a very ancient kingdom of Asia, lying between the Mediterranean on the west, the Euphrates on the east, and Arabia Deferta, Phoenicia and Palestine, on the south.

In ancient times this country was called Aram, pro-Names, probably from Aram the youngest son of Shem. At first visions, &c. it was parcelled out into several petty states; all of ancient which seem afterwards to have been reduced under subjection to the four principal ones, Zobah, Damascus, Hamath, and Gethur. Afterwards the whole country was divided into two parts only, viz. Coelefryia and Phoenicia; though the Phoenicians, Idumeans, Jews, Gazites, and Azotites, or the whole country of the Philistines, was included. After the death of Alexander, Syria, in the great extent of the word, was divided, according to Strabo, into Comagene, Seleucis of Syria, Coelefryia, Phoenice on the sea coast, and Judea in the midland. Ptolemy, however, subdivides these; and in the Proper Syria reckons only Comagene, Pieria, Cyrhhtica or Cyrhhtica, Seleucis, Casiotis or Catohtis, Chalybonitis, Chalcidice or Chalcide, Apamee, Laodicea, Phoenicia Mediterranea, Coelefryia, and Palmyrene.

The history of the ancient Syrians, till the time of their being carried away by the kings of Assyria, is totally unknown, excepting a few particulars which may be gathered from Scripture, and which it is needless here to repeat. During the continuance of the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian monarchies, the history of this country affords nothing remarkable; but after the death of Alexander, it gave name to a very considerable empire, which makes a conspicuous figure in ancient history. At this time, however, it was not confined to Syria properly so called, but comprehended all those vast provinces of the Upper Asia which formed the Persian empire; being, in its full extent, bounded by the Mediterranean upon one side, and the river Indus on the other. The first king was Seleucus, one of the generals of Alexander the Great; who, after the death of that conqueror, being made governor of Baby-Syria after the first king of the first Seleucus, was tempted, by the example of Alexander's other captains, to set up for himself. Eumenes, who had fin. the Great. Seleucus endeavoured to gain over his troops: but finding that impossible, he made a truce with Eumenes, and granted him a safe passage through his province; but at the same time sent an express to Antigonus, deferring him to fall upon him, before he was joined by the governors of Upper Asia. Antigonus did not fail to follow his advice; but having prevailed against Eumenes through treachery, he next thought of bringing Seleucus himself under subjection. On his return to Baby- Obliged by Antigonus, therefore, after having been feasted with his whole army by Seleucus, he demanded of him an account of the revenues of his province. Receiving an unfavourable answer to this requisition, Antigonus was so much exasperated, that Seleucus, not thinking himself a match for him at that time, thought proper to fly into Egypt. By, By the flight of Seleucus, Antigonus was left master of all his provinces; but his son Demetrius being afterwards defeated by Ptolemy at Gaza, Seleucus began to think of recovering what he had lost. Having received from Ptolemy a very slender force, he set out towards Babylon, and procured reinforcements as he proceeded. As he approached the city, those who favoured Antigonus retired into the citadel, but were soon obliged to surrender; and in that fortres Seleucus found his children, friends, and domestics, whom Antigonus had kept prisoners ever since his flight into Egypt.

Seleucus having made himself master of Babylon, in the year 312 B. C. began to prepare for encountering Antigonus, who he knew would soon attack him with all his force. Nicanor, governor of Media under Antigonus, first advanced against him at the head of 10,000 foot and 7000 horse; but Seleucus, with only 3000 foot and 400 horse, having drawn him into an ambush, cut off almost the whole of his army, and such of the soldiers as had escaped the slaughter willingly enlisted under his banner.

The consequence of this victory was the submission of all Media and Susiana; but during his absence from the capital, Demetrius advanced towards it, and made himself master of it.

On the return of Seleucus to Babylon, he easily drove out the troops left by Demetrius, recovered the castle which he had garrisoned, and settled his authority on such a firm foundation, that it could never afterwards be moved. Having then marched again into Media, he defeated and killed with his own hand Nicanor or Nicator, whom Antigonus had sent against him; after which, having settled the affairs of Media, he reduced all Persia, Bactria, and Hyrcania, subjecting to his new empire these and all the other provinces on this side the Indus which had been conquered.

