a modern, but deservedly celebrated kingdom of Europe, whose monarch, along with Prussia Proper, possesses also the electorate of Brandenburg, and some other territories of considerable extent. The district properly called Prussia is of great extent, and divided into the Ducal and Regal Prussia, the latter belonging to the republic of Poland till the late partition of the Polish territories. Both together are of great extent; being bounded on the north by the Baltic, on the south by Poland and the duchy of Mazovia, on the west by Pomerania, and on the east by Lithuania and Samogitia. The name is by some thought to be derived from the Boruji, a tribe of the Sarmatians, who, by migrating from the foot of the Riphean mountains, were tempted by the beauty and fertility of the country to settle there. Others think that the name of this country is properly Porussia; Po in the language of the natives signifying near, and Porussia signifying near Ruffia. To the latter etymology we find the king of Prussia himself assenting in the treatise intitled Memoirs of the House of Brandenburg. However, it must be owned, that these or any other etymologies of the word are very uncertain, and we find nothing like it mentioned by historians before the tenth century.

The ancient state of Prussia is almost entirely unknown. However, the people are said to have been barbarous, very savage and barbarous; living upon raw flesh, and drinking the blood of horses at their feasts, according to Stella, even to intoxication (A). Nay, so extremely savage were these people, that they were even unacquainted with the method of constructing huts, and took up their dwelling in caves and cavities of rocks and trees, where they protected themselves and children from the inclemencies of the weather. Among such a people it is vain to expect that any transactions would be recorded, or indeed that anything worthy of being recorded would be transacted. We shall therefore begin our history of Prussia with the time when the Teutonic knights first got footing in the country. (See TEUTONIC KNIGHTS).

On the expulsion of the Christians from the Holy Land by Saladin, a settlement was given to the Teutonic knights in Prussia by Conrade duke of Mazovia, first get the competitor of Boleslaus V. for the crown of Poland, footing in their first residence in this country was Culm; to which territory they were confined by the conditions of the donation, excepting what they could conquer from their pagan neighbours, all which the emperor granted to them in perpetuity.

Encouraged by this grant, the knights conquered the greatest

(A) This author does not mention any particular method by which they communicated an inebriating quality to the blood of animals. Possibly, however, the vital fluid may have a property of this kind, though unknown in our days where such barbarous customs are disused. Drunkenness from drinking blood is frequently mentioned in Scripture, but whether literally or metaphorically must be decided by the learned. greatest part of the country which now goes by the name of Prussia; and, not content with this, became very troublesome to Poland, inasmuch that the monarchs of that kingdom were sometimes obliged to carry on dangerous and bloody wars with them; for an account of which we refer to the article Poland, No. 61, 67, &c.

The Teutonic order continued in Prussia till the year 1531. Their last grand-master was Albert marquis of Brandenburg, and nephew to Sigismund I, king of Poland. He was preferred to this dignity in hopes that his affinity to Sigismund might procure a restitution of some of the places which had been taken from the order during the former unsuccessful wars with Poland; but in this the fraternity were disappointed. Albert, however, was so far from endeavouring to obtain any favour from his uncle by fair means, that he refused to do homage to him, and immediately began to make preparations for throwing off his dependence altogether, and recovering the whole of Prussia and Pomerania by force of arms. In this he was so far from succeeding, that being foiled in every attempt, he was forced to resign the dignity of grand-master; in recompense for which, his uncle bestowed on him that part of Prussia now called Ducal, in quality of a secular duke. It was now the interest of the house of Brandenburg to assist in the expulsion of the fraternity; and accordingly, being at last driven out of Prussia and Pomerania, they transferred their chapter to Mariendal in Franconia; but in that and other provinces of the empire where they settled, little more than the name of the order, once so famous, now remains.

The other most considerable part of his Prussian majesty's dominions is the electorate of Brandenburg. Like other parts of Germany, it was anciently possessed by barbarians, of whom no history can be given. These were subdued by Charlemagne, as is related under the article France*; but being on every occasion ready to revolt, in 927 Henry the Fowler established margraves, or governors of the frontiers, to keep the barbarians in awe. The first margrave of Brandenburg was Siegfried, brother-in-law to the above-mentioned emperor; under whose administration the bishoprics of Brandenburg and Havelberg were established by Otho I. From this Siegfried, to the succession of the house of Hohenzollern, from whom the present elector is descended, there are reckoned eight different families, who have been margraves of Brandenburg; namely, the family of the Saxons, of Walbeck, Staden, Plenck, Anhalt, Bavaria, Luxemburg, and Misnia. The margraves of the four first races had continual wars with the Vandals and other barbarous people; nor could their ravages be stopped till the reign of Albert furred the Bear, the first prince of the house of Anhalt. He was made margrave by the emperor Conrad III. and afterwards raised to the dignity of elector by Frederic Barbarossa, about the year 1100. Some years afterwards the king of the Vandals dying without issue, left the Middle Marche by his will to the elector, who was besides possessed of the Old Marche, Upper Saxony, the country of Anhalt, and part of Lusatia. In 1332 this line became extinct, and the electorate devolved to the empire. It was then given by the emperor Louis of Bavaria to his son Louis, who was the first of the fifth race. Louis the Roman succeeded his brother; and as he also died without children, he was succeeded by Otho, his third brother, who sold the electorate to the emperor Charles IV. of the house of Luxemburg, for 200,000 florins of gold. Charles IV. gave the Marche to his son Wenceslaus, to whom Sigismund succeeded. This elector, being embarrassed in his circumstances, sold the New Marche to the knights of the Teutonic order. Joffe succeeded Sigismund; but aspiring to the empire, sold the electorate to William duke of Misnia; who, after he had possessed it for one year, sold it again to the emperor Sigismund. In 1417, Frederic VI. burgrave of Nuremberg, received the investiture of the country of Brandenburg at the diet of Constance from the hands of the emperor Sigismund; who, two years before, had conferred upon him the dignity of elector, and arch-chamberlain of the Holy Roman empire.

This prince, the first of the family of Hohenzollern, found himself possessed of the Old and Middle Marche, but the dukes of Pomerania had usurped the Marche Ukraine. Against them, therefore, the elector immediately declared war, and soon recovered the province. As the New Marche still continued in the hands of the Teutonic knights, to whom it had been sold as we have already mentioned, the elector, to make up for this, took possession of Saxony, which at that time happened to be vacant by the death of Albert the last elector of the Anhalt line. But the emperor, not approving of this step, gave the investiture of Saxony to the duke of Misnia; upon which Frederic voluntarily desisted from his acquisitions. This elector made a division of his possessions by will. His eldest son was deprived of his right on account of his having too closely applied himself to search for the philosopher's stone; so he left him only Voigtländer. The electorate was given to his second son Frederic; Albert, furred Achilles, had the duchies of Franconia; and Frederic, furred the Fat, had the Old Marche; but by his death it returned to the electorate of Brandenburg.

Frederic I. was succeeded by his son, called also Frederic, and furred Iron-tooth on account of his strength. He might with as great reason have been furred the Magnanimous, since he refused two crowns, viz that of Bohemia, which was offered him by the pope, and the kingdom of Poland to which he was invited by the people; but Frederic declared he would not accept of it unless Casimir brother to Ladislaus the late king refused it. These instances of magnanimity had such an effect on the neighbouring people, that the states of Lower Lusatia made a voluntary surrender of their country to him. But as Lusatia was a fief of Bohemia, the king of that country immediately made war on the elector, in order to recover it. However, he was so far from being successful, that, by a treaty of peace concluded in 1462, he was obliged to yield the perpetual sovereignty of Corbus, Peits, Sommerfeld, and some other places, to the elector. Frederic then, having redeemed the New Marche from the Teutonic order for the sum of 100,000 florins, and still further enlarged his dominions, resigned the sovereignty in 1469 to his brother Albert, furred named Achilles.

Albert was 57 years old when his brother resigned named Achilles. the electorate to him. Most of his exploits, for which he had the surname of Achilles, had been performed while he was burggrave of Nuremberg. He declared war against Lewis duke of Bavaria, and defeated and took him prisoner. He gained eight battles against the Nurembergers, who had rebelled and contested his rights to the burggraviate. In one of these he fought singly against 16 men, till his people came up to his assistance. He made himself master of the town of Griebenburg in the same manner that Alexander the Great took the capital of the Oxydracae, by leaping from the top of the walls into the town, where he defended himself singly against the inhabitants till his men forced the gates and refused him. The confidence which the emperor Frederic III placed in him, gained him the direction of almost the whole empire. He commanded the Imperial armies against Lewis the Rich duke of Bavaria; and against Charles the Bold duke of Burgundy, who had laid siege to Nuis, but concluded a peace at the interposition of Albert. He gained the prize at 17 tournaments, and was never dismounted.

All these exploits, however, had been performed before Albert obtained the electorate. From that time we meet with no very important transactions till the year 1594, when John Sigismund of Brandenburg, having married Anne the only daughter of Albert duke of Prussia, this united that duchy to the electorate, to which it has continued to be united ever since; and obtained pretensions to the countries of Juliers, Berg, Cleves, Marck, Ravenburg, and Ravenstein, to the succession of which Anne was heiress.

Sigismund died in 1619, and was succeeded by his son George William; during whose government the electorate suffered the most miserable calamities. At this time it was that the war commenced between the Protestants and Catholics, which lasted 30 years. The former, although league together, were on the point of being utterly destroyed by the Imperialists under the command of Count Tilly and Wallenstein, when Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden turned the scale in their favour, and threatened the Catholic party with utter destruction. But by his death at the battle of Lutzen, the fortune of war was once more changed. At last, however, peace was concluded with the emperor; and, in 1640, the elector died, leaving his dominions to his son Frederic William, surnamed the Great.

This young prince, though only 20 years of age at the time of his accession, applied himself with the utmost diligence to repair the losses and devastations occasioned by the dreadful wars which had preceded. He received the investiture of Prussia personally from the king of Poland, on condition of paying 100,000 florins annually, and not making truce or peace with the enemies of that crown. His envoy likewise received the investiture of the electorate from the emperor Ferdinand III. The elector then thought of recovering his provinces from those who had usurped them. He concluded a truce for 20 years with the Swedes, who evacuated the greatest part of his estates. He likewise paid 140,000 crowns to the Swedish garrisons, which still possessed some of his towns; and he concluded a treaty with the Hessian, who delivered up a part of the duchy of Cleves; and obtained of the Hollanders the evacuation of some other cities.

