The account of this remote and little known country already given in the body of the work, is almost wholly derived from Mr Bruce's Travels. Much new and corrective information has been laid before the public, since the first appearance of that celebrated work; and, in communicating the results, we shall enlarge the scope of this supplementary article, so as not only to exhibit a view of the present state of the country, but of the progress of European discovery in regard to it, from the earliest existing accounts until the period of Mr Salt's last visit. When we come, in the course of this historical survey, to the epoch of Mr Bruce's adventurous journey, we shall avail ourselves of the occasion, to examine, at some length, the various opinions which have of late years been advanced, in regard to the value and the veracity of his details. About the year 330, an ecclesiastic named Frumentius, who had been travelling with his relations, Mercurius, a Tyrean philosopher, and who, at an island in the Red Sea, had become acquainted with some Abyssinians, represented to Athanasius, the patriarch of Alexandria, the wish of these people to have Christianity introduced into their country. Frumentius was accordingly consecrated Bishop of Axum by the patriarch, and appears to have made many converts among the Abyssinians. But as Constantine the Roman Emperor had embraced Arianism, and was at variance with the Patriarch of Alexandria, he was desirous to recall Frumentius, either that he might appoint an Arian bishop, or that Frumentius might be re-consecrated by one of that persuasion. With this view he wrote a letter to the monarch of Abyssinia. By whom this letter was conveyed, is not certain, though it is probable that it was by a person named Theophilus, who travelled into that country about A.D. 333.

The only notice which remains of the journey of Theophilus, is given by Philostorgius (Hist. Eccles.), and it is very meagre. Theophilus found the descendants of some Syrians in Abyssinia, sprung, he supposes, from a Syrian colony, planted there in the time of Alexander the Great.

In the year 533, the conquests of the Abyssinians in Arabia, and the warm professions of friendship which they held out to the Roman empire, induced Justinian to send an embassy into that remote country, with the hope of persuading its sovereign to employ his forces then in Arabia against the Persian monarch. At this period, the Abyssinians were acquainted with the arts of navigation, and had recently imbibed the spirit of trade, and acquired the sea port of Adule, from which they penetrated along the African coast, as far as the equator, in search of gold, emeralds, and aromatics. For this important commission, Justinian selected Nonnosus, descended from a family of ambassadors. He took the route of the Nile, from which he crossed to the Red Sea, and landed at the port of Adule. Though the distance of this place from Axum, at that period the residence of the sovereigns of Abyssinia, is only fifty leagues, yet the winding passes of the mountains, which lie between them, detained Nonnosus fifteen days. He was received with great pomp and favour by the Abyssinian monarch, Anda or Ameda; but we are not very distinctly informed as to the fate of his mission. Of his original narrative, some extracts only are preserved in the Bibliotheca of Photius, and in the Chronographia of John Malala. From these, among other particulars, we learn that Nonnosus saw, in his passage through the forests, which intervene between Adule and Axum, an immense number of wild elephants; and that the Abyssinian monarch gave audience in an open field, seated on a lofty chariot drawn by four elephants, superbly caparisoned, and surrounded by his nobles and musicians. In his hand he held two javelins, and a light shield; his clothing was a linen garment and fillet; and though thus imperfectly covered, he displayed a profusion of gold chains, collars, and bracelets, adorned with pearls and precious stones. Nonnosus represents Axum as large and populous. In detailing his passage over the mountains of Taranta, he remarks the great contrast of the seasons on different sides of it; from Ave to the coast, it was summer and harvest time; whereas from Ave to Axum, and the rest of Abyssinia, it was winter. The truth of this observation is amply confirmed by Mr Salt.

About the same period, Cosmas, surnamed Indicopleustes or the Indian Navigator, visited Adule. It was the design of this author, in publishing his work, entitled Topographia Christiana, to confute the heretical opinion that the earth is a globe, and offer proofs that it was a flat oblong, as represented in the Scriptures. His voyage was performed A.D. 522, and his book published at Alexandria, A.D. 547. Photius, to whom we are indebted for many curious extracts from works now lost, gives some interesting passages from it; and the complete work was published by Montfaucon, at Paris, in 1707, in the Nova Collectio Patrum, Tom. II. The most valuable part of it has been published in French and Greek, by Melchisidec Thevenot, in his Relations de Divers Voyages Curieux, non encore publiées, ou traduites. Paris, 1682. To this author we are indebted for the Adulic Inscriptions. It appears that Elesbaan, king of the Axumites, had ordered the governor of Adule to send him a copy of these inscriptions; and the governor employed Cosmas, who happened to be there at that time, and one Menas, a merchant, for that purpose. Till Mr Salt examined these inscriptions, during his first journey, they had always been regarded as forming only one; though in this view, their meaning was not very clear, and they were at variance with authenticated history; but he satisfactorily proved, that instead of being a single inscription, referring exclusively to Ptolemy Evergetes, there were two distinct inscriptions, one of which refers to Ptolemy, and the other to the affairs of Abyssinia. The former inscription, among other things, mentions that Ptolemy and his father were the first that brought elephants from the Troglodytes and Ethiopia.

Besides the interesting information which Cosmas affords respecting the port and inscription of Adule, he particularly describes the trade of the Axumites along the African coast of Barbaria or Zingi, and as far as Trapobane, Ceylon; and mentions, that every other year the King of Axum sent several persons of distinction to traffic with the natives of Agow for gold, which they bartered for cattle, salt and iron. The journey commonly occupied six months. He represents the fountains of the Nile as in the vicinity of Agow, which sufficiently points it out as the country of the Agows mentioned by Peter Paez, who travelled in Abyssinia in the beginning of the seventeenth century.