Seleucus being now master of all the countries which lie between the Euphrates and the Indus, took the title of king of Babylon and Media. But, not satisfied with these possessions, ample as they were, he crossed the Indus, in order to conquer those regions which had submitted to Alexander beyond that river. In this expedition, however, he was unsuccessful; but returning westward against his old enemy Antigonus, he defeated and killed him at Ipsus, and reduced his son Demetrius to a very dependent state. Seleucus now betook himself to the building of a city, which he called Seleucia, and which stood on the place where the city of Baghdad now stands. Besides these, he built a great many others; 16 of which he called Antioch, from the name of his brother Antiochus; nine Seleucia, from his own name; three Apamea, from Apama his first wife; one Stratonicea, from his second wife Stratonice; and fix Laodicea, from his mother Laodice.

In 284 Seleucus entered into a war with Lysimachus, with whom he had hitherto lived in strict amity. Out of 36 general officers left by Alexander the Great, they two survived, and both were upwards of 70 years old. Nevertheless they were both filled with the ambition and animosity of young men. The two armies met at a place called Curopedion in Phrygia, where an obstinate and engagement took place. Victory was long doubtful: but at last Lysimachus was run through with a spear, and died on the spot; on which his troops betook themselves to flight. This victory added to the possessions of Seleucus all those provinces which had formerly been subject to Lysimachus, and from this victory he is generally called Nicator, or the conqueror. His triumph, however, on this occasion, was but short-lived; for seven months after, he was marching towards Macedon to take possession of that kingdom, he was treacherously murdered by Ptolemy Ceraunus, on whom he had conferred innumerable favours.

Seleucus was succeeded by his son Antiochus Soter, who held the empire 19 years. He resigned to Antigonus Gonatus all pretensions to the crown of Macedon; and having engaged in a war with Eumenes king of Pergamus, he was defeated by him, and obliged to yield up part of his dominions. He died in 261 B. C. and was succeeded by his son Antiochus Theos; who having engaged in a war with Ptolemy Philadelphus king of Egypt, the Parthians and Bactrians took that opportunity to revolt, and could never afterwards be reduced. In 246 B. C. he was poisoned by his wife Laodice, who raised to the throne her own son, named Seleucus Callinicus. He was succeeded by his eldest son Seleucus Ceraunus, a weak prince, who was poisoned by a conspiracy of two of his officers, when he had reigned one year; after which his brother Antiochus, surnamed the Great, ascended the throne in 225 B. C.

In the very beginning of his reign, two of his generals, Alexander and Molo, rebelled against him. The former had been appointed governor of Persia, and the latter of Media. Antiochus marched against the rebels, whom he defeated in a pitched battle; on which their chiefs laid violent hands on themselves. On his return he received the submission of the Atropatene, a barbarous people in Media; and put to death his prime minister Hermias, whom he had found hatching treacherous designs against him. During his lifetime, however, the other traitor, by accusing Achaeus of treason, had obliged him to revolt in his own defence; so that the king had still two important wars on his hands, viz. one with Ptolemy king of Egypt, and the other against Achaeus. After some deliberation, he resolved to march first against the king of Egypt; and was at first very successful, reducing many cities in Coelelyria and Palestine, and defeating the Egyptians in a pitched battle; but in the year 217 B. C. being worsted in the battle of Raphia, he was obliged to abandon all his conquests; of which Ptolemy immediately took possession, and Antiochus was obliged to cede them to him, that he might be at leisure to pursue the war against Achaeus.

Antiochus having made vast preparations for his expedition, soon reduced Achaeus to such distress, that he was obliged to shut himself up in the city of Sardis, which he defended for some time with great bravery; till at last, being betrayed by two Cretans, he was delivered up to the king, and by his order put to death.