In the mean time, the powers of Europe began to be weary of a war which had continued for such a length of time with such unrelenting fury. The cities of Osnaburg and Munster being chosen as the most proper places for negotiation, the conferences were opened in the year 1645; but, by reason of the multiplicity of business, they were not concluded till two years after. France, which had espoused the interests of Sweden, demanded that Pomerania should be ceded to that kingdom as an indemnification for the expenses which the war had cost Gustavus Adolphus and his successors. Although the empire and the elector refused to give up Pomerania, it was at last agreed to give up to the Swedes Hither Pomerania, with the isles of Rugen and Wollin, also some cities; in return for which cession, the bishoprics of Halberstadt, Minden, and Camin, were secularized in favour of the elector, of which he was put in possession, together with the lordships of Hohenstein and Richenstein, with the reverence of the archbishopric of Magdeburg. Thus was the treaty of Weilpahla concluded in 1648, and which Weilpahla serves as a basis to all the possessions and rights of the German princes. The elector then concluded a new treaty with the Swedes, for the regulation of limits, and for the acquittal of some debts, of which Sweden would only pay a fourth; and next year the electorate, Pomerania, and the duchies of Cleves, were evacuated by the Swedes.

Notwithstanding all these treaties, however, the elector succeeded the Swedes soon after invaded Pomerania, but were entirely defeated by the elector near the town of Fehrbellin. Three thousand were left dead on the spot, among whom were a great number of officers; and a great many were taken prisoners. The elector then pursued his victory, gained many advantages over the Swedes, and deprived them of the cities of Stralsund and Gripwald. On this the Swedes, hoping to oblige the elector to evacuate Pomerania, which he had almost totally subdued, invaded Prussia, from Livonia, with 16,000 men; and advancing into the country, they burned the suburbs of Memel, and took the cities of Tilfe and Insterburg. The elector, to oppose the invaders, left Berlin on the 10th of January 1679, at the head of 9,000 men. The Swedes retired at his approach, and were greatly harassed by the troops on their march. So successful indeed was the elector on this occasion, that the Swedes lost almost one half of their army killed or taken prisoners. At last, having crossed the bay of Frisch-haff and Courland on the ice, he arrived on the 10th of January, with his infantry, within three miles of Tilfe, where the Swedes had their head-quarters. The same day, his general, Trefenfeldt, defeated two regiments of the enemy near Splitter; and the Swedes who were in Tilfe abandoned that place, and retired towards Courland. They were pursued by General Gortz, and entirely defeated with such slaughter, that scarce 3,000 of them returned to Livonia. Yet, notwithstanding all these victories, the elector, being pressed on to conclude the other side by the victorious generals of France, peace with M. Turenne and the prince of Conde, was obliged to make peace with the Swedes. The conditions were... that the treaty of Westphalia should serve for a basis to the peace; that the elector should have the property of the customs in all the ports of Further Pomerania, with the cities of Camin, Gartz, Grieffenburg, and Wildenbruck: on his part, he consented to give up to the Swedes all that he had conquered from them, and to give no assistance to the king of Denmark, upon condition that France delivered up to him his provinces in Westphalia, and paid him 300,000 ducats, as an indemnification for the damages done by the French to his states. This treaty was styled the peace of St Germain.

With the treaty of St Germain terminated the military exploits of Frederic William, who passed the last years of his administration in peace. His great qualities had rendered him respected by all Europe, and had even been heard of in Tartary. He received an embassy from Murad Geray, chan of the Tartars, courting his friendship. The barbarian ambassador appeared in such tattered clothes as scarce covered his nakedness, so that they were obliged to furnish him with other clothes before he could appear at court. His interpreter had a wooden nose and no ears. In 1684, Frederic received into his dominions great numbers of Protestants who fled out of France from the persecutions of Louis XIV. after he had revoked the edict of Nantz. Twenty thousand of them are said to have settled at this time in the electorate, where they introduced new arts and manufactures, that were of the utmost benefit to the country. By this, however, he disfavored Louis XIV. for which reason he concluded an alliance with the emperor; and having furnished him with 8000 troops against the Turks in Hungary, the emperor yielded to him the circle of Schwibus in Silesia, as an equivalent for all his rights in that province.

In 1688, the elector Frederic William died, and was succeeded by his son Frederic III. This prince was remarkably fond of show and ceremony, which, during the course of his government, involved him in much expense. The regal dignity seemed to be the greatest object of his ambition. To obtain this, he joined with the emperor in the alliance against France, in which he was engaged by William III., king of Britain. He also yielded up the circle of Schwibus, which had been given to his predecessor; and, in 1700, obtained from the emperor that dignity which he had so earnestly desired. The terms on which it was obtained were, 1. That Frederic should never separate from the empire those provinces of his dominions which depended on it. 2. That he should not, in the emperor's presence, demand any other marks of honour than those which he had hitherto enjoyed. 3. That his Imperial majesty, when he wrote to him, should only give him the title of Royal Dilection. 4. That nevertheless the ministers which he had at Vienna should be treated like those of other crowned heads. 5. That the elector should maintain 6000 men in Italy at his own expense, in case the emperor should be obliged to make war on account of the succession of the house of Bourbon to the crown of Spain. 6. That those troops should continue there as long as the war lasted.

Thus was the kingdom of Prussia established through the friendship of the emperor, with whom Frederic I., so called as being the first king of Prussia, continued all his life in strict alliance. Indeed he was a pacific prince; and though contemptible in his person, and incapable of achieving great things, had this merit, that he always preferred his dominions in peace, and thus consulted the true interest of his subjects much more than those monarchs who have dazzled the eyes of the world by their military exploits. He was indeed vain, and fond of show, as we have already observed; but had a good heart, and is said never to have violated his conjugal vow; though it does not appear that he was greatly beloved by his royal consorts (of whom he had three) on that or any other account.

Frederic I. died in the beginning of 1713, and was succeeded by Frederic William. He was in almost every thing the reverse of his father. His dispositions were altogether martial; so that he applied himself entirely to the augmentation of his army, and perfecting them in their exercise, by which means they became the most expert soldiers in Europe. His foible was an ambition of having his army composed of men above the ordinary size; but as these could not be procured, he composed a regiment of the tallest men he could find; and as his officers made no scruple of picking up such men wherever they could find them for his majesty's use, the neighbouring states were frequently offended, and a war was often likely to ensue even from this ridiculous cause. However, his Prussian majesty was never engaged in any martial enterprise of consequence; but having put his army on the most respectable footing of any in the world, and filled his coffers, for he was of a very fawning disposition, he put it in the power of his son to perform those exploits which have been matter of astonishment to all Europe.

It was in this king's reign that Prussia first perceived her natural enemy and rival to be the house of Austria, between and not France as had been formerly supposed. Hence frequent bickerings took place between these two powers, for which the persecution of the Protestants by some of the Catholic states of the empire afforded a pretence; and though a war never actually took place, yet it was easy to see that both were mortal enemies to each other. But when Frederic William died in 1740, this enmity broke out in full force. The empress queen was then left in a very disagreeable situation, as has been observed under the article BRITAIN, No. 410, &c. Of this Frederic III. took the advantage to do himself justice, as he said, with regard to Silesia, of which his ancestors had been unjustly deprived. This province he seized at that time: but it cost him dear; for the empress, having at last overcome all difficulties, formed against him the most terrible combination that ever was known in Europe.

The treaty was hardly concluded with the king of Prussia, by which he reluctantly yielded up the province of Silesia, and with it a clear revenue of 800,000l. a-year, before he entered into another with the court of Petersburg, which was concluded May 22, 1746. This treaty, as far as it was made public, was only of a defensive nature; but five secret and separate articles were added to it. By one of these it was provided, that in case his Prussian majesty should attack the empress queen, or the empress of Russia, or even the republic of Poland, it should be considered as a breach of the treaty of Dresden, by which Silesia was given up. It was also stipulated, that notwithstanding that treaty (which indeed had been dictated by the king of Prussia himself), the right of the empress-queen to Silesia still continued, and for the recovery of that province the contracting powers should mutually furnish an army of 60,000 men. To this treaty, called the treaty of Peterburg, the king of Poland was invited to accede; but he, being in a manner in the power of the king of Prussia, did not think proper to sign it: however, he verbally acceded to it in such a manner, that the other parties were fully convinced of his design to cooperate with all their measures; and in consideration of this intention, it was agreed that he should have a share in the partition of the king of Prussia's dominions, in case of a successful event of their enterprises.

In consequence of these machinations, every art was used to render the king of Prussia personally odious to the empress of Russia; the queen of Hungary made vast preparations in Bohemia and Moravia; and the king of Poland, under pretence of a military amusement, drew together 16,000 men, with whom he occupied a strong post at Pirna. The queen of Hungary, still further to strengthen herself, concluded a treaty with the court of France at Versailles, dated May 1, 1756. But in the mean time, the king of Prussia having understood by his emissaries what was going forward, resolved to be beforehand with his enemies, and at least to keep the war out of his own country; and therefore entered Saxony with a considerable army. At first he affected only to demand a free passage for his troops, and an observance of the neutrality professed by the king of Poland; but, having good reasons to doubt this neutrality, he demanded, as a preliminary, that these Saxon troops should immediately quit the strong post they occupied, and disperse themselves. This demand was refused; on which his Prussian majesty blockaded the Saxon camp at Pirna, resolving to reduce it by famine, since its strong situation rendered an attack very dangerous. At that time there were in Bohemia two Saxon armies, one under the command of M. Brown, and the other under M. Piccolomini. To keep these in awe, the king had sent M. Schwerin with an army into Bohemia from the country of Glatz, and M. Keith had penetrated into the same kingdom on the side of Misnia. But still the king of Prussia did not entirely confide in these dispositions; and therefore fearing lest M. Brown might afford some assistance to the Saxons, he joined his forces under Keith, and on December 1, attacked and defeated the Austrian general, so that the latter found it impossible to relieve the Saxons, who, after a vain attempt to retire from their post, were all taken prisoners. The king of Poland quitted his dominions in Germany, and the Prussians took up their winter quarters in Saxony. Here they seized on the revenues, levied exorbitant contributions, and obliged the country to furnish them with recruits. The king of Prussia at this time made himself master of the archives of Dresden, by which means he procured the originals of those pieces above mentioned, which, when produced to the world, gave a full proof of the combination that had been formed against him, and consequently justified the measures he had taken for his own defence.