Respecting Abyssinia, the notices of travellers are few, and very meagre, from the time of Cosmas and Nonnosus, to the conclusion of the fifteenth century. We find it mentioned by Marco Polo, and by Ibn El Wardi, an Arabian author; and some slight notices, particularly of the religious missions into that country, till the year 1500, are supplied by Renaudot, from the Coptic writers, in his Historia Patriarcharum Alexandrinorum. Paris, 1713.

At the close of the fifteenth century, the Portuguese missions into Abyssinia commenced: they originated in rather a singular circumstance. John II., King of Portugal, was extremely anxious to discover the residence of Prester John, who had long been represented in Europe as a Christian sovereign of great power, ruling somewhere in the centre of Asia. For this purpose, John sent Peter Covilham, and Alphonso or Michael de Payva, into Asia; the latter soon died, but the former, during his abode on the western coasts of the Red Sea, hearing much of the Abyssinian emperor, and of his being a Christian, concluded that he had found the object of his search. He immediately conveyed this information to his own court, and proceeded himself to Shoa, then the residence of the Negush, or monarch of Abyssinia. He was received and treated with great kindness and respect; but, according to the usual policy of the Abyssinian court at that period, he was not permitted to leave the country. An account of his residence is given by Damiana Goez, in his *Legatio Magni Indorum Presb. Joan. ad Emmanuel Lusitanica*, Antwerp, 1552. King Emanuel, who was desirous of maintaining an intercourse with the sovereign of Abyssinia, (not less from commercial and political than religious motives,) sent an embassy into that country, in the year 1520. At the head of this embassy he placed the famous Edward Galvan, who had been secretary of state, and ambassador in France, Germany, and Rome. The selection of such a man points out the importance which Emanuel attached to this mission. But unfortunately, Galvan, being extremely old, was unequal to the fatigues of so long and dangerous a journey, and died soon after the embassy entered the Red Sea. In his stead, Rodriguez de Lima was appointed, and Francisco Alvarez, who had been chaplain to Galvan, was continued in the same office by Rodriguez. Their journey from the coast of the Red Sea was long and troublesome, on account of the heat of the climate, and the badness of the roads; but they arrived at the Abyssinian court on the 12th of April 1520, where they were received with much splendour and courtesy by the Emperor David. They were detained in Abyssinia six years from various causes; and on their departure, the emperor requested Rodriguez to leave behind him his physician, John Bermudez, and a painter of his retinue, with which request the ambassador complied. Alvarez wrote a minute account of Abyssinia, of which there are several editions;—that published by himself at Lisbon in 1540; a Spanish translation from the Portuguese, published at Antwerp in 1557; an Italian translation from the Portuguese manuscript, published by Ramusio in his *Collection of Voyages*, lib. i., (which differs materially from the Lisbon edition;) a French translation in 1558; and an English translation, in Purchas's *Collection of Voyages*. The value and accuracy of this author's statements have been differently appreciated; but it seems probable that several fabrications were published in his name; for Damiana Goez asserts, that he had seen a journal written by Alvarez, very different from most of the published works.

In some respects, the description which he gives of Abyssinia is extremely valuable. No European traveller, since his time, has visited Angot, Amhara, and Shoa; the first a region occupied by the Pagan Galla, and bordering with some barbarous tribes near the Red Sea. This traveller visited Axum a short time before it was almost totally destroyed by the Turkish invasion, and he describes it as a large and beautiful place. According to him, none of the cities of Abyssinia contained more than fifteen hundred houses: a statement, with which the assertion of Bruce, that Gondar, when he was there, contained ten thousand families, can hardly be reconciled.

In the year 1538, Bermudez was sent back to Portugal, as ambassador from the Abyssinian monarch; and after a short abode at Lisbon, he was ordered to return, by the way of Goa, and take from that place some troops, to reinforce the Abyssinian, who, at this period, had been compelled to take shelter from the Moors in the mountainous part of his kingdom. The reinforcement was landed at Massowa, and, after a difficult journey, through the mountainous passes and defiles, they joined the Emperor. Bermudez published an account of his journey at Lisbon in 1565. There are also editions of it published at the same place in 1569 and 1615, which are very scarce. It was translated into English by Purchas, (*Pilgrims*, l. vii. c. 7. p. 1149.), and from thence into French by La Croze, (*Christianisme d'Ethiopie*, p. 92—265.) But the greater part of his work relates to the victories, defeat, and death of the Portuguese general, Christopher de Gama; and is principally valuable from the description which he gives of some, otherwise little known, parts of the country, which he visited in the course of the war.

In the year 1556, Ignatius Loyola, at the urgent request of an Abyssinian priest called Peter, who had visited Rome, projected a new mission into Abyssinia, and by his influence with the King of Portugal, persuaded him to send an ambassador and a patriarch along with the missionaries. They went first to Goa, where they learned that an entrance into Abyssinia, by the Red Sea, would be extremely difficult and dangerous, if not quite impracticable, as the Turks carefully guarded the sea-coasts with their ships. In consequence of this intelligence, it was resolved that the ambassador and the patriarch should not attempt the journey; and of the missionaries only one arrived in Abyssinia. An account of this mission was published in 1615;† it contains a great deal of curious information, but ought to be read, like all the other accounts of the Jesuit missionaries, with great caution.

From this period, till the close of the sixteenth century, Abyssinia was extremely difficult of access, in consequence of the Turks having exclusive possession of the sea-coast. At length, in 1589, Philip II. of Spain, anxious to renew the alliance between the two courts, sent a letter to the Abyssinian monarch by an Italian bishop, John Baptista, and a person of the name of Lewis de Mendoza, who was then settled at Diu, and

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*The translation of Ramusio was made from a manuscript supplied by Goez.*

† De Æthiopie Patriarchis, J. N. Barreto et Andrea Oviedo, P. N. Godigno. Lugduni, 1615. Abyssinia was well acquainted with the commerce of the Red Sea.

