allocations voluntarily formed by a number of individuals for promoting knowledge, industry, or virtue. They may therefore be divided into three classes; societies for promoting science and literature, societies for encouraging and promoting arts and manufactures, and societies for diffusing religion and morality and relieving distress. Societies belonging to the first class extend their attention to all the sciences and literature in general, or devote it to one particular science. The same observation may be applied to those which are instituted for improving arts and manufactures. Those of the third class are established, either with a view to prevent crimes, as the Philanthropic Society; for the diffusion of the Christian religion among unenlightened nations, as the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts; or for introducing arts and civilization, along with a knowledge of the Christian religion, as the Sierra Leone Company.

The honour of planning and instituting societies for those valuable purposes is due to modern times. A literary association is said to have been formed in the reign of Charlemagne (see ACADEMY); but the plan seems to have been rude and defective. Several others were instituted in Italy in the 16th century; but from the accounts which we have seen of them, they seem to have been far inferior to those which are most flourishing at present. The most enlarged idea of literary societies seems to have originated with the great Lord Bacon, the father of modern philosophy, who recommended to the reigning prince to institute societies of learned men, who should give to the world from time to time a regular account of their researches and discoveries. It was the idea of this great philosopher, that the learned world should be united, as it were, into one immense republic; which, though consisting of many detached states, should hold a strict union and preserve a mutual intelligence with each other, in every thing that regards the common interest. The want of this union and intelligence he laments as one of the chief obstacles to the advancement of science; and, justly considering the institution of public societies, in the different countries of Europe, under the auspices of the sovereign, to be the best remedy for that defect, he has given, in his fanciful work, the New Atlantis, the delineation of a philosophical society on the most extended plan, for the improvement of all arts and sciences; a work which, though written in the language, and tinged with the colouring of romance, is full of the noblest philosophic views. The plan of Lord Bacon, which met with little attention from the age in which he lived, was destined to produce its effect in a period not very distant. The scheme of a philosophical college by Cowley is acknowledged to have had a powerful influence in procuring the establishment of the Royal Society of London by charter from Charles II.; and Cowley's plan is manifestly copied in almost all its parts from that in the New Atlantis. The institution of the Royal Society of London was the first step followed by the establishment of the Royal Academy. demey of Sciences at Paris; and these two have served as models to the philosophical academies of highest reputation in the other kingdoms of Europe.

The experience of ages has shewn, that improvements of a public nature are best carried on by societies of liberal and ingenious men, uniting their labours without regard to nation, sect, or party, in one grand purfuit alike interesting to all, whereby mutual prejudices are worn off, and a humane philosophical spirit is cherished. Men united together, and frequently meeting for the purpofe of advancing the sciences, the arts, agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, may oftentimes fuggest fuch hints to one another as may be improved to important ends; and fuch societies, by being the repositories of the obervations and discoveries of the learned and ingenious, may from time to time furnifh the world with useful publications which might otherwise be loft: for men of ingenuity and modety may not choose to risk their reputation, by fending abroad unpatronized what a learned society might judge richly worth the public eye; or perhaps their circumftances being ftraitened, they may not be able to defray the expence of publication. Societies instituted for promoting knowledge may alfo be of eminent fervice, by exciting a spirit of emulation, and by enkindling thofe sparks of genius which otherwife might for ever have been concealed; and if, when pofted of funds fufficient for the purpofe, they reward the exertions of the induftrious and enterprizing with pecuniary premiums or honorary medals, many important experiments and ufeful discoveries will be made, from which the public may reap the highest advantages.

Eminent instances of the benefiicial effects of fuch institutions we have in the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, the Royal Society, and the Society instituted for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, in London, and many others of a fimilar kind. Hereby a spirit of discovery and improvement has been excited among the ingenious in almost every nation; knowledge of various kinds, and greatly ufeful to mankind, has taken place of the dry and unintefting fpeculations of schoolmen; and bold and erroneous hypothesifs has been obliged to give way to demonstrative experiment. In fhort, fince the establishment of thefe focieties, folid learning and philofophy have more increased than they had done for many centuries before.

As to thofe focieties eftablifhed for, promoting industry, religion and morality, and relieving diftrefs, the defign is laudable and excellent, and prefents a beautiful picture of the philanthropv of modern times. We are happy to find, from the minutes of fome of thofe focieties, that their benefiicial effects are already confpicuous.

We will now give fome account of the moft eminent focieties; arranging them under the three clafes into which we have divided them: I. Religious and Humane Societies. II. Societies for Promoting Science and Literature. III. Societies for Encouraging Arts, Manufactures, &c.

I. RELIGIOUS AND HUMANE SOCIETIES.

1. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, was instituted by King William III. in 1701, in order to secure a maintenance for an orthodox clergy, and to make other provisions for propagating the gospel in the plantations, colonies, and factories beyond the feas. To that end he incorporated the archbifhops, several of the bishops, and others of the nobility, gentry, and clergy, to the number of 90, into one body, which, by the name of The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, was to plead and be implored; to have perpetual fucceffion, with privilege to purchase 2000l. a-year inheritance, and estates for lives or years, with other goods and chattels to any value. By its charter the fociety is authorized to ufe a common feal; and to meet annually on the third Friday in February for the purpofe of choosing a prefident, vice prefident, and officers for the year ensuing; and on the third Friday in every month, or oftener if there should be occasion, to tranfact buflines, and to depute perfon to take fubfcriptions, and collect money contributed for the purpofes aforefaid; and of all moneys received and laid out, it is obliged to give account yearly to the lord-chancellor or keeper, the lord-chief-juftice of the King's-bench, the lord-chief-juftice of the Common-pleas, or to any two of thefe magiftrates. Of this fociety there is a flanding committee at St Paul's chapter-houfe, to prepare matters for the monthly meeting, which is held at St Martin's library.

Before the incorporation of the fociety for the propagation of the gospel in foreign parts, there had been formed, for the promoting of Christian knowledge both at home and in the colonies, a voluntary afociation of perfon of rank and repectability, who in March 1699 began to hold fated meetings in London for that purpofe, regulating themselves by the laws of the land and the canons of the church; and when the new fociety was formed, they had already tranfmitted to America and the West Indies 800l. worth of Bibles, Books of Common Prayer, and treaties of practical religion, be-fides securing a tolerable maintenance to feveral clergymen on that continent. This afociation ftill fubfifts under the denomination of The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, and has been productive of much good in the cities of London and Westminster; but upon the formation of the new fociety, into which all its original members were incorporated by name, the care which the voluntary afociation had taken of the colonies devolved of course upon the incorporated fociety; of which incorporation we believe the object has been fometimes miaken, and the labours of its milionaries grofsly misreprefented. It has by many been fuppofed that the fociety was incorporated for the fole purpofe of converting the savage Americans; and it has been much blamed for fending milionaries into provinces where, in the common language of the complainers, a gospel miniftry was already eftablifhed. But an impartial view of the rife and progres of the American provinces, now become independent states, will show the folly and injustice of thofe complaints.