No sooner had the king entered Saxony, in the manner already related, than a process was commenced against him in the emperor's Aulic council, and before the diet of the empire, where he was soon condemned for contumacy, and put to the ban of the empire. The various circles of the empire were ordered to furnish their contingents of men and money to put this sentence in execution; but these came in so slowly, that, had it not been for the assistance of the French under the prince de Soubise, the army would probably have never been in a condition to act. The Prussian Austrians, in the meantime, made great preparations, prepared and raised 100,000 men in Bohemia, whom they committed to the care of Prince Charles of Lorraine, assisted by M. Brown. The Czarina sent a body of 60,000 men under M. Apraxin, to invade the Ducal Prussia; whilst a strong fleet was equipped in the Baltic, in order to co-operate with that army. The king of Sweden also acceded to the confederacy, in hopes of recovering the possessions in Pomerania which his ancestors had enjoyed; and the duke of Mecklenburg took the same party, promising to join the Swedish army with 6000 men as soon as it should be necessary. On the king of Prussia's side appeared nobody excepting an army of between 30,000 and 40,000 Hanoverians commanded by the duke of Cumberland; and these were outnumbered and forced to yield to a superior army of French commanded by M. d'Etrees.

In the mean time, his Prussian majesty, finding that he must depend for assistance solely on his own Bohemia, abilities, resolved to make the best use of his time, and accordingly, in the spring 1757, his armies poured into Bohemia from two different quarters, while the army, king himself prepared to enter it from a third. M. Schwerin entered from Silesia; the prince of Bevern from Lusatia, where he defeated an army of 28,000 Austrians that opposed his passage. As the intentions of the king himself were not known, the Austrians detached a body of 20,000 men from their main army to observe his motions. This was no sooner done than the king cut off all communication between the detachment and the main body; and having joined his two generals with incredible celerity, he engaged the Austrians near Prague, totally defeated them, took their camp, military chest, and cannon; but lost the brave General Schwerin, who was killed at the age of 82, with a colonel's standard in his hand. On the Austrian side, M. Brown was wounded, and died in a short time, though it is supposed more from the chagrin he suffered, than from the dangerous nature of the wound itself.

About 40,000 of the Austrian army took refuge in Prague, while the rest fled different ways. The city and barracks were instantly invested by the king, and all succours were cut off. The great number of troops which it contained rendered an attack unadvisable, but seemed to render the reduction of it by famine inevitable; however, the king, to accomplish his purpose the more speedily, prepared to bombard the town. On the 29th of May, after a most dreadful storm of thunder and lightning, four batteries began to play on the city. From these were thrown, every 24 hours, 288 bombs, besides a vast number of red-hot balls, so that it was soon on fire in every quarter. The garrison made a vigorous defence, and one well-conducted sally; but had the misfortune to be repulsed with great loss. The magistrates, burgurers, and clergy, seeing their city on the point of being reduced... reduced to an heap of rubbish, supplicated the commander in the most earnest manner to capitulate; but he was deaf to their intreates, and drove 12,000 of the most useless mouths out of town, who were quickly driven in again by the Prussians.

Thus the affairs of the empress queen seemed verging to destruction, when Leopold count Daun took upon him the command of the remains of M. Brown's army. This general had arrived within a few miles of Prague the day after the great battle. He immediately collected the scattered fugitives with the greatest diligence, and retired with them to a strong post in the neighbourhood, from whence he gave the troops in Prague hopes of a speedy relief. It was now the king of Prussia's business, either to have attempted to make himself master of the city by one desperate effort, or entirely to have abandoned the enterprise, and driven Count Daun from his post before his troops had recovered from the terror of their late defeat; but, by attempting to do both, he rendered himself incapable of doing either. Though the army of Count Daun already amounted to 60,000 men, and though they were strongly entrenched, and defended by a vast train of artillery, his majesty thought proper to send no more than 32,000 men. This body made the arduous attempt on the 18th of June; but though they did all that human courage and conduct could do, and though the king himself at last charged at the head of his cavalry, the Prussians were driven out of the field with great loss. This engagement was named the battle of Colin.

The first consequence of the battle of Colin was, that the king of Prussia was obliged to raise the siege of Prague; soon after which, he was obliged to quit Bohemia, and take refuge in Saxony. The Austrians harassed him as much as possible; but, notwithstanding their great superiority, their armies were not in a condition to make any decisive attempt upon him, as the frontiers of Saxony abounded with situations easily defended. In the mean time the Russians, who had hitherto been very dilatory in their motions, began to exert themselves, and entered Ducal Prussia, under M. Apraxin and Fermor, where they committed innumerable cruelties and excesses. A large body of Austrians entered Silesia, and penetrated as far as Breslau. Then they made a turn backwards, and besieged Schweidnitz. Another body entered Lusatia, and made themselves masters of Zittau. An army of 22,000 Swedes entered Prussian Pomerania, took the towns of Anclam and Demmein, and laid the whole country under contribution. The French, too, being freed from all restraint by the capitulation of the duke of Cumberland at Closter Seven*, made their way into Halberstadt and the Old Marche of Brandenburg, first exacting contributions, and then plundering the towns. The army of the empire, being reinforced by that of the prince de Soubise, after many delays, was on full march to enter Saxony, which left the Austrians at liberty to exert the greatest part of their force in the reduction of Silesia. General Haddick penetrated through Lusatia, passed by the Prussian armies, and suddenly appeared before the gates of Berlin, which city he laid under contribution. He retired on the approach of a body of Prussians; yet he still found means to keep such a post as interrupted the king's communication with Silesia. The destruction of the king of Prussia therefore now seemed inevitable. Every exertion which he had made, though brave and well conducted, had been unsuccessful. His general Lehwald, who opposed the Russians, had orders to attack them at all events. He obeyed his orders; and with 30,000 men attacked 60,000 of the enemy strongly entrenched at a place called Norkitten. The Prussians behaved with the greatest valour; but after having killed five times more of the enemy than they lost by themselves, they were obliged to retire, though more formidable after their defeat than the Russians after their victory. The king, in the mean time, exerted himself on every side, and his enemies fled everywhere before him; but whilst he pursued one body, another gained upon him in some other part, and the winter came on fast, while his strength decayed, and that of his adversaries seemed to increase on every quarter.

The Prussian monarch, however, though distressed, did not abandon himself to despair, or lose that wonderful presence of mind which has so eminently distinguished him in all his military enterprises. He industriously delayed a decisive action till the approach of winter; but at last, after various movements, on November 5, 1757, he met at Roßbach with the united army of his enemies commanded by the prince of Saxony at Hilburghausen and the prince de Soubise. The allied army amounted to 50,000 men complete; but most of the troops of the Circles were new raised, and many of them not well affected to the cause. The Prussians did not exceed 25,000 men; but they were superior to any troops in the world, and were inspired, by the presence of their king, with the most enthusiastic valour. The Austrians were defeated with the loss of 3000 killed, eight generals, 250 officers of different ranks, and 6000 private soldiers, taken prisoners, while night alone prevented the total destruction of the army.

By this battle the king was set free on one side; but this only gave him an opportunity of renewing his labours on another. The Austrians had a great force, and now began to make a proportionate progress in Silesia. After a siege of 16 days, they had reduced the strong fortress of Schweidnitz, and obliged the Prussian garrison of 4000 men to surrender prisoners of war. Hearing then of the victory at Roß-Schweidnitz, and that the king of Prussia was in full march to relieve Silesia, they resolved to attack the prince of Bevern in his strong camp under the walls of Breslau. They attacked the prince's army on November 22d; but their attack was sustained with the greatest resolution. The slaughter of the Austrians was prodigious. A great part of the enemy had retired from the field of battle; and the rest were preparing to retire, when all at once the Prussian generals took the same resolution. Their army had suffered much in the engagement, and they became apprehensive of a total defeat in case their intrenchments should be forced in any part; for which reason they quitted their strong post, and retired behind the Oder. Two days after, the prince of Bevern, going to reconnoitre without escort, attended only by a groom, was taken prisoner by an advanced party of Cossacks, a small body of whom had crossed the Oder. On this the town of Breslau immediately surrendered; where, as well as at Schweidnitz, the Austrians found great quantities of provisions, ammunition, and money. All Silesia was on the point of falling into their hands, and the Prussian affairs were going into the utmost distraction, when the king himself by a most rapid march passed through Thuringia, Misnia, and Lusatia, in spite of the utmost efforts of the generals Haddick and Marthal, who were placed there to oppose him; and, entering Silesia on the 2d of December, joined the prince of Bevern's corps, who repassed the Oder to meet him. The garrison of Schweidnitz, who, as we have already observed, had been made prisoners of war, also joined the king's army unexpectedly; and their presence contributed not a little, notwithstanding the smallness of their number, to raise the spirits of the whole army. They had submitted to the capitulation with the greatest reluctance; but as the Austrians were conducting them to prison, they happened to receive intelligence of the victory at Roßbach: on which they immediately rose on the effort that conducted them, and entirely dispersed it; and afterwards marched in such a direction as they thought might most readily lead them to their king, they accidentally fell in with his army.

His Prussian majesty now approached Breslau; on which the Austrians, confiding in their superiority, (for they exceeded 70,000, while the Prussians scarce amounted to 36,000), abandoned their strong camp, the same which the prince of Bevern had formerly occupied, and advanced to give him battle. The king did not intend by any means to disappoint them, but advanced on his part with the greatest celerity. The two armies met on December 5th, near the village of Leuthen. Count Daun made the best dispositions possible. The ground occupied by his army was a plain, with small eminences in some parts. These eminences they surrounded with artillery; and as the ground was also interspersed with thickets, they fought to turn these likewise to their advantage. On their right and left were hills, on which they planted batteries of cannon. The ground in their front was intersected by many causeways; and to make the whole more impracticable, the Austrians had felled a great number of trees, and scattered them in the way. It was almost impossible at the beginning of the engagement for the Prussian cavalry to act, on account of these impediments; but, by a judicious disposition made by the king himself, all difficulties were overcome. His majesty had placed four battalions behind the cavalry of his right wing; foreseeing that General Nadaši, who was placed on the enemy's left with a corps de reserve, designed to attack him in flank. It happened as he had foreseen: that general's cavalry attacked the Prussian right wing with great fury; but he was received with such a severe fire from the four battalions, that he was obliged to retire in disorder. The king's flank then, well covered and supported, was enabled to act with such order and vigour as repelled the enemy. The Austrian artillery was also silenced by that of the Prussians; however, the Austrians continued to make a gallant resistance during the whole battle. After having been once thrown into disorder, they rallied all their forces about Leuthen, which was defended on every side by entrenchments and redoubts. The Prussians attacked them with the utmost impetuosity, and at last became masters of the post; on which the enemy fled on all sides, and a total rout ensued. In this battle the Austrians lost 6000 killed on the spot, 15,000 taken prisoners, and upwards of 200 pieces of cannon.