Antiochus then undertook an expedition against the Parthians, whom he obliged to conclude a peace on very advantageous terms. He then turned his arms against the king of Bactria, whom he also compelled to agree to his terms. He then crossed Mount Caucasus, and entered India; where he renewed his alliance with the king of that country. From India he marched into Arachosia, Drangiana, and Carmania, establishing order and discipline in all those countries: then passing through Persia, Babylonia, and Mesopotamia, he returned to Antioch, after an absence of seven years. In the year 204 B.C. Antiochus entered into a league with Philip of Macedon, on purpose to deprive Ptolemy Epiphanes, the infant king of Egypt, of all his dominions. He defeated the Egyptian general, covered all Palestine and Coele Syria; after which he invaded Asia Minor, in hopes of reducing it also, and restoring the Syrian empire to the same extent it had in the time of Seleucus Nicator. The free cities in Asia Minor immediately had recourse to the Romans, who sent an embassy to Antiochus on the occasion; but as both parties put on those haughty and imperious airs to which they thought the greatness of their power gave them a right, no satisfaction was given, but everything tended to an open rupture. While matters were in this situation, Hannibal the Great being obliged to leave his own country, fled to Antiochus: from whom he met with a gracious reception. As Hannibal had, while a child, sworn perpetual enmity against the Romans, he used all his eloquence to persuade Antiochus to make war with them; and as the many victories which he had gained over them left no room to doubt of his capacity, Antiochus doubted nothing of being able, by his assistance, to conquer that haughty people. Several embassies passed between the two nations; but chiefly with a design, on the part of Antiochus, to gain time. Hannibal endeavoured to draw his countrymen into the confederacy against Rome, but without effect. Antiochus having strengthened himself by several alliances, at last resolved to begin the war in earnest. The king imprudently became the aggressor, by falling on a body of 500 Romans before war had been declared. He also made King Philip his enemy, by entertaining the regent of Athamania, who was a pretender to the crown of Macedon. To complete all, he himself fell in love, though above 50 years of age, with a beautiful young woman of Chalcis, whom he married; and became so great a slave to this passion, that he entirely neglected his affairs; the army gave themselves up entirely to dissipation and debauchery, and every trace of military discipline vanished.

In the year 191 B.C. Antiochus was roused from his lethargy by a declaration of war against him at Rome, and set out for Aetolia. His army at this time amounted to no more than 10,000 foot and 500 horse. He had been made to believe that he would receive a vast reinforcement in Aetolia: but when he came to make the experiment, he soon found his mistake; all the troops he could raise there amounted to no more than 4000 men. With this force, so exceedingly inadequate to the purpose, he was obliged to oppose the Roman army, who were advancing in conjunction with the Macedonians, and had already made surprising progress. Antiochus seized the straits of Thermopylae; but was driven from them by the Romans, the king himself being the first that fled. Almost his whole army was destroyed in the battle or in the pursuit, and Antiochus returned with disgrace into Asia.

Soon after his return, Antiochus equipped a fleet of 200 sail; on which he immediately embarked for the Thracian Chersonesus, now Crim Tartary. He fortified the cities of Lyfimachia, Seftus, and Abydos, with others in that neighbourhood, to prevent the Romans from crossing the Hellespont. In the mean time Polyxenidas the Syrian admiral sent intelligence to the king that the Roman fleet had appeared off Delos; upon which he desired him to seek them out and engage them at all events. He did so, and was defeated with the loss of 40 ships taken or sunk in the engagement. This was soon after revenged by the destruction of the Rhodian fleet by the artifice of Polyxenidas; but in the end that of the king's affairs went everywhere to wreck. Having laid siege to the city of Pergamus, he was obliged to raise it with loss; the Phoenician fleet commanded by Hannibal was defeated by the Rhodians; and soon after the Syrian fleet under Polyxenidas was utterly defeated two other by the Romans. Antiochus was to much disheartened by these repeated defeats, that he appeared like one infatuated. Instead of fortifying more strongly those cities satuated which lay on the frontiers of his kingdom, he entirely deserted them: and thus Lyfimachia and Abydos, the two keys to Asia, fell into the hands of the Romans without the least resistance.