The English colonies in North America were in the laft century formed and firft peopled by religious men; who, made uneasy at home by their intolerant brethren, left the old world to enjoy in peace that firft and chief prerogative of man, the free worfhip of God according to his own conftience. At one time Puritans were driven across the Atlantic by the epifcopal church; at another, Churchmen were forced away by the prebvetarians, juft as the revolutions of state threw the civil power into the hands of the one or the other party; and not a few members of the church of Rome were chafed to the wilds of America by the united exertions of both. It has been often observed, that people persecuted for their religion become for the most part enthusiastically attached to it; and the conduct of those colonists was in perfect harmony with this observation. Their zeal, inflamed by their violent removal to the other hemisphere, kept religion alive and active among themselves; but their poverty disabled them from supplying fuel to the flame, by making provision for a ministry to instruct their offspring. The consequence was, that the new Christian commonwealth, without the kindly afflaintance of its mother-country, would have been, in the words of the Roman historian, Res unius estatis. Against this danger a timely aid was to be provided by the society; which, as it consisted not of fanatical members, would not intruft the important business of the mission to fanatical preachers, who, though always ready for such spiritual enterprises, are never qualified to carry them on with success.

It was therefore thought fit to assign a decent maintenance for clergymen of the church of England, who might preach the gospel to their brethren in America: and though those missionaries in general carefully avoided the conduct of those of Rome, whose principal aim is to reduce all churches under submission to the papal tyranny; yet so lately as 1765, did some of the colonies, in which the puritanic spirit of the last century characterized the church established by law, raise a hideous outcry against the society for sending a mission into their quarters, though only for the service of the dispersed members of the Episcopal church residing among them, and for the conversion of those men whom their rigid fanaticism had prejudiced against Christianity itself.

Indeed the commodity called freethinking, as Bishop Warburton expresses it, was at an early period imported by the opulent and fashionable colonists. The celebrated Berkeley, who had resided some years in Rhode Island, and at his return was called upon to preach the anniversary sermon before the society*, informs us, that the island where he lived was inhabited by an English colony, consisting chiefly of sectaries of many different denominations; that several of the better sort of the inhabitants of towns were accustomed to assemble themselves regularly on the Lord's day for the performance of divine worship; but that most of those who were dispersed through the colony rivalled some well-bred people of other countries, in a thorough indifference for all that is sacred, being equally careless of outward worship and of inward principles. He adds, that the missionaries had done, and were continuing to do, good service in bringing those planters to a serious sense of religion. "I speak it knowingly (says he), that the ministers of the gospel, in those provinces which go by the name of New England, sent and supported at the expense of the society, have, by their sobriety of manners, discreet behaviour, and a competent degree of useful knowledge, shewn themselves worthy of the choice of those who sent them." We have the honour to be acquainted with some of the missionaries sent at a later period, and have reason to believe that, down to the era of the American revolution, they had the same virtues, and were doing the same good services, which procured to their predecessors this honourable testimony from one of the greatest and the best of men. Surely such a mission deserved not to be evil spoken of by sectarians of any denomination who believe in Christ; especially as the very charter of incorporation affirms as a reason for missionaries being sent to the colonies, "that by reason of their poverty those colonies were destitute and unprovided of a maintenance for ministers and the public worship of God."

The society, however, was incorporated for other purposes than this. It was obliged by its charter to attempt the conversion of the native Americans and the negro slaves; and we have reason to believe, that, as soon as the spiritual wants of the colonists were decently supplied, it was not inattentive to these glorious objects. Its success indeed in either pursuit has not been to great as could be wished; but it would be rash and unfair to attribute this failure to the president, vice-president, or other officers of the corporation at home. An erroneous notion, that the being baptized is inconsistent with a state of slavery, rendered the selfish colonists for a long time averse from the conversion of their negroes, and made them throw every obstacle in the way of all who made the attempt; while the difficulties of the Indian mission are such as hardly any clergyman educated in a Protestant country can be supposed able to surmount.

He who hopes successfully to preach the gospel among a tribe of savage wanderers, must have an ardent zeal and unrewarded diligence; appetites subdued to all the distresses of want; and a mind superior to all the terrors of mortality. These qualities and habits may be acquired in the church of Rome by him who from infancy has been trained up in the severities of some of the monastic orders, and afterwards sent to the college de propaganda fide to be instructed in the languages, and inured to the manners and customs, of the barbarous nations whose conversion he is destined to attempt. But in the reformed churches of Britain there are no monastic orders, nor any college de propaganda fide; and yet without the regular preparation, which is to be looked for in such institutions alone, it is not in nature, whatever grace may effect, for any man cheerfully, and at the same time soberly, to undergo all the accumulated difficulties ever ready to overtake a faithful missionary among savage idolaters. A fanatic zealot will indeed undertake it, though he is totally unqualified for every sober and important work; and a man of ruined fortunes may be pressed into the service, though the impotency of his mind has shewn him unable to bear either poverty or riches. The failure of the society therefore in its attempts to convert the American Indians may be attributed, we think, in the first instance, to the want of a college de propaganda for training up young men for the American mission.

Perhaps another cause of this failure may be found in the conduct of the missionaries, who, it is to be presumed, have not always employed in a proper manner even the scanty qualifications which they actually possessed. The gospel, plain and simple as it is, and fitted in its nature for what it was ordained to effect, cannot be apprehended but by an intellect somewhat raised above that of a savage. Such of the missionaries therefore as began their work with preaching to savage and brutal men, certainly set out at the wrong end; for to make the gospel understood, and much more to propa gate and establish it, those savages should have been first taught the necessary arts of civil life, which, while they improve every bodily accommodation, tend at the same time to enlarge and enlighten the understanding. For want of this previous culture, we doubt not, it hath happened that such of the savages as have been baptized into the faith have so seldom persevered themselves, or been able in any degree to propagate among their tribes the Christianity which they had been taught, and that successive millions have always found it necessary to begin anew the work of conversion.

To one or other of these causes, or to both, may justly be attributed the little progress which reformed Christianity has made among the Indians of North America; and not to any want of zeal, attention, or liberality, in the directors of the society at home. During the dependence of the United States on the mother-country, great part of the society's funds was properly expended in keeping alive a just sense of religion among the Christian colonists from Europe, who had surely the first claims upon this best of charities; but now that America has separated herself from Great Britain, and shewn that she is able to maintain her independence, and to make ample provision for a regular clergy of her own, the members of the corporation must feel themselves at liberty to bestow greater attention, and to expend more money than they could formerly do, on the conversion of such Indians as have any intercourse with the settlements which we fill posts. To a body so respectable, we presume not to offer advice; but we cannot help thinking, with Bishop Berkeley, that the most successful missionaries would be children of Indians, educated in a considerable number together from the age of ten or twelve in a college de propaganda fide, where they should be in no danger of losing their mother-tongue while they were acquiring a competent knowledge of religion, morality, history, practical mathematics, and agriculture. "If there were a yearly supply (says he) of a dozen such missionaries sent abroad into their respective countries, after they had received the degree of master of arts, and been admitted into holy orders, it is hardly to be doubted but that in a little time the world would see good and great effects of their mission."

