LAZARUS, a celebrated naturalist, was born at Scandiano, in the duchy of Modena, in January 1729. He began his studies in his native country, and went to Reggio de Modena at 15 years of age, to prosecute them further. He was instructed in the belles lettres by the Jesuits, who contended with the Dominicans in order to secure his attachment; but his thirst for knowledge determined him to go to Bologna, where his relative Laura Bassi, a woman highly celebrated for her genius, eloquence, and skill in natural philosophy and mathematics, was one of the most distinguished professors of the Institute and of Italy. Under this enlightened guide, he was taught to prefer the study of nature to that of her commentators, judging of the real value of the commentary by its resemblance to the original. He availed himself of the wisdom of that lady's counsels, the happy effects of which he very soon experienced. Spallanzani's taste for philosophy was not exclusive, for he carefully studied his own language, became a proficient in the Latin tongue, and attached himself above every other to the Greek and French. By the advice of a father whom he ardently loved, he applied himself to jurisprudence; but being urged by Anthony Vallisnieri to renounce his vocation, by procuring the consent of his father, he gave himself up to the study of mathematics with more zeal than ever, at the same time devoting himself to the study of language, both living and dead.

It was not long before he was known all over Italy, and, what is seldom the case, his own country first put that value on his talents which they justly merited. He was chosen professor of logic, metaphysics, and Greek, in the university of Reggio, in the year 1745, where he taught during ten years, devoting every moment of his leisure time to the study and contemplation of the works of nature. The attention of Haller and Bonnet was fixed by his observations on the animalcule of infusions, the latter affixing him in his laudable career, and ever after distinguishing him as one of the learned interpreters of nature.

Spallanzani was invited to the university of Modena in the year 1765, and some years after he declined to accept of the offers made to him by the academy of Petersburg, as well as similar ones from Coimbra, Parma, and Cefena, though extremely advantageous. He preferred his native spot, and therefore continued at Modena till the year 1768, and saw raised up by his care a generation of men constituting at that time the glory of Italy, among whom we find Venturi, Belloni, Lucchesini, and Angelo Mazzo.

While Spallanzani remained at Modena, he published his Saggio di Osservazioni Microscopiche concernente il Sistema di Needham e Buffon, in 1765, in which he establishes, by a number of the most ingenious and solid experiments, the animality of microscopic animalcules. This work was sent by the author to Bonnet, who grew from it a prediction respecting the future celebrity of Spallanzani, which he lived to see accomplished. This circumstance gave birth to the most intimate friendship, which lasted to the close of life, and constituted their chief happiness. During the same year he published a truly original work, entitled De Lapidibus ab aqua re-silientibus, in which he proves, in opposition to the commonly received opinion, by the most satisfactory experiments, that what are called ducks and drakes, are not produced by the elasticity of the water, but by the effect naturally resulting from the change of direction experienced by the stone in its movement, after it has struck the water, and that it has been carried over the hollow of the cup formed by the concussion.

When the university of Padua was re-established upon a larger scale, the Count de Firmian was directed by the empress Maria Theresa, to invite Spallanzani to be professor of natural history, to which his great reputation made him competent, although it was solicited by many celebrated characters; and he merited it by his successes, as immense crowds of students thronged to his lectures. He had a fine genius, and his knowledge was of vast extent; his method was simple, but rigorous in its nature, and what he knew he connected with principles firmly established. He acquired the valuable art of interpreting nature by herself, which diffused such a light over his lectures, that every thing became perspicuous, which could be said to afford any instruction. His discourses were plain and animated, and the elegance and purity of his style charmed every hearer. He prepared his lectures a year before-hand, and it was his chief aim to render them useful in an eminent degree. His new observations made them always new and engaging. Many learned persons who attended his lectures were not above becoming his scholars, in order to acquire a more extensive knowledge of what they knew before, and to learn that which otherwise they might probably never have known. The Contemplation de la Nature of Bonnet was his text book, the vacancies of which he ably filled up, fully explained the ideas, and established the theories by his own experiments. This work was translated by him into the Italian language, and he added much to its value by notes of his own, the first volume of which he published in 1769, and the second the following year.

His connection with Bonnet tended, in a great measure, to influence his genius, which yielded to the severe method of investigation adopted by the philosopher of Geneva. He was proud of being the pupil of such an illustrious character, upon whose writings he incessantly bestowed every leisure moment, and thus became anxious to learn from Nature herself the proofs of Bonnet's sentiments respecting the generation of organized bodies, the pleasing nature of which research captivated his attention for a considerable time.