The consequences of this victory were very great. Breslau was immediately invested, and surrendered on December 29th; the garrison, amounting to 13,000 men, were made prisoners of war. The blockade of Schweidnitz was formed as closely as the season of the year would permit; while detached Prussian parties overran the whole country of Silesia, and reduced every place of least importance. The Ruffians, who had ravaged and destroyed the country in such a manner that they could not subsist in it, thought proper to retire out of the Prussian dominions altogether. Thus General Lehwald was left at liberty to act against the driven out Swedes; and them he quickly drove out of Prussian Pomerania, the whole of which country he not only recovered, but also some part of Swedish Pomerania. Thus the duchy of Mecklenburg being left quite exposed, the king took ample vengeance on it by exacting the most severe contributions of men and money. To complete this monarch's good fortune also, the French, who had retired after the battle of Roßbach, were now opposed by the Hanoverians under Prince Ferdinand, who kept them so well employed, that, during the rest of the war, the king of Prussia had no more trouble from them. See BRITAIN, No. 442.

The beginning of the year 1758 was favourable to Schweidnitz the arms of his Prussian majesty. On the 3d of April he commenced his operations against Schweidnitz, and pushed the siege so vigorously, that the place surrendered in 13 days. He then disposed his forces in such a manner as might best guard his dominions against his numerous enemies. For this purpose Count Dohna commanded a body of troops on the side of Pomerania; another considerable body was posted between Wohlau and Glogau, in order to cover Silesia from the Ruffians, in case they should make their inroad that way. An army, in a little time after, was formed in Saxony, commanded by the king's brother Prince Henry. This army consisted of 30 battalions and 45 squadrons, and was designed to make head against the army of the empire; which, by great efforts made during the winter, and the junction of a large body of Austrians, was again in a condition to act. Between all these armies a ready communication was kept up by a proper choice of posts. After the reduction of Schweidnitz, the king having made a show of invading Bohemia, suddenly burst into Moravia, where in a short time he made himself master of the whole country, and on the 27th of May laid siege to Olmutz the capital. Of this M. Daun was no sooner informed, than he took his route to Moravia through Bohemia: and though he was not in a condition to risk a battle, nor indeed would have done so unless he had had a very considerable advantage; yet, by placing himself in a strong situation where he could not be attacked, by harassing the king's troops and cutting off their convoys, he at last obliged him to abandon the enterprise. The king, however, who frequently owed a good part of his success to the impenetrable secrecy with which he covered all his designs, gave not the least hint of his intention to raise the siege of Olmutz. On the contrary, the very day before the siege was raised, the firing continued as brisk as ever; but in the night (July 1st) the whole army took the road to Bohemia in two columns, and gained an entire march upon the Austrians. Thus, notwithstanding the utmost efforts of his enemies, the Prussian army reached Bohemia with very little molestation. Here he seized upon a large magazine at Lieutomifel; defeated some corps of Austrians who had attempted to interrupt his progress; and arrived at Koniggratz, of which he took possession, after driving from it 7000 Austrians who were intrenched there. This city and several other districts he laid under contribution; but soon after entered Silesia, and marched with the utmost rapidity to encounter the Russians, who had at that time united their forces under generals Brown and Fermor, entered the New Marche of Brandenburg, and laid siege to Custrin.

The king arrived at this city at a very critical period. The Russians had laid siege to it on the 15th of August; and though they were not well skilled in managing artillery, yet, by furious and unremitting discharges at random, they threw in such a number of bombs and red-hot balls, that the town was soon on fire in every quarter. Some of the wretched inhabitants were burned; others buried in the ruins of their houses, or killed by the balls which fell like hail in the streets; while many of the survivors abandoned their habitations, and fled out of the town on that side where it was not invested. The governor did every thing for the defence of the place; but as the walls were built after the old manner, it was impossible that the town could have made a defence for any length of time, especially as the principal magazine of the besieged had been blown up. The avenger of all these injuries, however, was now at hand. The king came in sight of the Russians on the 25th of August, after a march of 56 days, and beheld the country everywhere defoliated, and the villages in flames by the depredations of his cruel enemy, who had raised the siege at his approach, and retired towards a neighbouring village named Zornedorff. At nine o'clock in the morning, a most terrible fire of cannon and mortars poured destruction on the right wing of the Russian army for two hours without intermission. The slaughter was such as might have been expected; but the Russians kept their ground with astonishing resolution, new regiments still pressing forward to supply the places of those that fell. When the first line had fired away all their charges, they rushed forward on the Prussians with their bayonets; and all at once these brave troops, though encouraged by the presence of their king, gave way and fled before an enemy already half defeated. The Russian generals ought now to have attacked with their cavalry the disordered infantry of their enemies, which would have completed the defeat, and in all probability given the finishing stroke to the king of Prussia's affairs. This opportunity, however, they lost: but the king was not so negligent; for, by a very rapid and masterly motion, he brought all the cavalry of his right wing to the centre, and falling on the Russian foot uncovered by their horse, and even disordered by their own success, they pushed them back with most miserable slaughter, at the same time that the repulsed battalions of infantry, returning from the charge, and exasperated at their late disgrace, rendered the victory no longer doubtful. The Russians were now thrown into the most dreadful confusion. The wind blew the dust and smoke into their faces, so that they could not distinguish friends from foes; they fired on each other, plundered their own baggage which stood between the lines, and intoxicated themselves with brandy: the ranks fell in upon one another; and, being thus crammed together into a narrow space, the fire of the Prussians had a full and dreadful effect, while their enemies kept up only a scattered and ineffectual fire, generally quite over their heads. Yet even in this dismal situation the Russians did not fly; but suffered themselves to be slaughtered till seven at night, when their generals having caused an attack to be made on the Prussian right wing, the attention of the enemy was drawn to that quarter, and they had time to retire a little from the field of battle to recover their order.

In this engagement, which was called the battle of Zornedorff, the Russians lost 21,529 men, while that of the Prussians did not exceed 2000. A vast train of artillery was taken, together with the military chest, and many officers of high rank. The consequence was, that the Russian army retreated as far as Landsberg on the frontiers of Poland, and the king was left at liberty to march with his usual expedition to the relief of Prince Henry in Saxony.

The prince was at this time forely pressed by M. Operations Daun. As soon as the king had left Bohemia in the count manner already related, M. Daun, considering that it Daun, would have been to no purpose to follow him, resolved to turn his arms towards Saxony. Towards that country, therefore, he took his route through Lusatia, by Zittau, Gorlitz, and Bautzen. On the 3rd of September he invested the strong fortress of Sonnestein; which unaccountably surrendered, after a single day's resistance, to one of his generals named Macquarie. He then began to favour the operations of General Laudohn, who had advanced through the Lower Lusatia to the confines of Brandenburg; and, by drawing the attention of the Prussian forces which were left in Silesia to the northward of that duchy, he facilitated the progress of the generals Harfch and De Ville in the southern parts. He then proposed that Prince Henry should be attacked by the army of the empire, while that of the Austrians should pass the Elbe, and, falling at the same time on the Prussians, second the attack of the Imperialists, and cut off the retreat of their enemies from Dresden. The sudden appearance of the king of Prussia, however, put an end to his plan; General Laudohn abandoned all his conquests in Lower Lusatia, and the king of Prussia retired towards M. Daun, while that general himself retired from the neighbourhood of Dresden as far as Zittau. The army of the empire only kept its ground; possessing itself of the strong post at Pirna, formerly mentioned, but did not undertake any thing. As for the Swedes, who had directed their motions by those of the Russians, they no sooner heard of the victory of Zornedorff, than they retreated with much more expedition than they had advanced.

Thus the king of Prussia's affairs seemed to be pretty well retrieved, when by one fatal piece of negligence he was brought to the verge of ruin. M. Daun had professed himself of an advantageous camp at Stolphen, by which he preserved a communication with the army of of the empire. On the other hand, the king of Prussia, having taken possession of an important post at Bautzen, extended his right wing to the village of Hochkirchen, by which he preserved a communication with his brother Prince Henry, protected Brandenburg, and was better situated than he could be anywhere else for throwing succours into Silesia. The two armies kept a watchful eye on the motions of each other; and as the principal aim of M. Daun was to cut off the king's communication with Silesia, and of the king to cut off M. Daun's communication with Bohemia, a battle seemed inevitable, though great danger seemed to await that party who should begin the attack.

In this critical posture of affairs, the Austrian general formed a design of attacking the Prussian camp in the night. In what manner he came to surprise such a vigilant enemy has never been accounted for; but that such a surprise was actually accomplished on the 14th of October, is certain. In the dead of the preceding night, the Austrian army began to march in three columns towards the camp of the king of Prussia; and though the night was exceedingly dark, and they had a considerable way to go, they all arrived at the same time, in safety, without being discovered, and without the least confusion; and at five in the morning began a regular and well-conducted attack. The Prussians were in a moment thrown into confusion; Marshal Keith, one of their best generals, received two musket-balls, and fell dead on the spot. Prince Francis of Brunswick had his head shot off by a cannon-ball as he was mounting his horse; and every thing seemed to announce the total destruction of the army. Still, however, the king preserved his wonderful presence of mind, which indeed he never appears to have lost on any occasion. He ordered some detachments from his left to support his right wing; but the moment that these orders were received, the left itself was furiously attacked. General Ketzow, who commanded in that quarter, repulsed the Austrians with difficulty, and was not able to afford any considerable assistance to the right; which alone was obliged to sustain the weight of the grand attack. The Austrians, in the beginning of the engagement, had driven the Prussians out of the village of Hochkirchen; and as the fate of the day depended on the possession of that post, the hottest dispute was there. The Prussians made three bloody and unsuccessful attacks on the village; on the fourth they carried it; but the Austrians continually pouring in fresh troops, at last drove them out with prodigious slaughter on all sides. The king then ordered a retreat, which was conducted in good order, without being pursued; however, this bloody action cost him 7000 men, together with a great number of cannon. The Austrians computed their own loss at 5000.