2. Society in Scotland for Propagating Christian Knowledge, was instituted in the beginning of the 18th century. At that period the condition of the Scotch Highlanders was truly deplorable. Shut up in desolate islands by tempestuous seas, or dispersed over a wide extent of country, intersected by high mountains, rapid rivers, and arms of the sea, without bridges or highways, by which any communication could be kept open either with remote or neighbouring districts, they lived in small detached companies in hamlets or solitary huts. Being thus secluded from intercourse with the more civilized part of the island, they could not enjoy the advantages of trade and manufactures. As their soil was barren and their climate severe, in agriculture no progress was to be expected: and as they were acquainted with no language but Gaelic, in which no books were then written, to possess knowledge was impossible. Their parishes being of great extent, often 30 or 40 miles long and of a proportionable breadth, and sometimes consisting of several islands separated by seas, which are often impassable, a considerable number of the inhabitants was entirely deprived of religious instruction or fell a prey to Popish emissaries. A single school in such extensive parishes could be of little benefit; yet many parishes were entirely destitute even of this resource; and where schools were established, the want of books prevented them from producing the useful effects otherwise to have been expected from them (A). To all this we must add, that they lived in a state of the greatest oppression: For though the Highlands formed a part of the British empire, the blessings of the British constitution had not reached them. The feudal system reigned in its utmost rigour; the chieftains exercising the most despotic sway over the inferior Highlanders, whom at their pleasure they deprived of their lives or property (B).

Thus the Highlanders were ignorant, oppressed, and uncivilized; slaves rather than subjects; and either entirely destitute of the advantages of the Christian religion, or unqualified to improve them. Hitherto they had been unhappy and useless to themselves and dangerous to the state; for they were ready at the call of their chieftains to issue from their mountains, and to turn their arms against their lawful king and his loyal subjects. This character, however, arose from their situation. It was therefore impossible for benevolent minds to contemplate this unhappy situation of their countrymen without feeling a desire to raise them to the dignity of rational beings, and to render them useful as citizens.

Accordingly, in the year 1701, some private gentlemen of the city of Edinburgh, who had formed themselves into a society for the reformation of manners, directed their attention to the Highlands of Scotland, and endeavoured to devise some plan for alleviating the distresses of the inhabitants. The remedy which promised to be most efficacious was, to establish charity schools in different places. But as the exigency was great, it was no easy matter to raise a sufficient fund for this purpose. They began therefore with what voluntary subscriptions they could procure, hoping afterwards to increase their capital by vacant stipends and public contributions. A memorial with this view was presented to the General Assembly in 1704, which received their approbation; and they accordingly passed an act, recommending a general contribution. In 1706 the General Assembly appointed some of their number to inquire more carefully into the state of the Highlands, and the year following appointed a select committee to confer with the gentlemen who had suggested the plan. The result of these conferences was the publication of proposals "for propagating Christian knowledge"

(A) Even so late as the year 1758, not fewer than 175 parishes, within the bounds of 39 presbyteries, had no parochial school. We are sorry to add, that even in the present enlightened and benevolent age the complaint is not entirely removed.

(B) The feudal system was at length abolished in the year 1748 by the jurisdiction act. ledge in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland, and in foreign parts of the world." Copies of these proposals, with subscription papers, were distributed through the kingdom; and the contributions having soon amounted to 1000l. her majesty Queen Anne encouraged this infant society by her royal proclamation, and at the same time issued letters patent under the great seal of Scotland for erecting certain of the subscribers into a corporation; the first nomination of whom was lodged with the lords of council and session.

This corporation held its first meeting on Thursday 3d November 1709. It was attended by several of the nobility, fourteen of the lords of session, many gentlemen of rank, together with most of the ministers of the city of Edinburgh and neighbourhood. A president, secretary, and treasurer, with a committee of fifteen directors, were appointed for the dispatch of business. At their second meeting in January 1710, a scheme of management was formed and approved; in which it was proposed, 1. To erect and maintain schools in such places of Scotland, particularly in the Highlands and Islands, as should be found to need them most; in which schools all persons whatsoever should be taught by fit and well qualified schoolmasters, appointed by the society, to read the Holy Scriptures and other pious books; as also to write, and to understand the common rules of arithmetic, with such other things as should be thought suitable to their circumstances. 2. That the schoolmasters should be particularly careful to instruct their scholars in the principles of the Christian reformed religion; and for that end should be obliged to catechise them at least twice a week, and to pray publicly with them twice a-day. 3. That not only such as were unable to pay should be taught gratis, but that those whose circumstances required it, should have such farther encouragement as the society should think fit in a consistency with their patent. 4. To name some prudent persons, ministers and others, to be overseers of those schools, who should take care that the schoolmasters do their duty, and that the instructions to be given from time to time by the society or their committee be punctually observed; which overseers should make their report to the society quarterly or half-yearly at farthest. 5. To give suitable encouragement to such ministers or catechists as should be willing to contribute their assistance towards the farther instruction of the scholars remote from church, by not only catechising, but preaching to them; which ministers or catechists should take the same care of the other inhabitants as of the scholars. 6. To extend their endeavours for the advancement of the Christian religion to heathen nations; and for that end to give encouragement to ministers to preach the gospel among them.

Having thus formed a plan, they immediately proceeded to establish schools in the most useful and economical manner; and as the capital continued to accumulate, the interest was faithfully applied, and the utility of the institution was more extensively diffused.

Until the year 1738 the attention of the society had been wholly directed to the establishment of schools; but their capital being then considerably augmented, they began to extend their views of utility much farther. The grand object of all public associations ought certainly to be the promoting of religion and morality. It must, however, be evident to every man of reflection, that these can neither be propagated nor preserved among a people without agriculture, unaccustomed to commerce and manufactures, and consequently without labour or exertion. Langour and debility of mind must always be the companions of idleness. While the Highlanders roved about with arms in their hands, the latent vigour of their minds must often have been called forth into action; but when their arms were taken away, and themselves confined to a domestic life, where there was nothing to rouse their minds, they must have sunk into indolence and inactivity. All attempts therefore to instruct them in religion and morality, without introducing among them some of the necessary arts of life, would probably have been unavailing. The society accordingly resolved to adopt what appeared to them the most effectual methods of introducing industry among the Highlanders. But as their patent did not extend far enough, they applied to his majesty George II. for an enlargement of their powers; and accordingly obtained a second patent, by which they are empowered, "besides fulfilling the purposes of their original patent, to cause such of the children as they shall think fit to be bred to husbandry and housewifery, to trades and manufactures, or in such manual occupations as the society shall think proper."

The objects of this second patent the society have not failed to pursue; and though many obstacles and discouragements to their efforts occurred among a rude and barbarous people, yet their perseverance, and the obvious utility of their plans, at length so far overcame the reluctance of the inhabitants, that not fewer than 94 schools of industry in various parts of the Highlands and Islands are now upon their establishment, at which are educated 2360 scholars.

The society, while anxiously endeavouring to diffuse a spirit of industry through the Highlands, were still equally solicitous to promote the knowledge of the Christian religion. As the English language had been the only channel by which knowledge was conveyed to them (a language which, being not used in conversation, was in all respects foreign to them), it was judged requisite that they should have the Scriptures in their vernacular tongue. The society therefore first appointed a translation of the New Testament to be made into Gaelic: A translation was accordingly undertaken by the Rev. Mr Stewart minister of Killin in Perthshire, and printed in 1767, which is said to be executed with much fidelity. Of this work many thousand copies have been distributed in the Highlands. The greater part of the Old Testament has also been translated by the Rev. Dr Smith of Campbellton and others, but chiefly by the Rev. Dr Stewart of Lufs, by the appointment and at the expence of the society: and as soon as the remaining part can be got ready, the whole will be sold at so low a price as the poor may without difficulty afford. This plan the society have judiciously chosen, in order to prevent discontent and murmuring; effects which the diffusion of the Scriptures ought never to produce; but which could not possibly have been prevented, had the distribution been gratuitous, and of course partial.

