our hands.

As the secondary salts form a class of bodies which constitutes a considerable part of the materia medica, it is proper for the physician to be intimately acquainted with their nature and chemical properties. Here he will again find the advantage of systematic tables, containing... Previous taining the principal circumstances respecting the composition and decomposition of such of these salts as are employed in medicine. A table of this kind is printed in Dr Kirby's Tables, and we shall here give a similar view, only divided, for the sake of convenience, into two tables, the first containing the composition of the salts, and the second the substances employed in medicine, by which they may be decomposed.

**TABLE I.**

| Salt | Solubility | Composition | |-------------------------------------------|------------|-------------| | | | Base | Acid | Water | | **1. Supersulphate of Alumina and Potash.** | At 60° 20. | Cryst. 12. | 17.66 | 70.24 | | | 212°, 1. | Dry 63, 75. | 36.25 | 0. | | **2. Sulphate of Magnesia.** | 62°, 1. | 17. | 29.35 | 53.65 | | | .75 | | | | | **3. Sulphate of Potash.** | 62°, 16 | 54.8 | 45.2 | 0. | | | 212°, 4.5 | | | | | **4. Sulphate of Soda.** | 60°, 2.6 | Cryst. 18.48| 23.52 | 58. | | | 212°, .8 | Dry 44. | 56. | 0. | | | Efflorescent.| | | | | **5. Sulphate of Copper.** | 60°, 4. | 32. | 33. | 35. | | | 212°, 2. | | | | | **6. Green Sulphate of Iron.** | 60°, 2. | 28. | 26. | 46. | | | 212°, .75 | | | | | **7. Sulphate of Zinc.** | 60°, 2.5 | 20. | 40. | 40. | | **8. Subsulphate of Mercury.** | 60°, 2000 | 87. | 10. | 3. | | **9. Nitrate of Potash.** | 60°, 7. | 51.8 | 44. | 4.2 | | | 212°, 1. | | | | | **10. Nitrate of Silver.** | 60°, 1. | | | | | **11. Muriate of Barytes.** | 60°, 5. | Cryst. 57. | 32. | 11. | | | Deliquescent.| Red hot, | 42. | 8. | | | 60°, 5. | 50. | | | | **12. Muriate of Lime.** | 60°, 2.8 | Dried 53. | 38.88 | 8.12 | | **13. Muriate of Soda.** | 60°, 3. | Sublimed. | 42.75 | 32.25 | | | 212°, 1. | 25. | | | | **14. Muriate of Ammonia.** | Infusible. | 88.5 | 11.5 | | | **15. Mild Muriate of Mercury, or Calomel.** | Infusible. | | | | | **16. Corrosive Muriate of Mercury.** | 60°, 20. | 82. | 18. | 0. | | | 212°, 2. | | | | | **17. Muriate of Antimony.** | Deliquescent.| | | | | **18. Phosphate of Lime.** | Infusible. | 49. | 51. | 0. | | **19. Phosphate of Soda.** | 60°, 4. | 19. | 15. | 66. | | | 212°, 2. | | | | | **20. Carbonate of Barytes.** | Infusible. | 22. | 78. | 0. | | **21. Carbonate of Lime.** | Infusible. | 55. | 45. | 0. | ### Extemporaneous Prescriptions

| Salt | Solubility | Base | Acid | Water | |-----------------------|------------|------|------|-------| | **22. Carbonate of Magnesia.** | Insoluble | 45 | 34 | 21 | | **23. Carbonate of Potash.** | 60°, 4; 212°, 1.5 | 40 | 43 | 17 | | **24. Subcarbonate of Potash.** | Deliquescent | Dry 64 | 30 | 6 | | **25. Carbonate of Soda.** | Efflorescent | Cryst. 21.58; Dried 59.85 | 14.42; 40.05 | 64; 0 | | **26. Carbonate of Ammonia.** | 60°, 2 | | | | | **27. Carbonate of Iron.** | Insoluble | | | | | **28. Carbonate of Zinc.** | Insoluble | | | | | **29. Acetate of Potash.** | Deliquescent | | | | | **30. Acetate of Lead. Ph. Ed.** | 60°, 4 | 58 | 26 | 16 | | **31. Subborate of Soda.** | 60°, 18; 212°, 6 | 17 | 39 | 44 | | **32. Sufertartrate of Potash.** | 60°, 60; 212°, 13 | 33 | 67 | 0 | | **33. Tartrate of Potash.** | 60°, 4; Deliquescent | | | | | **34. Tartrate of Potash and Soda.** | 60°, 5; Efflorescent | Tart. Pot. 54 | Tart. of Soda. 46 | 0 | | **35. Tartrate of Antimony and Potash, or Emetic Tartar.** | 60°, 15; 212°, 3 | Ox. of Ant. 38; Potash 16 | 34 | 12 |

In this first part of the table of secondary salts there are five columns, in the first of which are set down the names of most of the secondary salts employed in medicine, according to the most approved chemical nomenclature. The second column shows the degree of attraction which subsists between each salt and water, namely, how many parts of water at the temperatures of 60° and 212° of Fahrenheit are required to dissolve one part of the salt, in the state in which it is usually employed, and whether the salt be deliquescent or efflorescent. The three remaining columns point out, as far as has been ascertained, the proportional quantities of the component parts of each salt, the third column showing how many parts in the 100 consist of base; the fourth how many of acid, and the fifth how many of water of composition. In some cases two proportions are given, and it is expressed in the third column under what state of the salt these proportions exist.

### Table II

| Decomposition by Single Affinity | Salt | |----------------------------------|------| | Barytes. | Nitrate of Potash. | | Potash. | Silver. | | Soda. | Muriate of Barytes. | | Lime. | Lime. | | Magnesia. | Soda. | | Ammonia. | Ammonia. | | Tannin. | Carbonate of Barytes. | | Gallic Acid. | Lime. | | Oxalic Acid. | Magnesia. | | Tartaric Acid. | Potash. | | | Soda. | | | Ammonia. | | | Acetate of Lead. | | | Subborate of Soda. |

Vol. XVII, Part I. | Decomposition by Single Affinity | Salt | Decomposition by Double Affinity | |---------------------------------|------|----------------------------------| | Barytes | | Nitrate of Silver. | | Potash | | Muriate of Barytes. | | Soda | | Lime. | | Lime | | Corrosive Muriate of Mercury. | | Ammonia | | Red Muriate of Iron. | | | | Carbonate of Lime. | | | | Potash. | | | | Soda. | | | | Ammonia. | | | | Acetate of Mercury. | | | | Lead. | | | | Subborate of Soda. | | | | Tartrate of Potash. | | Barytes | | Nitrate of Silver. | | | | Muriate of Barytes. | | | | Lime. | | | | Soda. | | | | Ammonia. | | | | Corrosive Muriate of Mercury. | | | | Phosphate of Soda. | | | | Carbonate of Barytes. | | | | Acetate of Mercury. | | | | Lead. | | | | Tartrate of Potash, partially. | | Barytes | | Nitrate of Potash. | | Potash | | Silver. | | | | Muriate of Barytes. | | | | Lime. | | | | Corrosive Muriate of Mercury. | | | | Acetate of Mercury. | | | | Lead. | | | | Tartrate of Potash. | | Barytes | | Subfulphate of Mercury. | | Potash | | Nitrate of Potash. | | Soda | | Silver. | | Lime | | Muriate of Barytes. | | Magnesia | | Lime. | | Ammonia | | Soda. | | Tartaric Acid | | Ammonia. | | Muriatic Acid | | Corrosive Muriate of Mercury. | | Zinc | | Phosphate of Soda. | | Iron | | Carbonate of Potash. | | Tin | | Soda. | | | | Acetate of Mercury. | | | | Lead. | | | | Subborate of Soda. | | Barytes | | Nitrate of Silver. | | Potash | | Muriate of Barytes. | | Soda | | Lime. | | Lime | | Corrosive Muriate of Mercury. | | Magnesia | | Acetate of Mercury. | | Ammonia | | Lead. | | | | Subborate of Soda. | | | | Same as the last. | | | | Nitrate of Silver. | | | | Muriate of Barytes. | | | | Acetate of Lead. | | Decomposition by Single Affinity | Salt | Decomposition by Double Affinity | |---------------------------------|------|----------------------------------| | Barytes. | Nitrate of Potash. | Supersulphate of Alumina and Potash. | | Sulphuric Acid. | | Sulphate of Magnesia. | | Heat. | | Soda. | | | | Muriate of Barytes. | | | | Lime. | | Barytes. | Nitrate of Silver. | All the Sulphates employed in Medicine. | | Potash. | | Muriate of Barytes. | | Soda. | | Lime. | | Lime. | | Soda. | | Magnesia. | | Ammonia. | | Ammonia. | | Corrofive Muriate of Mercury. | | Zinc. | | Red Muriate of Iron. | | Muriatic Acid. | | Antimony. | | Tin. | | Phosphoric Acid. | | Phosphoric Acid. | | All the Carbonates employed in Medicine. | | Copper. | | Subborate of Soda. | | Mercury. | | |

| Sulphuric Acid. | Muriate of Barytes. | All Sulphates more or less. | | | | Nitrate of Silver. | | | | Phosphoric Acid. | | | | Carbonate of Potash. | | | | Soda. | | | | Ammonia. | | | | Subborate of Soda. |

| Barytes. | Muriate of Lime. | All Sulphates. | | Potash. | | Nitrate of Silver. | | Magnesia. | | Phosphoric Acid. | | Sulphuric Acid. | | Carbonate of Ammonia. | | Nitric Acid. | | | | Boracic Acid. | | | | Phosphoric Acid. | | |

| Barytes. | Muriate of Soda. | Superfulphate of Alumina and Potash. | | Potash. | | Sulphate of Potash. | | Sulphuric Acid. | | Copper. | | Nitric Acid. | | Nitrate of Silver. | | | | Acetate of Mercury. | | | | Lead. |

| Barytes. | Muriate of Ammonia.| Superfulphate of Alumina and Potash. | | Potash. | | Sulphate of Potash. | | Soda. | | Copper. | | Lime. | | Nitrate of Silver. | | Sulphuric Acid. | | Carbonate of Barytes. | | Nitric Acid. | | Potash. | | | | Soda. | | | | Acetate of Potash. | | | | Subborate of Soda. | | | | Tartrate of Potash. |

| Barytes. | Muriate of Mercury.| Moff Sulphates. | | Potash. | | Carbonate of Barytes. | | Soda. | | Lime. | | Lime. | | Magnesia. | | Magnesia. | | Potash. | | Ammonia. | | Soda. | | Copper. | | Ammonia. | | Decomposition by Single Affinity | Salt | Decomposition by Double Affinity | |---------------------------------|------|----------------------------------| | Barytes | | Sulphate of Potash. | | Potash | | Copper. | | Soda | | Nitrate of Silver. | | Phosphoric Acid | | Muriate of Barytes. | | Nitric Acid | | Lime. | | Muriatic Acid | | | | | | | | Sulphuric Acid | | Supersulphate of Alumina and Potash. | | | | Sulphate of Magnesia. | | | | Potash. | | | | Soda. | | | | Nitrate of Silver. | | | | Muriate of Ammonia. | | | | Corrosive Muriate of Mercury. | | | | Supertartrate of Potash. | | | | | | Barytes | | Supersulphate of Alumina and Potash. | | Oxalic Acid | | Sulphate of Magnesia. | | Sulphuric Acid | | Nitrate of Silver. | | Tartaric Acid | | Corrosive Muriate of Mercury. | | Phosphoric Acid | | Supertartrate of Potash. | | Nitric Acid | | | | Muriatic Acid | | | | Citric Acid | | | | Boracic Acid | | | | Acetic Acid | | | | | | | | Barytes | | Superfulphate of Alumina and Potash. | | Potash | | Nitrate of Silver. | | Soda | | Corrosive Muriate of Mercury. | | Lime | | Carbonate of Iron. | | Oxalic Acid | | Supertartrate of Potash. | | Sulphuric Acid | | | | Nitric Acid | | | | Muriatic Acid | | | | Tartaric Acid | | | | Citric Acid | | | | Boracic Acid | | | | Acetic Acid | | | | | | | | Barytes | | All the Sulphates except those of Potash and Soda. | | Lime | | Nitrate of Silver. | | Oxalic Acid | | Muriate of Barytes. | | Sulphuric Acid | | Ammonia. | | Nitric Acid | | Corrosive Muriate of Mercury. | | Muriatic Acid | | Supertartrate of Potash. | | Tartaric Acid | | | | Citric Acid | | | | Boracic Acid | | | | Acetic Acid | | | | | | | | Barytes | | Sulphates as in the last. | | Potash | | Nitrate of Silver. | | Lime | | Muriate of Barytes. | | Oxalic Acid | | Soda. | | Sulphuric Acid | | Supertartrate of Potash. | | Nitric Acid, &c., as before. | | | | | | | | Barytes | | Supertartrate of Alumina and Potash. | | Potash | | Sulphate of Magnesia. | | Soda | | Nitrate of Silver. | | Lime | | Muriates of Barytes and Lime. | | Oxalic Acid | | Supertartrate of Potash. | | Sulphuric Acid, &c., as above. | | | | Decomposition by Single Affinity | Salt | Decomposition by Double Affinity | |---------------------------------|------|----------------------------------| | Acids as in the last. | | Supertartrate of Potash. | | Acids as in the last, and, beside, Phosphoric Acid. | | | | Sulphuric, Nitric, Muriatic, and Phosphoric Acids. Oxalic, Tartaric, Boracic, and Citric Acids. | ACETATE OF POTASH. | Muriate of Ammonia. Tartrate of Potash and Soda. | | Barytes. Potash. Soda. Lime. Ammonia. Magnesia. Gallic Acid. Muriatic Acid. Oxalic Acid. Phosphoric Acid. Sulphuric Acid. Tartaric Acid. Citric Acid. Boracic Acid. | ACETATE OF IRON. | Sulphate of Magnesia. Potash. Soda. Copper. Iron. Muriate of Soda. | | Substances as above, and nearly in the same order. | | | | Five first substances as before. Tin. Gallic, Sulphuric, Oxalic, and Tartaric Acids. Benzoic, Muriatic, Nitric, and Citric Acids. | ACETATE OF LEAD. | Sulphates of Alumina, Magnesia, Potash, Soda, Copper, and Iron. Muriate of Soda. | | Lime. Barytes. Magnesia. Gallic Acid. Sulphuric, Nitric, and Muriatic Acids. Phosphoric Acid. Oxalic and Tartaric Acids. Citric and Acetic Acids. | SUBBORATE OF SODA. | Superfulphate of Alumina and Potash. Sulphate of Magnesia. Copper. Iron. Nitrate of Silver. Muriate of Barytes. Lime. | | Lime. Barytes. Magnesia. Potash. Soda. Ammonia. | SUPERTARTRATE OF POTASH. | Carbonates of Barytes, Lime, Magnesia, Potash, Soda, Ammonia, and Iron. | | Almost all other Acids. Lime. Barytes. Magnesia. | TARTRATE OF POTASH. | Sulphates of Magnesia, Potash, and of Soda. Muriate of Ammonia. | This second part of the table of secondary salts consists of three columns. In the middle column are set down the names of the secondary salts employed in medicine, in the same order as in the former table; and in the adjoining columns on each side are noted those substances employed in medicine which are capable of effecting a decomposition of each salt; those in the left-hand column being such as decompose the salt by what is called single affinity, in consequence of that substance having a superior attraction for the acid or the base of the salt; while the substances in the right-hand column are secondary salts, between which and the opposite salt in the middle column such an action may take place as to effect their mutual decomposition.

With tables of this kind before him, a prescriber will avoid several mistakes into which he might be betrayed from a deficiency of chemical knowledge. Thus, knowing the solubility of any salt, he will not prescribe a greater quantity of it than is capable of being retained in solution in the watery part of any draught or mixture which he is to order. For instance, knowing that sulphate of potash requires sixteen parts of water at 65° for its solution, he will, if he proposed to prescribe a draught containing two drams of this salt, be aware that such a quantity would require at least four ounces of water; but this making the draught too large is a great objection to giving the medicine in that form. Or suppose that he wished to give half an ounce of tartrate of potash (crystals of tartar), by way of laxative; he sees, that to dissolve this quantity it would require at least two pounds of water, and therefore that he cannot order it in the form of solution, though, when mixed up with syrup into an electuary, it affords a good and efficacious cooling laxative. Again, knowing that sulphate of soda effloresces in the air, and thereby loses nearly half its weight, he will take care always to prescribe it in the form of crystals; and if he is to order a laxative draught containing one ounce of this salt, he must prescribe at least three ounces of liquid.

The information conveyed in the second column respecting the deliquescence or efflorescence of certain salts, or the readiness with which they imbibe water from the atmosphere, or part with their water of crystallization, is extremely useful in pointing out the proper forms of exhibition. Seeing, for instance, that acetate of potash (diuretic salt) is a deliquescent salt, no one would think of prescribing it in the form of pills; while, on the other hand, carbonate of soda being efflorescent, is well adapted to that form, and accordingly has been so prescribed by Dr Beddoes; (see Kirby's Tables, formula 153.)

Knowing the proportional quantities of the component part of any salt, we can, by calculation, ascertain pretty nearly how much of the one is required to decompose the other, and thus employ no more of either than is necessary. Thus, suppose it were required to decompose 100 grains of green sulphate of iron by carbonate of soda, in order to procure the greatest possible quantity of carbonate of iron. We find by the first table, that 100 grains of the sulphate contain 28 grains of oxide of iron, and to saturate this, we find by computation, that there are required 9 grams of carbonic acid. Now, on examining the composition of carbonate of soda, we find that 100 grams of this salt contain about 4½ grams of carbonic acid, and consequently, that about 60 grams of carbonate of soda are sufficient to decompose 100 grams of green sulphate of iron.