His Prussian majesty, having thus happily escaped such imminent danger, took every possible measure to prevent the enemy from gaining any considerable advantage from his defeat. Perceiving that the only advantage they wished to derive from it was to cover the operations of their armies in Silesia, and that he had now nothing to fear on the side of Saxony, he largely reinforced his own army from that of Prince Henry, and hastened into Silesia, in order to raise the siege of Neisse, which had been completely invested on the 4th of October. On the 24th of that month, therefore, he quitted his camp, and, making a great compass, to avoid obstructions from the enemy, arrived in the plains of Gorlitz. A body of the Austrians had in vain attempted to secure this post before him, and some who arrived after him were defeated with the loss of 800 men. From this place the king pursued his march with the utmost diligence; but was followed by General Laudohn, at the head of 24,000 men, who constantly hung on his rear, and harassed his army. The king, however, knowing the importance of his expedition, continued his march without interruption, and suffered his antagonist to obtain many little advantages without molestation. Daun, however, not content with the opposition given by Laudohn, sent a large body of horse and foot by another route to reinforce the generals Karlsch and De Ville, who had formed the siege of Neisse and the blockade of Cofel, while he himself passed the Elbe, and advanced towards Dresden.

All these precautions, however, were of little avail. The generals Karlsch and De Ville, notwithstanding their reinforcement, no sooner heard of the king of Prussia's approach, than they raised the siege of both places, and retired, leaving behind them a considerable quantity of military stores. The end of the Prussian monarch's march being thus accomplished, he instantly returned by the same way he came, and hastened to the relief of Saxony, the capital of which (Dresden) was in great danger from Marshal Daun. The place was but indifferently fortified, and garrisoned only by 12,000 men; so that it could not promise to hold out long against a numerous and well-appointed army. It was besides commanded by a large suburb, of which, if once the enemy got possession, all defence of the city must then be vain. For this reason M. Schmettau, the Prussian Suburbs governor, determined to set these suburbs on fire, which Dresden was actually done November 10th, with an incredible burnt loss to the inhabitants, as in the suburbs were carried on most of those valuable manufactures which render the city of Dresden remarkable. This disappointed the designs of M. Daun; but, though the action was agreeable to the laws of war, and had been executed with all the caution and humanity of which such an action was capable, yet the Austrians exclaimed against it as a piece of the most unprovoked and wanton cruelty recorded in history.

After the king of Prussia had approached Dresden, all Saxony opposite the Austrian armies retired into Bohemia, where they pressed by took up their winter-quarters, as the king of Prussia did in Saxony. This unhappy country he said he would now consider as his own by right of conquest. But instead of treating the conquered people as his lawful subjects, he oppressed them in all possible ways, by levying the most severe and exorbitant contributions, surrounding the exchange with soldiers, and confining the merchants in narrow lodgings on straw-beds, till they drew upon their correspondents for such sums as he wanted.

In 1759, as early as the 23rd of February, the Prussians commenced their military operations. General Weberow marched with a body of troops into Poland, where he destroyed several very large magazines belonging to the Russians, and returned into Silesia without any loss on the 18th of April. In the meantime, by some movements of the king of Prussia himself, the greatest part of the Austrian troops had been drawn drawn towards the frontiers of Silesia. Prince Henry immediately took advantage of this opening, and on the 15th of April entered Bohemia with his army divided into two columns. One, commanded by himself, marched towards Peterswade; the other, under General Hulsen, passed by the towns of Pasberg and Commottau. That commanded by Prince Henry himself penetrated as far as Loboschutz and Leitmeritz; the enemy flying everywhere before them, and burning or abandoning the vast magazines which they had amassed in these parts. The body under General Hulsen had a more active employment. A strong paf at Pasberg was defended by a considerable body of Austrians. General Hulsen, having conducted his cavalry by another way in such a manner as to fall directly on their rear, attacked them in front with his infantry, drove them out of their intrenchments, and totally defeated them with the loss of a great number killed, and 2000 taken prisoners, while that of the Prussians did not exceed 70 in killed and wounded. After this exploit they returned into Saxony, with hostages for the contributions which they had largely exacted during the course of their expedition.

Some other successes obtained by Prince Henry cleared the country of Franconia of his enemies; but now the approach of the Russians seemed once more to bring the affairs of the king of Prussia to a crisis. Notwithstanding the destruction of their magazines, they had continued to advance into Silesia, where they were opposed by Count Dohna; but as the troops he had with him were very far inferior to his enemies, he found it impossible to do more, at least with any appearance of success, than to observe their motions and harass them on their march. But this was so displeasing to the king, that he disgraced his general, and appointed Wedel to succeed him, with orders to attack the Russians at all events. To enable him, however, in some measure to comply with this desperate order, he sent him some reinforcements, which brought his army up to near 30,000. With these, on the 23rd of July 1759, General Wedel attacked 70,000 Russians posted in the most advantageous manner at Zulichau, and defended by a numerous artillery. Though the Prussians marched on to certain destruction and disgrace, they sustained the attack for a long time with unparalleled resolution. At last, however, they gave way, and were obliged to retire with the loss of 4700 killed or taken prisoners, and 3000 wounded.

The consequences of this victory were, that the Russians penetrated into the king's territories, and took possession of the towns of Croffen and Frankfort on the Oder, which made it absolutely necessary for the king to come in person to oppose them. Accordingly, on the 4th of August, he joined Wedel with a considerable body of forces, having left the greatest part of his army in Saxony under Prince Henry. But as Marshal Daun had sent a body of 12,000 horse and 8000 foot under General Laudohn to the assistance of the Russians, the king still found himself unable to fight them; as, with this and some other reinforcements, their army now amounted to upwards of 90,000. He therefore recalled General Finck, whom he had sent into Saxony with 9000 men; but with all his reinforcements, it was found impossible to augment his army to 50,000 complete. His situation, however, was now so critical that a battle was unavoidable; and therefore, on the 12th of August, with this inferiority of number, the king attacked his enemies strongly entrenched, and defended by a prodigious number of cannon. In this action, his principal effort was against the left wing of the Russian army. He began the attack, according to custom, with a heavy cannonade; which having produced the desired effect, he attacked that wing with several battalions disposed in columns. The Russian intrenchments were forced with great slaughter, and 72 pieces Prussian cannon were taken. But still there was a defile to be passed, and several redoubts which covered the villages of Cunnersdorf to be mastered. These were attacked with the same resolution, and taken one after another, dorf.

The enemy made another stand at the village, and endeavoured to preserve their ground there by pushing forward several battalions of horse and foot; but this also proved unsuccessful; they were driven from post to post quite to the last redoubts. For upwards of six hours the Prussians were successful, and everywhere broke the enemy with prodigious slaughter; drove them from almost all the ground they had occupied before the battle, took more than half their artillery, and scarce anything seemed wanting to make the victory complete. In these circumstances, the king wrote the following billet to the queen: "Madam, we have beat the Russians from their intrenchments. In two hours expect to hear of a glorious victory." Of this victory, however, he deprived himself, by an excessive eagerness for conquest. The enemy, defeated almost in every quarter, found their left wing, shattered as it was, to be more entire than any other part of their army. Count Soltikoff, the Russian general, therefore, assembled the remains of his right wing, and, gathering as many as he could from his centre, reinforced the left, and made a stand at a redoubt which had been erected on an advantageous eminence in a place called the Jews burying-ground. All the king's generals are said to have been of opinion that he ought to allow the Russians the peaceable possession of this post. Their army had already suffered so much, that it would have been impossible for them to have attempted any enterprise of consequence after the battle; but their artillery was still numerous, the post very strong, and the Prussian troops greatly fatigued. These reasons for a few moments had some weight with the king; but the natural impetuosity of his temper getting the better of his reason, he led on his wearied troops again and again; till at last, when their strength was in a manner totally exhausted, they were attacked and utterly routed by the Austrian and Russian cavalry, the former of which had hitherto remained quite inactive, and were therefore quite fresh, and irresistible by the enfeebled Prussians. The night, and the prudent use of some eminences, prevented the total destruction of the army; however, their loss amounted to 20,000 men killed and wounded. The king, when he found the victory totally lost, sent another billet to the queen, expressed in the following manner: "Remove from Berlin with the royal family; let the archives be carried to Potsdam; the town may make conditions with the enemy."

Immediately after this defeat, the king set himself about repairing his losses with the utmost diligence. In a few days everything was again put in order in his camp. camp. He replaced his artillery from Berlin; recalled General Kliett with 5000 men from Pomcrania; detached 6000 from his own army to the defence of Saxony; and with the remainder put himself between the Russians and Great Glogau, covering that city which had been the chief object of their designs; and in short, notwithstanding their victory, obliged them to return to Poland without accomplishing any thing besides the carnage at Cunnersdorf.

The misfortunes of the Prussian monarch, however, were not at an end. Prince Henry, indeed, by a most extraordinary and well-conducted march, entered Saxony, which was now totally overrun by the armies of the enemy. At the same time, strong detachments having been sent into that country under generals Finck and Wunck, the whole was in a short time recovered except Dresden. Towards this place Marshal Daun retired, and in all probability would soon have been obliged to leave Saxony entirely. But the king's impatience could not be satisfied without cutting off his retreat, and forcing him to a battle; for which purpose he sent General Finck with upwards of 12,000 men according to the Prussian account, but 20,000 according to the Austrians, to seize some passes through which M. Daun could only take his route towards Bohemia. This commission was executed with great exactness; but the Prussian general, having probably advanced too far into these defiles, and neglected to preserve a communication with the main army, gave his enemy an opportunity of surrounding him, and at last forcing him and his whole army to surrender prisoners of war. This disaster was soon after followed by another. General Durckel was posted at the right of the Elbe, opposite to Meissen; but on the approach of a large body of Austrians, they prepared to retreat over the river into a place where they hoped to be more secure. But having been obliged by an hard frost to withdraw their bridge of boats, a thaw supervened, when they attempted to lay a bridge of pontoons, so that they were again obliged to have recourse to their boats. In this situation, their rear-guard was attacked with great fury by the Austrians, and all the soldiers who composed it killed or taken. The loss of the Prussians on this occasion was computed at 3000 men.