For some years past the funds of the society have ra- pidly accumulated, from the very liberal donations of several individuals.

Lady Glenorchy, L. 5,000 By a person unknown, 10,000 Lord Van Vryhouwen of Holland, 20,000 Miss Gray of Teasfics, 3,500

In consequence of these great additions to their stock, infusions have been thrown out that the society have become so wealthy as to be at a loss for proper objects on which to bestow their increased revenue. If such an opinion be seriously entertained by any one, we must beg him to remember, that the society have erected and endowed not fewer than 323 schools for religion, the first principles of literature and industry, at the annual expence of 3214l. 10s. sterling; and that at these seminaries are educated from 14,000 to 15,000 children; who, but for the means of instruction thus obtained, would in all probability be bred up in ignorance and idleness: That they employ 12 missionary ministers and catechists in remote parts of the Highlands and islands, or among the ignorant Highlanders settled in the great towns of Scotland, at the annual expence of 296l.: That they bestow a bursary or pension of 15l. per annum on each of six students of divinity having the Gaelic language: That they employ two missionary ministers and one schoolmaster among the Oneida and Stockbridge Indians of North America (being the destination of certain legacies bequeathed to them for that purpose), at the annual expence of 140l. Such is their fixed scheme of annual expenditure, amounting in all to 3740l. 10s. sterling—a sum it will be acknowledged of very considerable magnitude. The whole of their incidental expenses arising from the Gaelic translation of the Scriptures of the Old Testament; from annuities which they have to pay, in consequence of sums left them as residuary legatees; from land and house taxes; from enabling candidates for the office of schoolmaster to come to Edinburgh for examination; from furnishing books to poor scholars in their various schools; and from removing schoolmasters from one station to another, is generally about 875l. which added to the former sum makes the whole annual expence amount to 461 l. 10s.

If it be inquired at what expence, in the management of it, this extensive and complicated charity is annually conducted, we are authorised to say, that the treasurer, bookholder, and clerk, are allowed each 25l. per annum, the same salaries which were annexed to these offices from the commencement of the society. The beadle or officer is allowed 12l. per annum. No salary whatever is enjoyed by any of the other officers of the society. The secretary, comptroller, accountant, and librarian, although subjected, some of them especially, to no small expence of time and labour, have no pecuniary recompense or emolument. Theirs are labours of love, for which they seek and expect no other reward than the consciousness of endeavouring to promote the best interests of mankind. The whole amount of the expence of managing the business of the society, including the above salaries, and coals, candle, stationary ware, postages, and other incidents, exceeds not at an average 115l. per annum. From this statement it appears, that hitherto at least the directors have been at no loss for important objects within the proper sphere of their institution on which to bestow their increased funds. They have, it is true, the disposal of very considerable sums for promoting the objects of the institution; but they are so far from accumulating wealth, that every year their expenditure, notwithstanding the late increase of their capital, exceeds rather than falls short of their income. They have depended upon a kind Providence and a generous public to refund these anticipations of their revenue, and hitherto they have never been disappointed.

Thus has the Society for Propagating Christian Knowledge proceeded for almost a century. It was founded by the pious exertions of a few private individuals, whose names are unknown to the world; and its funds, by faithful and judicious management, as well as by generous contributions, have now become of such magnitude, as to excite the hope that they will be productive of the most valuable effects. The benefits arising from public societies, it is well known, depend entirely upon the management of their directors. If so, the advantages which have accrued from this society entitle it to the praise and gratitude of the nation. While eager to increase the number of schools, the society have not been inattentive to their prosperity. In the year 1771 Mr Lewis Drummond, a gentleman in whom they placed great confidence, was commissioned by them to visit their schools, and to make an exact report of their state and circumstances. Again, in the year 1790, a commission was granted to the Rev. Dr Kemp, one of the ministers of Edinburgh and secretary to the society, to visit all the schools on their establishment. This laborious and gratuitous task he accomplished in the course of four summers with much ability and care, and highly to the satisfaction of the society. At his return he communicated a variety of important information respecting the state of the Highlands and Islands, and the means necessary for their improvement in religion, literature, and industry; an abstract of which was published by the society in appendices to the anniversary sermons preached before them in the years 1789, 90, 91, and 92 (c).

The following table will exhibit at a glance the funds, establishment, and expenditure, of the society, from a few years after its commencement to the present time.

<table> <tr> <th>Year</th> <th>Funds</th> <th>Expenditure</th> </tr> <tr> <td>1771</td> <td>£1,200</td> <td>£1,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1781</td> <td>£2,400</td> <td>£2,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1791</td> <td>£3,600</td> <td>£3,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1801</td> <td>£4,800</td> <td>£4,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1811</td> <td>£6,000</td> <td>£5,000</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1821</td> <td>£7,200</td> <td>£6,000</td> </tr> </table>

Where

(c) It is well known, that the number of Roman Catholics in the Highlands is considerable; but it must give much pleasure to the Protestant reader to be informed, that the ancient malignant spirit of Popery has in that district given place to mildness and liberality. This is chiefly owing to the gentleman who superintends the priests in that quarter, whose mind is enlightened by science and learning. So far from being hostile to the views of the society, he recommended to his clergy to promote them. They accordingly received the secretary with much politeness; exhorted the people to send their children to the Protestant schools to be instructed in literature, to be taught to read the Scriptures in their own language, and to be made acquainted with those great principles of religion in which all Christians are agreed. What a blessed reformation! Where the number of scholars is not mentioned, the defect may be supplied by taking an average from those years where a computation has been made. Where the capital is not mentioned, it may easily be made out by considering the salaries as the interest.

<table> <tr> <th>A.D.</th> <th>Capital.</th> <th>Schools.</th> <th>Scholars.</th> </tr> <tr> <td>1713</td> <td></td> <td>12</td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <td>1715</td> <td>L. 6,177</td> <td>25</td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <td>1719</td> <td>8,168</td> <td>43</td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <td>1727</td> <td>9,131</td> <td>78</td> <td>2757</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1732</td> <td>13,318</td> <td>109</td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <td>1742</td> <td>19,287</td> <td>128</td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <td>1753</td> <td>24,308</td> <td>152</td> <td></td> </tr> <tr> <td>1758</td> <td>28,413</td> <td>176</td> <td>6,099</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1781</td> <td>34,000</td> <td>180</td> <td>7000</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="4">Salaries</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1793</td> <td>3,080</td> <td>307</td> <td>12,913</td> </tr> <tr> <td>1794</td> <td>3,214</td> <td>323</td> <td>14,370</td> </tr> </table>

Hitherto we have taken no notice of the corresponding board which was established at London so early as the year 1729, to receive subscriptions and lay out funds. That board indeed remained long inactive; but in 1773 its members began to co-operate more cordially with their brethren in Scotland. Since that period an annual sermon has been preached in recommendation of the charity; and the preacher is now selected without any regard to the religious denomination to which he belongs; sometimes from the church of England, sometimes from the church of Scotland, and sometimes from lectaries of different persuasions. The meetings of the correspondent board have been attended by many of the nobility and gentry, who have made great exertions to promote the views of the society. From its present flourishing state therefore, from the indefatigable exertion and laudable zeal of the managers, and from the countenance and support which they have received from persons of the first rank and respectability in the nation, the benevolent mind may look forward with much confidence and satisfaction to a period not very distant, when its beneficial effects shall be felt not only in the Highlands, but shall be communicated to the rest of the nation. We have been thus particular in our account of the Society for Propagating Christian Knowledge, because we have had access to the most authentic sources of information, and because we know it to be an institution calculated to enlighten and improve a considerable part of the British nation.