Further, knowing the substances that are capable of decomposing any particular salt, a prescriber will not order any of these substances in the same formula with that salt, unless some manifest advantage were to be the result of their mutual action. He knows that sulphate of zinc and acetate of lead decompose each other, and that the acetate of zinc formed by their mixture, is a better remedy in cases of ophthalmia than either of the former salts. Here then is an advantage. Tartrate of antimony and potash is a good remedy in fever, so is decoction of Peruvian bark; but we find by the tables, that this salt is decomposable by gallic acid, and we know that decoction of cinchona contains this acid, especially after having stood for some time. It would therefore be improper to prescribe these remedies in conjunction, as has sometimes been recommended, because the salt would be so much altered by the decomposition as to be no longer the medicine we propose to administer. A similar instance of unscientific prescription, arising from a want of chemical knowledge, occurs in the formula attributed to Mr Coleman, and published in the fifth edition of the Pharmacopoeia Chirurgica, p. 58, under the title of Collyrium hydrargyri muriati cum calce. It is composed of a scruple of muriate of mercury dissolved in an English pint of boiling distilled water, with the addition of two drams of quicklime, and after the whole is completely mixed, we are directed to filter the clear liquor through paper. The author of this Pharmacopoeia seems aware that "the different elective attractions operating in the mixture of the lime with the solution of muriate of mercury, are such as produce..." produce a new chemical arrangement, in which the activity of the ingredients is mutually diminished. The fact is, that the large quantity of lime here directed will completely decompose the muriate of mercury, so that the clear liquor will contain nothing but uncombined lime, and muriate of lime. Hence the muriate of mercury is an unnecessary ingredient, and if the medicine be efficacious as a collyrium, it would be better to form it at once by the addition of a small quantity of muriate of lime to limewater.

A physician who is familiar with the principles of chemistry will not direct a chemical medicine to be prepared of more ingredients, or in a more operose manner, than is requisite to produce the desired effect. When Dr Dover first gave to the public the composition of his fudorific powder, he ordered it to be prepared in the following manner. Four ounces of nitre, and the same quantity of vitriolated tartar (fulphate of potash), are to be thrown into a red-hot crucible, and kept stirring till the deflagration ceases. To the mixture, while hot, is to be added an ounce of sliced opium. The whole is then to be reduced to powder and well mixed with an ounce of powdered ipecacuanha, and the same quantity of powdered liquorice root. It is well known to the chemists of the present day, that nitrate of potash, when thrown on an ignited combustible body, deflagrates, and is decomposed; but that it does so when thrown into an ignited crucible, with an incombustible body, such as the fulphate of potash, we can scarcely conceive. If it does, the effect must be, that the nitric acid is carried off, and there remains the potash, which is an unnecessary ingredient in the composition. Again, the only use of heating the salt, would be to dry the opium and thus render it more easily pulverised; but as dried opium is always kept in the shops, and by means of fulphate of potash, is very easily reduced to powder, that part of the operation is superfluous. Accordingly, a powder equally efficacious, and much less operose, is prepared by rubbing together fulphate of potash, opium, and ipecacuanha, forming the present pulvis ipecacuanhae et opii, Ed. or pulvis ipecacuanhae compositus, Lond.

From the same want of chemical knowledge, some medicines have been extolled as efficacious remedies, from not knowing their real nature. Thus burnt sponge has long been celebrated for the cure of scrofula. We do not altogether deny its efficacy in this complaint; but as burnt sponge is composed almost entirely of charcoal, with the addition of a little carbonate of soda, a powder composed of these ingredients must be equally efficacious.

Under this head we may notice an error which is frequently made by prescribers who have not been accustomed to see and prepare the remedies which they prescribe. We have often seen a mass for pills ordered to be prepared of such ingredients as are naturally too hard to form into pills, as for instance, extract of cinchona, and extract of liquorice, and yet there has been directed a quantity of liquorice powder, to form the mass of a proper consistence. Sometimes again, the matters directed are already too soft, or become too soft by mixture, as when aloes and extract of gentian are directed to be beaten together with a proper quantity of syrup, to form a mass for pills. See the Edin. Phar. edit. 1783.

We shall conclude this part of our subject with remarking, that it is of consequence in a chemical point of view, to prescribe as the constituent of a liquid medicine, such water as will not decompose any of the other ingredients. It is common to order the water by the name of aqua pura, or aqua fontana. Now, if this water be hard, i.e. impregnated with fulphate of lime, &c. it will decompose many of the secondary salts, and thus diminish their efficacy. Acetate of lead, for instance, is always decomposed by hard water, and a turbid liquor is thus formed, which by standing deposits a sediment. It would therefore be better in all cases to prescribe distilled water, or where this is not likely to be found, as in small country towns, soft water.

III. We have thus considered at some length the previous knowledge required by a practitioner before he can pretend to prescribe for his patient in a scientific manner. We shall now endeavour to apply the observations that have been made, and from the application deduce some general rules for extemporaneous prescription.

When a practitioner is called to a patient, he will first examine into the symptoms and causes of the malady under which the patient labours, and attend to the age, sex, and peculiar habit of the patient. He will then consider whether or not a cure is probable, or whether it may be in his power only to relieve the distressing symptoms. If a cure appears to be practicable, he will proceed to form his indications, and in conformity with these he will prescribe the remedies that seem best adapted to the case. It is this method of procedure that distinguishes the scientific practitioner from the ignorant empiric. The latter, from a superficial view of the most obvious symptoms, hastily determines the nature of the complaint, which he probably contrives shall be some one of which he has witnessed many cases, or for the cure of which he is in possession of some favourite remedy. Having resolved what the disease shall be, he has nothing to do but apply his remedy, and this he does without considering whether existing circumstances may not render the administration of it improper.

To return from this digression, we shall endeavour to give an example as simple as will answer our purpose, to illustrate the above method of procedure. We shall suppose that a practitioner is sent for to a middle-aged man, in moderate circumstances, who has been for some days labouring under a tertian intermittent fever, with which he had never before been affected, but had commonly been strong and healthy. The practitioner sees nothing in the circumstances of the case which can lead to an unfavourable prognosis, and he therefore has little hesitation in pronouncing, that the fever will probably soon be removed. Considering the indications usually laid down in practical writers on intermittents, he proceeds to prescribe the remedies which appear best suited to the case in point. Thus the indications given by Dr Cullen are,

1. In the time of intermission to prevent the recurrence of paroxysms.

2. In the time of paroxysms to conduct these so as to obtain a final solution of the disease.

3. To take off certain circumstances which might prevent the fulfilling of the two first indications.

In considering the first indication, the practitioner reflects on the effect of the usual exciting cause of an intermittent, EXTemporaneous PRESCRIPTIONS.

Rules for Precriptions.

termittent, marfs miasmata, which he sees to be a debilitated state of the system. This he learns is to be removed by tonics; and of those the bark of the ciuchona officinalis is justly celebrated in the cure of intermittents. This then he would immediately prescribe; but that experience has shewn it to be better to begin the administration of this medicine as soon as possible after a paroxysm. We shall suppose, however, that the last paroxysm took place the day before he saw the patient, and consequently may be expected to return the next day. He finds also that the patient is costive, a circumstance which must be removed according to the third indication. Now, attending to the second indication, he knows that this is generally best fulfilled by the exhibition of an emetic at the commencement of the cold fit, and of an opiate at the commencement of the hot fit; but the costiveness of the patient contraindicating the use of opium, he must endeavour to find for it a substitute which has not a tendency to excite or increase constipation. He will perhaps prescribe as follows:

Rp. Vini ipecacuanhae, unc. L. —— Tartritis antimonii (Edin.) unc. 1/2. M. fiat haufus.

Signetur. The emetic to be taken just as the next cold fit is coming on.

Rp. Pulveris Rhei Palmati, gr. 25. Subumuratis Hydrargyri, gr. 3. Succi Spissati Hydacyami, gr. 4. Syrupi q. s. Fiat bolus.

Signetur. To be taken just as the next hot fit is coming on.

Rp. Pulveris Cinchone officinalis, scr. 2. —— Croti Elutheriae, gr. 10. M. f. pulvis.

Signetur. One to be taken in a little wine and water as soon as the hot fit has gone off, and repeated every two hours till the expected return of the next cold fit.

The analysis of this prescription will afford us some useful practical observations.

1. It will be observed that the formulae are arranged in the order in which the medicines are to be exhibited, a circumstance to which it is always proper to attend, when the prescription is to contain more than one formula or circumstance to be directed by the practitioner. Thus when anything is required immediately, as bleeding, the application of leeches, or of a blister, this should form the first clause in the prescription, in the following manner.

Mittatur sanguis e brachio STATIM ad unc. 12.; or, Applicetur quamprimum temporibus hirudines sex; or, Applicetur statim emplastrum vesicatorium capite rufo.

2. The ingredients directed in each formula should be arranged in the order in which they are to be mixed by the compounder. This may be thought a matter of slight importance, but it is more deserving of notice than is generally supposed. For the most part, indeed, in whatever order the practitioner may arrange the ingredients in his formula, a skilful apothecary will combine them in that order which experience has shewn him to be most convenient; but it is surely much neater that the order of preparation should be preserved in the prescription, this being considered as the guide by which the compounder is to direct his operations. Suppose we were to prescribe a medicine containing colofer oil, distilled water, mucilage of gum arabic, syrup of rhubarb, and tincture of fennel. In the preparation of this medicine the apothecary will first rub together the oil and mucilage; he will then add the syrup, and perhaps the tincture, and lastly the water. In this order then it would be best to express the formula. See Kirby's Tables, formula 54. In this manner the neatness of the medicine is insured, and the preparation of it rendered more easy and expeditious. It is very usual for prescribers to begin with the article that is to be most abundant in the medicine, as the water, and so gradually descend to that of least quantity; and particular care is generally taken to place in succession those ingredients that are employed in equal quantities, with the sign (aa singulorum, of each) after the last. This seems rather a puerile method, and is commonly inconsistent with the practice of composition.

There are other reasons for arranging the ingredients in the order of composition. In some cases a very volatile substance forms a part of the medicine, as ether, or ammonia; and it is proper that this should be the last ingredient in the composition of the medicine, that as little as possible of it may be dissipated. It is proper, therefore, that it should stand last in the formula (see Kirby's Tables, formulas 126, 129 and 130.). There is a formula given in the Pharmacopoeia Chirurgica for an embrocation, to be composed of 2 drams of tincture of camphor (camphorated spirit), 1 dr. of water of acetated litharge (Gouard's extract) and a pound of distilled water. We are told that the mixture of these ingredients is to take place in the order in which they are set down, otherwise the camphor will be separated.*

We have already mentioned (No 3) the names of the several parts of which a compound medicine may be formed, as the basis, the adjuvant, the corrector, and constituent; and have explained the reasons for the addition of the three latter. There are some rules respecting these, which it will be proper to consider in this place.

3. The basis should always be single, unless some material advantage is expected to arise from the employment of two or more remedies of the same kind. The reason of this rule is sufficiently obvious, as the effect of a single remedy is much more easily determined and proportioned than that of two or more employed together. The advantages of simplicity in prescription will be considered presently.

4. If more than one basis be employed, they should be of the same nature, or such as produce the same effects. This needs no illustration.

5. With respect to the adjuvant, we shall remark on the utility that one use generally assigned to it, viz. that of adjuvant; facilitating the solution of the basis in the stomach, appears equivocal. It is not uncommon to order refrinous drugs to be made up into pills with soap, which is considered by many as acting in the way of promoting solution. Soap is often a good constituent, but we do not think it can produce the effect above alluded to.

6. The use of the corrector requires a little more discussion. One of the first intentions of the corrector is to diminish the too violent action of the principal remedy, or to prevent its exerting an action in an improper part of the body. Thus, mucilage may be added to coloform. cocoynth, (bitter apple), or given after it, to blunt or lessen the acrimony which this substance is commonly found to possess. So again, mercury is often combined with opium, when it is required to introduce a considerable quantity of the former into the system, or to speak more properly, to acquire the full benefit of its accumulated stimulus. This can scarcely be effected, if it be allowed to run off by the bowels. Camphor is often given after the application of a blister, to obviate the strangury which frequently attends the external application of cantharides. In some cases the cinchona bark produces sickness or purging, and here the addition of a few drops of tincture of opium to each dose is proper.

7. Another use of the corrector is to obviate or disguise the unpleasant taste or odour of the principal remedy. Thus, the emetic in our prescription is ordered to be prepared of the wine of ipecacuanha instead of the powder, as the wine that forms the solvent of that remedy disguises its unpleasant taste. The articles usually employed as correctors of flavour, are syrups and tinctures of various kinds, essential aromatic oils, &c., and the use of these has been often much abused. The addition of a large quantity of sugar, in some cases, especially in dyspepsia or indigestion, seldom fails of increasing the symptoms of the disease, as in a debilitated state of the stomach it quickly passes into a state of fermentation, and produces flatulence, pain, and anorexia or loss of appetite, the very symptoms which we are to remove. It is a common practice to add syrup to several of the neutral salts, as sulphate of soda, sulphate of iron, &c., with a view to improve their flavour; but we apprehend that whoever has tasted the nauseous mixture will scarcely agree with the prescriber that he has gained his point.

8. The abuse of alcohol in the form of tinctures has been sometimes carried to a great, and, we think, a culpable excess. This has arisen sometimes from the desire of the patient to have his medicines made strong and good, and not unfrequently, perhaps, from mercenary views in the practitioner, to induce the patient to swallow a greater quantity of medicine, because it is rendered agreeable to his palate. We have no doubt that many well-meaning practitioners order a considerable dose of tincture from a mistaken complaisance to their patients, without apprehending any ill consequences from it; but in fact, the intemperate use of these tinctures is injurious to the stomach, and has, we believe, not unfrequently drawn some of the most sober persons into a habit of dram-drinking. The propensity to the use of cordials, which is now become so prevalent, has probably arisen from this source. The quantity of alcohol ordered by some prescribers is truly astonishing. A book lately came into our hands, which is called a translation of elegant medical prescriptions for various disorders, by the late Dr Hugh Smith. For the accuracy of the translation we cannot vouch, not having seen the original; but if it be accurate, the spirituous cinnamon water (spirit of cinnamon), seems to have been a very favourite article in Dr Smith's catalogue of medicines, as it is no unusual thing to see an ounce, or 1½ ounce of it ordered in a single draught, or four ounces in an eight-ounce mixture. Did not this occur frequently in the prescriptions of Dr Smith, we should suppose it to be some blunder of the translator or transcriber.

9. A third use of the corrector is to render the medicine more agreeable to the stomach. Thus, sulphate of soda is to many persons very nauseous, and is not unfrequently rejected by vomiting; but the addition of a small quantity of lemon juice, or of superlactate of potash, is found to correct this unpleasant quality. The bark of cinchona does not agree with some stomachs, without the addition of an aromatic; the cafecilla ordered in the above powders, affords a useful addition, with the view of rendering it more agreeable to the stomach.

The unpleasant odour of a medicine is more difficult to correct than its flavour. In internal medicines this is usually best effected by regulating the form in which they are exhibited; as, in prescribing the sulphate of potash, it is better to order it in the form of a powder to be sweetened with sugar, to be swallowed dry (see Kirby's Tables, formula 68), than by way of draught or mixture. The odour of external medicines is best corrected by the essential oils and perfumes. Thus, in using sulphur for cutaneous diseases, it is usual to add a quantity of essence of bergamot or oil of lavender, which, though they do not entirely destroy the odour of the sulphur, have a considerable effect in disguising it.

10. In ordering a corrector, the practitioner should be aware that it is not the quantity of the basis, but its quality that he is to correct. If a dose of digitalis or squill makes the patient sick, we should not think of giving opium or effervescing draughts to prevent this effect, but we should lessen the quantity of the medicine at its next exhibition. We have been rather minute on the subject of the corrector, as we conceive that much will depend on the adroit management of this part of a formula, in showing the neatness and address of the prescriber. By a proper use of correctors he can often regulate the action of a medicine, and considerably relieve the feelings of his patient.

11. The constituent employed in a formula will of course vary with the form of the medicine. In the more solid compositions, as boluses, pills, and electuaries, it is generally syrup, conserve, confection, or extract. In liquid medicines, it is either simple water, or some watery liquid, as decoctions, infusions, or water distilled from some aromatic plant. It is proper to remark, that the prescriber should consider whether a constituent ordered as such, be necessary, for it often happens, that the extracts or pilular masses kept in the shops, are already of a proper consistence for making into pills. It is obvious that the constituent, if it be not simple water, should have similar qualities with the other parts of the medicine, unless when it contains in it the corrector.

12. In the prescription which we have given as an example, the names of the articles are written at length, ingredients need not be written in practice. To an apothecary's apprentice it can answer no other end than to exercise his latinity, and display the erudition of the prescriber. In fact, it may even tend to mislead him; for as the names of the articles kept in his master's shop, are always painted on the labels, or drawers, in an abbreviated form, the words at full length are not better understood by the compounder. compounder, and indeed they are often more intelligible in the concise form in which he is accustomed to see them. Add to this, that the writing of the words at full length may occasionally betray the practitioner into an unguarded mistake, which may call in question his grammatical accuracy. In Fox's Formule Selectae, calomelae perpetually occurs as the genitive instead of calomelanos; and in a work on midwifery, published by Dr Pugh of Chelmsford, grammatical errors both in the names and in the directions are to be detected posthum. The only advantage that writing at length seems to possess, is that it teaches a beginner to read a prescription, which by the way is often at first no easy matter. But practice soon renders this familiar.

13. The quantities of the ingredients in the above prescription are not expressed in the usual symbols, but we have employed the contracted forms of the words uncia and drachma, and the common Arabian figures, as recommended in the preface to Dr Kirby's Tables. The directions also are written in English. The reasons assigned in the work above referred to, are as follow. "The characters 3 and 3 are so similar, that they may easily be written for each other, and that they have sometimes been so written cannot be denied. The consequence is obvious; a stroke of the pen too much may kill the patient, and a stroke too little may produce a medicine of little or no efficacy. Strange! that physicians should have been so misled by an affectation of mystery or concealment, (for to what else can be attributed the use of these hieroglyphics?) as to place the safety of their patients at the mercy of a lapillus pennae! Unc. and dr. can never be written for each other, and we see no good reason why these abbreviations should not be employed for uncia and drachma, as well as gr. and gt. for gramum and gutta." Dr Spens, in his elegant edition of the Pharmacopoeia Neocomii Edinburgensis, has employed these contracted words, but has retained the Roman numerals.