The bishop died during his journey, but Mendoza penetrated into Abyssinia, delivered his letter, and carried back one from the Emperor to Philip. In consequence of his success, Mendoza was sent on a second mission, and sailed from Goa in February 1589; accompanied by Antonio de Montserrat, a Catalanian, and Peter Paez, a Spaniard. In their voyage they were shipwrecked, and taken prisoners. This circumstance proved of great advantage to Paez, who, being a man of considerable talents, and of great activity of mind, as well as zeal, spent the seven years of his captivity in making himself a perfect master of the Arabian language. In consequence of the intelligence of their misfortune reaching Goa, two other missionaries were dispatched for Abyssinia: Abraham de Georgis, a man of great learning and courage, and a thorough master of all the Eastern languages, and Belchior de Sylva, by birth an Indian: only the latter, however, arrived in Abyssinia, the former having been taken and beheaded by the Mahomedans. In the mean time, Peter Paez having been ransomed, found means to penetrate into Abyssinia, where he soon gained an ascendancy over the mind of the Emperor. He is the first European who visited what the Abyssinians deem the sources of the Nile. He died in that country, in the year 1622; and his manuscript, detailing the affairs of Abyssinia from the year 1556 to his death, was transmitted to Rome, where it is said to be still preserved. The only extract which has been printed from it relates to his journey to the sources of the Nile, and is given by Kircher in his *Edipus Egyptiacus*.

Paez was succeeded, in 1623, by Father Emanuel d'Almeida, who travelled from Massowa, by Adejada, across the plain of Serawe, and partly along the course of the Mareb, till he arrived at the monastery of Fremona, the usual residence of the missionaries. He was succeeded by another of the society of Jesuits called Antonio de Angelis, who was famous for his skill in the Amharic language. In 1624, Alphonso Mendez was sent patriarch into Abyssinia. He arrived at Fremona on the 21st of June in that year; but, on account of the dangerous travelling through Tigre at that season, he was obliged to stay there till the October following, when he went to the residence of the Emperor, by whom he was received with great pomp. His behaviour, however, was not such as to render him long a favourite; and he was ordered to retire to Fremona. Scarcely had he arrived here, before he received a fresh order to leave the kingdom; and, not immediately complying, he was conducted to Massowa. He wrote the history of Abyssinia in Latin, a French translation of which was printed at Lisle in 1633.*

During the residence of Mendez in this kingdom, Peter Heyling of Lubeck, a Lutheran, well versed in the Arabic, ingratiated himself into the favour of the Abuna, or metropolitan bishop of Abyssinia at Alexandria, and visited that country along with him; and he continued for several years, being highly esteemed by the court and the clergy, both on account of his skill and success in medicine, and his knowledge of the oriental languages, and of polemic divinity. Respecting the cause and period of his return, there is some obscurity. Mendez asserts that he was ordered to leave the kingdom; whereas Ludolphus asserts that the Emperor was very unwilling to part with him. He did not live to revisit Europe, having been put to death on his return, either by the Arabs or by the Bashaw of Suakem. An account of his life, and the few particulars which he transmitted to his friends respecting Abyssinia, were published, in German, in the year 1724, along with an epitome, in the same language, of Geddes's *Ecclesiastical History of Ethiopia*. From the character and attainments of Heyling, in connection with the opportunities of observation and information which he enjoyed, there is no doubt that, had he lived to return to Europe, he would have added considerably to the stock of knowledge at that time possessed regarding this country.

In the suite of Alphonso Mendez was Father Lobo, who, during the greatest part of the nine years that he resided in Abyssinia, was rector of the college of Fremona. His description of that country, and history of his travels, though simple and succinct, is much superior, in clearness and accuracy, to the relations of any of the travellers who had preceded him. Lobo resided for some time in the province of Damot, near the sources of the Nile. It has been supposed, though we imagine, erroneously, that *A short Relation of the River Nile, of its Source, and Current, by an Eye-witness*, which was first published in 1668, and afterwards republished by Dr Rotheram, in 1791, was procured at Lisbon from Lobo himself. This account of the sources of the Nile differs in some respects from the account given in Le Grand's translation of Lobo. His work was originally published in Portuguese, but it is much better known in the French translation of Le Grand, and in the English translation by Dr Johnson.

In 1660, Father Tellez, at the request of the society of Jesuits, published his General History of Abyssinia under the following title: *Historia General de Ethiopia, alta o Preste Joan, &c.* Coimbra, fol. 1660.† In compiling this work, he had the advantage of consulting all the relations which the missionaries had drawn up, as well as the annual letters which they had sent to the college of Jesuits at Lisbon; and, as is noticed in the title-page, the relation of Emanuel d'Almeida is here abridged.

The Portuguese having lost their credit and influence in Abyssinia, by the haughty behaviour of Mendez, the French resolved to use their endeavours to establish themselves in that country; and for this purpose Louis XIV. wrote a letter to the father of the Emperor, who was then on the throne, which

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* Rélation du Révéréndissime Patriarche d'Ethiopie, Dom. Alphonze Mendez touchant la conversion des ames qui s'est faite en cet Empire.

