JOHN, a celebrated naturalist, was the son of Mr Roger Ray a blacksmith, and was born at Black Notly Notly in Essex in 1628. He received the first rudiments of learning at the grammar-school at Braintree; and in 1644 was admitted into Catharine-Hall in Cambridge, from whence he afterwards removed to Trinity college in that university. He took the degree of master of arts, and became at length a senior fellow of the college; but his intense application to his studies having injured his health, he was obliged at his leisure hours to exercise himself by riding or walking in the fields, which led him to the study of plants. He noted from Johnson, Parkinson, and the *Phytologia Britannica*, the places where curious plants grew; and in 1658 rode from Cambridge to the city of Chester, from whence he went into North Wales, visiting many places, and among others the famous hill of Snowdon; returning by Shrewsbury and Gloucester. In 1660 he published his *Catalogus Plantarum circa Cantabrigiam adjectum*, and the same year was ordained deacon and priest. In 1661 he accompanied Francis Willoughby, Esq. and others in search of plants and other natural curiosities, in the north of England and Scotland; and the next year made a western tour from Chester, and through Wales, to Cornwall, Devonshire, Dorsetshire, Hampshire, Wilshire, and other counties. He afterwards travelled with Mr Willoughby and other gentlemen through Holland, Germany, Italy, France, &c., took several tours in England, and was admitted fellow of the Royal Society. In 1672 his intimate and beloved friend Mr Willoughby died in the 37th year of his age, at Middleton Hall, his seat in Yorkshire; "to the infinite and unspeakable loss and grief (says Mr Ray) of myself, his friends, and all good men." There having been the closest and sincerest friendship between Mr Willoughby and Mr Ray, who were men of similar natures and tastes, from the time of their being fellow collegians, Mr Willoughby not only confided in Mr Ray, in his lifetime, but also at his death; for he made him one of the executors of his will, and charged him with the education of his sons Francis and Thomas, leaving him also for life 60l. per annum. The eldest of these young gentlemen, not being four years of age, Mr Ray, as a faithful trustee, betook himself to the instruction of them; and for their use composed his *Nomenclator Clasius*, which was published this very year, 1672. Francis the eldest dying before he was of age, the younger became Lord Middleton. Not many months after the death of Mr Willoughby, Mr Ray lost another of his best friends, Bishop Wilkins; whom he visited in London the 18th of November 1672, and found near expiring by a total suppression of urine for eight days. As it is natural for the mind, when it is hurt in one part, to seek relief from another; so Mr Ray, having lost some of his best friends, and being in a manner left destitute, conceived thoughts of marriage; and accordingly, in June 1673, did actually marry a gentlewoman of about 20 years of age, the daughter of Mr Oakley of Launton in Oxfordshire. Towards the end of this year, came forth his *Observations Topographical, Moral, &c.* made in foreign countries; to which was added his *Catalogus Stirpium in exterris regionibus obseruatarum*; and about the same time, his *Collection of unusual or local English words*, which he had gathered up in his travels through the counties of England. After having published many books on subjects foreign to his profession, he at length resolved to publish in the character of a divine, as well as in that of a natural philosopher: in which view he published his excellent demonstration of the being and attributes of God, entitled *The Wisdom of God manifested in the Works of the Creation*, 8vo, 1697. The rudiments of this work were read in some college lectures; and another collection of the same kind he enlarged and published under the title of *Three Physico-theological discourses, concerning the Chaos, Deluge, and Dissolution of the World*, 8vo, 1692. He died in 1705. He was modest, affable, and communicative; and was distinguished by his probity, charity, sobriety, and piety. He wrote a great number of works; the principal of which, besides those already mentioned, are:

1. *Catalogus Plantarum Anglicae*. 2. *Dictionarium Tri-lingue secundum locos communes*. 3. *Historia Plantarum, Species haudenum editas, aliaque infuper multas noviter inventas et descriptas complectens*, three vols. 4. *Methodus Plantarum nova, cum Tabulis*, 8vo, and several other works on plants. 5. *Synopsis Methodica Animalium Quadrupedum et Serpentini generis*, 8vo. 6. *Synopsis Methodica Avium et Piscium*. 7. *Historia Insectorum, opus posthumum*. 8. *Methodus Insectorum*. 9. Philosophical Letters, &c.