"The use of the Arabian figures appears calculated to insure both perspicuity and dispatch. They are more easily written, occupy less room in a prescription, and (by their familiarity) remove all possibility of mistake.

"As to the directions, they should always be written in the vernacular language. In a prescription, perspicuity is always our first object; it is not here that we are called upon to display our learning and classical elegance; and whoever considers that these are proprieties not always to be met with in the shop of an apothecary or a druggist, will readily wave them, in order to insure the perfect understanding of his prescriptions. It does not indeed require any great knowledge of Latin to translate the directions which usually occur in prescriptions; but as there are cases in which a long and rather complex direction is employed, we should leave nothing to the contingency of the learning or ignorance of the compounder, but by writing the directions ourselves in the received language of the country, put it out of his power to injure our reputation, or endanger the safety of the patient."

The doses of medicines must, in a great measure, be determined by experience; but after having thus ascertained the medium dose proper for an adult under ordinary circumstances, and of an ordinary constitution, there are certain general considerations, according to which we may proportion the doses of the same substance to various constitutions and ages. In regulating the doses of medicines, we are to attend chiefly to the following considerations.

a. The circumstances of the disease and the vital powers of the patient.

b. The powers, mode of exhibition, and particular intention of the medicine employed.

c. The age, sex, constitution, and habits of the patient.

14. The circumstances of the disease to be attended to, Doses regulated by its nature, seat, period, and degree of violence. There are several diseases that require Herculean remedies, and these in very large doses. It is well known that maniacs require much greater doses to produce the same effect than most other patients. If we are to administer an emetic to a person in this situation, it would be of no use to prefer 2 or 3 grains of tartarate of antimony and potash, or a scruple of specucaunha, the usual doses in ordinary cases. Less than 6 grs. of the former will scarcely excite vomiting, and it is sometimes necessary to order 10 or 15 grs. If we wish to procure sleep to these wretched beings, a few grains of opium are a trifle. Dr Darwin mentions two cases of insanity, in one of which 2 scruples of solid opium were administered, and four hours after, a third scruple; while in the other, a furious mania was rendered calm and rational in the space of a few hours by a dose of 400 drops of tincture of opium.

Again, the more violent the disease, the larger doses are generally required for its removal; but, on the other hand, the later the period or stages of several diseases, as fever, consumption, and similar affections attended with great debility, the less is the quantity required to produce the same effect; or rather the less able will the patient be to bear the usual doses. When the vital powers are much diminished, a large dose may be attended with very serious consequences. Thus, in cases of suspended animation by drowning, where the vital energy is nearly exhausted, if, when the powers of life are just returning, we were to oblige the patient to swallow a quantity of brandy, or even a glass of pure wine, we should probably smother the glimmering spark. Again, in cases of torpor from cold, if we expose the frozen limb to a sudden considerable heat, a gangrene ensues; whereas, had we in the former case given a little wine and water, and in the latter applied a moderate gradually increasing warmth, attended with gentle friction, we should probably have restored the patient, and preserved the limb.

15. The powers, form, and intention of the medicine must be considered. The more active remedies must be used and administered with greater caution than such as are of inferior efficacy. Thus, if we are to exhibit the corrosive cines, muriate of mercury, the oxide of arsenic, the nitrate of silver, or other powerful and dangerous remedies, we must begin with a quantity rather below than above the medium dose, and gradually increase it according to the effect produced. On the other hand, however, we must not descend to doses that are trifling and inert. It is as ridiculous to prescribe a scruple of cinchona twice or thrice a day, to restore vigour to a debilitated system, as it would be improper to order half an ounce of rhubarb for an ordinary cathartic. A prudent practitioner will avoid both extremes of timidity and rashness, and will will neither risk the safety of his patient by an excessive dose, nor give him lingering suspense and pain, for want of the due application of the proper remedies.

Much will depend on the form in which the medicine is to be exhibited. Thus, if we are to employ externally, or by way of blister, such medicines as are usually given by the mouth, it is necessary to order them in much larger quantity. The usual dose of tincture of opium is 25 or 30 drops; but if this is to be applied by friction, from 2 drams to half an ounce will sometimes be required for one application; and in a glyster it is usual to prefer a dram or two. The tincture of cantharides, whether given internally, or applied by friction to the surface, is a powerful remedy; but in the former case, 20 or 30 drops are sufficient, while in the latter a dram or two is usually employed. Similar remarks might be made with respect to the use of mercury, and many other remedies.

The intention with which the medicine is administered must also be taken into consideration, as there are many substances that produce different effects, according to the quantity employed. Thus, tartarate of antimony and potash may be given as an emetic, a diaphoretic, an expectorant, or a cathartic, according to the magnitude or repetition of the dose. Two or three grains given at once, or a grain every 15 minutes, usually excite vomiting; but from \( \frac{1}{2} \) gr. to 1 gr. given every 5 or 6 hours, generally keeps up a constant nausea without vomiting, and thus, by sympathy, the medicine acts as a diaphoretic or antispasmodic. The medicine given in the dose of a third of a grain twice or thrice a day is a good expectorant; and in the dose of \( \frac{1}{4} \) gr. every two or three hours, usually operates by the bowels. It is well known that the effect of opium varies considerably, according to the dose and the interval at which it is administered. If we wish to promote sleep, or relieve pain, we give what is called a full dose, that is, a grain or two. It thus acts as a narcotic, and an antispasmodic or a diaphoretic. Given in small repeated doses, it acts as a general stimulus, promotes absorption, and answers the purposes of a diuretic and an astringent. Ten or twelve grs. of aloes exhibited at once, are cathartic; but one or two grs. given twice or thrice a day gently stimulates the rectum and neighbouring parts, and acts in particular cases as an emmenagogue.

We need scarcely remark, that when two or more articles of a similar nature are prescribed in the same formula, the dose of each must be proportionally lessened.

16. We must regulate our doses according to the age, sex, constitution, and habits of the patient.

It is evident that various ages must require various proportions; but experience shows that the required doses are not directly proportional to the ages, as might a priori be expected, and as the mathematical physicians in the beginning of the 18th century believed (b). Experience has enabled us to construct a table, in which may be thrown the doses proportioned to various ages, adjusted from a certain medium dose for an adult: such a table is the following.

| Age | Proportional dose | Absolute dose | |-----|------------------|--------------| | Weeks, 7 | 1/3 | grs. 4 | | Months, 7 | 1/3 | grs. 5 | | Months, 14 | 1/3 | grs. 10 | | Months, 28 | 1/3 | grs. 12 | | Years, 3½ | 1/3 | grs. 15 | | Years, 5 | 1/3 | fcr. 1 | | Years, 7 | 1/3 | dr. 1 | | Years, 14 | 1/3 | fcr. 2 | | Years, 21 | 1/3 | dr. 1 | | Years, 63 | 1/3 | gr. 55 | | Years, 77 | 1/3 | gr. 50 | | Years, 100 | 1/3 | fcr. 2 |

(b) At the time when Newton had by his discoveries rendered the study of mathematics as fashionable as it is useful, medicine partook of the general bias, and several physicians of ingenuity and erudition attempted to reduce its theory and practice under the dominion of their favourite science. Among these Dr Strother read and published a course of lectures on the rationale of medicines, which he entitles *Prelectiones Physico-mathicae et Medico-practicae*. In his first lecture he treats of the doses of medicine, and after discussing in a very philosophical manner the general mode of regulating these according to the size and shape of the particles of medicines, and their momentum as determined by their celerity multiplied by their quantity of matter, he proceeds to point out how we are to proportion the doses to various ages. He has the following question: *If a person of 30 years of age takes 60 grains of any medicine, how much must a child of 5 years of age take?* This question he of course resolves by the rule of proportion in the following manner.

\[ 30 : 5 :: 60 : \left( \frac{300}{30} = 10 \right) \]

In order to render this generally applicable to every case, he calls in the aid of algebra, and substituting symbols for the above numbers we have

- \( r \) = the greater age given - \( a \) = the less age given - \( t \) = the dose given - \( e \) = the dose required.

Then \( r : a :: t : \left( \frac{at}{r} = e \right) \). The above table may serve as a general guide to the young practitioner. The second column shows the aliquot parts of the medium dose for an adult, that are adapted to different ages from seven weeks to 100 years, supposing this medium dose to be 1; and the third column gives the absolute quantities in grains, &c., taking the medium dose at 1 dr. This table, however, will by no means apply in all cases. Thus, the dose of opium adjusted from this table, for a child of five years old, is ½ gr. and that of submuriate of mercury or calomel, 1 gr.; but in cases of phrenitis hydrocephalica (water in the head), we may administer half a grain of the former, and three or four of the latter. Females in general require less doses than males; and persons of a robust and vigorous constitution, such as country labourers, the more active mechanics, servants, and those of the melancholic and phlegmatic temperaments, will, all other things being equal, require larger doses than persons of an opposite description.

The climate also seems to have some influence in this respect. In America and the West Indies we are informed that much larger doses of submuriate of mercury are given than are usually prescribed in Britain. In cases where we would give three or four grains, they would order 10 or 15. We are told, too, that in some parts of India, in order to excite vomiting in a native, it is sometimes necessary to give 20 scruples of ipecacuanha. The Germans, and especially, according to Gaußius, the inhabitants of Saxony and Westphalia, require much larger doses than the inhabitants of any other country in Europe.

Peculiarities of constitution, commonly called idiosyncrasies, require attention on the part of the prescriber. It is therefore proper to inquire whether any circumstance of this kind occurs in any individual, especially when called for the first time.

The habits of the patient must also be regarded, as in general medicines lose some of their effect by being often repeated, and therefore require to have their dose increased. Thus, persons who are accustomed to the use of opium, will derive no benefit from the ordinary doses of that medicine, but when labouring under a complaint that requires the exhibition of opium, they must take a quantity somewhat larger than that to which they are habituated. It is well known what quantities of opium are consumed by some of the eastern nations; and the writer of this article has seen a travelling gypsy who never went to rest without taking more than half a dram of solid opium (c).

17. Perplexity is essentially necessary in writing a prescription, and every thing which can in any degree a principal diminish it ought to be carefully avoided. Many of the observations already made have been directed to this point; and we have yet one or two remarks to complete this part of our subject. A prescriber should be very careful not to introduce into his prescription articles which are obsolete, or which are no longer contained in our pharmacopoeias, unless he is certain that the apothecary who is to prepare the medicine keeps such articles beside him; and even then, as it is most likely that they have been long prepared, and have lost much of their efficacy, he cannot depend on their answering the end he proposes. Thus, few would now think of prescribing the confection paulina, the theriaca Andromachi, or the aqua alexiteria simplex, or many other compounds, which have given place to more simple and convenient forms.

18. The same cautions will apply, though perhaps obsolescent with some limitations, to those medicines which are uncommonly met with, or have been newly introduced into some of our Pharmacopoeias. Before we venture to prescribe an ordered article of this description, we should ascertain whether with caution or not it is to be procured in or near the place where the patient resides, or, where possible, we should give timely notice to the apothecary to provide himself with some of it. Many unpleasant circumstances may arise from not attending to this caution, especially where the patient is apprised that he is about to take a new remedy which has been found very beneficial in cases similar to his own. For instance, the Rhus Toxicodendron has lately been much extolled in the cure of palsy. Suppose a physician in a provincial town, at a great distance from the capital, were to prescribe this medicine. The apothecary has none of it, nay, perhaps, has never heard of the medicine, and it must be procured from the capital. This occasions a delay for several days, and in the mean time the paralytic person is impatient to try the effect of the new remedy, and probably refuses to take any other. When the medicine arrives,

(c) Before dismissing the subject of the Doses of Medicine, we must notice an improvement lately proposed, and which appears likely to be adopted by the London College in the intended new edition of their Pharmacopoeia; we mean that of abolishing the usual method of measuring small doses or quantities of liquids by drops. There can be no doubt that in many cases this method of dropping liquids is liable to great uncertainty; the size of the drops, and of course the quantity of liquid which they contain, varying greatly according to the nature of the liquid, the size and form of the neck of the phial from which they are let fall, and even the state of the atmosphere. The dram, by measure, of distilled water, will afford only 60 drops from an ordinary two ounce phial with a neck of the usual diameter; whereas the same bulk of proof spirit may be divided into 120 drops, and some tinctures will afford many more. Considering this uncertainty, it is proposed to abolish the very name of drops (gutta) in prescriptions, and to employ the small graduated measures of Lane, in which the dram is divided into 60 equal parts, which may be called grains. Thus, instead of ordering gutt. 30 of tinct. opii, we shall order gr. 15. (fifteen grains) or ¼ of a dram, allowing for the difference between water and spirit. This will certainly be an improvement where moderate doses are to be prescribed, but when the dose does not exceed two or three drops, as in some of the essential oils, armeniac of potash, &c., so much would be lost in the measure that the dose would be rendered very uncertain.

On the whole, we would recommend that in all cases the medicine shall be so diluted that the dose shall not be less than half a dram, and spoons might be made for family use that should contain that quantity, as an ordinary tea-spoon now contains a dram. the patient has perhaps, as not unfrequently happens, lost his enthusiasm, and begins to take it with reluctance or disgust, feelings which not a little influence the success of a remedy, and thus disappoint the hopes both of the patient and physician.

Under this head of avoiding uncommon medicines, it may be proper to remark, that though a physician in this empire is allowed to prescribe articles from any of the national dispensaries, he should in general confine himself to that which is most used in the part of the empire where he resides, and if he mentions an article from either of the others, he should subjoin to the name of that article the initials Ph. Ed. Ph. Lond. or Ph. Dub., to prevent mistakes, thus,

R. Tincturae Sicilae (Ph. Lond.) dr. 2. R. Tincturae Angusturae (Ph. Dub.) unc. 1. R. Solutionis muriatis Calcis (Ph. Ed.) dr. 1.

With the same view of ensuring perspicuity, we should never prescribe a compound medicine which is not officinal, merely by its usual title, without specifying the component parts, or at least the proportions of these. Thus, if we propose to order an infusion of quassia, or a decoction of oak bark, it would not be sufficient to write in the formula infusii quassiae, or decocti quercus, but it would be proper, either to prescribe the mode of preparing them at full length, thus,

R. Rafuræ ligni quassiae excelsæ, dr. 1. Aqua distillata ferventis, lib. Infunde per horam, et cola; or, R. Quercus contulsi, unc. 1. Aqua distillata lib. Coque ad dimidium, et cola;

And then to prescribe the proper quantity, as,

R. Infusii hujiæ, unc. 7, &c. or, R. Decocti supra praepositi, unc. 8, &c.

Or, it would at least be proper to mention within a parenthesis, the proportions to be employed in the composition, in the following manner:

R. Infusii quassiae excelsæ (cum dr. 1. ad aquæ lib.) &c.; or, R. Decocti quercus (cum corticis uncia 1 ad aquæ lib.) &c.

Again, it would be absurd in private practice to prescribe the citrate of potash or of ammonia by the names of miflura salina, or julepum neutrale; but it would be necessary to introduce into the formula the proper quantities of lemon juice and of carbonate of potash, or carbonate of ammonia, to prepare these secondary salts. See Kirby's Tables, formula 13.

That we may the better avoid mistakes in composition, it is advisable to study simplicity as much as possible: the physician is considered as the assistant of nature, and ought to follow her example in producing effects by the most simple means. Nothing looks so unscientific as a crowded formula; it bears the marks of empiricism in its very face, and always reminds us of those monuments of pharmaceutical folly, the theriac and the mithridate to be hereafter noticed. It seems as if the prescriber said to himself, "I will put plenty of ingredients into this medicine, and the deuce is in it if some of them don't answer." There are many favourite recipes of old practitioners handed down from father to son, or from master to apprentice, which seem to owe their celebrity chiefly to the multitude of their ingredients. The Lisbon diet drinks have long been famous in the cure of diseases of the skin. The following is one of these, as taken from the Pharmacopoeia Chirurgica.

R. Decoctum Lusitanicum, No. 2. Saraparillae concifae, Ligni santali rubri, Ligni santali citrini, sing. unc. ijs.; Radici glycyrrhizae, Radici mezerei, sing. drach. ij. Ligni rhodii, Ligni guaiaci officinalis, Ligni sassafras, sing. unc. fs.; Antimonii unc. j. Aqua distillata lib v.

These ingredients are to be macerated for 24 hours, and afterwards boiled till the fluid is reduced to half its original quantity. From one to two pints are given daily.*

Some practitioners adhere to this form; but others, less bigotted to old customs, have recourse to a contracted form of it, retaining only the guaiacum, sassafras, and liquorice, and adding raisins, similar to the decoctum guaiaci compositum of the Pharmacopoeias.

The following is given in Fox's Formulae as a remedy for dropsy.

R. Succ. limon. rec. unciam, Sal absynth. scrupulos duos, — corn. cerv. scrupulum, Tinct. cinnam. et Aceti scillit. sing. drachmas duas, Tinct. cort. Peruv. femunciam, Aq. menth. vulg. simp. et — pura sing. unciam, Vini antimi. Huxhami guttas quadraginta, Tinct. Theb. guttas viginti. Fiat mitura, pro dosibus duabus.

On examining this prescription, we shall find the resulting medicine to be composed of citrate of potash, acetate of ammonia, a solution of tartrate of antimony and potash, and tincture of opium, all which are diaphoretics; of squill, which is diuretic; and of cinnamon, Peruvian bark, alcohol, and mint water, which are tonic and stimulant. Now, a diaphoretic, a diuretic, and a stimulant, may not form a bad compound in dropsy, but as they may be given in a much more simple form, the present medicine is absurdly complex and unscientific. It might be reduced as follows:

R. Aque acetatis ammoniae, unc. 1. Tincturae scillae, dr. 1. — lauri cinnamomi, unc. ½. Vini tartritis antimonii, dr. 1. Tincturae opii, gt. 40. Aqua distillata, unc. vi. M.