3. Society of the Sons of the Clergy, was incorporated by King Charles II. in 1678, by the name of The Governors of the Charity for Relief of the Poor Widows and Children of Clergymen. This society is under the direction and management of a president and vice-president, three treasurers, and a court of assistants composed of forty members. Several hundreds of widows and children of the clergy have annually received considerable relief from this useful charity.

4. Society for the Sons of the Clergy of the Established Church of Scotland, was instituted at Edinburgh in February 1790, and was constituted a body corporate by his majesty's royal charter in 1792. The society, after several meetings, are of opinion, that the period in which the families of clergymen feel most urgently the need both of friends and of pecuniary aid, is that which commences with the introduction of the sons either to an university or to business, and terminates with their establishment in their respective professions; that many of the ministers of this church, living at great distances from the seats either of universities or of business, possess incomes which, in the present state of the country, are inadequate to the purposes of procuring for their sons either the literary or professional education which might enable them to come forward with credit and success in the world; that the sons of clergymen, from domestic tuition and example, have in general very advantageous means of receiving in their early years the impressions of virtue and honour, together with the rudiments of liberal knowledge; and that of course the public interest may be promoted, by enabling this class of young men to obtain their share in the respectable situations of life. The views of the society have been limited to the sons only of clergymen; as they are of opinion, that within the limits which they have fixed, the field of beneficence will be still very extensive, and the claims for aid as many and as great as their funds can be supposed able to answer, at least for many years to come. If the society shall ever be in a situation to undertake more than the aids which will be necessary in bringing forward the sons of the clergy, it may then be considered in what manner the daughters also may become sharers in its bounty.

A society of the same nature, and having the same objects in view, was instituted at Glasgow we think the year before; and both societies, we know, have in many cases proved highly beneficial in promoting the views for which they were instituted.

5. Royal Humane Society, was instituted in London in 1774, for the recovery of persons drowned or otherwise suffocated. We have already given some account of societies instituted in other countries with the same views, and have also copied the directions of this society for the recovery of life, for which see the article DROWNING. We have therefore only to state, that the plan of this society is so averse to any private interested views, that it acquires its founders of all fordid motives. For the medical practitioners accept no pecuniary recompense for the time which they devote to a difficult and tedious process; for the anxiety which they feel while the event is doubtful: for the mortification which they too often undergo, when death, in spite of all their efforts, at last carries off his prey; nor for the insults to which they willingly expose themselves from vulgar incredulity. Their sole reward is in the holy joy of doing good. Of an institution thus free in its origin from the fulspection of ambitious views, and in its plan renouncing self-interest in every shape, philanthropy must be the only basis. The good intention therefore of the society is proved by its constitution; the wisdom and utility of the undertaking are proved by its success: not fewer than 3000 fellow-creatures having since its commencement been (1794) restored to the community by its timely and indefatigable exertions. For it is to be observed, that the benefit of this society is by no means confined to the two cases of drowning and suspension. Its timely succours have roused the lethargy of opium taken in immoderate and repeated doses; they have rescued the wretched victims of intoxication; rekindled the life extinguished by the sudden stroke of lightning; recovered the apoplectics; restored life to the infant that had lost it in the birth; they have proved efficacious efficacious in cases of accidental smothering and of suffocation by noxious damps; in instances in which the tenderness of the infant body or the debility of old age greatly lessened the previous probability of success: inasmuch that no species of death seems to be placed beyond the reach of this society's affiance, where the mischief had gone no farther than an obstruction of the movements of the animal machine without any damage of the organs themselves. In consequence of every necessary affiance afforded by this society, similar institutions have been established at Algiers, Lisbon, Philadelphia, Boston, Jamaica, Dublin, Leith, Glasgow, Paisley, Aberdeen, Birmingham, Gloucester, Shropshire, Northamptonshire, Lancaster, Bristol, Whitehaven, Norwich, Exeter, Kent, and Newcastle. The society has published an 8vo volume with plates, consisting of cases, correspondence, and a variety of interesting matter relating to the object of this benevolent institution.

6. The Philanthropic Society, was instituted in September 1788. It aims at the prevention of crimes, by removing out of the way of evil counsel, and evil company, those children who are, in the present state of things, destined to ruin. It proposes to educate and instruct in some useful trade or occupation the children of convicts or other infant poor who are engaged in vagrant or criminal courses; thus to break the chain of those pernicious confederacies, deprive the wicked of successors, the gaols of inhabitants, justice of its victims, and by all these means add citizens to society. This institution is not only calculated to decrease vice and infancy, but to increase useful industry; so that those children who would otherwise succeed to their parents hereditary crimes, and become the next race of beggars and thieves, will now be taught to supply by honest means their own wants and the wants of others.

To carry into effect these desirable purposes, it is the first business of the society to select from prisons, and from the haunts of vice, profligacy, and beggary, such objects as appear most likely to become obnoxious to the laws, or prejudicial to the community; and, in the execution of this duty, the affiance of the magistrates, the clergy, and all who are interested in the promotion of good morals and good government, is most earnestly requested. For the employment of the children, several houses are supported, at Cambridge Heath, near Hackney, in each of which a master-workman is placed for the purpose of teaching the children some useful trade. The trades already established are those of a printer, carpenter, shoemaker, and taylor. The girls are at present educated as menial servants.

In the year 1791 not fewer than 70 children were under the protection of this society, among whom were many who have been guilty of various felonies, burglaries, and other crimes. Yet, singular as it may appear, in less than two years those very children became no less remarkable for industry, activity, decency, and obedience, than they formerly were for the contrary vices. Such are the grounds on which the Philanthropic Society now claims the attention and solicits the patronage of the public. If we regard humanity and religion, this institution opens an asylum to the most forlorn and abject of the human race; it befriends the most friends; it saves from the certain and fatal consequences of infancy and vicious courses orphans and deserted children. If we regard national prosperity and the public welfare, it is calculated to increase industry; and it directs that industry into the most useful and necessary channels. If we regard self-interest, its immediate object is to protect our persons from assault and murder, our property from depredation, and our peaceful habitations from the desperate fury of midnight incendiaries.

One guinea per annum constitutes a member of the society; and 10l. at one payment a member for life. A life-subscription, or an annual payment of at least two guineas, is a necessary qualification for being elected into the committee.