† An abridged translation of this work, entitled, "Travels of the Jesuits in Ethiopia," was published in the second volume of Knapton's "New Collection of Voyages and Travels," Lond. 1711. Abyssinia reached him, though by what means we are not informed. At the same time instructions were sent to M. Maillet, the French consul at Cairo, to second the plans of his court; and accordingly, having learned that the Emperor was ill, he dispatched Poncet, a physician, to cure him. Along with Poncet, was sent, by the influence of the Jesuits, Father de Brevedent, a man particularly conversant in astronomy. They embarked on the Nile on the 10th of June 1698, and arrived within a day and half's journey of Gondar on the 3d of July of the following year. Here the father died, and Poncet having restored himself till the 21st of the same month, set out for Gondar. He particularly describes the public audience which was granted him by the Emperor, and his rich and splendid attire. Respecting the latter, and also in what he says concerning Gondar, his accounts are considerably at variance with the relations of the Portuguese missionaries: hence the fidelity of his work has been called in question, especially by Le Grand, though on no sufficient grounds. Having succeeded in curing the Abyssinian monarch, he set out from Gondar, in the summer of 1700, by the way of Massowa, and arrived safe in France, where he published a distinct account of his journey. A translation of it is given in Lockman's Travels of the Jesuits.

The learned works of Ludolphus,—Historia Ethiopica, Franck. 1681,—Commentarius in Historiam Ethiopicam, Franck. 1691,—Relatio Nova, &c. 1693, must not be passed over; for though he chiefly compiled them from the writings of the Portuguese missionaries already mentioned, he was enabled to add considerably to their stock of information, by means of his great knowledge of the Ethiopian language,—by his conversations with Gregory, an intelligent and liberal Abyssinian priest, whom he invited from Rome to the court of Saxe-Gotha,—and by the report of Morat, an Armenian merchant, who had often been in Abyssinia. The Theologia Ethiopica of Gregory is published in Fabricius's Lux Evangeli.

In 1750, three Franciscans succeeded in penetrating as far as Gondar. An account of their travels is given in the appendix to Mr Salt's Voyage to Abyssinia, 1814. Of Mr Bruce's journey, upon which he entered in 1769, an abstract is inserted under the head Abyssinia, in the body of the work. Referring our readers to that article, we shall now proceed to examine the principal objections which have been made to the veracity of his narrative.

Before Mr Bruce published any account of his travels, a spirit of scepticism respecting them had gone forth into the world, generated, partly, by the very extraordinary adventures which he recounted in conversation, and partly by a singular mixture in his character of pride and vanity, which led him at once to boast of what he had seen and done, and to deem it beneath him to remove the objections and doubts even of the intelligent and candid. This scepticism carried some so far, as to question whether he had ever visited Abyssinia; but the only point which now requires any serious discussion is, "whether his Travels are to be received, in every particular, as strictly true, or as a mixed work of imagination and memory?"

The second edition of this work was published Abyssinia after his death, by the late Dr Murray, who had access to all his journals, and the manuscripts which he had brought from Abyssinia; and it was expected by those who had considered Mr Bruce as calumniated, but too proud and obstinate to remove the calumny, that his editor, whose learning and talents were well known, would possess the means, as, no doubt, he would feel the inclination, to refute all the objections, which had been urged against him. Whether he has been successful in this respect will afterwards appear; but we must in the meantime observe, that the most zealous and partial admirer of Mr Bruce cannot censure us, if we shall try his published work by comparing it with those portions of the original journals, which Dr Murray has, with exemplary candour, given to the world. Besides this criterion, we shall compare his statements on disputed points, with the testimony of those, who have either visited Abyssinia at a subsequent period, or had opportunities of conversing with persons acquainted with that country.

1. One of the first objections urged against the veracity of Mr Bruce, was derived from his description of an Abyssinian feast. No preceding author had taken notice of some extraordinary circumstances which he mentions, though the royal feast is particularly described by Alvarez, Lobo, and Poncet. They, indeed, represent raw beef quite warm as a favourite dish on these occasions; but they are entirely silent respecting the eating of rare flesh cut from live animals stationed at the door; and if the practice was such, it is not easy to conjecture how it could have escaped their observation, or have been passed over in silence. Dr Murray does not give us any extract from Mr Bruce's journal, which might enable us to compare what this author actually recorded on the spot, with his published description; but contents himself with this remark on the accounts of Alvarez and Lobo, that "the practice of cutting the animal in pieces, while alive, readily follows;"—an inference, in which few, we imagine, will be disposed to acquiesce. As, therefore, we have no evidence in favour of the truth of Mr Bruce's narrative on this topic, either from preceding travellers, or from his own Journal, it is necessary to inquire, whether it can be confirmed from other sources. In 1788, Sir William Jones examined an Abyssinian at Calcutta, respecting the credit due to Mr Bruce; and from him he learned, that "the country people and the soldiery make no scruple of drinking the blood and eating the raw flesh of an ox, which they cut, without caring whether he is dead or alive; but that this savage diet is, however, by no means general." Mr Salt, both in his first and second voyage into Abyssinia, made particular inquiries respecting this practice. From what he observed, during his first residence there, he was disposed to doubt the fact altogether; but, during his second residence, he ascertained, that though the Abyssinians did not feed on the live animal at their feasts, yet that soldiers, or peasants, on their journeys, sometimes cut pieces for this purpose out of the flesh of animals which they were driving. Mr Pearce, who Abyssinia was left in Abyssinia during the interval of Mr Salt's journals, also witnessed this practice among the Lasa soldiers. The particulars of the brind feast, as they are described by Mr Salt, will be afterwards given; at present, we shall content ourselves with observing, that the statement of Mr Bruce is confirmed by Sir William Jones and Mr Salt, in so far as it goes to show that live flesh is sometimes used; but that the same evidence proves the practice to have been adopted from haste and necessity, rather than from choice: and therefore does not bear out Mr Bruce's marvellous description of an Abyssinian banquet.*

There is, however, one other evidence on this point, which must be considered. Dr Clarke met an Abyssinian Dean at Cairo, whom he questioned respecting Bruce's Travels. The account which he gave is said to have been as follows: The soldiers, during their marauding excursions, sometimes main cows, taking slices from their bodies, as a favourite article of food, without putting them to death at the time. During the banquets of the Abyssinians, raw meat, esteemed delicious throughout the country, is frequently taken from an ox or a cow, in such a state, that the fibres are in motion; and the attendants continue to cut slices, until the animal dies.—Clarke's Travels, Vol. III. p. 61.