The year 1760 showed the Prussian monarch in a more dangerous situation than he had ever yet experienced. Indeed his affairs now seemed to be altogether desperate. His losses were not to be measured by the number of the killed or prisoners, but by armies destroyed or taken. Forty generals had died or been killed in his service since the beginning of October 1756, exclusive of those who were wounded or taken prisoners. This of itself would have been an irreparable loss, had not the very wars which destroyed these furnished others equally capable of filling their places. But another deficiency, which could not be remedied, still remained.—The king had, by his indefatigable industry and exertions, supplied all the deficiencies of men in his armies, but they were not the same men as before. The hardy veterans, with whom he had originally taken the field, were now no more, and their places were supplied by others who had neither the same experience nor discipline; so that now he was obliged to supply this deficiency by his own genius and heroism.

But whatever abilities the Prussian monarch might possess, and though he undoubtedly exerted them to the utmost, it seemed only to be contending against fate, and his enemies gained still greater and greater advantages. General Laudohn, with whom none but the Prussians king himself seems to have been able to cope, by a series of artful movements, drew into a disadvantageous situation M. Fouquet, one of the Prussian generals, with a strong body of forces. Perceiving it impossible for them to escape, Laudohn then made a violent attack on their entrenchments in the dead of the night of June 23d. The Prussians made a gallant defense, but at last were all killed or taken prisoners except about 300. Of the Prussians were killed 4000, and 7000 taken prisoners; 8 pieces of cannon, and a great number of colours, were also lost. The victory, however, was dear bought; for the Austrians lost above 12,000 men in killed and wounded; whom, however, they could better spare than the Prussians, on account of their numbers.—This action was called the battle of Landshut.

Baron Laudohn failed not to improve this victory Glatz to the utmost. He instantly turned back from Landshut, and fell upon the city of Glatz; which he took in a very short time, with the garrison who defended it, consisting of 2000 men. In this place were found 101 pieces of brass cannon, with immense quantities of provisions and military stores. From thence he marched against Breslau, and immediately invested it. But, in the mean time, the king of Prussia, whose motions had been all this time counteracted by M. Daun in Saxony, marched with his usual rapidity towards Silegia. By this means he drew M. Daun out of Saxony; and indeed the Austrian general used such expedition, that he gained two full days on the king. This was no sooner known to his Prussian majesty, than he returned with the same expedition that he had advanced, and sat down before Dresden. Of Dresden he this M. Daun soon received intelligence, and returned sieged, but also. In the mean time, however, the buildings of without the city were terribly shattered by the king's cannon and bombs which continually played on it. His endeavours, however, proved ineffectual to reduce it before the arrival of M. Daun. The siege had been begun on the 13th of July, and on the 19th M. Daun appeared within a league of Dresden. The Prussians then redoubled their efforts. They had that day received reinforcements of heavy cannon and mortars, with which they battered the place incessantly. The cathedral church, New Square, several principal streets and some palaces, and the noble manufactory of porcelain, were entirely destroyed. The siege was continued till the 22d; but, on the night of the 21st, M. Daun had thrown 16 battalions into the city; which rendered it impossible for the king to continue longer before it with any prospect of success. He therefore raised the siege, and retired without molestation, though there were three considerable armies of the enemy in the neighbourhood. Breslau was fiercely bombarded by Laudohn, but the approach of Prince Henry obliged him to desist from his enterprise on the 5th of August.

But, in the mean time, the fortune of the king seemed likely to be terminated by one fatal stroke. Finding it impossible for him to carry on a defensive war, he marched towards Silegia with such astonishing rapidity, P R U

PRU

pidity, that before the middle of August he had advanced 200 miles, leaving Marshal Daun with his army far behind him. This expedition he undertook in order to engage General Laudohn before he could have time to effect a junction with Daun and Lacy, another Austrian general; which triple union seemed to threaten him with unavoidable destruction at once. This, however, he found it impossible to prevent: and the three armies, when joined, formed a most tremendous line of encampments, extending no less than 30 English miles; at the same time that every one of their posts was strong, and the communication between them easy. The king was strongly encamped at Lignitz; and for several days employed all his military skill in attempting to induce one of the bodies to detach itself from the rest, or to attack them at some disadvantage; but without effect. At last, the Austrian generals, having maturely weighed all circumstances, resolved to attack the king's camp itself, strong as it was; and Marshal Daun, remembering the advantage he had gained at Hochkirchen by an attack in the night-time, resolved to follow the same plan now. The plan therefore was laid in the following manner. The whole army, as soon as it should begin to grow dark, was to march from their several posts to such situations as were marked out for each corps: they were to strike their tents, but yet to keep up the fires in their camps, and to have the drums beat the tattoo as usual, by which means they had a probability of surprising the enemy; or if not, they judged it absolutely impossible for him to escape them, though he should be ever so much on his guard. In what manner the king of Prussia became acquainted with this plan, is not known. His friends attributed it to his own penetration and knowledge of the stratagems of war; the Austrians, to intelligence given him by defectors. But, in whatever way he became acquainted with this design, it is certain that he took the most effectual methods of preventing it. As the Austrian plan was to surround his camp, and this could not be done without the division of their army which he had so long desired, he resolved to intercept one of the parties; and if that should be disabled from acting, he could then more easily deal with the other two. Therefore, in the very evening calculated for the decisive attack on his camp, he quitted it with the utmost privacy, and took an advantageous post on the road through which General Laudohn was to pass. The nature of this post was such, that at the same time that it stopped the progress of Laudohn in front, Daun would lie under great difficulties if he should attempt his rear; at the same time that, for his further security, the king strengthened the rear with several batteries. As soon as his army was drawn up, he divided it; leaving his right on the ground where it had been formed, to observe Marshal Daun, and to maintain that post; whilst with his left he turned in order to fall on the corps under General Laudohn. In the mean time, that commander, ignorant of the fate which was awaiting him, advanced with the utmost expedition towards the place which had been assigned him, in order to share in the glory of destroying the Prussian monarch; when, at three in the morning, on the 5th of August, a thick fog which covered the ground, suddenly clearing up, discovered, like the opening of a great scene, the dreadful front of the Prussian army regularly embattled, and advantageously posted. Laudohn, though surprized, made the best dispositions that circumstances would admit of, and an obstinate engagement ensued; in which, however, he was at last obliged Laudohn, to yield to the superior skill of his adversary, with the loss of 10,000 killed, wounded, and prisoners, 82 pieces of cannon, and 23 pair of colours.

The victory, though complete, gave but a partial relief to the king of Prussia. The most effectual service it did was the preventing of the Russians from joining those enemies which he already had. Count Czerninew had been advancing with 24,000 men, and had even passed the Oder; but was so intimidated by this news, that he instantly repassed that river on the same bridges which he had lately built, even though M. Daun sent him a strong body of troops in order to encourage him to advance. Soon after this battle, the king joined his brother Prince Henry at New Marche, and marched against Daun, who had begun to form the blockade of Schweidnitz; fell upon a corps under General Beck, made two battalions of Croats prisoners, and dispersed the rest, which obliged the enemy to abandon the enterprise they had just undertaken. About the same time, General Hulsen gained a considerable advantage over the Imperial army in Saxony, with very trifling losses on his part, by which he effectually prevented them from cutting off his communication with the city of Torau.

By these successes the affairs of his Prussian majesty seemed to revive: but there was no end of his enemies. The late manoeuvres had drawn him so far into Silesia, that his communication with Brandenburg was almost wholly cut off. The Russian army, which after it had repassed the Oder began to move out of Silesia, sent forward a powerful detachment under Count Czerninew towards the marche of Brandenburg. A body of 15,000 Austrians, under the generals Lacy and Brentano, and the whole united body of Austrians and Imperialists which acted in Saxony, began their march in concert with the Russians, and proposed to unite at the gates of Berlin. These armies amounted to 40,000 men. To oppose this formidable power, General Hulsen called to his assistance General Werner, who had been sent with a body of troops into Pomerania; but, after being joined by him, their united forces were found not to exceed 15,000 or 16,000 men. That attempt a defence of the capital with this force would have been little short of madness; and therefore these commanders were obliged to leave Berlin to its fate; which indeed, considering the barbarity of the Russians and the animosity of the Austrians, seemed to be a frightful one. However, by the powerful mediation of several foreign ministers, the town obtained terms which were not altogether intolerable; but the magazines, arsenals, and foundries were destroyed, and an immense quantity of military stores seized, with a number of cannon and other arms. The city was first obliged to pay 800,000 guilders, after which a contribution of 1,900,000 crowns was laid on: yet notwithstanding this, many violences were committed, and the king's palace was plundered and the furniture abused in a scandalous manner.

The combined armies stood in Berlin only four days; dreading the severe vengeance of the king of Prussia, who who they heard was advancing towards that place with great expedition. But so great were the embarrassments which now attended that monarch, that it seemed almost beyond human power to retrieve his affairs. The Imperialists, on their return from Berlin, having no army to oppose them, made themselves matters of Leipzig, Torgau, Meissen, and Würtemberg; in which last city they found the grand magazine of the Prussians immensely stored with provisions, ammunition, &c., M. Stainville also, with a detachment from Broglie the French general's army, laid the city and duchy of Halberstadt under contribution. In Eastern Pomerania, the Russians had besieged Colberg by sea and land. In the Western Pomerania, the Swedes advanced with great celerity, hoping to share in the plunder of Berlin. In Silesia, the king no sooner began his march to the northward, than Laudohn advanced, and laid siege to the important fortress of Cofel; and, to complete this distress and embarrassment, the king himself was attended at every step by Count Daun with a superior army well prepared to take every advantage.

In this desperate situation the king, being joined by his generals Hullen and Prince Eugene of Würtemberg with the corps under their command, advanced up the Elbe, while M. Daun fell back to cover Leipzig and Torgau, but the latter finding that the Prussians directed their march towards the Elbe, encamped within reach of Torgau; one part of his army extending to the Elbe, by which he was covered on that side, whilst on the other he was covered by hills and woods, so that it was impossible to choose a more advantageous situation. The Prussian army did not amount to 50,000 men, whilst that of the Austrians exceeded 86,000; yet such were the unfortunate circumstances of the king, that he was obliged to fight under all these disadvantages; and therefore he caused his army to be informed, that he was now to lead them to a most desperate attempt, that his affairs required it, and that he was determined to conquer or die. His soldiers unanimously declared that they would die with him.