We shall quote one other example of a medical farra, taken from De Gorter's Formulae. It is for a powder formed of vegetables; and we may remark it is in the vegetable kingdom that prescribers have most exuberantly displayed their talent at composition.

R. Rad. R. Rad. Imperator Aristolochii utriusque — zedoar. Siler. montan. Ææ dr. 1. Zinzib. scr. 2. Flor. Centaur. min. dr. 1. — Rorifmar. scr. 1. — Gratiol. German. dr. ¼. Bacca Lauri — junip. Ææ dr. 1½. Thymi, Serpylli, Abinthiae, Tanacetii, Summitat. Santon. Ææ. dr. 1. M. f. pulv.

Such a powder as this may vie in composition with the theriaca and mithridate of redoubted fame. As this medicine is composed of so many ingredients, possessed of various powers, it must of course be endowed with many virtues, or must be a pulvis polycheiretus. Accordingly, its author acquaints us, in the margin, that it is resolvent, sudorific, stimulant, roborant, calcificient, aromatic, stomachic, diuretic, diaphoretic, diuretic, and apertent; that it is of service in dropsy, chlorosis, paralytis, apoplexy, fever, delirium, and fifty other diseases and morbid affections, for a full detail of which we must refer our readers to the work itself.

One would think that the absurdity of these complex formulae would be abundantly evident to every man of common sense; but the empirical prescriber will probably say, such is the medicine which I have frequently been given with success, and how am I sure that, by omitting one of the materials, I may not destroy the efficacy of the medicine!

The more compounded a medicine is, the more difficult it will be to ascertain and proportion the effects produced by its several parts on the human system. When several articles are employed at the same time, we cannot be certain to which of them we are to attribute the benefit which appears to result, or the noxious qualities which the compound may possess. This rage for composition has been one great obstacle to the improvement of medicine. The effects of various substances on the body have been but little attended to; and indeed the investigation is difficult, and requires a long series of careful and nice experiments, and these made, not on the inferior animals, but on man himself. The administration of medicines to the lower classes of animals can throw but little light on their action upon the human body. Several substances which are highly injurious to man, are taken by some other animals with impunity. The old story of the origin of the name of antimony is probably well known to many of our readers. See Antimony. On the contrary, some substances are poisons to many of the lower animals, but are much less injurious to man. A small quantity of nux vomica will destroy a garden mouse, but a man may take five or ten grains with safety, and even advantage. The doses of medicines, too, bear no proportion in the various animals. A few grains of aloes are sufficient to purge a man, but a horse requires from half an ounce to a whole ounce. It is therefore necessary that man himself should be the subject of experiment; and where great nicety is required, the enquirer should make the experiment on his own person. Innumerable are the dogs, birds, and frogs, that have been sacrificed on the altar of science. Few experimentalists have, like Pelletier and Davy, ventured to operate on themselves; and even where this has been done, the effects of prejudice and previous hypothesis have considerably diminished the value of their researches.

It is advisable that every practitioner should, from the number of his patients, select a few cases to which he may particularly attend, carefully observing and comparing the effects of the medicines prescribed. In this way he will in time collect a body of information, from which he may be able to draw some valuable conclusions. It is more peculiarly requisite to make observations on the effects of compound medicines, and compare them with those produced by the component simples, when given separately.

It would be unfair to dismiss this part of our subject without admitting that there are some compound medicines, the good effects of which must be acknowledged, even though we cannot, in the present state of medical science, explain their action. There are two medicines of this kind, which the writer of this article has often seen prescribed by physicians of whole abilities and experience; he has a high opinion, with evident good effect, and which yet have much of the complex empirical air that we have been condemning. One of these is a remedy for the advanced stage of dysentery, and is prescribed nearly in the following manner.

R. Infusi quassiae (cum dr. 1 ad aquae lib) unc. 6. Magnesiae uflæ dr. 2. Tinctura fennæ unc. 2. ——— opii dr. 2. Electuarii aromatici dr. 1. Syrupi Rhei dr. 3. M. Signetur. Three or four table spoonsful to be taken every six hours, shaking the phial, and one spoonful after every loose stool.

Here are a bitter, an absorbent, a stimulant, a laxative, and a narcotic, combined in the same medicine. To which of these are we to attribute the good effects which have appeared to us to result from the exhibition of the whole? Probably the slight laxative and the absorbent are here of little use, and the chief benefit is to be ascribed to the bitter and the stimuli, considering the opium in this light.

The other medicine to which we allude is considered as an antifeptic, and is frequently ordered in putrid diseases, especially in cynanche maligna or scarlatina anginosa. It is as follows.

R. Muriatis sodæ dr. 1½. Succini limonis, dr. 1½. Sacchari purificati, unc. ½. Spiritus myristici moschati, dr. 3. Ætheris sulphurici cum alcohole, dr. 2. Aquæ menthae piperitæ, unc. 6. M. Signetur. Three table spoonsful to be taken every four hours (and in cynanche some of it to be frequently used by way of gargle).

What an apparent confusion of salt and sour, of sweet and strong! It is true that there is here no decomposition, and yet the medicine is certainly unscientific and empirical. 21. A prescriber should adapt his prescription, as far as may be, to the worldly circumstances of his patient, directing for the poorer class those forms which are least expensive, such as powders, pills, electuaries, and ingredients for teas and decoctions, with proper directions how to prepare them. To his more wealthy patients he may prescribe those forms which, by uniting neatness with convenience, will both please his patient, and allow an adequate remuneration to the apothecary, who in most places derives from his practice little profit, except what arises from the sale of his medicines. The forms best adapted to such patients are those of draughts, boluses, powders, and julep, &c.

22. Neatness in prescription should always be regarded; for as the effects of medicines often depend much on the feelings of the patient, we should take care that his taste, sight, and smell, be offended as little as possible, that disgust may not either prevent his taking the medicine at all, or at least prevent him from taking it with confidence. In liquid medicines, we ought as much as possible to avoid powders, and every thing which can render the liquid unpleasant to the eye; and if we prefer a formula containing oil, we ought to take care that this be intimately mixed with the other ingredients. Thus, suppose, when about to employ opium by friction, we were to order equal parts of tincture of opium and oil of olives. Though when well shaken together, these ingredients would incorporate sufficiently to answer the purpose of opiate friction, yet when allowed to stand, they would speedily separate, and give the embrocation an unpleasant appearance. It would be better, therefore, to insure their combination by adding a little solution of ammonia.

23. In this respect much will depend on the form of the medicine; and a physician should be perfectly aware what form is best adapted to the articles he is to employ, as well as what is most agreeable to the patient. This subject of forms was sufficiently explained in the article Materia Medica, Part III. chap. 2.

We have now finished all that appeared most important on the general rules for extemporaneous prescriptions; but it may be proper to bring under one general view the principles which have been laid down. The great object of a practitioner is to cure his patient safely, agreeably, and expeditiously. That he may cure him safely, he is to study perspicuity and simplicity. To insure perspicuity, he should arrange his formulæ in the order of exhibition; write the words so that they may be most intelligible; arrange the articles of each formula in the mode of composition; use abbreviated words for quantities instead of symbols; employ the common numerals; write the directions in English; avoid obsolete or uncommon remedies, and order no article, not official, merely by its name. To insure simplicity, he must employ no more ingredients than are necessary. That he may cure his patient agreeably, he must observe neatness in his prescriptions; adapt his forms to the nature of the remedies employed, and not prefer offensive remedies where those that are agreeable or palatable will answer the same purpose.

That he may cure his patients expeditiously, he should employ the most efficacious remedies in the proper doses, and take care they are administered in such a manner as to be most likely to produce the desired effect.

We shall now conclude these general observations on prescription with a few practical cautions, for which we are chiefly indebted to Dr Percival.

1. A practitioner should attend to the feelings and prejudices of his patient. Dr Percival ordered bleeding to a patient labouring under peripneumony, who had a great dread of the operation, and appears to have died in consequence of its having been attempted.

2. A physician, after having ascertained the nature of a disease, in considering the treatment which he means to adopt, should first reflect whether any evacuation be necessary, as bleeding, the application of leeches or of blisters, cupping, vomiting, purging, &c.

3. He should next enquire whether any particular symptom, such as hemorrhage, great pain, excessive vomiting or purging, be so violent or so distorting as to require immediate attention.

4. He is to consider whether the disease under notice is one for the cure of which any specific remedy has been discovered, such as mercury in syphilis, cinchona in intermittents, &c.

5. In chronic diseases, where the usual remedies fail of success, it is often of consequence to endeavour to rouse the system into a new action by mercury, electricity, opium, &c. This practice appears rather empirical, but the experience of many able physicians has convinced its propriety.

6. In commencing the treatment of any case, it is proper to begin with the simplest and safest method; and if this does not succeed, to try others of a more complex and bolder description.

7. A physician should not change his plan or his remedies too soon or too often.

8. The cases of new born infants require peculiar caution, as a moderate dose of a powerful medicine may prove fatal. Four drops of tincture of opium have been given to a child a few weeks old for gripes. The infant was seized with stupor and convulsions, and died. A practitioner of midwifery gave an infant two teaspoonsful of castor oil by way of purgative; severe vomiting and convulsions came on, and the child sunk under them.

IV. Modern pharmacy may be said to commence Origin of about the middle of the 15th century, at which time it modern appears to have been in a most deplorable state of empirical barbarity. Though it is probable that, among the earlier practitioners of medicine, remedies were employed in their most simple forms, the art of compounding a number of simples together into one medicine had, by the time of which we are now speaking, arrived at a pitch of extravagance which has never been exceeded.

What carried this ostentation of composition to the highest excess, was the project of framing antidotes, which being previously administered, might defend against any poison whatever, that should afterwards be taken into the body. To this scheme is owing the enormous length of the celebrated mithridate and theriaca; for such medicines must of course recommend themselves by the number and variety of their ingredients, as they were to contain a proper antidote for every possible species of poison, and more especially as these compositions were to be farther wrought up into little less than universal remedies for all diseases to which the human body is subject.

The first of these antidotes was said to be composed from Historical from the result of experiments made separately with all kinds of simple antidotes by the famous king whose name it bears; but as no records are left us of any of those particular experiments, we may reasonably consider this tale as fabulous. As it is not likely that this medicine and the theriaca will ever again appear in our Pharmacopoeias, we shall, for the amusement of our readers, describe the composition of each, as given in the London Pharmacopoeia published in 1746. The mithridate is thus composed.

"Take of cinnamon 14 drams, of myrrh 11 drams; agaric, spikenard, ginger, saffron, seeds of treacle mustard, or of mithridate mustard, frankincense, chio turpentine, of each 10 drams; camel's hay, costus, or in its stead zedoary, Indian leaf, or in its stead mace, French lavender, long pepper, seeds of hartwort, juice of the rape of ciftus, strained storax, opopanax, strained galbanum, balsam of Gilead, or in its stead expressed oil of nutmegs, Russian caftor, of each an ounce; poley-mountain, water-germander, the fruit of the balsam tree, or in its stead cubebes, white pepper, seeds of the carrot of Crete, bdellium strained, of each seven drams; Celtic nard, gentian root, leaves of dittany of Crete, red roses, seeds of Macedonian parsley, the lesser cardomom seeds freed from their husks, sweet fennel seeds, gum Arabic, opium strained, of each five drams; root of the sweet flag, root of wild valerian, anise-seed, sagapenum strained, of each three drams; spiguel, St. John's wort, juice of acacia, or in its stead Japan earth, the bellies of scinks, of each two drams and a half; clarified honey, thrice the weight of all the rest. Dissolve the opium first in a little wine, and then mix it with the honey made hot; in the mean time melt together in another vessel the galbanum, storax, turpentine, and the balsam of Gilead, or the expressed oil of nutmeg, continually stirring them round, that they may not burn; and as soon as these are melted, add to them the hot honey, first by spoonfuls, and afterwards more freely; lastly, when this mixture is nearly cold, add by degrees the rest of the species reduced to powder.

The preparation of the Theriaca andromachi, or Venice treacle, is thus directed.

"Take of the troches of squills, half a pound; long pepper, opium strained, dried vipers, of each three ounces; cinnamon, balm of Gilead, or in its stead expressed oil of nutmeg, of each two ounces; agaric, the root of Florentine orris, water-germander, red roses, seeds of navew, extract of liquorice, of each an ounce and a half; spikenard, saffron, ammonium, myrrh, costus, or in its stead zedoary, camel's hay, of each an ounce; the root of cinquefoil, rhubarb, ginger, Indian leaf, or in its stead mace, leaves of dittany of Crete, of horehound, and of calamint, French lavender, black pepper, seeds of Macedonian parsley, olibanum, Chio turpentine, root of wild valerian, of each five drams; gentian root, Celtic nard, spiguel, leaves of poley-mountain, of St. John's wort, of ground pine, tops of creeping germander, with the seed, the fruit of the balsam tree, or in its stead cubebes, aniseed, sweet fennel seed, the lesser cardamom seeds freed from their husks, seed of bishop's-weed, of hartwort, of treacle mustard or mithridate mustard, juice of the rape of ciftus, acacia, or in its stead Japan earth, gum Arabic, storax strained, sagapenum strained, Lemnian earth, or in its stead bole Armenc or French bole, green vitriol calcined, of each half an ounce; root of creeping birthwort, or in its stead of the long birthwort, tops of the lesser centaury, seeds of the carrot of Crete, opopanax, galbanum strained, Ruffia caflor, Jews pitch, or in its stead white amber prepared, root of the sweet flag, of each two drams; of clarified honey thrice the weight of all the rest. The ingredients are to be mixed in the same manner as in the mithridate.

The theriaca may be considered as a modification of the mithridate by Andromachus, though we are not informed what were his reasons for the variations, except that by the addition of the viper's flesh the medicine was rendered more useful against the bite of that animal.* The theriaca was in so great repute before the decline of the Roman empire, that even the wife Mar-Antidotius Aurelius was induced to make a daily use of it, to lib. i. cap. i. the great prejudice of his health; for we are told by Galen, that his head was so much affected, that he dozed in the midst of bushes; and when on this account he omitted the opium in the composition, he could not sleep at all.

It is not a little amusing to observe the reasons that Origin of induced the ancient compounders of medicines to crowd the several their receipts with such a multitude of ingredients. Medicines were then distributed into four qualities, of heating, cooling, drying, and moistening, by the combination of which, and the structure of the substance in which they adhered, whether consisting of grofs or subtle parts, was deduced another head of qualities from consequential effects they were supposed by this means to have on the body, of inciting, attenuating, incrassating, relaxing, afflaring, and the like; by a farther prosecution of this speculation was derived from the same source a third arrangement of cephalics, hepatics, stomachics, diuretics, and others; these orders being closed by a fourth head, to comprehend such, whose effects surmounted even the acuteness of this system to explicate; these were said to operate tota sublantia. The first of these qualities, as well as those which depended on them, were farther divided into four degrees, and each of these into three subdivisions, whereby medicines might be adapted to each case with the nicest subtlety by the rules of arithmetic. Again, when the composition was thus happily adjusted, it was farther to be required, whether the medicine after all might not be suspected of some noxious quality, requiring correction; and this, whether real or imaginary, was by the farther addition of some proper accompaniment to be provided for. It was also to be considered, that a medicine might be serviceable to a remote part, but exposed to be destroyed by the powers of digestion before it arrived there; then it was to be assisted by some material, by which it should be defended and conducted safely, so as neither to be acted upon, nor act, till it reached the designed part, and then be left to operate without impediment, its guide and protector being itself there opportunely confirmed: some medicines were pretended to run too swiftly through the body, others to move on too flippishly; the first of these required a curb, the others a spur: often a director was necessary, that the medicine might not stray from its destined course; every medicine supposed to have its peculiar station, in which, left to itself, its operation would be exerted; if it were required to perform its office sooner, it was to be committed to the custody of some other, which might fix it to the region desired; if it were designed to proceed farther, it must have an afflant to open it a pallage.

How much ingenious men have been perplexed to account for these irregularities and superfluities of the earliest pharmaceutical writers, may in some measure be conceived from Baudron's comment on the *Aurea Alexandrina*, the first composition in the collection of Nicholas whom we shall presently notice. Opium, it seems, is the base whose powers are heightened by other ingredients, which require also others to correct their ill qualities. Besides these, one list of ingredients is to direct the operation to the head, another set to the breast, others to the heart, stomach, spleen, liver, kidneys, and other parts; inasmuch, says the author, that this one medicine, in regard to the diseases he enumerates, may very justly be considered as a whole apothecary's shop, contained in a gallipot. Rondelet, in his remarks on the *Syrupus Hyssopi Mefue*, seems less disposed to admire what he did not understand, when he tells us, he long doubted with himself, under what head, whether of attenuants or incrassants, it ought to be ranged, containing so many species of each kind; and at last has recourse to this frank reason for retaining it at all, *cui nobis usu, cum nondum erimus certi, incraffare, an attenuare oportet*.

When the alchemists had extended the bounds of their art from the mere drudgery of manufacturing gold and silver to the more noble, and philosophic employment of composing an universal elixir that should secure its possessor from disease, and prolong his life to an indefinite period, pharmacy derived from their labours considerable and solid advantages. The experiments instituted by these vivarines with the metals, led to the accidental discovery of some of the most efficacious remedies which we at present employ, especially the preparations of antimony and mercury, and most of what are called the neutral or secondary salts. By calling in the aid of fire, they enabled us to produce in bodies, changes which, without the assistance of this powerful agent, we should have been unable to effect. Now, every thing was submitted to digestion, calcination, fermentation, distillation, and sublimation; but, as generally happens in cases of innovation or reform, these new methods of obtaining active remedies were carried to an absurd and ridiculous extent. Finding that the healing powers of many substances were eliminated or increased by the application of heat, they seemed to imagine that the simple medicine could in no case possess any medical virtue till it had been placed upon the fire, or kept for some hours in a furnace. Hence the immense number of distilled waters and spirits, essential and empyreumatic oils, with which the old pharmacopoeias are crowded, and which seem in many cases to possess no other powers than what they derive from the water or the spirit that forms the bulk of the preparation. Not only plants and minerals, but animals and animal matters of all kinds were distilled, digested, or calcined. Thus, we find a water of snails, a spirit of millipedes, an oil of earthworms, &c. &c. The absurd and pompous names by which the preparations were distinguished, are truly ridiculous. *Magisterial balsam, hierapira, Ethiops mineral, ens veneris, flores martis, camomela, aquila alba*, are a few which long retained their seat, both in public and private dispensaries. As these preparations were, from their contrivers, denominated chemical; the more ancient medicines which were drawn almost entirely from the animal and vegetable kingdoms, were denominated Galenic, because chiefly employed by the followers of Galen. Hence the division of medicines into Galenic and chemical, a division which obtained for some hundred years, and which only a few years ago was preserved in the false catalogues of the London druggists.