This testimony would have been much more satisfactory and conclusive, if Dr Clarke had given us the questions which were put to the Abyssinian, as well as the substance of his reply; for it strikes us, that he was led on, either by direct questions, or by perceiving the nature of the answers which Dr Clarke anticipated, to mould his replies accordingly; and that the first part of his statement not being fully satisfactory, the subsequent parts were the result of some further interrogations or suggestions. The reader will observe, that the Abyssinian, in the beginning of his statement, represents the soldiers as sometimes maining a cow; he next adverts to the Abyssinian banquets; and certainly his statement, that on such occasions, raw meat is frequently taken from an ox or cow in such a state that the fibres are in motion, by no means leads us to anticipate the concluding circumstance, that the attendants continue to cut slices till the animal dies.

This view of Dr Clarke's statement, which we would not wish to be understood in any disrespectful sense, must prevent us from admitting it as a Abyssinian proof of the literal truth of what Mr Bruce advances; opposed, as his testimony is, both by Mr Salt and Mr Pearce, who affirm that a banquet of live oxen is not known in Abyssinia.

2. It was early objected to Mr Bruce, that the river, the sources of which he explored, was not the main body of the Nile; and that he was not even the first European seeing the head of its principal Abyssinian branch. It is a fact now universally admitted, that the stated head of the Bahr el Azergue, or Blue river, which he visited, is not that of the true Nile; and that this distinction belongs to the fountains of the Bahr el Abiad, or White river, which rise far to the south-west, among the mountains of Jibbel Kumri, in the country of the Donga. The principal branch, or Bahr el Abiad, was seen by Bruce, and is mentioned by him as a larger river than the Azergue; but it is nevertheless contended by his late editor, that he did not for a moment "suspect that it was the Nile." When he left Europe," says Dr Murray, "it was almost universally believed that the Nile rose in Habbesh, and he was confirmed in this opinion by the constant testimony of the Abyssinians." But if the idea did not occur to Mr Bruce when he was in that country, that the Bahr el Abiad was the true Nile; if, ignorant that it had been pointed out as such by Ptolemy, he then implicitly confided in the vain-glorious pretensions of the Abyssinians, and the assuming accounts of the missionaries, he could not surely continue long in that state of ignorance and confidence, after the period of his return to Europe. D'Anville had vindicated the superior claims of the Bahr el Abiad, and had fortified his statements by the concurring testimony of Ptolemy and the Arabian geographers. Mr Bruce could not be ignorant of all this; and when it is recollected that he himself states, in his original Journal, published, for the first time, by Dr Murray, that the "Abiad is three times as big as the Azergue," and that, but for the constant fulness of the former "the Nile would be dry eight months in the year;" it seems impossible to resist the conclusion, that he must have deliberately shut his eyes against the truth, if he did not feel, that his own observations came directly in aid of what had been advanced by D'Anville. And when we find that he preserves a total silence in regard to the statements of that emi-

* At Suez, in 1793, Mr Browne, the author of Travels in Africa, met an Armenian merchant, a man of intelligence, who had formerly traded to Abyssinia, and had been at Gondar while Bruce was there. He informed Mr Browne that the Abyssinians often ate raw meat, but did not mention the practice alluded to: an additional proof that it was by no means general, or even followed at their grand entertainments.

Michael, Bruce's servant, who was seen by Antes, author of Observations on the Manners and Customs of Egypt, at Cairo, on his return from Abyssinia, spoke of the Abyssinian practice of eating raw meat. Antes did not inquire respecting the banquet of live oxen; but is it not highly probable that Michael would have mentioned this circumstance, if he had seen or heard of it?

† It is known that Mr Bruce and D'Anville met at Paris; and Mr Pinkerton asserts, (Geogr.—Africa,) that the latter roundly told him, that he was far from having discovered the sources of the true Nile. But, be this as it may, it would be vain to deny, that Bruce was well acquainted with the maps and writings of the French geographer; and the most zealous of his defenders must admit it as not a little extraordinary, that he should have taken no sort of notice of an authority so eminent, and so directly opposed to the main pretension of his travels. Abyssinia.

gent geographer, we must conclude that he did so, from a disposition to withhold from the public every piece of information that could create a doubt of his having penetrated to the true sources of this celebrated river.

The same feeling of vain glory is equally apparent in his endeavours to secure to himself the honour of having been the only European who had ever visited those coy fountains which he represents as the true springs of the Nile. We have already stated that its Abyssinian sources had been visited by Paez; and it is probable, though the point is certainly liable to question, that they were also seen by Lobo; but Mr Bruce equally denies the pretensions of both, and urges a variety of objections to their narratives, which are now admitted, at least with regard to the former, to be wholly groundless. Dr Murray candidly admits that the first discovery was made by Paez; and, indeed, when we reflect that both these missionaries resided for a long time in Abyssinia—that the latter spent some time in the province of Damot, near the supposed source of the Nile—that they must certainly have had some curiosity to examine it—and that they coincide with Mr Bruce in his description of a number of minute and local particulars, we must concede them the honour, such as it is, of having made this discovery.