II. SOCIETIES FOR PROMOTING SCIENCE AND LITERATURE.

1. The Royal Society of London is an academy or body of persons of eminent learning, instituted by Charles II. for the promoting of natural knowledge. The origin of this society is traced by Dr Sprat, its earliest historian, no farther back than to "some space after the end of the civil wars" in the 17th century. The scene of the first meetings of the learned men who laid the foundation of it, is by him fixed in the university of Oxford, at the lodgings of Dr Wilkins warden of Wadham college. But Dr Birch, on the authority of Dr Wallis, one of its earliest and most considerable members, assigns it an earlier origin. According to him, certain worthy persons, residing in London about the year 1645, being "inquisitive into natural and the new and experimental philosophy, agreed to meet weekly on a certain day, to discourse upon such subjects, and were known by the title of The Invisible or Philosophical College." In the years 1648 and 1649, the company who formed these meetings was divided, part retiring to Oxford and part remaining in London; but they continued the same pursuits as when united, corresponding with each other, and giving a mutual account of their respective discoveries. About the year 1659 the greater part of the Oxford society returned to London, and again uniting with their fellow-labourers, met once, if not twice, a-week at Gresham college, during term time, till they were scattered by the public disaffections of that year, and the place of their meeting made a quarter for soldiers. On the reformation 1660 their meetings were revived, and attended by a greater concourse of men eminent for their rank and learning. They were at last taken notice of by the king, who having himself a considerable taste for physical science, was pleased to grant them an ample charter, dated the 15th of July 1662, and afterwards a second dated 15th April 1763, by which they were erected into a corporation, consisting of a president, council, and fellows, for promoting natural knowledge; and to give their investigations, against which strange prejudices were entertained, every possible support, he sometimes honoured their meetings with his presence.

Their manner of electing fellows is by balloting. Their council are in number 21, including the president, vice-president, treasurer, and two secretaries; 11 of which are continued for the next year, and 10 more added to them; all chosen on St Andrew's day. Each member at his admission subscribes an engagement that he will endeavour to promote the good of the society; from which he may be freed at any time, by signifying to the president that he desires to withdraw. The charges have been different at different times, and were Societies for at first irregularly paid: but they are now five guineas Promoting paid to the treasurer at admission, and 13s. per quarter Science and for long as the person continues a member; or, in lieu of the annual subscription, a composition of 25 guineas in one payment.

Their design is, to "make faithful records of all the works of nature or art which come within their reach; so that the present as well as future ages may be enabled to put a mark on errors which have been strengthened by long prescription; to restore truths that have been neglected; to push those already known to more various uses; to make the way more passable to what remains unrevealed," &c. To this purpose they have made a great number of experiments and observations on most of the works of nature; and also numbers of short histories of nature, arts, manufactures, useful engines, contrivances, &c. The services which they have rendered to the public are very great. They have improved naval, civil, and military architecture; advanced the security and perfection of navigation; improved agriculture; and put not only this kingdom, but also Ireland, the plantations, &c. upon planting. They have registered experiments, histories, relations, observations, &c. and reduced them into one common stock; and have, from time to time, published those which they reckoned most useful, under the title of Philosophical Transactions, &c. and laid the rest up in public registers, to be nakedly transmitted to posterity, as a solid groundwork for future systems.

They have a library adapted to their institution; towards which Mr Henry Howard, afterwards duke of Norfolk, contributed the Norfolcian library, and which is, at this time, greatly increased by a continual series of benefactions. The museum or repository of natural and artificial rarities, given them by Daniel Colwal, Esq. and since enriched by many others, is now removed to the British museum, and makes a part of that great repository. Their motto is Nullius in verba; and their place of assembling is Somerset house in the Strand. Sir Godfrey Copley, baronet, left five guineas to be given annually to the person who should write the best paper in the year, under the head of experimental philosophy. This reward, which is now changed to a gold medal, is the highest honour the society can bestow. It is conferred on St Andrew's day.

2. The Royal Society of Edinburgh, was incorporated by royal charter on the 29th of March 1783, and has for its object the cultivation of every branch of science, erudition, and taste. Its rise and progress towards its present state was as follows: In the year 1718 a literary society was established in Edinburgh by the learned Ruddiman and others, which in 1731 was succeeded by a society instituted for the improvement of medical knowledge. In the year 1739 the celebrated MacLaurin conceived the idea of enlarging the plan of this society, by extending it to subjects of philosophy and literature. The institution was accordingly new-modelled by a printed set of laws and regulations, the number of members was increased, and they were distinguished from that time by the title of The Society for Improving Arts and Sciences, or more generally by the title of The Philosophical Society of Edinburgh. Its meetings, however, were soon interrupted by the disorders of the country during the rebellion in 1745; and they were not renewed till the year 1752. Soon after this period the first volume of the Transactions of the Societies Philosophical Society of Edinburgh was published, under the title of Essays and Observations, Physical and Literary, and was followed by other volumes of acknowledged merit. About the end of the year 1782, in a meeting of the professors of the university of Edinburgh, many of whom are likewise members of the Philosophical Society, and warmly attached to its interests, a scheme was proposed by the Rev. Dr Robertson, principal of the university, for the establishment of a new society on a more extended plan, and after the model of some of the foreign academies. It appeared an expedient measure to solicit the royal patronage to an institution of this nature, which promised to be of national importance, and to request an establishment by charter from the crown. The plan was approved and adopted; and the Philosophical Society, joining its influence as a body in seconding the application from the university, his majesty, as we have already observed, was most graciously pleased to incorporate The Royal Society of Edinburgh by charter.

The society consists of ordinary and honorary members; and the honorary places are restricted to persons residing out of Great Britain and Ireland. The election of new members is appointed to be made at two stated general meetings, which are to be held on the fourth Monday of January and the fourth Monday of June. A candidate for the place of an ordinary member must signify by a letter, addressed to one of the members, his wish to be received into the society. He must then be publicly propounded at least a month before the day of election. If the proposal be seconded by two of the members present, his name is to be inserted in the list of candidates, and hung up in the ordinary place of meeting. The election is made by ballot, and is determined in favour of a candidate, if he shall have the votes of two-thirds of those present, in a meeting consisting of at least 21 members. The general business of the society is managed by a president, two vice-presidents, with a council of 12, a general secretary, and a treasurer. These officers are chosen by ballot annually on the last Monday of November. All public deeds, whether of a civil or of a literary nature, are transacted by this board, and proceed in the name of the president or vice-president.

As it was thought that the members would have a greater inducement to punctual attendance on the meetings of the society, if they had some general intimation of the nature of the subjects which were to be considered, and made the topics of conversation, it was therefore resolved to divide the society into two classes, which should meet and deliberate separately. One of these classes is denominated the Physical Class, and has for its department the sciences of mathematics, natural philosophy, chemistry, medicine, natural history, and whatever relates to the improvement of arts and manufactures. The other is denominated the Literary Class, and has for its department literature, philology, history, antiquities, and speculative philosophy. Every member is desired at his admission to intimate which of those classes he wishes to be more particularly associated with; but he is at the same time entitled to attend the meetings of the other class, and to take part in all its proceedings. Each of the classes has four presidents and two secretaries, who officiate by turns. The meetings of Societies for the physical class are held on the first Mondays of January, February, March, April, July, August, November, and December; and the meetings of the Literary class are held on the third Mondays of January, February, March, April, June, July, November, and December, at 7 o'clock afternoon.

At these meetings the written essays and observations of the members of the society, or their correspondents, are read publicly, and become the subjects of conversation. The subjects of these essays and observations are announced at a previous meeting, in order to engage the attendance of those members who may be particularly interested in them. The author of each dissertation is likewise desired to furnish the society with an abstract of it, to be read at the next ensuing meeting, when the conversation is renewed with increased advantage, from the knowledge previously acquired of the subject. At the same meetings are exhibited such specimens of natural or artificial curiosities, such remains of antiquity, and such experiments, as are thought worthy of the attention of the society. All objects of natural history presented to the society, are ordered by the charter of the institution to be deposited, on receipt, in the museum of the university of Edinburgh; and all remains of antiquity, public records, or ancient manuscripts, in the library belonging to the faculty of advocates at Edinburgh.