However amusing to a scientific modern chemist it may be to wander through the labyrinths of the earlier pharmaceutical writers, it is necessary for us to be brief upon the subject. These absurdities are now fast disappearing; and pharmacy, guided by the increasing brightness of her younger but more enlightened sister, has begun to assume a more scientific and a more decided character. The principles and improvements of modern chemistry have been introduced into our pharmacopoeias, and the civilized nations of Europe are now vying with each other in the amelioration of these guides to the medical practitioner. In our own country, the Edinburgh college led the way to this reform. They have been followed by the Dublin physicians; and we may soon expect the completion of the revolution in our national pharmacy, by the publishing of a new edition of the London Pharmacopoeia, which is, we understand, now under review.

The progress of our present officinal pharmacy, from the time of its first introduction by the Arabians, so far modern as we can trace it through the obscurities attending its origin, has been as follows. Saladinus of Ascoli, an author who wrote about the middle of the 15th century, while as yet there were no pharmacopoeias established by any public authority, informs us, that the books with which the apothecaries were generally furnished, were these: a book of Avicenna and another of Serapion, which treat on simples; Simon Januensis de synonymis; a treatise of an Arabian author under the name of Liber Servitoris, containing the preparations of simples, and the chemical medicines then in use; likewise two Antidotaria, one of Johannes Damascenus or Mefue, and another of Nicholas de Salerno.

Some time after, Nicholas Praepositus of Tours wrote a general dispensatory, that might supply the place of all these; in which the compositions are almost entirely taken from Mefue, and the forementioned more ancient Nicholas. The *Thesaurus Aromaticariorum* written near the same time, and the *Lumen Apothecariorum*, consist also of similar extracts; and in the *Luminae Majus* published soon after, which contains a more extensive collection, these two authors generally lead each head. The same Antidotaria have also been made the general basis of the modern pharmacopoeias, though we know little more of their authors than that they were the favourites of those barbarous times in which they lived.

It is probable that Mefue lived about the 12th century, which is all that we can ascertain respecting a writer to whose authority such implicit submission has been paid; and even this circumstance has been disputed: for some have confounded him with a much earlier writer of the same name, who resided at the court of Bagdad.

Of the other father of pharmacy, Nicholas, little more is known. From his being styled of Salerno, we might imply Historical imply that he resided in that school. Of his work, Sketches, ladin gives the following account: that there were two Antidotaria under the name of this Nicholas, the one distinguished by the title of Nicholas Magnus, and the other by that of Nicholas Purus; that the latter was in most frequent use, and was only an epitome of the former, containing but a part of the compositions, and those reduced to less quantities. Among the collections of pieces often published together as a supplement to Mefue, one is entitled Antidotarium Nicholas, and in this are contained the compositions which were delivered by dispensatory writers, under the name of Nicholas. This is the lesser antidotarium, and there is also a copy of the greater, published under the name of Nicholas Alexandrinus, as translated from the Greek by Nicholas of Reggio, the first translator of Galen. In this translation, as in the former antidotarium, the compositions are arranged in the order of the Latin alphabet; whereas, in the original, the Greek alphabetical order seems to have been followed. Here, beside a much greater number of articles than in the other Nicholas, those which they have in common are in greater quantities.

The first Pharmacopoeia which was set forth by public authority, was that of Valerius Cordus, published in 1542, under the sanction of the senate of Nuremberg. This consists almost entirely of collections from the two authors above mentioned, with short notes in relation to such names of plants or drugs in the compositions as were of doubtful signification. Subsequent pharmacopeias, however, they might be rendered more copious by additions from other authors, also paid the like regard to Nicholas and Mefue. This Pharmacopoeia of Cordus has been made more celebrated from the comments made on it by Hoffman. In 1651, Clusius published at Antwerp a Latin translation of the Florentine Antidotarium. In 1581 was published at Bergamo, in Italy, the Pharmacopoeia Bergomensis, which was followed by the Pharmacopoeia Augsburgensis, at Augsburg in 1691; republished at Rotterdam, with notes by Zwelfer in 1654, and again in 1666. The Pharmacopoeia of the faculty at Paris first appeared in 1637, and about the same time there was published at Paris a collection of Arabian formulas, called the Persian Pharmacopoeia. In the latter end of the 17th century, the incorporated physicians of Sweden published their Dispensatory under the title of Pharmacopoeia Holmiensis, which was republished in 1775 and 1784 by the title of Pharmacopoeia Suecica. The Prussian Dispensatory, Pharmacopoeia Borussica, was first published in 1799. The Pharmacopoeia of Vienna was first published in 1729, and republished in 1765.

Besides these, we have seen or heard of the following:

The Dispensatory of Würtemberg, of which the first edition is that of 1771. Pharmacopoeia Genevensis, published in 1780, republished in Italian in 1800. Dispensatorium Lippiacum in 1792. Pharmacopoeia Bremensis in 1792. Pharmacopoeia Austriaco-provincialis, 1794. Pharmacopoeia Austriaco-caffenfis, 1795. Pharmacopoeia Rossica, published at St Petersburg first in 1798, and again in 1803.

Of the British Pharmacopoeias, the earliest is that of the London college, which was first published in 1618. It was again published either at the close of the 17th or beginning of the 18th century in 1818; again in 1746 in 4to, and last in 1791. The college is now preparing a new edition, and has circulated among its members a specimen of the proposed alterations. We have been favoured with a perusal of this specimen, and we have no doubt, that with respect to accuracy of preparation, and judicious selection of remedies, the new work will not be inferior to the late editions of the Edinburgh and Dublin Pharmacopoeias. In point of nomenclature, however, we cannot help thinking, that the committee have in a great measure failed in their desire to avoid error and confusion. Should the nomenclature of the specimen be adopted in the published edition, we fear that the novelty of the terms will be the smallest objection to their use; but that being so perfectly different, both from the language of modern chemistry and of the late pharmacy of the London druggists and apothecaries, will occasion serious inconvenience both to prescribers and compounders. It would be indecorous for us to particularize instances, but we chiefly allude to the names of the secondary fats, which we consider as very objectionable. The new edition will be evidently much improved, many new articles are admitted, and not a few of such as were less efficacious, or which may be prepared extemporaneously, are omitted.

The college of Edinburgh first published their Pharmacopoeia in 1722; and improved editions have successively appeared in 1756, 1747, 1756, 1775, 1783, 1792, 1803, and 1805, this last being little more than a new impression of the preceding. The Dublin college first published, or rather printed, a Pharmacopoeia in 1794; and they have lately, viz. in 1807, republished it with considerable improvements. In this edition they have chiefly followed the plan of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, but they retain the usual pharmaceutical names of the simples, though they have in general adopted the reformed chemical nomenclature. The most material improvements will be noticed in the appendix to this article.

Besides the Pharmacopoeias printed under the authority of public colleges, a great many have been published by individuals both on the continent and in Britain. We shall notice the principal of these in chronological order.

The earliest of these that we find on record, after those of Nicholas, is the Antidotarium Speciale of Wecker, which was printed in 1561. Four years after appeared the Antidotarium of Montagna, published at Venice; and at the same place in 1600, appeared a work by Fioravanti, entitled Secreti Rationali Intorno Alla Medicina. In 1608, Renodæus published at Paris his Officina Pharmaceutica seu Antidotarium. Mynsicht's Armamentarium Medico-chymicum appeared in 1631; and in 1656, Schroeder published at Leyden his Pharmacopoeia Medico-Chemica. In 1676 Charas published his Pharmacopée Galenique et Chémique at Paris, and in 1684, the same work was republished in Latin at Genoa. In 1698 appeared the celebrated Pharmacopée Universelle de Lemery; and in the same year the Pharmacopoeia Spagyrica of Poterius. Of those that have appeared in the 18th century, beside those mentioned in the introduction to Materia Medica, we may may notice as being of superior merit; Triller's *Dippen- satorium Pharmaceuticum Universale*, published at Frank- fort in 1764; Spielemann's *Pharmacopoeia Generalis* at Strasbourg in 1783, and Reuf's *Dippenfatorium Universale* at the same place.

In our own country, several useful works of this kind have been produced. One of the earliest (D), and among the most remarkable of these, is the *Pharmacopoeia Officinalis et Extemporanea*, or Complete English *Dippenfatory* of Dr Quincy, which was first published in 1718, again in 1722, and in 1739 had reached the eleventh edition, now before us. Considering the time at which it was written, this is an excellent perfor- mance, and is the more interesting, as it formed the foundation on which were composed those more accu- rate and scientific works the *New Dippenfatory* of Lewis, and the *Edinburgh New Dippenfatory*. Quin- cy's Dippenfatory was followed by similar works, as by James's Dippenfatory in 1747, Lewis's in 1753, and the *Edinburgh New Dippenfatory* by Webster in 1786. At length, in 1833, Dr Andrew Duncan, Junior, pub- lished his *Edinburgh New Dippenfatory*, which, from the important additions and improvements progressively introduced in four editions, must be considered as a new work, and has entirely superseded every similar publica- tion.

Of collections of formulæ, both by continental and English writers, there is no want; but it will be diffi- cult for an inexperienced prescriber to make a judicious selection from among them. The best we have seen in this country are, the *Theaurus Medicaminum*, now ad- mitted to be the production of Dr R. Pearson; the *Pharmacopoeia Chirurgica*; and perhaps we may add those published in Dr Kirby's Tables of the Materia Medica. The first of these was published in 1794, and a third edi- tion of it materially improved appeared in 1804. The *Pharmacopoeia Chirurgica* is a valuable selection of for- mulæ, chiefly intended for surgeons, and drawn up prin- cipally from the practical Pharmacopoeiae of the differ- ent London hospitals. The first edition appeared, we believe, in 1794; and in 1802 there was published a fifth edition, with the addition of a synoptical table of the formulæ contained in the volume, arranged accord- ing to the order of their principal ingredients. The formulæ annexed to each of the classes in Dr Kirby's Tables are intended principally to serve as examples of the method of prescribing the principal articles enumer- ated in the clasps to which they are attached. They are selected partly from the best writers on extempora- neous prescription and the practice of medicine, and are partly derived from the private experience of the author or his medical friends.

Of the older collections of formulæ, we may notice the *Pharmacopoeia Extemporanea* of Fuller, which con- tains 1000 select formulæ, arranged in alphabetical or- der, and accompanied by practical and pharmaceutical remarks. This work went through many editions, both in England and on the Continent. The best which we have seen is that published at Paris in 1768, under the care of Theodore Baron.

We know of very few works that have been written, containing practical rules for the writing of prescrip- tions. In our own country, almost the only work on extempo- raneous prescription with which we are acquainted, is Quincy's *Lectures on Pharmacy*; a work now very little known, though the principal parts of it were introduced under their proper heads, in the later editions of the complete English Dippenfatory. Quincy's rules, though now a little antiquated, are for the most part very good; and allowing for the imperfect state of chemical science in the beginning of the 18th century, may still be perused with advantage. Similar rules, which were indeed lit- tle more than modifications of those given by Quincy, were laid down by Dr Lewis in his *New Dippenfatory*.

One of the most celebrated foreign elementary works Gaubius on this subject, and that which we believe is best known in this country, is *Libellus de Methodo Concinnoendi For- mulas Medicamentorum*, by Gaubius, a second edition of which was published at Leyden in 1752. After laying down some general rules to be observed before prescrib- ing, Gaubius gives an account of the nature and con- struction of formulæ in general, and then treats particu- larly of the several forms of medicines usually employ- ed. These he divides into internal and external, reckon- ing among the former powders, bolus, electuary, *ex- legmata* or lymphatics, pills, lozenges, &c., which he distin- guishes into *tabella* and *rotuli*, infusions, decoctions, ex- pressed juices, emulsions, juleps, mixtures, and draughts or contracted mixtures. External forms he divides into injections, *adspergines* (powder sprinkled on the surface), fomentations, dry epithems, cataplasm or poultices, baths, fumigations, plasters, cerates, ointments, odorifer- ous balsams, liniments, epipaffics or blistering plasters, frictions, *collyria* or eye-waters, erthines or snuffs, den- tirices or tooth-powders, apophlegmatifms, gargles, cly- sters, suppositories, and pellaries. He gives ample rules for the preparation of each of these forms, with ex- amples. This work, however, from the antiquated style and prolixity with which it is written, and the obsolete names that everywhere occur throughout the examples, is of little use except as a book of reference.

In 1754, Joannes Petrus Eberhard, professor of me- dicine in the university of Halle, in the duchy of Magde- burg, published his *Methodus Conscribendi Formulas Me- dicas*, a small pamphlet in 18mo, containing rules ar- ranged in a tabular form. In this little work the au- thor first treats of the nature of a medical formula, and explains the characters usually employed in prescription. He then lays down his plan of division, and lastly treats of the preparation of each particular form, with practi- cal hints respecting the ingredients proper for each form, with their proportional doses, and the cases to which they are more particularly adapted. This work was first intended for the professor's pupils, but he published it under the conviction that it would be found of advan- tage by practitioners in general. On the whole, it is a

(D) The only Pharmacopoeias worth notice in this country that preceded the Dippenfatory of Quincy, were, we believe, the *Pharmacopoeia Batava*, edited by Dr Thomas Fuller, and the *Pharmacopoeia Extemporanea*, drawn up by the same author, (to be presently noticed), both published early in the 18th century. The best work that we have seen on the elements of extemporaneous prescription, is entitled, *Via et Ratio Formulas Medicas confcribendi*, by Grüner, professor of medicine in the university of Jena. As we have seen only one copy of this work, belonging to the college library Edinburgh, and when this article went to press, could not procure a second perusal of it, we cannot present our readers with any analysis of its contents; but from the favourable impression we received on examining it several years ago, we consider it as a valuable work.

The last writer on this subject whom we shall notice is M. Alibert, who, at the end of the second volume of his *Nouveaux Éléments de Thérapeutique et de Matière Médicale*, has given what he calls a New Essay on the Art of Prescribing; in the first part of which he treats of the general rules of the art, and in the second explains the particular formulae which act on the vital properties of the different organic systems of the human body. M. Alibert's arrangement is peculiar, and we shall therefore give a sketch of it. He arranges his formulae under six sections, and divides each section into several articles. In the first section he treats of the formulae or compound medicines which the medical art principally directs towards the vital properties of the system of the digestive organs. In the first article of this section he describes the compound medicines which are particularly directed to the muscular contractility of the stomach, in common language, emetics; in the second article, those which are particularly directed to the muscular contractility of the intestinal canal, viz. cathartics; in the third article he treats of those which are particularly adapted to the changes of the vital properties that result from the presence of worms in the stomach and intestines, namely, anthelmintics; in the fourth article, of those which are particularly directed against the effects of poisons introduced into the stomach or intestines; and in the fifth, of those compound medicines which are particularly directed to the vital properties of the larger intestines.

In the second section he treats of these medicines which the art particularly adapts to the vital properties of the urinary passages; diuretics.

In the third section he describes those that particularly refer to the vital properties of the respiratory organs, viz. expectorants and refrigerants.

In the fourth section he treats of those compound medicines which are particularly directed to the vital properties of the dermoid system, or the skin; namely, diaphoretics, emollients, and epipatics.

In the fifth section he notices those medicines which are particularly directed to the vital properties of the nervous system; viz. antispasmodics, narcotics, sternutatories and salagogues.

In the sixth and last section he treats of the compound medicines that the art particularly directs toward the vital properties of the system of generation.

Some other late French writers on Pharmacy have given a number of examples of medical formulae, especially M. Bouillon La Grange, in his *Manuel du Pharmacien*. In all these formulae is employed the new French standard of weights and measures, commonly accompanied by the synonymous troy weights and measures, as used by the French apothecaries under the old government; but as neither of these are familiar to English readers, we shall here add two tables of the French weights and measures of capacity, reduced to English wine measures and troy and apothecary weights.

### Table I. A Comparison of French Grammes with Troy, French, and Nuremberg, Apothecary Grains.

| Grammes | Troy grains | Old French Grains | Nuremberg Grains | |---------|-------------|-------------------|-----------------| | 1 | 15.444 | 18.883 | 16.128 | | 2 | 30.888 | 37.766 | 32.256 | | 3 | 46.332 | 56.649 | 48.384 | | 4 | 61.776 | 75.532 | 64.512 | | 5 | 77.220 | 94.415 | 80.640 | | 6 | 92.664 | 113.298 | 96.768 | | 7 | 108.108 | 132.181 | 112.896 | | 8 | 123.552 | 151.064 | 129.024 | | 9 | 138.990 | 169.947 | 145.152 | | 10 | 154.440 | 188.830 | 161.280 |

### Table II. French Measures of Capacity, reduced to cubic inches, and English Wine Measure.

| French Measures | English cubic inches | Tuns | Hhds. | Gallons | Pints | |-----------------|---------------------|------|-------|---------|-------| | Millilitre | .06102 | 0 | 0 | 0 | .002 | | Centilitre | .61028 | 0 | 0 | 0 | .0211 | | Decilitre | 6.10280 | 0 | 0 | 0 | .2113 | | Litre | 61.02800 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2.1133| | Decalitre | 610.28000 | 0 | 0 | 2. | 5.1352| | Hectolitre | 6102.80000 | 0 | 0 | 26.419 | | | Chilolitre | 61028.00000 | 1 | 0 | 12.19 | | | Myriolitre | 610280.00000 | 10 | 1 | 58.9 | | APPENDIX.