But Mr Bruce was jealous, not only of preceding travellers, but also of his own attendants. In his Travels, he dates the death of Luigi Balugani in March 1770; and yet he states that Abba Salama, whom he represents as attempting to raise the populace at the funeral of Balugani, was executed for high treason on the 24th of December 1770. Besides this direct contradiction, it appears by the journals, kept in Italian by Balugani, from which extracts are given by Dr Murray, that he was alive at Gondar in February 1771. This gross mistatement it is vain for his editor to ascribe to an imperfect and confused memory. Another cause, originating from the paramount failing of his character, is but too obvious. In his account of his journey to the sources of the Nile, he is particularly anxious to impress the reader with the idea, not only that no European had ever before visited them, but that he was not accompanied by any European—is it therefore unwarrantable to suppose that the death of Balugani was antedated a twelvemonth, to deprive him of the honour of having accompanied his master on this occasion? That he did actually accompany him is proved by the Journals in question.

3. Mr Bruce, in his Travels, mentions, that, on the 25th of December 1768, he arrived at Dendera, whence he proceeded by Badjoura and Farshout to Thebes; from which place he proceeded, on the night of the 7th of January 1769, to Luxor, where he remained till the 17th, and on the 20th arrived at Syene, from which place, descending the Nile, he returned to Badjoura on the 2d of February. The narrative of this journey from Luxor to Syene is not only minute in dates, but it is filled with the most circumstantial and amusing adventures; and yet, that it never took place, is rendered almost certain; for it appears from his Journal, that he arrived first at Farshout, and afterwards at Dendera, on the 7th of January, the very day assigned in his Travels for his Abyssinia departure from Farshout. According to the latter, he remained at Syene from the 20th to the 26th; according to his journal, he was at Badjoura on the 22d and 23d; and no mention whatever is made of a journey from Luxor to Syene, nor, indeed, if his journal be correct in the dates and places, could he have performed it. Besides, in his letter to Mr Wood, dated Gondar, March 1, 1770, he expressly says, "From Luxor we returned to Badjoura;" thus confirming his Journal, and contradicting his Travels.

Nor is this the only instance of the interpolation of an apparently fictitious journey. According to his Travels, Mr Bruce, on the 26th of July 1769, sailed from Loheia, on the Red Sea, to the Straits of Babelmandel, and returned to Loheia on the 6th of August; yet, by his Journals, it appears that two observations were taken at Loheia on the 5th of August, while the voyage, and the observations taken during it, and inserted in the Travels, are not mentioned. The journals of Luigi Balugani are equally silent regarding this voyage; but they detail the dates, &c. of the voyages from Cosseir to Jimbo and Jidda; from Jidda to Loheia; and from Loheia to Massowa; nor does any one of the twenty charts or drawings taken by this artist in the Red Sea relate to the voyage from Loheia to the Straits of Babelmandel. In his account of this fictitious voyage, he seems to have trusted to the authority of Faden's map, as the latitudes and relative situations of the places he mentions as having passed or visited agree with that map; which, according to Mr Salt, is erroneous.

Nearly an equal degree of suspicion hangs over the voyage from Cosseir to Jibbel Zumrud and Macowar. The latitude assigned by Bruce to Jibbel Zumrud is erroneous by upwards of a degree; and Macowar is in 20° 38', not in 24° 2'. In the Journals there is not a single observation of latitude at either of these places; nor do any of the charts or drawings relate to this voyage. The account of the emerald pits is also very improbable.

Respecting the accuracy of Mr Bruce's chart of the Red Sea, the opinions of those who have sailed in that sea, and compared the actual situation of the places with the chart, differ considerably. According to Dr Clarke, General Baird, and the officers who attended him in the expedition up the Red Sea, for the purpose of expelling the French from Egypt, expressed themselves in high terms regarding its accuracy. Their evidence, however, is too vague and general to be of much value. On the other hand, Lord Valentia, who had along with him one of the best surveyors now living, Captain Charles Court, Surveyor-General to the East India Company, represents it as by no means accurate; and further remarks, that there is a surprising and suspicious coincidence between the latitudes assigned by Bruce and Niebuhr to the same places, though the one took them by land and the other by sea; the instruments at that time being too imperfect to secure such a coincidence, even if both the observers had travelled by land, and used the same degree of skill and attention. Indeed, the instrument which Bruce made use of, a large and unwieldy French quadrant, must not only have been very liable to have been put out of order, but likewise unfit for the use of any except a very able astronomer.

4. The strong tendency which Bruce possessed, from the predominant feelings and passions of his nature, to exaggerate and introduce fictitious narratives, has already been established on some very important points. There are, however, a few subordinate and miscellaneous instances of this tendency, which may be noticed. The detection of them rests on the authority of Mr Salt; and none, we imagine, will hesitate to prefer his testimony to that of Bruce, respecting what both have actually seen, or had equally good opportunities of ascertaining, after the instances of Mr Bruce's inaccuracy already given; resting, as they do, on evidence and proofs quite concurrent and conclusive, though totally independent.

Mr Salt asserts that Mr Bruce's representation of the Obelisk at Axum is very erroneous, and his description of the ruins at that place greatly exaggerated. His description of the Tigre Mountains as resembling "pyramids pitched upon their points, with their base uppermost," called for such a large portion of faith, that we scarcely needed the authority of Mr Salt to disbelieve it; and pronounce it extravagant and untrue. His account of the discovery of the Emperor Joas's body is greatly embellished, and is inaccurate in the dates, as well as in many of the circumstances.