The ordinary members, whose usual residence is in the city of Edinburgh or its immediate neighbourhood, are expected to attend regularly the monthly meetings; and are required to defray, by an annual contribution, the current expenses of the institution. The members who reside at such a distance from Edinburgh, that they cannot enjoy the advantages arising from a regular attendance on the meetings of the society, are not subjected to any contribution for defraying its expenses, but have a right to attend those meetings when occasionally in Edinburgh, and to take part in all their proceedings.

Five volumes of the Transactions of the society have been published, which bear ample testimony to the learning and acuteness of their various authors.

3. Medical Society of London, instituted in the year 1752, on the plan recommended by Lord Bacon (De Augm. Scient. lib. iv. cap. 2.), to revive the Hippocratic method of composing narratives of particular cases, in which the nature of the disease, the manner of treating it, and the consequences, are to be specified; to attempt the cure of those diseases which, in his opinion, have been too boldly pronounced incurable; and, lastly, to extend their inquiries after the powers of particular medicines in the cure of particular cases; the collections of this society have been already published, under the title of Medical Observations and Inquiries, in several volumes.

4. The Medical Society of Edinburgh was incorporated by royal charter in 1778; but there appears to have been in that city a voluntary association of the same name from the first establishment of a regular school of physic in the university. To the voluntary society the public is indebted for fix volumes of curious and useful essays, collected principally by the late Dr Monro from June 1731 to June 1736; but in the year 1739 that society was united to another, as we have already observed in a former article. The ordinary members of the present medical society are elected by ballot, and three dissentients exclude a candidate; an ordinary member may also be elected an honorary member, who enjoys the privileges of the others, and receives a diploma, but is freed from the obligation of attendance, delivering papers in rotation, &c. to which the ordinary members are subject; but in this case the votes must be unanimous. The meetings of this society are held every Friday evening (formerly Saturday) in their own hall, during the winter season, when papers on medical subjects are delivered by the several members in rotation; and four of these are annually elected to fill the chair in rotation, with the title of annual presidents. This society possesses an excellent library of books on subjects connected with its pursuits.

5. The Royal Medical Society of Paris was instituted in 1776. The members are divided into associates ordinary, limited to 30, honorary to 12, extraordinary to 60, and foreign to 60, and correspondents. This society has published several volumes of Memoirs in 4to.

6. Asiatic Society, an institution planned by the late illustrious Sir William Jones, and actually formed at Calcutta on the 15th of January 1784, for the purpose of tracing the history, antiquities, arts, sciences, and literature, of the immense continent of Asia. As it was resolved to follow as nearly as possible the plan of the Royal Society of London, of which the king is patron, the patronage of the Asiatic Society was offered to the governor-general and council, as the executive power in the territories of the company. By their acceptance of this offer, Mr Hastings, as governor-general, appeared among the patrons of the new society; "but he seemed in his private station, as the first liberal promoter of useful knowledge in Bengal, and especially as the great encourager of Persian and Sanscrit literature, to deserve a particular mark of distinction:" he was requested, therefore, to accept the honorary title of president. This was handsomely declined in a letter from Mr Hastings, in which he requested "to yield his pretensions to the gentleman whose genius planned the institution, and was most capable of conducting it to the attainment of the great and splendid purposes of its formation." On the receipt of this letter, Sir William Jones was nominated president of the society; and we cannot give the reader a view of the object of the institution in clearer language than that which he employed in his first discourse from the chair.

"It is your design, I conceive (said the president), to take an ample space for your learned investigations, bounding them only by the geographical limits of Asia; so that, considering Hindoostan as a centre, and turning your eyes in idea to the north, you have on your right many important kingdoms in the eastern peninsula, the ancient and wonderful empire of China with all her Tartarian dependencies, and that of Japan, with the cluster of precious islands, in which many singular curiosities have too long been concealed: before you lies that prodigious chain of mountains, which formerly perhaps were a barrier against the violence of the sea, and beyond them the very interesting country of Tibet, and the vast regions of Tartary, from which, as from the Trojan horse of the poets, have issued so many consummate warriors, whose domain has extended at least from the banks of the Ilyssus to the mouths of the Ganges: on your left are the beautiful and celebrated provinces Societies for of Iran or Persia, the unmeasured and perhaps unmeasurable deserts of Arabia, and the once flourishing kingdoms of Yemen, with the pleasant isles that the Arabs have subdued or colonized; and farther westward, the Asiatic dominions of the Turkish sultans, whose moon seems approaching rapidly to its wane. By this great circumference the field of your useful researches will be inclosed; but since Egypt had unquestionably an old connection with this country, if not with China, since the language and literature of the Abyssinians bear a manifest affinity to those of Asia, since the Arabian arms prevailed along the African coast of the Mediterranean, and even erected a powerful dynasty on the continent of Europe, you may not be dispeached occasionally to follow the streams of Asiatic learning a little beyond its natural boundary; and, if it be necessary or convenient that a short name or epithet be given to our society, in order to distinguish it in the world, that of Asiatic appears both classical and proper, whether we consider the place or the object of the institution, and preferable to Oriental, which is in truth a word merely relative, and though commonly used in Europe, conveys no very distinct idea.

"If now it be asked, What are the intended objects of our inquiries within these spacious limits? we answer, MAN and NATURE; whatever is performed by the one or produced by the other. Human knowledge has been elegantly analysed according to the three great faculties of the mind, memory, reason, and imagination, which we constantly find employed in arranging and retaining, comparing and distinguishing, combining and diversifying, the ideas, which we receive through our senses, or acquire by reflection; hence the three main branches of learning are, history, science, and art; the first comprehends either an account of natural productions, or the genuine records of empires and states; the second embraces the whole circle of pure and mixed mathematics, together with ethics and law, as far as they depend on the reasoning faculty; and the third includes all the beauties of imagery and the charms of invention, displayed in modulated language, or represented by colour, figure, or sound.

"Agreeable to this analysis, you will investigate whatever is rare in the stupendous fabric of nature, will correct the geography of Asia by new observations and discoveries; will trace the annals and even traditions of those nations who from time to time have peopled or defoliated it; and will bring to light their various forms of government, with their institutions civil and religious; you will examine their improvements and methods in arithmetic and geometry; in trigonometry, mensuration, mechanics, optics, astronomy, and general physics; their systems of morality, grammar, rhetoric, and dialect; their skill in chirurgery and medicine; and their advancement, whatever it may be, in anatomy and chemistry. To this you will add researches into their agriculture, manufactures, trade; and whilst you inquire with pleasure into their music, architecture, painting, and poetry, will not neglect those inferior arts by which the comforts and even elegancies of social life are supplied or improved. You may observe, that I have omitted their languages, the diversity and difficulty of which are a sad obstacle to the progress of useful knowledge; but I have ever considered languages as the mere instruments of real learning, and think them improperly confounded with learning itself: the attainment of them is, however, indispensably necessary; and if to the Persian, Armenian, Turkish, and Arabic, could be added not only the Shanscrite, the treasures of which we may now hope too fee unlocked, but even the Chinese, Tartarian, Japanese, and the various insular dialects, an immense mine would then be open, in which we might labour with equal delight and advantage."

