an open way, or public passage, forming a communication between one place and another.

Of all the people in the world the Romans took the most pains in forming roads; and the labour and expenses they were at in rendering them spacious, firm, straight, and smooth, are incredible. They usually strengthened the ground by ramming it, laying it with flints, pebbles, or sands, and sometimes with a lining of masonry, rubbish, bricks, &c., bound together with mortar. In some places in the Lyons, F. Menetrier observes, that he has found huge clusters of flints cemented with lime, reaching 10 or 12 feet deep, and making a mass as hard and compact as marble; and which, after resisting the injuries of time for 1600 years, is still scarcely penetrable by all the force of hammers, mattocks, &c., and yet the flints it consists of are not bigger than eggs. The most noble of the Roman roads was the Via Appia, which was carried to such a vast length, that Procopius reckons it five days' journey to the end of it, and Leptius computes it at 350 miles: it is 12 feet broad, and made of square freestone generally a foot and a half on each side; and though this has lasted for above 1800 years, yet in many places it is for several miles together as entire as when it was first made.

The ancient roads are distinguished into military roads, double roads, subterraneous roads, &c. The military roads were grand roads, formed by the Romans for marching their armies into the provinces of the empire; the principal of these Roman roads in England are Watling-street, Ikenild-street, Fossway, and Ermine-street. Double roads among the Romans, were roads for carriages, with two pavements, the one for those going one way, and the other for those returning the other: these were separated from each other by a causeway raised in the middle, paved with bricks, for the convenience of foot passengers; with borders and mounting stones from space to space, and military columns to mark the distance. Subterraneous roads are those dug through a rock, and left vaulted; as that of Puzzuoli near Naples, which is near half a league long, and is 15 feet broad and as many high.

The first law enacted respecting highways and roads in England was in the year 1285; when the lords of the soil were enjoined to enlarge those ways where bushes, woods, or ditches be, in order to prevent robberies. The next law was made by Edward III. in the year 1346; when a commission was granted by the king to lay a toll on all sorts of carriages passing from the hospital of St Giles in the fields to the bar of the Old Temple, and also through another highway called Portpool (now Gray's Inn Lane) joined to the before-named highway; which roads were become almost impassable. Little further relating to this subject occurs, till the reign of Henry VIII. when the parishes were entrusted with the care of the roads, and surveyors were annually elected to take care of them. But the increase of luxury and commerce introduced such a number of heavy carriages for the conveyance of goods, and lighter ones for the convenience and ease of travelling, that parish aid was found insufficient to keep the best frequented roads in repair. This introduced toll-gates or turnpikes; so that something might be paid towards their support by every individual who enjoyed the benefit of these improvements, by passing over the roads.

Speaking of roads, the abbe Raynal justly remarks, "Let us travel over all the countries of the earth, and wherever we shall find no facility of trading from a city to a town, and from a village to a hamlet, we may pronounce the people to be barbarians; and we shall only be deceived respecting the degree of barbarism."

Navigation, a bay, or place of anchorage, at some distance from the shore, whither ships or vessels occasionally repair to receive intelligence, orders, or necessary supplies; or to wait for a fair wind, &c. The excellence of a road consists chiefly in its being protected from the reigning winds and the swell of the sea; in having a good anchoring-ground, and being at a competent distance from the shore. Those which are not sufficiently inclosed are termed open roads.