The new edition of the Dublin Pharmacopoeia having appeared since the printing of our article Materia Medica, it becomes us to notice the principal improvements introduced by the Dublin college; and as particular circumstances prevented our doing so under Pharmacy, we have reserved them for an appendix to the present article. We shall also take this opportunity of supplying some omissions in the article Materia Medica, rendered unavoidable by the circumstance of that article coming on at the conclusion of a volume, beyond which we could not with propriety extend it, especially by the addition of a complete table of the synonymous Latin names of all the officinal compounds.

We shall notice the additions and improvements of the Dublin college in the same order which we have observed in Materia Medica, Part IV.

CHAP. I. Animal Substances.

2. Murias Ammoniae (E).

Preparation c. Carbonas Ammoniae. See Materia Medica, No 238.

In the preparation of this salt, the Dublin college now employ carbonate of soda for decomposing the muriate of ammonia, instead of chalk. The only advantage of this seems to be that the decomposition is effected at a lower temperature.

Preparation d. Aqua Carbonatis Ammoniae. Materia Medica, No 239.

Here too carbonate of soda is employed in the proportion of 28 oz. to the pound of muriate of ammonia.

Preparation f. Hydrosulphuretum Ammoniae. Materia Medica, No 241.

This is now introduced into the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, and is directed to be prepared much in the same manner as in the pharmacopoeia of Edinburgh.

Preparation h. Alcohol Ammoniatum Aromaticum. Materia Medica, No 243.

The only change made in the preparation is, in substituting ½ oz. of nutmegs for 2 drs. of the essential oil, and distilling off the ammoniated alcohol, thus rendering the solution of the aromatic principles more complete.

5. Cervus Elaphus.

Preparation a. Phosphas Calcis. Materia Medica, No 254.

The Dublin college order this under the name of Pulvis cornu cervini usit, to be prepared in the usual manner as directed by the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia.

Preparation b. Decoctum Cornu Cervini, Dub. Decoction of hartshorn.

This is made by boiling two ounces of burnt hartshorn reduced to powder, and 3 drs. of gum arabic, in 3 horn pints of water to 2 pints, continually stirring, and then straining the liquor.

In this way a considerable quantity of the phosphate of lime is, by means of the gum arabic, suspended in the water; but we do not think this so good a method of administering the remedy as giving the powder itself, mixed with syrup or mucilage.

CHAP. II. Vegetable Substances.

24. Alcohol. Materia Medica, No 294.

Preparation a. Alcohol.

The new process of the Dublin college for preparing alcohol is as follows: A gallon of rectified spirit of wine is first mixed with an ounce of caustic potash in powder; then a pound of pearl ashes dried at the heat of 300° Fahrenheit, and reduced to powder, is added while still warm, and the mixture digested for three days in a close vessel with frequent agitation. The spirit is then poured off, mixed with half a pound of dried muriate of lime (which is usually obtained from the residuum after the preparation of pure ammonia), and distilled with a moderate heat till what remains in the retort begins to grow thick.

26. Acidum Acetosum impurum.

Preparation b. Acidum acetosum forte, E. Materia Medica, No 307.

Acidum aceticum, Dub.

This is prepared by putting into a tubulated retort, 3 ounces by weight of sulphuric acid, and adding to it gradually in small portions, 6 ounces of acetate of potash, waiting after each addition till the mixture be cold; and after the whole is mixed, distilling to dryness. What comes over is the acetic acid.

Preparation d. Acidum acetosum camphoratum, E. Materia Medica, No 309.

Acidum aceticum camphoratum, Dub.

Prepared much in the same manner with the Edinburgh acid, only with half the quantity of acid.

29. Cera. Materia Medica, No 319.

Preparation a. Cera flava purificata, Dub.

Purified yellow wax.

Wax is purified by melting it with a moderate heat (as in a water bath), scumming it, and pouring off the wax clear fluid from the dregs.

32. Angustura, Materia Medica, No 331.

Preparation

(E) In the following enumeration the numbers prefixed to the simple articles correspond to those in the same situation in the arrangement of Part IV. in Materia Medica; while those which follow some of the articles refer to the paragraphs of that article as numbered in the marginal notes. EXTemporaneous Prescriptions.

Preparation a. Tinctura Angusturæ, Dub. Tincture of Angustura.

This is prepared by digesting two ounces of coarsely powdered angustura bark in two pints of proof spirit for seven days, and straining.

This preparation, now first made officinal by the Dublin college, is a good form for exhibiting the angustura in small doses. Ordinary dose about 2 drs. generally in composition.

Class II. Order 3. Diandria Trigynia.

45. Piper Nigrum.

Preparation a. Unguentum Piperis nigri, Dub. Ointment of black pepper. A stimulating ointment, made by mixing 4 oz. of finely powdered black pepper, with a pound of prepared hogs lard.

Class III. Order 1. Triandria Monogynia.

48. Valeriana Officinalis, Materia Medica, No 354.

Preparation d. Infusum Valerianæ, Dub. Infusion of valerian.

This is made by digesting 2 drs. of valerian root, coarsely powdered, in 7 oz. of measure of boiling water, for an hour, and draining off the liquor when cold.

This is a good antispasmodic, especially in hysterical cases, and the stomach is said to bear it better than the powder. Dose, a glassful twice or thrice a-day.

In our Materia Medica, in the names of the preparations of valerian, the genitive case of valeriana is inadvertently printed valeriani.

Class V. Order 1. Pentandria Monogynia.

69. Hyoscyamus Niger.

Preparation b. Tinctura Hyoscyami nigri, Materia Medica, No 392.

Now added by the Dublin college, and made rather stronger than the Edinburgh tincture, the proportions being 2½ ounces of the dried leaves in coarse powder, to an English pint of proof spirit.

72. Cinchona Officinalis.

Preparation a. Infusum Cinchonæ officinalis, E. Materia Medica, No 402.

Infusum Cinchonæ sine calore, Dub.

Prepared by macerating an ounce of cinchona bark in coarse powder in 12 ounces of cold water for 24 hours; then pouring off the liquor.

Order 2. Digynia.

84. Ulmus campestris.

Preparation a. Decoction Ulmi.

The Dublin college order this decoction to be prepared much in the same manner as that of the London pharmacopoeia.

90. Ferula Asafoetida.

Preparation f. Enema foetidum, Dub. Fetid clyster.

This is made by adding to the purging clyster to be described presently, 2 drs. of tincture of asafoetida.

Class VI. Order 2. Hexandria Trigynia.

112*. Rumex Aquaticus, Dub. Great water dock. The root.

One of the new additions to the Dublin Materia Medica.

It ranks among astringents, and has been celebrated as a remedy in scurvy, diseases of the skin, and venereal complaints. It is generally given by way of infusion.

Class VII. Order 1. Heptandria Monogynia.

113. Aesculus Hippocastanum.

Now adopted by the Dublin college.

127. Cassia Senna.

Preparation h. Syrupus Sennæ, Dub. Syrup of Senna. See Syrupus Mannæ, Materia Medica, fennæ. No 795.

Class X. Order 1. Decandria Monogynia.

130. Swietenia Febrifuga.

Now also first adopted in the Dublin pharmacopoeia.

134. Quassia Excelsa.

Preparation a. Tinctura Quassiae, Dub. Tincture of quassia.

This is prepared by digesting an ounce of quassia shavings in 2 pints of proof spirit for 7 days, and filtering.

This forms a strong solution of the bitter principle of quassia.

137. Styrax Officinale.

Preparation b. Pilulæ e styrace, Dub. Storax pills.

Prepared by beating well together 3 drs. of purified storax, 1 dr. of soft purified opium, and the same quantity of saffron.

This may properly be considered as a preparation of opium, of which it contains a fifth part.

Class XI. Order 2. Dodecandria Digynia.

142*. Agrimonia Eupatoria, Dub. The herb, Agrimony.

A slight astringent now added by the Dublin college.

Class XII. Order 5. Icosandria Polygynia.

158. Geum urbanum, Dub. Avens. The root.

This has now obtained a place in the pharmacopoeia of Dublin, and as a useful indigenous tonic, merits particular notice. Dose of the powder from half a dram to a dram. As the account of this important remedy given in the article Botany may not be deemed sufficiently satisfactory by our medical readers, and as in the Materia Medica we were so much confined that we could only refer to the best writers that have treated on opium, we shall here supply that deficiency, by giving a comprehensive view of the effects of opium; of the discoveries that have been made by late chemical analyses respecting the nature of its narcotic principle; shall point out the general means by which the ill effects which sometimes attend the exhibition of this medicine may be obviated, and enumerate those articles of the Materia Medica which may be most conveniently employed as substitutes for a drug now become so scarce and expensive.

Perhaps no article of the Materia Medica ranks higher in point either of antiquity or efficacy than opium. Its peculiar properties and mode of operation have, however, been long a subject of debate, both among theoretical and practical writers. The place assigned to it in systematic arrangement has been continually fluctuating; Cullen and his followers considering it as one of the most powerful sedatives which we possess, while Brown, Darwin, and the advocates for their doctrines, as strenuously contend that it ought to be ranked amongst the most active and diffusible stimuli. In fact, the parties engaged in this controversy appear chiefly to differ about words, and probably they are both partly right and partly wrong.

They agree that the effects of opium are similar to those of wine and alcohol, liquors which are generally, though indeed not universally, accounted stimulants. If opium produces similar effects with these, we see no good reason why it should not be arranged in the same class. All these substances may indeed be considered as both stimulant and sedative, according as we advert to their primary or secondary effects. If by a stimulant be meant something which increases the force and frequency of action in the muscular fibres, and possesses the power of sustaining or increasing the vital powers, which is, we believe, the generally received definition, we can surely not refuse this character to alcohol, and its modifications. Who that has ever felt the cheering influence of wine, that has experienced the exhilaration, the flow of spirits, and the energy of action, which are the usual effects of the bottle, can refuse to acknowledge the effects of the stimulating powers of this too fascinating beverage. Again, if by a sedative we are to understand something which diminishes the force and vigour of muscular action, and depresses all the vital energies, every one who has felt the effects consequent to a too free libation at the shrine of Bacchus, will readily admit that wine and alcohol are, in an eminent degree, possessed of sedative powers. Now, that opium resembles alcohol in both these circumstances, is generally admitted.

When a moderate quantity of opium (we mean not more than two grains), is received into the stomach, it excites there a gentle warmth, which is gradually diffused over the whole body, attended with an itching of the skin, and usually followed by an increase of perspiration. The pulsation of the heart and arteries is at first rendered fuller and more frequent, and there is commonly a heat and flushing of the face; the eyes appear enlivened, and the spirits are exhilarated. Pain is alleviated, and all care for the time forgotten. The effects of this substance on those who swallow it as a substitute for wine, as is usual in the east, are familiar to most of our readers, and sufficiently prove its stimulating effect. Similar proofs appear to have been exhibited during the present war, among Europeans. We are told that the French soldiers are plied indifferently with opium or brandy, in order to increase their courage and ferocity; and we have been credibly informed, that some of the most celebrated performers on the London stage, particularly in tragic parts, which require peculiar self-command, or energy of expression, are accustomed to take doses of opium proportioned to the circumstances of the character which they are to perform.

The excretion of urine is sometimes increased; but as an increase of absorption is a usual consequence of opium, other excretions, except, as we have said, the perspiration, appear to be diminished. Opium also acts as a powerful stimulus to the genital organs, and excites the venereal appetite. It is said that on examining the bodies of Turks slain in battle, the penis has been often found in a state of erection, even in old men.*

After these effects have continued for a time, appearances of a different nature present themselves. At first a languor and listlessness not unpleasing come on, and are soon followed by yawning and a strong propensity to sleep. If the quantity taken has been considerable (above two gr.), the previous symptoms of excitement are more remarkable, but they generally continue for a shorter time, and are followed by a proportional depression. Considerable nausea supervenes, and sometimes a severe vomiting is excited, by which great part of the opium is expelled from the stomach. But if this should fail to take place, and often when it has to a partial degree appeared, a heavy stupor comes on, attended with giddiness and headache; the breathing becomes difficult and laborious; the person falls into a profound sleep, from which he is roused with great difficulty, and into which, if left to himself, he speedily relapses; the face becomes pale, the lips livid, the extremities cold, universal torpor seizes the limbs, and is followed by convulsions and fatal apoplexy.

On examining the bodies of those animals which have fallen victims to opium, the stomach is found distended, containing frothy mucus, its internal coat in a state of inflammation, and sometimes the pylorus contracted. The vessels of the brain are exceedingly turgid, and commonly an effusion of blood is found to have taken place.

When a person awakes after having taken opium, he usually finds himself heavy and giddy, and not unfrequently complains of headache and dimness of sight; his bowels are costive, and his appetite defective. Some people, so far from being soothed and lulled to sleep by opium, are rendered exceedingly irritable and restless; others, if they are made to sleep by the influence of this medicine, are harassed with frightful dreams, and awake unrestored.

Effects similar to what we have described arise from opium when injected into the rectum; but they require a larger dose. When this substance is applied to the eye, the urethra, or other sensible parts, it excites pain and redness*, which, however, do not long continue.* Crump's Enquiry, p. 23. the cuticle is entire, it produces no change; but when the tincture of opium, or opium in fine powder, mixed with an oily substance, is rubbed on the skin, pain is alleviated, sleep induced, delirium assuaged, and other sedative effects brought on; but the stimulating effects of the medicine are, in this way, said to be less apparent.

The ill effects which sometimes attend the exhibition of opium, may arise, either directly from its stimulating power, or from consequent exhaustion.

I. The ill effects which appear to be the immediate consequence of the stimulus are, excitement, increased absorption, and determination of the blood to the head. These effects render it an improper remedy in the early stages of inflammatory diseases, particularly in phrenitis, pneumonia, catarrh, and dysentery. By increasing excitement and determining to the head, opium is improper in phrenitis; and it is hurtful in the other diseases by increasing absorption, and hence lessening expectoration, and producing coughiveness. In some cases of inflammation, however, where increased perspiration is desirable, as in rheumatism, if the medicine be so managed as to produce full sweating in a short time after exhibition, it may be employed with advantage.

II. The ill effects which arise from the secondary circumstances following the administration of opium, are chiefly headache, general debility, tremors, spasms, paralysis, and hypochondriasis. Of course, in cases where these symptoms and diseases are to be apprehended, it must be employed with considerable caution.

Opium has been analyzed by several chemists, especially by Gren, Bucholtz, Josic, Proust, Dr Duncan junior, and very lately by Derofine. "By evaporating a watery solution of opium to the consistence of a syrup, Derofine obtained a precipitate, which was increased by diluting it with water. He dissolved this in hot alcohol, from which it again separated on cooling. When purified by repeated solutions, it crystallized in rectangular prisms with rhomboidal bases, had no taste or smell, was insoluble in cold water, and soluble in 400 parts of boiling water, did not affect vegetable blues, was soluble in 24 parts boiling alcohol and 110 cold; soluble in hot ether and volatile oils, and separated from them as they cooled; very soluble in all acids, and highly narcotic."

A considerable proportion of the substance of opium is insoluble both in water and alcohol; and it is remarkable that the insoluble part is very different in Turkey opium from what it is in that which comes from the East Indies; being in the former a ductile, plastic, coherent mass, in the latter an incoherent, powdery matter, diffusible in water. According to Dr Duncan, the active constituent of opium appears to be of a volatile nature; and as this must be carried off by boiling or distillation, the usual processes for purifying opium, tend to diminish its medical effects.

The ill effects of opium are to be obviated or counteracted by regulating the dose according to the effect intended to be produced; by the mode of administration, whether internally, or by friction, or by combining with it some correcting substance which has the effect of counteracting its unpleasant properties, such as lemon-juice, ammonia, tartrate of antimony and potash, submuriate of mercury, or aromatics. The languor and general debility felt after having taken opium, are best relieved by wine and exercise.

When a person has swallowed such a quantity of opium as there is reason to fear will prove fatal, if its effects are not prevented or counteracted, it is proper to exhibit an emetic as soon as convenient, in order to evacuate from the stomach as much of the opium as possible. With this view, a scruple or half a dram of sulphate of zinc dissolved in a little water, is to be given, and the action of vomiting promoted several times by proper diluting liquors. We should then administer lemon juice in considerable quantities; and if the stupor be very great, all methods are to be employed for rousing the patient, and obliging him to exert himself in moving about. If the more alarming symptoms are made to yield, we should give wine, ether, or other stimulants, in moderate doses, still taking care to keep alive the attention of the patient. Strong coffee has been highly recommended in these cases.

As opium is now become a very expensive article, it is of consequence to consider what other remedies that for opium are likely to produce the same good effects may be substituted for it. Several of the narcotic vegetables have been employed for this purpose, especially lactuca virosa, conium maculatum or hemlock, datura stramonium or thorn apple, atropa belladonna or deadly nightshade, humulus lupulus or hop, and hyoscyamus niger or henbane. Of these the two last seem to be best adapted to this purpose.

Preparation d. Extractum Opii Aquosum, Dub.

The Dublin College have made some alteration in their mode of preparing this extract, though they preserve the same proportions. They direct the opium to be triturated with hot water for ten minutes, when the water is to be poured off, a fresh quantity added, and the trituration continued for the same period. This trituration to be repeated a third time. Then all the liquors are to be mixed together, suffered to stand in an open vessel for two days, strained through linen, and then infused to the consistence of an extract.

Class XIV. Order i. Didynamia Gymnospermia.

168. Mentha Viridis.

Preparation d. Infusum Compositum, Dub. Compound infusion of mint.

This is prepared by first digesting, for half an hour, in a clove vessel, two drams of dried mint in as much boiling water as, when strained, may produce six ounces of mint, and then mixing with the strained liquor, two drams of fine white sugar, and three drops of essential oil of mint, previously dissolved in half an ounce of compound tincture of cardamom.

This forms a very grateful stomachic.