The arrival of the Romans in Asia struck Antiochus with such terror, that he instantly sued for peace. The terms he offered were indeed very advantageous, but by no means agreeable to the expectations of the Romans. They therefore gave him this final answer: 1. That since he had drawn upon himself the war, he should defray the whole expense of it; 2. That he should restore liberty in general to all the Greek cities in Asia; and, 3. That to prevent future hostilities, he should relinquish all Asia on this side Mount Taurus. These terms, however, still appeared to him intolerable, that he resolved to continue the war; and determined also to take the most imprudent method of carrying it on, namely, by hazarding all on the event of a general engagement. The king encamped near Magnesia, and strongly fortified his camp. The Romans insulted him in his trenches, and proposed to attack his fortifications if he continued to decline an engagement. At last the king, thinking it would be shameful for him longer to refuse an engagement, being at the head of an army far more numerous than that of the enemy, in a friend's country, and in the midst of his allies, resolved at all events to accept the challenge, and accordingly prepared for a decisive battle.

On the day of the battle the weather proved very favourable to the Romans; for a thick fog rising in the morning, the day was almost turned into night, so that the Syrian commanders could not have all the corps under their command in view, on account of their great extent, nor send them proper orders in time; whereas the fog was not thick enough to prevent the Roman generals from seeing their several bodies at the greatest distance, as they took up but little ground. Besides, the damp which was occasioned by the fog slackened the firings of the enemy's bows, so that the Aetolians who used them could shoot their darts and arrows but faintly. The whole dependence of Antiochus in the first attack was on his armed chariots, which were to cut their way into the Roman army. But Eumenes, king of Pergamus, undertook to render them useless, and even fatal, to the enemy. After this advantage, the Roman cavalry advanced, and fell on those whom the chariots had put in disorder. The Syrians being already intimidated, after a faint resistance gave way; and the Romans made a great slaughter of their men and horses, both being borne down with the weight of their heavy armour. Eumenes charged the left-wing, in which Seleucus commanded, with such vigour, that he put it to flight; and the fugitives flying to the phalanx for protection, put that body likewise in disorder; which Domitius observing, advanced against it at the head of his legionaries, but could not break it till he ordered his men to attack the elephants which the Syrians had placed in the spaces between the companies. The Romans had learned, in their wars with Pyrrhus and Hannibal, not to fear those monsters which were once so terrible to them. They attacked them, therefore, with great resolution; and driving them against the phalanx, put that body into disorder, by means of those very animals which had been posted there for its defence.

After a long and bloody contest, the Syrians were totally routed, and the Romans walking over heaps of dead bodies, marched up to the Syrian camp, attacked, and plundered it. The riches they found in it are not to be described; but the taking of it cost the Romans a new battle, which proved more fatal to the Syrians than that in the field; for the Romans having, in spite of a most desperate resistance, forced the intrenchments, gave no quarter, but put all to the sword without distinction. There fell this day in the battle, in the pursuit, and in the plunder of the camp, 50,000 foot and 4000 horse; 1500 were taken prisoners, and 15 elephants. In the consular army there were but 300 foot killed and 25 horse. Eumenes had only 15 of his men killed; so that this victory, as we are told by the ancients, seemed a prodigy to all nations both of the east and west.

Antiochus retired to Sardis with as many of his forces that had escaped the slaughter as he could draw together. From Sardis he soon marched to rejoin his son Seleucus, who had fled to Apamea. As for the consul, he took advantage of the king's defeat and flight, making himself master of all the neighbouring countries. Deputies hastened to him from all parts; the cities of Thyatira, Magnesia, Trallis, Magnesia in Caria, all Lydia, and Ephesus itself, though highly favoured by Antiochus, declared for the Romans. Polyxenidas, upon the news of the king's defeat, left the port of Ephesus, and sailed to Patara, where he landed with a very small guard, and returned by land into Syria. The consul took the road to Sardis, which opened its gates to him.

Antiochus finding his affairs in a bad situation both by sea and land, and not daring to appear before the consular army in the field, sent Antipater his brother's son, and Zeuxis, who had been governor of Lydia and Phrygia, to sue for a peace. They were ordered to treat chiefly with the elder Scipio, of whose clemency and good nature Antiochus entertained a high opinion. Accordingly, on their arrival at Sardis, where the consul then was with his brother, they addressed the latter, and were by him presented to the consul. Their speech was very submissive, and such as became a vanquished people.