The first two volumes of this work, entitled Opusculi di Fisica Animale e Vegetabile, were published in the year 1776, containing the explanation of part of the microscopic observations which were previously given to the world.

If it must be admitted that the art of accurate observation tation is by far the most difficult, it cannot be denied that it is at the same time the most necessary, and requires the most brilliant talents and abilities, which were possessed by Spallanzani in a remarkable degree, as is fully evinced by all his researches and all his admirable writings.

The polite manner in which he conducted his dispute with Needham respecting the phenomena of generation, secured for him a high degree of applause. On this occasion he treated of the influence of cold upon animals, and proved that the torpidity of some during winter, does not depend on the impression the blood may receive from it, since a frog deprived of blood, becomes torpid when reduced to the same cold state by being immersed in ice, and swims as formerly when restored to a proper degree of warmth.

Spallanzani travelled through Switzerland and the Grisons in the year 1779, after which he went to Geneva, spending a month with his friends, by whom his conversation was as much admired as his masterly writings. From this place he returned to Pavia, and in 1780 published two more volumes of his Differenzione di Fisica Animale e Vegetabile, wherein he unfolded the secrets of the interpretation of two very intricate phenomena, concerning the economy of animals and vegetables. He was led to this study from some experiments made by him upon digestion, for his lectures; and he repeated the experiments of Reaumur on gallinaceous birds, remarking that the trituration which in this case is favourable to digestion, could not be a very powerful means. He perceived that the gizzard of those birds, by which the stones of fruit are pulverized, did not digest the powder thus formed, it being necessary that it should undergo a new operation in the stomach, previous to its becoming chyle for the production of the blood and other humours.

This subject may be regarded as one of the most difficult in physiology, because the observer is always under the necessity of acting and looking in the midst of darkness; the animal must be managed with care, that the derangement of the operations may be avoided; and when the experiments are completed with great labour, it is requisite that the consequences be well distinguished. Spallanzani in this work is truly enchanting, analyzing facts with scrupulosity, in order to ascertain their causes with certainty; comparing Nature with his experiments, in order to form a correct judgment respecting them; laying hold of every thing essential to them in his observations, and measuring their solidity by the increase or diminution of supposed causes.

Mr John Hunter appears to have been greatly hurt by this work, which led him to publish, in the year 1785, Some Observations upon Digestion, in which he threw out some bitter sarcasms against the Italian naturalist, who took ample revenge by publishing this work in the Italian language, and addressing to Caldani in 1788, Una Lettera Apologetica in Risposta alle Offervazioni del Signor Giovanni Hunter. In this he exposed with great moderation, but at the same time with logic which nothing could refute, the mistakes and errors of the British physiologist, leaving the power of a reply altogether hopeless.

The generation of animals and plants is treated of in the second volume of this last-mentioned work, in which he proves the pre-existence of germs to fecundation, by experiments as satisfactory as surprising; shewing also the existence of tadpoles in the females of five different species of frogs, in salamanders, and toads, before their fecundation. He likewise recounts the successes of some artificial fecundations upon the tadpoles of those five species, and even upon a quadruped.

In the year 1781, he took the advantage of the academical vacation, for the purpose of making a journey, in order to add to the cabinet of Pavia. He set out for Marcellis in the month of July that year, where he began a new history of the sea, which presented him with many new and curious facts on numerous genera of the natives of the ocean. He went also to Finale, Genoa, Maffa, and Carrara, to make observations on the quarries of marble, held by statuaries in such estimation. He then returned to Spezzia, and brought from thence to Pavia a vast number of fishes, which he deposited in the cabinet of that city, wholly collected by himself. With the same view and success he visited the coasts of Istria in 1782, and the Apennine mountains the subsequent year, taking notice of the dreadful hurricanes, and the astonishing vapours by which that year became so noted in meteorology. The emperor Joseph, on examining this cabinet, presented Spallanzani with a gold medal. In 1785, he was offered the chair of natural history by the university of Padua, vacant by the death of Anthony Vallinieri; but in order to prevent his acceptance of it, his salary was doubled by the archduke, and he went to Constantinople with Chevalier Zuliani, who had been appointed ambassador from the Venetian republic. He set out on the 21st of August, and reached the Turkish metropolis on the 11th of October, where he remained during eleven months. His attention was fixed by the physical and moral phenomena of this country, which were never seen to Spallanzani. He frayed along the borders of the two leas, and ascended the mountains in the vicinity; he paid a visit to the island of Chalki, discovering to the Turks a copper mine, the existence of which they had never once conjectured. He discovered an iron mine not far from Constantinople, in the island of Principi, of which the Turks were equally ignorant, and prepared to return for Italy on the 16th of August 1786.