174. Teucrium Chamædrys, Dub. Wall germander. The herb.

An indigenous tonic, employed in domestic medicine in cases of chlorosis, gout, and intermittent fever. Order 2. Angiospermia.

180. Digitalis purpurea.

Preparation b. Tinctura Digitalis purpureæ.

This medicine is now introduced into the Dublin Pharmacopoeia, and is prepared in the same manner as directed by the Edinburgh college.

Class XIX. Order 2. Syngenesia Polygamia superflua.

216. Anthemis nobilis.

Preparation a*. Decoctum Chamææli compositum, Dub. Compound decoction of chamomile.

Made by boiling for a little half an ounce of chamomile flowers and two drams of sweet fennel seeds in a pint of water, and straining.

Used chiefly for clysters.

Class XXI. Order 8. Monœcia polyandria.

226. Quercus cerris, Galls.

Preparation a. Tinctura Gallarum, Dub. Tincture of galls.

Prepared by digesting four ounces of powdered galls in two pints of proof spirit for seven days, and straining.

A strong solution of the astringent principle of galls.

Order 10. Monadelphia.

228. Pinus Abies. Burgundy pitch.

Preparation b. Emplastrum calefaciens, Dub. Calefacient plaster.

A warm stimulating plaster, made by melting together, with a moderate heat, seven parts of Burgundy pitch and one part of ointment of cantharides.

Order 12. Syngenesia.

236. Cucumis colocynthis.

Preparation b. Pilulæ Colocynthidis compositæ, Dub. Compound pills of colocynth.

These are prepared by beating together half an ounce of the pith of colocynth, half an ounce of hepatic aloes, and the same quantity of scammony, all in powder, with two drams of Spanish soap, a dram of cloves, and a sufficient quantity of simple syrup, to form a mass for pills. This is a strong cathartic, and may be given in a dose of 10 or 15 grains.

244. Juniperus Sabina.

Preparation d. Unguentum Sabinæ, Dub. Savine ointment.

Prepared by boiling half a pound of fresh savine leaves, bruised, in two pounds of prepared hog’s lard till they become crisp, then pressing out the lard and melting in it half a pound of bees wax.

A stimulating ointment, used in dressing ulcers, for which it is said to be preferable to cantharides ointment.

Vol. XVII. Part I.

Class XXIV. Order 2. Cryptogamia, Fuci.

255*. Fucus vesiculosus, Quercus marina, Dub. Yellow bladder wrack.

A common indigenous sea-weed, the charcoal from which is employed in the following preparation.

a. Pulvis quercus marine, Dub. Powder of sea-wrack.

This is prepared by drying and cleaning any quantity of yellow bladder wrack, gathered while in fruit; then exposing it to the fire in an iron pot or crucible, covered with a perforated lid, till the volatile matters have evaporated, and the mass becomes of a dull red colour. This is to be reduced to a very fine powder, and kept in clothe vessels.

The medical virtues of this preparation, if it have any, are similar to those of burnt sponge, and it may be given in the same dose.

Order 3. Algæ.

256. Lichen islandicus, No 799.

Preparation a. Decoctum lichenis islandici, Dub. Decoction of Iceland liverwort.

This is prepared by digesting half an ounce of Iceland liverwort in a pint of hot water for two hours, in a clothe vessel, then boiling for 15 minutes, and straining off the liquor while hot.

Chap. III. Mineral Substances.

Sect. 2. Inflammable Substances.

260. Sulphur sublimatum.

Preparation g. Aqua sulphureti kali, Dub. Water of sulphuret of potash.

This is prepared by boiling together half an ounce of sublimed sulphur with nine ounces by measure of caustic ley for 10 minutes, and straining through paper. The liquor is to be kept in vessels well closed.

The specific gravity of this liquid is assigned by the Dublin college to be to that of distilled water, as 1120 to 1000.

Preparation h. Aqua sulphureti ammonii, Dub. Water of sulphuret of ammonia.

This is prepared by flaking four ounces of fresh burnt lime in an earthen vessel, which is to be kept covered till the lime has fallen into powder, and become cool; when there are to be added four ounces of powdered muriate of ammonia, and two ounces of sublimed sulphur mixed together, avoiding the vapours. The whole is now to be put into a retort, and distilled with a sudden and pretty strong heat, and the liquor that comes over is to be kept in a phial well closed with a glass stopper.

Sect. 4. Alkali and Alkaline Salts.

265. Nitratas Potassæ.

Preparation g. Æther nitrosus, Dub. Nitrous ether.

Prepared by pouring gradually, and in different portions, upon a pound and a half of nitre, dried and coarsely powdered, in a tubulated retort, placed in a bath of cold water, Appendix. water, a pound of sulphuric acid previously mixed with 19 ounces by measure of rectified spirit of wine, the mixture having been allowed to cool. With a very slight degree of heat, such as that of tepid water, an etherial liquor will pass over from the retort, and the heat which soon spontaneously arises in the retort must be moderated by cooling with cold water. The receiver should also be cooled with ice or snow, and furnished with a proper apparatus, to carry off and condense the superabundant vapours. The etherial liquor that spontaneously comes over, is to be put into a phial with a ground glass stopper, and as much dry subcarbonate of potash added as may be sufficient to saturate the superabundant acid, which is commonly done after the addition of about a dram of the salt. The ether which now floats on the upper part of the phial, is to be separated by means of a funnel, and kept for use.

Nitrous ether is a powerful stimulus, but is seldom employed in medicine.

266. Muriatic Soda.

Preparation d. Aqua Alkalina Oxymuriatica, Dub. Oxymuriatic alkaline water.

This is prepared by putting into a matras two pounds of dried muriate of soda, and a pound of powdered manganese mixed, then pouring on two pounds of water, and gradually adding at different times two pounds of sulphuric acid, adapting a proper apparatus of tubes and recipients, that the gas which comes over may pass through a solution of four ounces of carbonate of potash, in 20 ounces by measure of water.

This preparation is a solution of oxymuriate of potash, a salt which was lately in great esteem as a remedy in several diseases, especially typhus, fever, and syphilis, from an idea that it imparted to the system the oxygen defective in these diseases. The remedy is already out of fashion in this country.

Preparation e. Aqua Oxymuriatica, Dub. Oxymuriatic water.

Made by passing the gas extricated from the mixture of muriate of soda, manganese, and sulphuric acid, in the preceding preparation, through a pound of distilled water, by which this is impregnated with oxymuriatic acid gas.

Forms a good bleaching liquor, but is scarcely employed in medicine.

Sect. 6. Earths and Earthy Salts.

272. Carbonas Calcis.

Preparation f. Solutio Muriatica Calcis, E. Materia Medica, No 876. Aqua Muriatis Calcis, Dub. Water of muriate of lime.

The Dublin college direct this to be prepared by dissolving an ounce of chalk in coarse powder in two ounces of diluted muriatic acid, and straining.

Preparation g. Creta Precipitata, Dub. Precipitated chalk.

Prepared by precipitating the chalk from the above solution, by adding carbonate of soda, filtering and washing the precipitate.

The carbonate of lime is thus procured very pure and in a very fine powder.

273. Sulphas Magnesiae.

Preparation d. Enema Catharticum, Dub. Purging syrup.

Made by dissolving an ounce of manna in 10 ounces by measure of compound decoction of chamomile, (see No 125.), and adding an ounce of olive oil, and half an ounce of sulphate of magnesia.

Sect. 7. Metals and Metallic Preparations.

275. Acidum Arseniosum.

Preparation a. Arsenias Kali, Dub. Arseniate of potash.

The Dublin college direct this salt to be prepared by mixing together an ounce of white oxide of arsenic, and the same quantity of nitrate of potash, separately reduced to powder, putting them into a glass retort placed in a sand bath, and applying a gradual heat, till the bottom of the retort affumes an obscure red; then dissolving the residuum in four pounds of boiling distilled water, evaporating, and setting it aside to crystallize.

The use of arsenic, in the cure of many diseases of debility, has of late been much extended. It is now employed, not only in intermittents, but in protracted rheumatism, and many other cases where the vital powers are much diminished.

276. Sulphuretum Antimonii.

Preparation h. Oxidum Antimonii Nitro-muriaticum, olim Calx Stibii Praecipitata, Dub. (See No 879.) Nitro-muriatic oxide of antimony.

This precipitate is now directed to be prepared by mixing together 11 ounces by measure of muriatic acid, and 1 ounce by measure of nitrous acid, taking care to avoid the fumes, and gradually adding to the mixture 2 ounces of prepared sulphuret of antimony; then digesting with a gradually increased heat, till the effervescence ceases, and boiling for an hour; filtering the liquor when cold, so that it may drop into a gallon of water. The powder which falls to the bottom is to be repeatedly washed till the water poured from it is perfectly free from acid, and is then to be dried on blotting paper.

Preparation k. Tartras Antimonii et Potassae, TARTARUM ANTIMONIATUM, Dub. Antimoniated or emetic tartar.

In the Dublin pharmacopoeia we are directed to prepare this medicine by boiling 18 ounces by measure of distilled water in a glass vessel, and gradually throwing into it 2 ounces of nitro-muriatic oxide of antimony, and 2½ ounces of powdered crystals of tartar, previously mixed, continuing the boiling for half an hour, then filtering the liquor, and cooling it gradually, that crystals may be formed.

277. Hydrargyrum.

Preparation a. Hydrargyrum cum Magnesia, Dub. Mercury with magnesia.

This is a new preparation, formed by first rubbing together an ounce of quicksilver with the same quantity of manna, adding now and then a few drops of water, so as to reduce the mixture to the consistence of syrup, till the whole of the mercury disappears; then still continuing the trituration, adding first a dram of magnesia, and when all are well mixed, a pint of hot water, and shaking the mixture. When the sediment has completely subsided, the liquor is to be poured off, and the washing twice repeated, so as to dissolve the whole of the manna. To the sediment, still moist, are to be added three drams more of magnesia, and the compound is to be dried on blotting paper.

This preparation is similar in its medical effects to the hydrargyrum cum creta, described in Materia Medica, No 914.

Preparation 8. Submuriarum Hydrargyri Ammoniatus. Dub. Ammoniated submuriate of mercury.

Prepared by adding to the liquor from which precipitated submuriate of mercury has been obtained, a quantity of caustic water of ammonia, washing the precipitate with cold distilled water, and drying on blotting paper. The same with the calx hydrargyri alba, London.

278. Zincum.

Preparation g. Tinctura Acetatis Zinci. Dub. Tincture of acetate of zinc.

Made by rubbing together an ounce of sulphate of zinc, and the same quantity of acetate of potash, then adding a pint of rectified spirit of wine, macerating for a week with frequent agitation, and filtering the tincture.

Chiefly used as an external astringent.

280*. Oxidum Manganesii Nigrum. Manganium, Dub. Black oxide of manganese.

Employed chiefly in preparing the oxymuriatic alkaline water.

287. Sulphas Ferri Nativus.

Preparation e*. Acetas Ferri. Dub. Acetate of Acetate of iron.

Made by digesting half an ounce of carbonate of iron in 3 ounces by measure of acetic acid, and filtering.

Preparation f. Tinctura Muriatis Ferri Cum Oxido Rubro, Dub. Tincture of muriate of iron with red oxide.

Prepared by digesting an ounce of red oxide of iron with four ounces by measure of muriatic acid for 24 hours, then boiling for half an hour, evaporating the filtered liquor to the consistence of syrup, and when cold, adding rectified spirit of wine, with frequent agitation, till the tincture acquires the specific gravity of 1050.

A modification of the tincture of muriated iron described under Materia Medica, No 963, and is employed in similar cases.

The above appear to be the most material changes made in the new edition of the Dublin Pharmacopoeia. A few articles of less consequence are omitted, and the new names of others will be seen in the following Table. In this Table we have followed the alphabetical order of the last Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, and in the third column we have caused the London names to be printed in Italics, leaving a space above each for the insertion of such new names as may occur in the new edition of their Pharmacopoeia which the London College is expected soon to publish.

Table of Synonymous Names of the Officinal Compounds.

| Edinburgh Names | Dublin Names | London Names in 1791 | |-----------------|--------------|---------------------| | Acetis hydrargyri. | Acetas hydrargyri. | Hydrargyrum acetatum. | | Hydrargyrum acetatum. | Acetas plumbi. | Cerussa acetata. | | Acetis plumbi. | Acetas kali. | Kali acetatum. | | Saccharum saturni. | Alkali vegetabile acetatum. | Acetum distillatum. | | Acetis potassae. | Acetum distillatum. | Acidum acetosum. | | Lixivia acetata. | Acidum acetosum forte. | Acidum acetosum camphoratum. | | Acidum acetosum destillatum. | Acidum acetosum camphoratum. | Acidum benzoicum. | | Acetum vini distillatum. | Acidum benzoicum. | Sal benzoini. | | Acidum acetosum forte. | Acidum benzoicum. | Acidum fulphuricum. | | Acidum acetosum camphoratum. | Acidum benzoicum. | Acidum vitriolicum. | | Acidum benzoicum. | Acidum benzoicum. | Æther sulphuricus. | | Flores benzoës. | Acidum vitriolicum. | Æther vitriolicus. | | Acidum sulphuricum. | Acidum sulphuricum. | Alcohol. | | Acidum vitriolicum. | Acidum vitriolicum. | Alcohol. | | Æther sulphuricus. | Æther sulphuricus. | Alcohol. | | Æther vitriolicus. | Alcohol. | Spiritus ammoniacus. | | Alcohol. | Spiritus ammoniacus. | Spiritus ammoniacus. | | Spiritus vinous rectificatus. | Spiritus ammoniacus. | Spiritus ammoniacus. | | Alcohol ammoniacum. | Spiritus ammoniacus aromaticus. | Spiritus ammoniacus aromaticus. | | Spiritus ammoniacus. | Spiritus ammoniacus aromaticus. | Spiritus ammoniacus aromaticus. | | Alcohol ammoniacum aromaticum. | Spiritus ammoniacus aromaticus. | Spiritus ammoniacus aromaticus. | | Alcohol ammoniacum foetidum. | Spiritus ammoniacus foetidus. | Spiritus ammoniacus foetidus. |

U u 2 Ammoniareum EXTemporaneous Prescriptions.

Edinburgh Names.

Ammoniarctum cupri. Cuprum ammoniacum. Aqua acetitis ammoniae. Aqua ammoniae acetatae. Aqua ammoniae causticae. Aqua carbonatis ammoniae. Aqua ammoniae.

Aqua potassae. Aqua lixiviae causticae.

Carbonas ammoniae. Sal ammoniacus volatilis. Carbonas calcis praeparatos. Creta alba. Carbonas ferri praeparatus. Rubigo ferri. Carbonas ferri praecipitatus. Carbonas magnesiae. Magnesia alba. Carbonas potassae. Lixivium purificato. Carbonas sodae. Soda. Decoctum anthemidis nobilis. Decoctum commune. Decoctum guaiaci compositum. Decoctum lignorum. Decoctum cinchonae officinalis. Electuarium aromaticum. Confectio cardacea. Electuarium caffeae sennae. Electuarium lenitivum. Electuarium mimose catechu. Confectio Japonica. Electuarium opiatum. Electuarium thebaicum. Emplastrum gummosum.

Emplastrum meloes vesicatorii. Emplastrum vesicatorium. Emplastrum oxidii plumbi semivitrei. Emplastrum commune. Emplastrum oxidii ferri rubri. Emplastrum roborans. Emplastrum resinofum. Emplastrum adhefivum. Emplastrum saponaceum. Emulsio amygdali communis. Emulsio communis. Emulsio mimose niloticae. Emulsio Arabica. Emulsio camphorata.

Extractum anthemidis nobilis. Extractum cinchonae officinalis. Extractum corticis peruviani.

Dublin Names.

Cuprum ammoniatum. Aqua acetatis ammoniae. Liquor alkali acetatis volatilis. Aqua ammoniae causticae. Aqua alkali volatilis caustici. Aqua carbonatis ammoniae. Liquor alkali volatilis mitis. Aqua cupri ammoniati. Liquor cupri ammoniati. Aqua kali caustici. Lixivium causticum. Aqua subcarbonatis kali. Lixivium mite. Carbonas ammoniae. Alkali volatilis mite. Creta praeparata.

Carbonas ferri. Magnesia. Carbonas potassae. Alkali vegetabile mite. Carbonas sodae. Alkali fusible mite. Decoctum chamæmeli. Decoctum farsaparillæ compositum. Decoctum corticis cinchonæ. Decoctum corticis peruviani. Electuarium aromaticum. Electuarium sennae. Electuarium catechu compositum.

Emplastrum galbani. Emplastrum aromaticum. Emplastrum cantharidis. Emplastrum lithargyri. Emplastrum thuris. Emplastrum lithargyri cum resina. Emplastrum japonis. Emplastrum japonaceum.

Emulsio Arabica. Miftura camphorata. Extractum florum chamæmeli. Extractum cinchonæ rubrae resin. Extractum corticis peruviani.

London Names in 1791.