Dofter Esther, a learned Abyssinian, who resided at Gondar all the time that Bruce was in Abyssinia, and was intimately acquainted with him, informed Mr Salt, that Amha Yosou, Prince of Shon, never visited Gondar during Mr Bruce's abode in that city, as Bruce mentions in his Travels, but not in his Journal; and Mr Salt adds, that the story of the book, for which the Prince sent in order to give it to Mr Bruce, is highly improbable; as by referring to Mr Bruce's dates, it will appear, that unless the original was sent, (which, considering its value and rarity, is extremely unlikely,) it must have been brought a distance of five hundred miles, and been copied in a fortnight. Dofter Esther also informed Mr Salt, that Mr Bruce did not speak the Tigre, nor much Amharic; and that, with the exception of one battle, he was never engaged in war during his abode in Abyssinia. This is confirmed by the original Journal, (Vol. VII. p. 69.) It is right to add, that this learned person spoke very highly of Mr Bruce, and confirmed his accounts in almost every other particular, on which Mr Salt questioned him, except such as have been just stated.

Regarding the district which Mr Bruce says was assigned to him in Abyssinia, the authorities are at variance. The Armenian merchant whom Mr Browne met at Suez, in the year 1793, and who had been at Gondar while Bruce was there, as well as the Bergoo merchant, whom Mr Browne saw at Darfoor, and who had been in Bruce's party from Gondar to Senaar, informed Mr Browne, that Bruce had been governor of Ras-el-fil; whereas Dofter Esther, and Abyssinia, others expressly stated to Mr Salt, that no district had been given him; and all the persons whom Mr Salt conversed with during his first journey into Abyssinia agreed in saying that he never was governor of Ras-el-fil.*

5. The accuracy of Mr Bruce's statements respecting the change of the moon at Farshout, and its movements relative to Feawa, has been strongly attacked; and specifying Mr Bruce himself, in his corrections for a second edition, has endeavoured to evade the objections by examined, what appears too like an arbitrary alteration of the text, made for that express purpose. In the first edition, Mr Bruce predicts the eclipse before four o'clock—cf. assar. Dr Rotheram, by a calculation of the eclipse for the meridian of Feawa, proved, that at the hour when Bruce asserts the eclipse had advanced some way, and was apparent upon the disc, it was not visible at Feawa; as the moon was then many degrees below the horizon, and rose almost in the very middle of a total eclipse. In the second edition, "before el assar," is altered to after el assar; and Dr Murray observes, that the Arabic word el assar comprehends indefinitely the whole evening. But not even this, and the other trifling alterations which are made in the second edition—not the apology of the editor, that Mr Bruce's memory, at the distance of fourteen years, deceived him, will remove the objection, when we remark the great difference of time between the reality and his description of the eclipse; and learn, moreover, that in De la Caille's Ephemerides, which Mr Bruce carried with him, the day on which this eclipse happened, is marked by Mr Bruce, and that 2 hours 25' 36" is the time, when, according to the Ephemerides, the eclipse would commence at Paris. Is there then not reason to believe, that he was led into this mistake by not adverting to the great difference of time between Paris and Feawa? for that, if he did actually predict the eclipse, he predicted it as to happen before, and not after el assar, is evident, from the following circumstance: On that day Mr Bruce attended the Shekh about nine in the morning; and after a large breakfast, he repaired to the market-place, where he exhibited some feats of horsemanship, and promised to return in something more than two hours, when the sign should appear.

Such are the principal objections which have been urged against the truth and accuracy of Mr Bruce's narratives. His book has certainly undergone a more minute and severe examination than any other work of the same description. Those parts, therefore, which have come out of this ordeal untouched, may fairly be regarded as unexceptionable; and if we compare what has been proved to be erroneous, with what not even the keenest, most intelligent, and best informed of his critics have dared to question, we shall find that the unchallengeable additions which he has made to our knowledge are great and valuable. But the proofs of his general accuracy are not merely of this ne-

* It is not improbable, however, that the governor of this province, who was Mr Bruce's particular friend, might have given him permission to assume the nominal command of it. Abyssinia, gative description; there are others of a more direct and satisfactory nature, which we shall briefly notice.

Mr Salt, though he justly regarded it as a duty he owed to the world, to point out the mistakes and exaggerations of Mr Bruce, yet bears ample and willing testimony to the general accuracy of his descriptions and narrative; and records, in more than one instance, the astonishment which the Abyssinians expressed at the knowledge which Mr Bruce displayed of their history and country. Mr Browne and Mr Antes, who, as has been already noticed, had excellent opportunities of comparing Mr Bruce's statements with the accounts given by persons well acquainted with Abyssinia, bear testimony to the general accuracy of his details; and Dr Clarke, while at Cairo, obtained from the Abyssinian Dean, of whom we have spoken before, direct and specific evidence in favour of the correctness of some parts of his narrative, which had till then been regarded with suspicion. The plates given in Mr Bruce's Travels, especially those of natural history, were early represented as inaccurate; that they may be so in some of the minutiae is not improbable, as Bruce laid no claim to a scientific knowledge of the subject; but when Dr Clarke showed the Abyssinian Dean these plates, though he knew not the nature of the book in which they were contained, and the name of Bruce was not mentioned; the latter immediately gave the same appellations, and assigned the same uses as Bruce, to the *Erycti-denino*, *Eyetit el kroné*, *Emsett*, *Kolquall*, *Gergir*, *Kantufia*, &c. He is said to have borne testimony to the accuracy of the plates of the quadrupeds;* and, what is of more importance, both to Bruce's credit and to natural history, he confirmed the account of the *simb* fly, and asserted that he had heard of armies being destroyed by it. When Bruce's map was laid before him, though of course he could not read the names, he pointed out the locality of Gondar, exactly where Bruce had placed it.