A voyage by sea was undoubtedly the safest, but the dangers to which he would be exposed by land were regarded as nothing when contrasted with the idea of being beneficial to science and to man. Having reached Bocaref, Mauroceni the friend of science, received Spallanzani with marks of distinction, presented him with many rarities which the country produced, and gave him horses for travelling, with an escort of 50 troopers, to the utmost confines of his own dominions. Our philosopher passed by Hermansladi in Transylvania, and reached Vienna on the 7th of December, where he remained during five days, and had two long conferences with the emperor Joseph II. was much esteemed by the nobility of that city, and respectfully visited by many literary characters. When he arrived at Pavia, the students went out of the city gates to meet him, and testified their joy at his return by repeated acclamations. He was almost instantly drawn to the auditory, and compelled to ascend the chair from which he had been accustomed to deliver his fascinating lectures; but their demonstrations of joy and shouts of applause made him request of them to give over, and indulge him with that repose in his own house which was now so absolutely necessary. His students this year exceeded 500.

So extensive was the fame of Spallanzani become by this time, that envy was determined, if possible, to wound his reputation. If his discoveries were too new, solid, and original, to be successfully disputed, that vile passion, or rather fiend, began to question his integrity and uprightness respecting the administration of the cabinet of Pavia; but this iniquitous attempt to tarnish his honour, only made it shine forth with redoubled splendour. The juridical examination of the tribunals made his integrity appear even purer than before; and it must be mentioned to his honour, that he had the fortitude to forget this event; his enemies in general confessed their mistake, renounced their unprovoked animosity, and still hoped to regain a friendship of which they had proved themselves so unworthy.

In the voyage of Spallanzani we meet with what may be denominated a new volcanology. We are there instructed how to measure the intensity of volcanic fires, and in his analysis of the lava, almost to touch the particular gas which tears those torrents of flame in fusion from the bowels of the earth, and raises them to the top of Mount Etna. This delightful work is cloed by some important enquiries into the nature of Swallows, the mildness of their dispositions, the rapidity of their flight, discussing the celebrated problem respecting their remaining torpid during the winter season, proving that artificial cold, much more intense than what is ever naturally experienced in our climates, does not reduce these birds to the torpid state.

Things apparently impossible were often discovered by Spallanzani. In the year 1795 he made one of this description, which he gave to the world in his Lettere sopra il fopeto d'un nuovo fenso nei Pipistrelli. In that work we are informed that bats, if deprived of sight, act with the same precision in every instance as those which have their eyes; that they shun in the same manner the most trivial obstacles, and also know where to fix themselves when their flight is terminated. Several philosophers confirmed these astonishing experiments, from which a suspicion arose, that these animals must have a new sense, as it appeared to Spallanzani that the other known senses could not compensate for the want of sight; but he was afterwards inclined to think, in consequence of Professor Jurine's experiments on the organ of hearing in bats, that in this particular instance the sense of hearing might possibly supply the want of sight.

The literary career of this celebrated naturalist was terminated by a letter to Giobert, entitled Sopra la pianta ch'infuse ne'vasi dentro l'acqua e l'aria, esposte a l'immediata lume solare e a l'ombra. These numerous works, which met with the highest approbation, do not comprehend the whole of his multifarious labours; for the phenomena of respiration had occupied his attention a considerable time; their points of resemblance and dissimilitude in many species of animals; and he had nearly finished his voyage to Constantinople, as well as collected many valuable materials for a history of the sea, when his life and labours were unfortunately terminated.

He was seized with a retention of urine on the 4th of February 1799, and next morning was deprived of the regular use of his faculties, only enjoying a sound mind during very short intervals. Tourdes and Professor Scarpa did every thing to save him, which could be produced by the joint exertions of genius, experience, and friendship, but in vain. He died on the 17th; but we know not what credit is due to the assertion, that he edified those around him during his last moments by his piety. Be that as it may, while his works exist to speak for themselves, impartial posterity will regard him as a very extraordinary man. These works have been translated into almost every European language, and he was admitted a member of the academies and learned societies of London, Stockholm, Gottingen, Holland, Lyons, Bologna, Turin, Padua, Mantua, and Geneva, and he received from Frederick the Great the diploma of member of the academy of Berlin.