Aqua ammoniae acetatae. Aqua ammoniae pura. Aqua ammoniae. Aqua cupri ammoniati. Aqua kali puri. Aqua kali praeparati. Ammonia praeparata. Creta praeparata. Rubigo ferri. Magnesia alba. Kali praeparatum. Natron praeparatum. Decoctum pro enemate. Decoctum farsaparillæ compositum. Decoctum corticis peruviani. Confectio aromatica. Electuarium Æ senna. Confectio opiatæ. Emplastrum lithargyri compositum. Emplastrum ladani compositum. Emplastrum cantharidis. Emplastrum lithargyri. Emplastrum thuris. Emplastrum lithargyri cum resina. Emplastrum japonis. Lac amygdale. Miftura camphorata. Extractum chamæmeli. Extractum corticis peruviani cum resino. Extractum | Edinburgh Names | Dublin Names | London Names in 1791 | |-----------------|--------------|----------------------| | Extractum convolvuli jalape. | Extractum jalapæ. | Extractum jalapii. | | Extractum glycyrrhizæ glabrae. | Extractum glycyrrhizæ. | Extractum glycyrrhizæ. | | Extractum haematoxylí campechianí. | Extractum icobis haematoxylí. | Extractum ligni-campechianís. | | Extractum ligni campechianís. | Extractum foliorum rutæ. | Extractum rutæ. | | Extractum foliorum rutæ. | Hydrargyrum cum creta. | Hydrargyrum cum creta. | | Infusum cinchonæ officinalis. | Infusum cinchonæ sine calore. | Infusum rofæ. | | Infusum rofæ gallicæ. | Infusum rofæ. | Magnesia ufla. | | Infusum rofæ. | Infusum sennæ cum tamarindis. | Mucilago tragacanthæ. | | Infusum tamarindi cum senna. | Magnesia ufla. | Mucilago gummi tragacanthæ. | | Magnesia. | Mucilago gummi Arabici. | Mucilago Arabici gummi. | | Mucilago afragali tragacantha. | Murias ammoniæ et ferri. | Ferrum ammoniacale. | | Mucilago gummi tragacanthæ. | Murias ammoniæ et ferri. | Hydrargyrum muriatum corrosivum. | | Mucilago mimose niloticæ. | Murias hydrargyri corrosivum. | Antimonium muriatum. | | Mucilago gummi Arabici. | Nitras argentí. | Argentum nitratum. | | Murias ammoniæ et ferri. | Linimentum ammoniæ. | Linimentum ammoniæ. | | Flores martiales. | Oleum cornu cervi rectificatum. | Oleum animale. | | Murias hydrargyri. | Oleum baccarum juniperi. | Oleum effusum baccæ juniperi. | | Mercurius sublimatus corrosivum. | Oleum corticis et ligni sassafras. | Radicis sassafras. | | Murias antimonii. | Oleum florum lavandulae. | Oleum lavandulae. | | Butyrum antimonii. | Oleum herbe florecens menthae piperitidis. | Oleum menthae piperitidis. | | Nitras argentí. | Oleum baccarum pimento. | Oleum effusum anisi. | | Argentum nitratum. | Oleum feminum anisi. | Oleum terebinthinae rectificatum. | | Linimentum volatile. | Oleum terebinthinae rectificatum. | Oleum roris marini. | | Oleum volatile juniperi communis. | Oleum volatilis marini officinalis. | Oleum sulphuratum. | | Oleum volatile lauri sassafras. | Oleum sulphuratum. | Pulvis antimonialis. | | Oleum lavandulae spicæ. | Oxidum antimonii cum phosphate calcis. | Crocus antimonii. | | Oleum juniperi sabinae. | Oxidum antimonii cum fulph. pernitrat. potaffæ. | Antimonium vitrificatum. | | Oleum volatile menthae piperitæ. | Oxidum antimonii cum sulphure vitrificatum. | Vitrum antimonii. | | Oleum volatile myrti pimentæ. | Oxidum ferræ nigrae. | Ferris squamae. | | Oleum volatile pimpinellæ anisi. | Oxidum rubrum. | Oxidum rubrum. | | Oleum volatile pini. | Oxidum hydrargyri per acidum nitricum. | Oxidum hydrargyri nitricum. | | Oleum volatilis marini officinalis. | Oxidum hydrargyri per acidum nitricum. | Hydrargyrum calcinatum. | | Oleum sulphuratum. | Oxidum hydrargyri nitricum. | Hydrargyrum nitratum ruber. | | Balantium fulphuris. | Oxidum antimonii cum sulphure vitrificatum. | Oxidum: | EXTemporaneous Prescriptions.

Edinburgh Names.

Oxidum hydrargyri cinereum. Pulvis mercurii cinereus. Oxidum zinci. Calcis zinci. Phosphas sodae. Soda phosphorata. Pilulae aloeticae. Pilulae aloe cum colocynthide. Pilulae ex colocynthide cum aloe. Pilulae asafoetidae compositae. Pilulae gummoae. Pilulae scillitae. Potassa. Causticum commune acerrimum. Potassa cum calce. Causticum commune mitius. Potio carbonatis calcis. Potio cretacea. Pulvis carbonatis calcis compositus. Pulvis cretaceus. Pulvis ipecacuanhae et opii. Pulvis doveri. Solutio fulphatis cupri composita. Aqua flypica. Spiritus ætheris nitrofi. Spiritus nitri dulcis. Spiritus ammoniae aromaticus. Spiritus volatilis aromaticus. Spiritus lauri cinnamomi. Aqua cinnamomi spirituosa. Spiritus myrrhice molchatae. Subacetis cupri praeparatus, Ærugo æris. Submurias hydrargyri. Hydrargyrus muriatis mitis. Submurias hydrargyri praecipitatus. Subfulphas hydrargyri flavus. Mercurius flavus, vel turpeh. min. Sucus spissatus conii maculati. Extractum semenium cicute. Sucus spissatus momordicæ elaterii. Elaterium. Sulphas aluminae exsiccatus. Alumen uflum. Sulphas ferri. Sal martis. Sulphas potassa. Lixiva vitriolata. Sulphas potassa cum sulphure. Sal polyehreus. Sulphas sodae. Soda vitriolata. Sulphas zinci. Vitriolum allum. Sulphuretum antimonii praecipitatum. Sulphur antimonii praecipitatum.

Dublin Names.

Oxydum hydrargyri cinereum. Oxydum zinci. Zincum uflum. Phosphas sodae. Pilulae aloes cum zingibere. Pilulae aloeticae. Pilulae colocynthidis compositae. Pilulae myrrhae compositae. Pilulae scillae cum zingibere. Pilulae scillitae. Kali causticum. Alkali vegetabile causticum. Kali cum calce. Causticum mitius. Miftura cretæ. Miftura cretacea. Pulvis ipecacuanhae compositus. Spiritus æthereus nitrofi. Liquor æthereus nitrofi. Spiritus ammoniae aromaticus. Spiritus alkali volatilis aromaticus. Spiritus cinnamomi. Spiritus nucis molchatae. Ærugo praeparata. Submurias hydrargyri sublimatum. Hydrargyrum muriatum mile sublimatum. Submurias hydrargyri praecipitatum. Hydrargyrum muriatum mile praecipitatum. Submurias hydrargyri ammoniatum. Oxydum hydrargyri sulphuricum. Sucus spissatus cicute. Elaterium. Alumen uflum. Sulphas ferri. Ferrum vitriolatum. Sulphas kali. Alkali vegetabile vitriolatum. Sulphas sodae. Alkali felle vitriolatum. Sulphas zinci. Zincum vitriolatum. Sulphur antimonii fuscum.

London Names in 1791.

Zincum calcinatum. Pilulae aloes compositae. Pilulae è gummi. Pilulae scillae. Kali purum. Calcis cum kali puro. Miftura cretacea. Pulvis crete compositus. Pulvis ipecacuanha compositus. Spiritus ætheris nitrofi. Spiritus ammoniae compositus. Spiritus cinnamoni. Spiritus myrrhice. Ærugo praeparata. Calomelas. Hydrargyrus muriatus mitis. Calcis hydrargyri alba. Hydrargyrus vitriolatus. Sucus cicute spissatus. Elaterium. Alumen uflum. Ferrum vitriolatum. Kali vitriolatum. Natron vitriolatum. Zincum vitriolatum.

Sulphuretum EXTemporaneous Prescriptions.

Edinburgh Names.

Sulphuretum hydrargyri nigrum. Æthiops mineralis. Sulphuretum hydrargyri rubrum. Cinnabaritis factitia. Sulphuretum potassii. Hepar sulphuris. Syrupus citri aurantii. Syrupus è cortice aurantiorum. Syrupus citri medici. Syrupus è succo malorum limon. Syrupus dianthi caryophylli. Syrupus caryophyllorum. Syrupus toluiferi balsami. Syrupus balsamicus. Tartris antimonii. Tartarus antimonialis sive emet. Tartris potassii. Tartarium solubile. Tartris potassii et sodae. Sal rupellenfis.

Tinctura aloes et myrrhae. Tinctura aristrolochie serpentinæ. Tinctura benzoï composita. Balfamum traumaticum. Tinctura camphoræ. Spiritus vinœs camphoratus. Tinctura convolvuli jalapæ. Tinctura ferulæ asæfetidæ. Tinctura lauri cinnamomi. Tinctura meloës vesicatorii. Tinctura cantharidum. Tinctura mimœæ catechu. Tinctura japonica. Tinctura muriatis ferri. Tinctura opii ammoniata. Elixir paregoricum. Tinctura rhei palmati. Tinctura saponis. Linimentum saponacum. Tinctura saponis et opii. Linimentum anodynum. Tinctura toluiferi balsami. Tinctura toluana. Unguentum acutatis plumbi. Unguentum saturninum. Unguentum album. Unguentum nitratis hydrargyri. Unguentum citrinum. Unguentum oxidii plumbi albi. Unguentum è cerufla. Unguentum meloës vesicatorii. Unguentum epifragi è pulv. canth. Unguentum resinosum. Unguentum basilicum. Unguentum subacetatis cupri. Vinum tartritis antimonii. Vinum è tartaro antimoniali.

Dublin Names.

Sulphuretum hydrargyri nigrum. Hydrargyrum sulphuratum nigrum. Sulphuretum hydrargyri rubrum. Hydrargyrum sulphuratum rubrum. Sulphuretum kali. Alkali vegetable sulphuratum. Syrupus aurantii. Syrupus limonis. Syrupus caryophylli rubri.

Tartarum antimoniatum. Tartarum fibiatum. Tartaras kali. Alkali vegetable tartaratum. Tartaras sodae et kali. Sal rupellenfis.

Tinctura aloes composita. Tinctura serpentinæ. Tinctura benzoës composita. Spiritus camphoratus. Tinctura jalapæ. Tinctura asæfetidæ. Tinctura cinnamomi. Tinctura cantharidis. Tinctura catechu. Tinctura muriatis ferri. Tinctura opii camphorata.

Tinctura rhei. Linimentum saponis. Tinctura balsami toluani. Unguentum acetatis plumbi. Unguentum ceræ. Unguentum supernitratis hydrargyri. Unguentum hydrargyri mirati. Unguentum ceruflæ. Unguentum cantharidis. Unguentum resini albi. Unguentum æruginis.

London Names in 1791.

Hydrargyrum cum sulphure. Hydrargyrum sulphuratus ruber. Kali sulphuratum. Syrupus corticis aurantii. Syrupus limonis. Syrupus caryophylli rubri. Syrupus toluanus. Antimonium tartaratum. Kali tartaratum. Natron tartaratum. Tinctura aloes composita. Tinctura serpentinæ. Tinctura benzoës composita. Spiritus camphoratus. Tinctura jalapæ. Tinctura asæfetidæ. Tinctura cinnamomi. Tinctura cantharidis. Tinctura catechu. Tinctura ferri muriati. Tinctura opii camphorata. Tinctura rhubarbari. Linimentum saponis compositum.

INDEX. INDEX.

A. Acetate of potash, composition of, p. 313 substances decomposing, 317 lead, composition of, substances decomposing, 317 mercury, substances decomposing, ib. iron, substances decomposing, ib. Dublin preparation of, No 147 Acetic acid, preparation of, 96 camphorated, 97 Adjuvant of a formula, what, rule for, 42 Agrimony, Alchemists, improvements in pharmacy, introduced by, 112 Alcohol, Dublin preparation of, 73 Alibert's new essay on the art of prescribing noticed, 95 arrangement of compound medicines, 87 Antidotaria, account of, 77 Antidotes, frequency of, in the middle ages, 69 Arrangement of formulae in a prescription, ingredients in a formula, 39 Arjeniate of potash, 40 Aurelius, Marcus, stupified himself by the habitual use of theriac, 71 Avens, 113

B. Basis of a formula, what, rules for, 4

C. Carbonate of barytes, composition of, p. 312 substances decomposing, 316 lime, composition of, substances decomposing, 316 magnesia, composition of, substances decomposing, 313 potash, composition of, substances decomposing, 316 soda, composition of, substances decomposing, 313 ammonia, composition of, substances decomposing, p. 316 Dublin preparation of, No 89 substances decomposing, p. 316

Carbonate of iron, composition of, p. 313 substances decomposing, 317 zinc, composition of, substances decomposing, 313 Chalk, precipitated, No 139 Chemical affinity, attention to, in prescription necessary, common errors from ignorance of, 24 Chemistry, knowledge of, necessary to a prescriber, 22 et seq. Clyster, fetid, purging, 105 Composition of medicines, advantages of, 7 Compound medicines, when not official, to be specifically described, 61 Confidence of medicines, errors respecting, 34 Constituent in a formula, what, rules for, 34, 35, 48 Corrector in a formula, what, rules for, 43

D. Decoction of hartshorn, 94 of elm bark, 104 compound, of chamomile, 125 Iceland liverwort, 132 Diseases, knowledge of, necessary, 16 Diffusatories, private foreign, enumerated, British, enumerated, 80 Dock, great water, 106 Doses of medicines examined, regulated by circumstances, by the nature and intention of the medicines, by the age, &c. of the patient, by climate, by idiosyncracy and habit, table of, for different ages, explained, algebraical formula for, p. 223. note (B) Dover's powder examined, No 32 Dropping of liquid medicines inaccurate, p. 324. note (c) Dropfly, complex remedy for, how simplified, No 63 Dublin Pharmacopoeia, account of, new improvements in. See Appendix.

E. Eberhard's work on extemporaneous prescription, account of, 88 Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, editions of, 79 Ether, nitrous, 135

Expectorants, table of, p. 309 Extract, watery, of opium, No 121

Formule, how differing from prescription, parts of, division of, arrangement of, in a prescription, complex, disadvantages of, not always to be condemned, parts of, origin of the, collection of, noticed Fucus vesiculosus,

G. Gaubi's work on extemporaneous prescription, account of, 84 Germander, wall, 123 Geum urbanum, 113 Griffith's myrrh mixture examined, simplified, ib. Gruener's work on extemporaneous prescription noticed, 86

H. Hints to a young practitioner, 37, 68

I. Infusion of valerian, 101 cinchona, compound, of mint, 122

L. Lisbon diet-drink, complex formula for, 63 London Pharmacopoeia, editions of, 79

M. Materia Medica, knowledge of, necessary to a prescriber, tables of, utility of, exemplified, p. 309 explained, No 19

Mesue, a pharmaceutical writer in the middle ages, 76 Mithridate, account of, 70 Muricate of barytes, composition of, substances decomposing, 315 lime, composition of, substances decomposing, 315 soda, composition of, substances decomposing, 315 ammonia, composition of, substances decomposing, 315 mercury, mild, composition of, corrosive, composition of, substances decomposing, 315 antimony, composition of, N. Index.

N. Names of ingredients in a formula need not be written at length, No 49 Nauseous medicines, how corrected, 45 Neatness to be observed in writing prescriptions, 67 Nicholau, a pharmaceutical writer of the middle ages, 77 Nitrate of potash, composition of, p. 312 substances decomposing, 315 Silver, composition of, 312 substances decomposing, 315

O. Obsolete medicines to be avoided, No 60 Odour of medicines, when unpleasant, how corrected, 46 Ointment of black pepper, 100 of favine, 129 Opium, account of, 114 general effects of, 115 appearances on dissecting animals killed by, 116 ill effects of, 117 how obviated, 118 analysis of, 119 substitutes for, 120 Oxide of antimony, nitro-muriatic, P.

Pecuniary circumstances of the patient to be regarded in prescription, 66 Perfusivity, a principal consideration in prescription, 59 Pharmacopoeias, public foreign, enumerated, 78 British, enumerated, 75 Pharmacy, modern, origin of, 69 progress of, 75 Phosphate of lime, composition of, p. 313 soda, composition of, ib. substances decomposing, 316 pills, storax, No 111 compound of colocynth, 128 plaster, calefacient, 127 Powder of many virtues, formula for, from De Gorter, p. 326 of sea wrack, No 131 prescriptions, medical, nature of, examples of, parts of, necessity of acquiring a habit of writing, 18

Prescriptions, medical, previous requisites for, art of writing, importance of, general courses of medicine insufficient for, necessity of, illustrated, 11, 33 not to be learned by attending a shop, nor in an hospital, the finishing part of a physician's education, works on, noticed, 83

Quantity of a remedy to be regulated rather than its quality corrected, 47 Quicksilver with magnesia, 144 Recapitulation of the principal rules to be observed in prescription, 68 Rumex aquaticus, 106 Salis, secondary, tables of, p. 312, 313 explained, No 29, 30 Simplicity to be studied in prescription, 62 errors in point of, 63 Sponge, burnt, examined, 33 Suborate of soda, composition of, p. 313 substances decomposing, 317 Subcarbonate of potash, composition of, 313 Submuriate of mercury, ammoniated, No 145 Subfulphate of mercury, composition of, p. 312 Sulphate of magnesia, composition of, ib. substances decomposing, 314 potash, composition of, substances decomposing, 314 soda, composition of, substances decomposing, 314 copper, composition of, substances decomposing, 314 green, of iron, composition of, substances decomposing, 314 zinc, composition of, substances decomposing, 314

Sulphate of zinc, substances decomposing, 314 Super-sulphate of alumina and potash, composition of, substances decomposing, 314 Super-tartrate of potash, composition of, substances decomposing, 317 Symbolical characters to be avoided in prescriptions, No 50 Syrup of senna, 108 Table of expectorants, secondary salts, 312 doses, 323 French weights and measures, synonymous, of officinal compounds, 339 Tartar, antimoniated, No 143 Tartrate of potash, composition of, p. 313 substances decomposing, 317 and soda, composition of, substances decomposing, 318 antimony and potash, composition of, substances decomposing, 318 Teucrium chamaedrys, No 123 Therapeutics, knowledge of, necessary to a prescriber, 21 Theriacs, account of, 71 Tincture of anguifera, 99 henbane, Dublin, quaffia, 110 galls, 126 acetate of zinc, muriate of iron with red oxide, Tinctures, abuses of, deprecated, U. Uncommon remedies to be prescribed with caution, W. Water, cautions respecting the prescription of, of sulphuret of potash, ammonia, oxymuriatic, alkaline, of muriate of lime, Wax, purified, Wrack, bladder,