The 3d of November 1760 was the day on which this important affair was decided. The king divided his forces into three columns. General Hullen was to take post with one in a wood that lay on the left of the Austrian army, and had orders not to move until he found the rest of the Prussians engaged. General Zieten was to charge on the right; and the great attack in front was to be conducted by the king in person. His forces were disposed in such a manner, that either his right or left must take the enemy in rear and close them in, so as to disable them from undertaking anything against the part where he intended to effect his principal attack. On the other hand, M. Daun perceiving the king to be serious in his design of fighting, to prevent confusion, sent all his baggage over the Elbe, across which he threw three bridges in case a retreat should be necessary. At the same time he caused Torgau to be evacuated; and then, extending his first line to a village called Zinne on the left, he stretched it to another called Crofwiitz on the right; supporting the right of his second line upon the Elbe. In this disposition he was found, when, about two o'clock in the afternoon, the king began his attack. He was received by the fire of 200 pieces of cannon, which were disposed along the Austrian front. The Prussians were thrice led on to the attack; but were every time repulsed and broken with terrible slaughter. The king at length commanded a fresh body of cavalry to advance, which at first compelled the Austrians to retire; but new reinforcements continually coming in, this cavalry was in its turn obliged to fall back, and the Prussians maintained themselves with extreme difficulty, until General Zieten, with the right wing, attacked the enemy in the rear, repulsed them, and possessed himself of some eminences which commanded the whole Austrian army. Encouraged by this success, the Prussian infantry once more advanced, mastered several of the enemy's intrenchments, and made way for a new attack of their cavalry, which broke in with irresistible fury on the Austrians, and threw several bodies of them into irreparable disorder. It was now about 9 o'clock, and of consequence both armies were involved in thick darkness; yet the fire continued without intermission, and the battalions with a blind rage discharged at one another without distinguishing friend from foe. M. Daun received a dangerous wound in the thigh, and was carried from the field, which probably hastened the defeat of his troops. The command then devolved on Count O'Donnell; who, finding the greatest part of his troops in disorder, the night advanced, and the enemy possessed of some eminences which commanded his camp, and from which it was in vain to think of driving them, ordered a retreat, which was conducted with wonderful order and exactness; none were lost in passing the bridges, and by far the greater part of their artillery was preserved. The loss of the Prussians was estimated at 10,000 killed and wounded, and 3000 taken prisoners. That of the Austrians in killed and wounded is not known; but 8000 were taken prisoners, with 216 officers, among whom were four generals.

The consequence of the victory of Torgau was, that All Saxony except Dresden; and in any except Dresden Pomerania, the Russians raised the siege of Colberg, and retired into Poland, without having effected anything further than waiting the open country. Werner then flew to the affluence of Western Pomerania, where he defeated a body of Swedes, and at last drove them totally out of the country. General Laudohn too abruptly raised the blockade of Cofel; and afterwards, abandoning Landshut, he retired into the Austrian Silesia, leaving the Prussian part entirely in quiet. M. Daun placed one part of his army in Dresden, and the other in some strong posts which lie to the south and west of it, by which he commanded the Elbe, and preserved his communication with Bohemia. The army of the empire retired into Franconia, and placed its headquarters at Bamberg.

Though these successes had, to appearance, retrieved the king's affairs in some measure, yet his strength seemed now to be wholly exhausted; and in the campaign of 1761, he made no such vigorous efforts as he had formerly done. The Russians, dividing themselves into two bodies, invaded Silesia and Pomerania. In the former country they laid siege to Breslau, and in the latter to Colberg. Tottleben also, who had commanded the Russian armies, was now removed on a suspicion that he had corresponded with the king of Prussia, and General Romanzow put in his place; by which it was expected Prussia expected that the Russian operations would be more brisk this year than formerly.

The king continued strongly encamped near Schweidnitz; where he was so closely watched by generals Daun and Laudohn, that he could attempt nothing. However, he defeated the designs of the Russians against Breslau, by sending General Platen to destroy their magazines; which he accomplished with great success, at the same time cutting off a body of 4000 of their troops. But this only brought the more sure destruction upon Colberg; to which place that body of Russians immediately marched, cruelly wasting the country as they went along. The king of Prussia could do nothing but send detachments of small parties, which, though they could not oppose their enemies in the field, yet he hoped, by cutting off the convoys of the enemy, might distress them to such a degree as to oblige them to abandon the siege, or at least protract it till the severity of the winter should render it impossible for them to carry on their operations. Thus he weakened his own army so much, that it was found requisite to draw 4000 men out of Schweidnitz in order to reinforce it; and no sooner was this done, than General Laudohn suddenly attacked and took that fortress by a coup de main. Colberg made a brave defence; but the troops sent to its relief being totally unable to cope with the Russian army, consisting of 50,000 men, it was obliged to surrender on the 3rd of December; and thus the fate of the Prussian monarch seemed to be decided, and almost every part of his dominions lay open to the invaders.

In the midst of these gloomy appearances the empress of Russia, the king's most inveterate and inflexible enemy, died on the 2d of January 1762. Her successor, Peter III., instead of being the king's enemy, was his most sanguine friend. As early as the 23d of February, in a memorial delivered to the ministers of the allied courts, he declared, that, "in order to the establishment of peace, he was ready to sacrifice all the conquests made in this war by the arms of Russia, in hopes that the allied courts will on their parts equally prefer the restoration of peace and tranquillity, to the advantages which they might expect from the continuance of the war, but which they cannot obtain but by a continuance of the effusion of human blood."—This address was not so well relished by the allies; however, they were very willing to make peace, provided it was for their own interest; but they recommended to his attention fidelity to treaties, which constitutes a no less valuable part of the royal character, than humanity and disinterestedness. This answer made no impression on the czar; a suspension of hostilities took place on the 16th of March, which was followed by a treaty of alliance on the 5th of May. In this treaty the czar stipulated nothing in favour of his former confederates; on the contrary, he agreed to join his troops to those of the king of Prussia, in order to act against them. Sweden, which had for a long time acted under the direction of Russian counsellors, now followed the example of her mistress, and concluded a peace with Prussia on the 22d of May.

It is not to be supposed that the king of Prussia would remain long inactive after such an unexpected turn in his favour. His arms were now everywhere attended with success. Prince Henry drove the Imperialists from some important posts in Saxony, by which he secured all that part which the Prussians possessed; and though the Austrians frequently attempted to recover these posts, they were constantly repulsed with great slaughter. The king was not joined by his new allies till the latter end of June; after which he drove M. Daun before him to the extremity of Silesia, leaving the town of Schweidnitz entirely uncovered, and which the king immediately prepared to invest. In the meantime, different detachments of Prussians, some on the side of Saxony, and others on that of Silesia, penetrated deep into Bohemia, laid many parts of the country under contribution, and spread an universal alarm. A considerable body of Russian irregulars also made an irruption into Bohemia, where they practised on the Austrians the same cruelties which they had long been accustomed to practise on the Prussians.

But while the king was thus making the best use of his time, he was all at once threatened with a fatal revolution in the course of fortune by a new revolution in Russia. The emperor was deposed, and his deposition was soon after followed by his death. The empress, who succeeded him, suspected that her husband had been misled by the councils of his Prussian majesty, against whom, therefore, she entertained a mortal enmity. She could not, however, in the very beginning of her reign, undertake again a war of so much importance as that which had been just concluded. She therefore declared her intention of observing the peace concluded by the late emperor; but, at the same time, of recalling her armies from Silesia, Prussia, and Pomerania; which indeed the unsettled state of the kingdom now made in some degree necessary. At the same time a discovery was made with regard to the king of Prussia himself, which turned the scale greatly in his favour. The Russian senate, flaming with resentment against this monarch, and against their late unfortunate sovereign; and the empress, full of suspicion that the conduct of the latter might have been influenced by the councils of the former, searched eagerly amongst the papers of the late emperor for an elucidation or proofs of this point. They found indeed many letters from the Prussian monarch, but in a strain absolutely different from what they had expected. The king had, as far as prudence would permit, kept a reserve and distance with regard to the too rash advances of this unhappy ally; and, in particular, counselled him to undertake nothing against the empress's comfort. The hearing of these letters read is said to have had such an effect upon the empress, that she burst into tears, and expressed her gratitude towards the Prussian monarch in the warmest terms. Still, however, the Russian army was ordered to separate from the Prussians; but all the important places which the former had taken during the whole war were faithfully restored.

The king, finding that the Russians were no more to take an active part in his favour, resolved to profit by their appearance in his camp; and, therefore, the very day after the order for their return had arrived, he attacked the Austrian army, and drove their right wing from some eminences and villages where they were advantageously posted; by which means he entirely cut off their communication with Schweidnitz, so that nothing could be attempted for its relief. Prince Henry kept them in continual alarms for Bohemia; and a great great part of their attention, and no small part of their forces, were engaged on that side. Marshal Daun, now finding himself rendered almost incapable of undertaking any thing, detached General Laudohn, with a force very much superior, to attack the prince of Bern, and drive him from the advantageous post he occupied. But the prince defended himself with such resolution, that all the efforts of Laudohn could not succeed before the king had time to come to his assistance.

The Austrians, being then put between two fires, were routed and pursued with terrible slaughter; after which, the king met with no more disturbance in his preparations for the siege, and the trenches were opened on the 18th of July. Marshal Daun made no attempts to relieve the place; but the garrison being very strong, it held out for near two months from the opening of the trenches. It is said that the attack was conducted, and the defence made, by two engineers who had written on the subject of the attack and defence of fortified places; and they were now practically engaged to prove the superiority of their systems. At last, however, the garrison, to the number of 8000 men, surrendered prisoners of war; and the whole body, except nine, were soon after drowned at the mouth of the Oder, on their passage to their intended confinement in Konigberg.

The king of Prussia, now become master of Schweidnitz, turned his attention towards Saxony, where he considerably reinforced his brother's army, and made preparations for laying siege to Dresden. In this country the Austrians had lately met with some success, and driven Prince Henry as far back as Freyberg; but on the 29th of October, they were attacked by the Prussian army thus reinforced, and totally routed. Great numbers were slain, and near 6000 taken prisoners. This victory proved decisive; and the empress-queen, finding herself deserted by all her allies, was glad to conclude a treaty, the substance of which was, that a mutual restitution and oblivion should take place, and both parties sit down at the end of the war in the same situation in which they began it. This treaty is called the peace of Hubertusburg.

The war was no sooner concluded than the king of Prussia turned his attention to domestic policy, and the recovery of his dominions from those innumerable calamities which had befallen them during the war. He immediately distributed lands to his disbanded soldiers, and gave them the horses of his artillery to assist them in their cultivation. By his wife and prudent management, the horrors of war were soon forgotten; and the country was quickly in as flourishing a state as ever. Notwithstanding this pacific disposition, however, the king never slackened his endeavours for the defence of his country, by keeping a respectable army on foot; which might be able to act on the least emergency.