Hereupon a council was summoned, and after long debates the ambassadors were called in; and Scipio Africanus proposed terms that were very humiliating.

The ambassadors of Antiochus had been ordered to refuse no terms; and therefore these were accepted and the whole affair concluded. So that the Syrian ambassadors now, prepared to set out for Rome, to get the conditions of peace proposed by Scipio ratified there. L.

Aurelius Cotta was sent with the ambassadors to Rome, to acquaint the senate with the particulars of the treaty. When they appeared before the conscript fathers, they spoke with great submission, and only desired them to ratify the articles which the Scipios had offered to their master. The senate, after examining them, ordered that a treaty of peace should be concluded with Antiochus, and the articles of it engraved on brads, and fixed up in the Capitol. They only added one clause, which was, That the Syrians should change every year all their hostages, except the son of King Antiochus, who should continue at Rome as long as the republic thought fit. The peace being thus ratified, and all Asia on this side Mount Taurus delivered into the hands of the Romans, the Greek cities were by them restored to their liberty, the provinces of Caria and Lydia given to the Rhodians, and all the rest that had belonged to Antiochus bestowed upon Eumenes.

Antiochus did not long survive his misfortune at Magnesia. He died in 187, and with him fell the glory of the Syrian empire. The Romans now gave laws to the B.C. kings of Syria, insofmuch, that when Antiochus Epiphanes the grandson of Antiochus the Great hesitated at obeying the commands of the senate, one of the ambassadors drew a circle round him with a rod on the floor, and told him that he should not go out of that spot before he had told him what he was to do. The most remarkable transactions of this prince are his wars with the Jews, and persecutions of them; of which a full account is given under the article Jews. After a variety of usurpers and tyrants, the kingdom of Syria fell under Tigranes king of Armenia in the year 83 B.C.; and upon his overthrow by the Romans, it became a province of the dominions of the republic. From them it was taken by the Saracens in the reign of the caliph Omar, and is now a province of Turkey in Asia. See Acre.

Syria is in some measure only a chain of mountains, varying in their levels, situation, and appearances. The soil, part of the country, however, next the sea is in general the lowest, and besides this there are several extensive valleys. The climate on the sea-coast and in these valleys is very hot, but in the higher parts of the country it bears a good deal of resemblance to that of France. Syria is exceedingly fertile, and the variety of its productions is very great. Besides wheat, rye, barley, beans, and the cotton plant, which is cultivated everywhere, Palestine abounds in sesame, from which oil is procured, and doura as good as that of Egypt. Maize thrives in the light soil of Balbec, and even rice is cultivated with success on the borders of the marshy country of Havula. They have lately begun to plant sugarcanes in the gardens of Saide and of Bairout, and they find them equal to those of the Delta. Indigo grows without cultivating on the banks of the Jordan, in the country of Bifan, and only requires care to make it of an excellent quality. The hill-sides of Latakia produce tobacco. Gaza produces dates like Mecca, and pomegranates like Al-Travoli, giers; Tripoli affords oranges equal to those of Malta; Baiqut figs like those of Marfeilles, and bananas not inferior to those of St Domingo; Aleppo enjoys the exclusive advantage of producing pistachios; and Damascus justly boasts of possessing all the fruits known in France. Its stony soil suits equally the apples of Normandy, the plums of Touraine, and the peaches of Paris. Paris. Twenty sorts of apricots are reckoned there, the stone of one of which contains a kernel highly valued through all Turkey. The cochineal plant, which grows on all that coast, contains perhaps that precious insect in as high perfection as it is found in Mexico and St Domingo.

The inhabitants may be divided into three principal classes: the descendants of the Greeks of the Lower Empire; the Arabs, their conquerors; and the Turks, the present ruling power: and these again, the first into three, the second into four, classes; besides three wandering tribes of Turkomans, Kurds, and Bedouin Arabs. The ancient inhabitants before the Greeks under Alexander are entirely lost. The inhabitants are in general of a middling stature, and the eyes of the women almost everywhere beautiful, and their shape correct and well proportioned. The general language is Arabic.