Of this society three volumes of the Transactions have been published, which are replete with information in a high degree curious and important; and we hope that the European world shall soon be favoured with another. The much-to-be-lamented death of the accomplished president may indeed damp the spirit of investigation among the members; for to conquer difficulties so great as they must meet with, a portion seems to be necessary of that enthusiasm which accompanied all the pursuits of Sir William Jones; but his successor is a man of great worth and learning, and we trust will use his utmost endeavours to have the plan completed of which Sir William gave the outlines.

5. The American Philosophical Society, held at Philadelphia, was formed in January 1760 by the union of two societies which had formerly subsisted in that city. This society extends its attention to geography, mathematics, natural philosophy, and astronomy; medicine and anatomy; natural history and chemistry; trade and commerce; mechanics and architecture; husbandry and American improvements. Its officers are a patron, president, three vice-presidents, one treasurer, four secretaries, and three curators, who are annually chosen by ballot. The duty of the president, vice-presidents, treasurer, and secretaries, is the same as in other societies. The business of the curators is to take the charge of all specimens of natural productions, whether of the animal, vegetable, or fossil kingdom; all models of machines and instruments; and all other matters belonging to the society which shall be intrusted to them. The ordinary meetings are held on the first and third Fridays of every month from October to May inclusive. This society was incorporated by charter 13th March 1780; and has published three volumes of its Transactions, containing many ingenious papers on general literature and the sciences, as well as respecting those subjects peculiar to America. It is a delightful prospect to the philosopher to consider, that Asia, Europe, and America, though far separated and divided into a variety of political states, are all three combined to promote the cause of knowledge and truth.

6. A Literary and Philosophical Society of considerable reputation has been lately established at Manchester, under the direction of two presidents, four vice-presidents, and two secretaries. The number of members is limited to 50; besides whom there are several honorary members, all of whom are elected by ballot; and the officers are chosen annually in April. Five volumes of valuable essays have been already published by this society.

A society on a similar plan has been established at Newcastle. It is composed of a number of most respectable members, and possesses a very valuable library and philosophical apparatus. Lectures on the different branches of natural philosophy have been delivered for several years at this institution.

7. Society for Promoting the Discovery of the Interior Parts Societies for Parts of Africa. This society or association for exploring the internal districts of Africa, of which so little is at present known, was formed in London by some opulent individuals in 1783; who, strongly impressed with a conviction of the practicability and utility of thus enlarging the fund of human knowledge, determined if possible to rescue the age from that stigma which attaches to its ignorance of so large and so near a portion of the globe. The founders of this society resolved to admit no man a member for a shorter period than three years, during which he must pay annually into the public fund five guineas. After three years, any member, upon giving a year's notice, may withdraw himself from the association. During the first 12 months each of the members was allowed to recommend for the approbation of the society such of his friends as he might think proper to be admitted into it; but since that period we believe all additional members have been elected by a ballot of the association at large. A committee was chosen by ballot to manage the funds of the society, to choose proper persons to be sent on the discovery of the interior parts of Africa, and to carry on the society's correspondence, with express injunctions to disclose no intelligence received from their agents but to the society at large. But a fuller account of the nature of this establishment, and the very happy efforts they have made, may be seen in the superb edition of their proceedings printed in 1790, 4to, for their own use; or in the 8vo edition since made public. They soon found two gentlemen, Mr Lucas and Mr Ledyard, who were singularly well qualified for the important mission. The information they have acquired will be found in the above work; with a new map by Mr Rennel, exhibiting the geographical knowledge collected by the African association. Mr Ledyard very unfortunately died during his researches at Cairo.

Few of our readers are unacquainted with the travels of Mr Park under the patronage of the society. For an account of which see Africa. A second journey was undertaken by the same gentleman within these three years; but as he has not been heard of for a long time, the most serious apprehensions are entertained that he and his companions have fallen victims either to the inhospitable climate, or to the watchful jealousy of the Moors. Another enterprising traveller, Mr Horneman, was sent out by the society about 1800. He departed from Cairo with a caravan, and reached Mourzouk, a place situated south from Tripoli; and from thence sent a communication to his constituents which has since been published by the society. This is the last account that was received of this traveller, from which it is feared that he has also perished.

8. The Society of Antiquaries of London, was founded about the year 1572 by Archbishop Parker, a munificent patron of learned men. For the space of 22 years it assembled in the house of Sir Robert Cotton; in 1589 they resolved to apply to Queen Elizabeth for a charter and a public building where they might hold their meetings; but it is uncertain whether any such application was ever made. In the mean time, the reputation of the society gradually increased, and at length it excited the jealousy of James I, who was afraid lest it should presume to canvass the secret transactions of his government. He accordingly dissolved it. But in the beginning of the last century, the Antiquarian society began to revive; and a number of gentlemen, eminent for their affection to this science, had weekly meetings, in which they examined the antiquities and history of Great Britain preceding the reign of James I, but without excluding any other remarkable antiquities that might be offered to them. From this time the society grew in importance; and in 1750 they unanimously resolved to petition the king for a charter of incorporation. This they obtained the year following, by the influence of the celebrated earl of Hardwicke, then lord chancellor, and Martin Folkes, Esq; who was then their president. The king declared himself their founder and patron, and empowered them to have a body of statutes, and a common seal, and to hold in perpetuity lands, &c. to the yearly value of 1000l.

The chief object of the inquiries and researches of the society are British antiquities and history; not, however, wholly excluding those of other countries. It must be acknowledged, that the study of antiquity offers to the curious and inquisitive a large field for research and amusement. The inquirer in this branch furnishes the historian with his best materials, while he distinguishes from truth the fictions of a bold invention, and ascertains the credibility of facts; and to the philosopher he presents a fruitful source of ingenious speculation, while he points out to him the way of thinking, and the manners of men, under all the varieties of aspect in which they have appeared.

An antiquarian ought to be a man of solid judgment, possessed of learning and science, that he may not be an enthusiastic admirer of every thing that is ancient merely because it is ancient; but be qualified to distinguish between those researches which are valuable and important, and those which are trifling and useless. It is from the want of these qualifications that some men have contracted such a blind passion for every thing that is ancient, that they have exposed themselves to ridicule, and their study to contempt. But if a regard to utility were always to regulate the pursuits of the antiquarian, the shafts of satire would no longer be levelled at him; but he would be respected as the man who labours to restore or to preserve such ancient productions as are fitted to illuminate religion, philosophy, and history, or to improve the arts of life.

We by no means intend to apply these observations to any particular society of antiquarians; but we throw them out, because we know that an industrious study of antiquity is apt, like the ardent pursuit of money, to lose sight of its original object, and to degenerate into a passion which mistakes the mean for the end, and considers possession without a regard to utility as enjoyment.

An association similar to that of the Antiquarian Society of London was founded in Edinburgh in 1780, and received the royal charter in 1783. A volume of the transactions of this society has been published; but with the exception of two or three memoirs, it contains little worthy of notice; and accordingly, it has never attracted the attention of the public.

Besides these literary societies here mentioned, there are a great number more in different parts of Europe, some of which are noticed under the article Academy. Those which are omitted are not omitted on account of any idea of their inferior importance; but either be-