In the year 1778, a new difference with the house of Austria took place, concerning the duchy of Bavaria. But though the most enormous warlike preparations were made on both sides, and immense armies brought into the field, nothing of consequence was effected. What little advantage there was, seems to have been on the Prussian side, since they made themselves masters of several towns, and kept the war in the enemy's country. However, the emperor acted with so much caution, and showed so much skill in a defensive war, that all the manoeuvres of his Prussian majesty could gain no material advantage; as, on the other hand, his adversary was too wise to venture an engagement. A peace therefore was very soon concluded, and since that time the history of Prussia, during the remainder of the great Frederic's reign, affords no remarkable event which we have not mentioned in the life of that hero, and in the article POLAND. He left his crown to his nephew, whose character was not then much developed; and it was easily seen that a new kingdom, which had risen suddenly by his success, would require great abilities to preserve it from dismemberment.

The late king had indeed bequeathed the most effectual securities to his successor for the preservation of the nation, and his dominions, that human wisdom could provide or devise; by leaving him a full treasury, the finest army in the world, and a people enthusiastically attached to his memory and government. The new monarch, with these advantages, was not wanting to himself. The late king's predilection for the French language and French literature were not grateful to his subjects. The present sovereign began his reign with declaring in council, "Germans we are, and Germans I mean we shall continue;" giving directions, at the same time, that their native language should resume its natural rank and station, from which for near half a century it had been degraded by the French." This was a very popular measure, and it was followed by another still more so. Observing that he had marked with great concern the progress of impiety and profaneness on the one hand, and of enthusiasm on the other, he declared, that he would not have his subjects corrupted either by fanatics or atheists, and strictly prohibited all publications tending to excite a contempt or indifference for religion.

Such, on his immediate accession to the throne, was the pacific conduct of the monarch, which endeared him to his subjects, and commanded the approbation of all good men. An opportunity soon occurred, in which he was thought to have displayed such talents in the state-negotiation and in military arrangements, as proclaimed his worthiness of the crown of Holland. The states of Holland, who had long been jealous of the power of the stadtholder, and inclined to a republicanism without any permanent chief, had gained such an ascendancy in the states general, that in 1786 and 1787 they in effect deprived the Prince of Orange of all his prerogatives, (see UNITED PROVINCES). They proceeded even to the seizure and imprisonment of the princes, father to the king of Prussia; and depending upon support from France, treated with influence every power connected with them in Europe. The court of Berlin did not witness these proceedings without indignation; and the king formed his plan for restoring the power of the stadtholder with such secrecy and prudence, that perhaps nothing could surpass it but the bravery and military skill of the duke of Brunswick, by whom it was carried into execution. In the short space of one month, that accomplished general led 18,000 Prussians to Amsterdam, and restored the just prerogatives of the prince of Orange.

The affairs of Prussia during the early period of the French revolution, and the active but unsuccessful part which that monarch took against it, are interwoven with the historical details of that period under the articles France and Britain, to which we refer our readers. For a number of years he acted the prudent part of standing clear of hostilities as much as possible; and when he did at last interfere, we find little in his conduct which is entitled to the praise either of constancy or honour. Indeed it may perhaps be admitted, that on many occasions he acted rather from necessity than choice; and finding that a contest with France was both absurd and ruinous, he chose to sacrifice a less evil to a greater good. Whether by consent or compulsion is not certainly known, the king of Prussia ceded to France the duchies of Cleves and Berg, March 1806, which were to be governed by Prince Murat, the brother-in-law of Bonaparte, under the title of Joachim, duke of Cleves and Berg.

The king of Prussia likewise took possession of the Hanoverian states 30th October 1806, at the time when Great Britain had no reason to apprehend any such mysterious conduct from that quarter. He entered into a secret treaty with France for the purpose of shutting the northern ports; a measure which gave such offence to this country, that the British minister thought proper to take his leave of Berlin. At one period he came to a final determination to make no separate treaty with the French government, and proposed a treaty of peace and alliance between his court and that of Britain. To give this as much effect as possible, the Prussian princes of the blood began to raise volunteer regiments in Poland and Silesia, the loyalty of the peasantry in these countries far exceeding the most sanguine expectations.

So low, however, were the king of Prussia's finances at the time of Lord Hutchinson's arrival at Memel, March 1807, that his lordship found it necessary to advance 80,000l. for the support of his family and domestic household. This being intimated to the British ministers, his majesty recommended it to parliament to enable him to implement the agreement. Yet not long after this period he actually entered into a treaty of peace with the emperor of France, by virtue of which his territories were so dreadfully mutilated, as to leave him little more of a sovereign than the name. He was required to renounce the whole of his dominions situated between the Rhine and the Elbe; the circle of Rostus in Lower Lusatia; all the provinces which formerly constituted part of the kingdom of Poland; the city of Dantzig; and he was laid under the necessity of shutting all the ports and harbours of his whole dominions against the trade and navigation of Great Britain. Not above 18 months prior to this treaty, the king of Prussia might have been said to hold the fate of Europe in his hands; but by means of it he was reduced to the very lowest rank among the powers of Europe. Had he taken a decided part against France before the battle of Austerlitz, he might have been able to secure the independence of Europe; but, having suffered this auspicious moment to pass unimproved, the consequences were exactly such as might have been predicted, without any pretensions to uncommon sagacity.

The king of Prussia being thus degraded by means of his own imprudence and want of sound policy, endeavoured to ease the burdens of his remaining subjects by reducing his civil and military establishments. The army was reduced to 24,000 men, and General Knolesdorf was sent to Paris to procure a diminution of the contributions exacted from him, or to crave that payments might be accepted of by instalments; and, in the meantime, the troops belonging to France were not to be withdrawn from the impoverished kingdom of Prussia. Every decree issued in Holland against the commerce of Great Britain, this humbled monarch was obliged to adopt, and to order the publication of them in every part of his mutilated dominions. This state of insignificance may be expected to continue as it is, till such a revolution takes place in the sentiments of the most powerful European monarchs as shall induce them to throw off the tyrannical yoke of Bonaparte, and oppose to him a force which all his military strength shall not be able to resist; and annihilate his power and influence in Europe. The united forces of Russia, Prussia, and Austria, seconded by the operations of the triumphant navy of Great Britain, might find it possible to accomplish this; and surely it is not only the cause of Europe, but of humanity at large, and calls for the interference of every empire and kingdom capable of affording any effective aid.

The total loss sustained by the king of Prussia in consequence of the peace of Tilsit, has been estimated at 10,000 square miles in extent, containing a population of more than 4,000,000;—a loss which must be very seriously felt, but which at one period, we believe, he had it in his power to have prevented; and it is very uncertain if ever the time shall arrive when it will be in his power to redeem it.

The air of Prussia is wholesome, and the soil fruitful Air, soil, in grain; affording, besides, plenty of pitcoal and other fuel. The rivers and lakes are well stored with fish; Prussia, and amber is found on its coast towards the Baltic. The principal rivers are the Vistula, Bregel, Memel, the Paffarge, and the Elbe; all of which frequently do damage by their inundations.

The inhabitants of this country were, by Dr Busching, computed at 635,998 persons capable of bearing arms; and by another German author, at 450,000. Since the year 1719 it is computed that about 34,000 colonists have removed hither from France, Switzerland, and Germany; of which number one half were Saltzburghers. These emigrants have built 400 small villages, 11 towns, 50 new churches, and founded 1000 village-schools. The manners of the people differ but little from those of the Germans. The established religions are those of Luther and Calvin, but chiefly the former; though almost all other sects are tolerated.

The late king of Prussia, by the affluence of an excellent police, brought the commerce and manufactures and manufactures of this country to a very flourishing state, which during his life were daily improving. The manufactures of Prussia consist in glass, iron-work, paper, gunpowder, copper and brass-mills, manufactures of cloth, camlet, linen, silk, gold and silver lace, stockings, and other articles. The inhabitants export variety of naval stores, amber, lint-feed and hemp-feed, oat-meal, fish, mead, tallow, and caviar; and it is said that 500 ships are loaded with those commodities every year, chiefly from Konigsberg.

His Prussian majesty is absolute through all his domains; but the late king was too wise to oppress his subjects, though he availed himself to the full of his power. The government of this kingdom is by a regency of four chancellors of state, viz. 1. The great-master; His Prussian majesty, by means of the happy situation of his country, its inland navigation, and the excellent regulations of his predecessor, derives an amazing revenue from this country, which, about a century and a half ago, was the seat of boors and barbarism. It is said, that amber alone brings him in 26,000 dollars annually. His other revenues arise from his demesnes, his duties of customs and tolls; and the subsidies yearly granted by the several states; but the exact sum is not known, though we may conclude that it is very considerable, from the immense charges of the late war.

The military regulations introduced by the late king had a wonderfully quick operation in forming his troops and recruiting his armies. Every regiment has a particular district assigned it, where the young men proper for bearing arms are registered; and when occasion offers, they join their regiment, and being incorporated with veterans they soon become well disciplined troops. The Prussian army, in the time of peace, consists of 175,000 of the best disciplined troops in the world; and during the last war, that force was augmented to 300,000 men.

As the Prussian army formerly depended chiefly upon the cantons of the different regiments for their recruiting, it must suffer in proportion with the loss of territory a diminution of at least 80,000 men, and be thus reduced to 170,000, which was nearly its strength as far back as the year 1772. We are informed that it is to be still farther reduced to 150,000 regular troops, the whole of them to be natives of the country, one-third of whom are to do duty for one year, so that every man will have a furlough of two years in time of peace, and be in actual service every third year. Besides this regular army, a militia is to be organized of 380,000 men, who are to do garrison duty in time of war, which will enable the whole 150,000 regular troops to take the field against any enemy, when necessity requires it.

The royal arms of Prussia are argent, an eagle displayed fable, crowned, or, for Prussia: azure, the Imperial sceptre, or, for Courland: argent, an eagle displayed, gules, with semicircular wreaths, for the marquise of Brandenburg: to these are added the respective arms of the several provinces subject to the Prussian crown.

There are two orders of knighthood; the first, that of the Black Eagle, instituted by Frederic I. on the day of his coronation at Koningsberg, with this motto, Sum cuique. The sovereign is always grand-master; and the number of knights, exclusive of the royal family, is limited to 30. Next to this is the order of Merit, instituted by his late majesty; the motto is, Pour le merite.