**RAYNAL, WILLIAM THOMAS**, or the Abbé Raynal, was born about the year 1712, and received his education among the celebrated order of the Jesuits, and became one of their number. Their value and excellence chiefly consisted in assigning to each member his proper employment. Among them it was that Raynal acquired a taste for literature and science, and by them he was afterwards expelled, but for what reason is not certainly known, although the abbé Barruel ascribes it to impiety. Soon after this event he associated with Voltaire, D'Alembert, and Diderot, by whom it is said, he was employed to furnish the articles in theology for the *Encyclopédie*; but he employed the abbé Yvon to furnish them for him, whom Barruel allows to have been an inoffensive and upright man.

His first work, which is justly regarded as an eminent performance, is entitled "Political and Philosophical History of the European Settlements in the East and West Indies." The style of this work is animated; it contains many just reflections both of a political and philosophical nature, and has been translated into every European language. We believe this performance was followed by a small tract in the year 1780, entitled "The Revolution of America," in which he pleads the cause of the colonists with much zeal, censures the conduct of the British government, and discovers an acquaintance with the principles of the different factions, which has induced a belief that he had been furnished with materials by those who knew the merits of the dispute much better than any foreigner could reasonably be supposed to do.

The French government instituted a prosecution against him on account of his history of the East and West Indies; but with so little severity was it conducted, that sufficient time was allowed him to retire to the dominions of his Prussian majesty, by whom he was protected, notwithstanding he had treated the character of that sovereign with very little ceremony. Even the most despotic princes showed him much kindness, although he always animadverted on their conduct without reserve; and he lived in the good graces of the em... press of Russia. At one period the British house of commons shewed him a very singular mark of respect. The speaker having been informed that Raynal was a spectator in the gallery, public benefits was instantly suspended, and the stranger was conducted to a more honourable situation. But when a friend of Dr Johnfon's asked him respecting the same personage, "Will you give me leave, doctor, to introduce to you the abbé Raynal?" he turned on his heel, and said, "No sir."

A love of liberty was the principal trait in Raynal's character, of which he gave no proper or accurate definition in his earlier writings; but when he beheld the abuse of liberty in the progress of the French Revolution, he nobly attempted to retrieve its errors. In the month of May 1791, he addressed to the Constituent Assembly, a letter the most eloquent, argumentative, and impressive, that perhaps was ever composed upon any subject whatever. He observes among other things; "I have long dared to speak to kings of their duty; suffer me now to speak to the people of their errors, and to their representatives of the dangers which threaten us. I am, I own to you, deeply afflicted at the crimes which plunge this empire into mourning. It is true that I am to look back with horror at myself for being one of those who, by feeling a noble indignation against arbitrary power, may perhaps have furnished arms to licentiousness. Do then religion, the laws, the royal authority, and public order, demand back from philosophy and reason the ties which united them to the grand society of the French nation, as if, by exposing abuses, and teaching the rights of the people and the duties of princes, our criminal efforts had broken these ties? But, no!—never have the bold conceptions of philosophy been represented by us as the strict rule for acts of legislation."

He afterwards completely proves, that it was not the business of the assembly to abolish every ancient institution; that the genius of the French people is such, that they never can be happy or prosperous but under a well regulated monarchical government; and that, if they wished not the nation to fall under the worst kind of despotism, they must increase the power of the king.

Besides the works already mentioned, he was the author of "A History of the Parliament of England," &c. "History of the Stadtholderate;" "The History of the Divorce of Catharine of Aragon by Henry VIII." and a "History of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes," in four volumes; but he committed many of his papers to the flames during the sanguinary reign of Robespierre. He was deprived of all his property during the revolution, and died in poverty in the month of March 1796, in the 84th year of his age.

Optics, a beam of light emitted from a radiant or luminous body. See Light and Optics.

Reflected Rays, those rays of light which, on their near approach to the edges of bodies, in passing by them, are bent out of their course, being turned either from the body or towards it. This property of the rays of light is generally termed diffraction by foreigners, and Dr Hooke sometimes called it deflection.

Reflected Rays, those rays of light which, after falling upon the body, do not go beyond the surface of it, but are thrown back again.

Refracted Rays, those rays of light which, after falling upon any medium, enter its surface, being bent either towards or from a perpendicular to the point on which they fell.

Pencil of Rays, a number of rays issuing from a point of an object, and diverging in the form of a cone.