A considerable period elapsed between the date of Mr Bruce's travels, and those of Mr Salt, the next European traveller in Abyssinia; and Mr Browne informs us, that, for nine years preceding 1796, there was even no communication between Egypt and that country, probably in consequence of the unsettled state of Sennar and Nubia.

Mr Salt's first journey into Abyssinia took place in the year 1805. Having accompanied Lord Valentia in his travels in the East, and his Lordship being desirous of ascertaining the state of Abyssinia, and the probability of opening a commercial intercourse between it and Britain, and her oriental dominions, Mr Salt undertook the conveyance of some presents from his Lordship to the Ras. An abstract of the most important information contained in both his journeys will afterwards be given; at present we shall confine ourselves to a brief outline of his route. From Massowa he proceeded to Arkeeko; and thence southwards, with a little inclination to the west, he passed over Taranta to Dixan. On leaving this place, he directed his journey to Antalo through Abha, Agowma, and Chelicut. At Antalo he found the Ras, and delivered Lord Valentia's presents. From Antalo he made an excursion to Axum, by the route of Mucullah and Adowa, at which latter place he met with Fasilydas, the son of Yasoun, formerly king of Abyssinia. At Axum he particularly examined the obelisks, inscriptions, and ruins; he also discovered a Greek inscription fifteen hundred years old, which proves Axum to have been the capital of a people called the Axumites, and gives credibility to the accounts before doubted, of embassies sent to them by the Romans. This inscription fixes the conquest of part of Arabia by the Abyssinians at an earlier period than was hitherto supposed. From Axum Mr Salt returned to Antalo by the road he came; and on his leaving the country, he again visited Axum and Dixan.

Mr Pearce, one of his attendants, was left behind at Antalo; and when Mr Salt arrived in Abyssinia the second time, about five years afterwards, he learnt from Mr Pearce, that, during his residence in that country, he had made an attempt to reach Gondar. For this purpose he set out from Antalo, and directed his course through the province of Wojjerat; a plain inhabited by negroes, called Doba; and a district of the Galla tribe. Soon afterwards he reached the town of Mocurra, and the village of Dulfit on one of the high Lasta mountains; his course during the whole of this part of his journey was nearly south. After passing the village of Dulfit he arrived at the town of Senare, and visited the sources of the river Tacazze, having before this met with no stream of importance. He now changed his route, following the course of the river, nearly due north, and afterwards north-east to Socota, the reputed capital of Lasta,—the district which, before his departure from Antalo, he was advised to pass through, as lying in the most accessible road to Gondar. From Socota, he proceeded northwards along the banks of the Tacazze, and, having crossed it, entered the province of Samen, the mountains of which he ascended till he reached Mishekka, and afterwards descended them to Inchetkasab, where Ras Gabriel resided. Here, having learnt that Ras Melud Selasse, with whom he had been left by Mr Salt, at Antalo, was in danger of being attacked by the Galla, he returned to that town by a more direct route, than he pursued in his journey to Inchetkasab. His next excursion was, in company with the Ras, against his enemies, through Lasta, and the Galla having been defeated, into the plains of the Edjow. Next year, engaging again in the campaign, he accompanied the army into Hamazen. He also passed over the salt plain by Omphila. These were the principal parts of Abyssinia, which Mr Pearce had an opportunity of visiting, during the interval between Mr Salt's departure from, and return to that country.

* There must surely be some mistake here, as the plate of the rhinoceros is evidently borrowed from Buffon, with the addition of another horn, and exhibits folds in the skin; a circumstance never existing in the two-horned species, though always met with in the one-horned, which alone Buffon describes. Mr Salt, in his second journey, proceeded from the coast of the Red Sea, by the route of Wéah, to the foot of the Taranta mountains, which he crossed to Dixan, and thence proceeded to Chelicut. Here he ascertained that it was impracticable to accomplish the immediate object of his journey,—the personal delivery of the presents with which he had been entrusted by his Majesty to the Emperor of Abyssinia,—as that monarch lived entirely neglected, and in fact a prisoner at Gondar, which was in the possession of Guxa, a chief of the Galla, and the decided opponent of Mr Salt's friend, Ras Welud Selassé. Disappointed in this object, he made an excursion to the Tacazze, through the province of Avergale, a distance of sixty miles west from Chelicut; and on his return to the latter town, he made another excursion to Antalo. On finally quitting Chelicut, he passed through the high district of Giralta, whence he descended the steep pass of Athara, to the banks of the Warre. His route was next to Adowa, over several ridges of hills. From Adowa he made an excursion to Axum, for the purpose of re-examining its ruins and inscriptions. Having accomplished this object, he returned to Adowa, and thence to the sea-coast.

From this brief outline of Mr Salt's two journeys, and of the excursions of Mr Pearce, it will appear that neither of them penetrated so far into Abyssinia, as Mr Bruce had done; nevertheless, their narratives are of very considerable value, not only on account of the new information which they supply, but also, as they enable us to place more steady confidence in such parts of Mr Bruce's statements regarding Abyssinia, as they had the opportunity of verifying; and to ascribe to his Travels their just degree of value and accuracy.

II. We come now to the second division of our subject,—the additional information regarding Abyssinia, supplied by Dr Murray's edition of Bruce, and by Mr Salt's two journeys.

When Mr Salt was last in Abyssinia, it was divided into three distinct and independent states. Tigre which was the most powerful, was under the dominion of Ras Welud Selassé, who possessed the monopoly of all the muskets imported; and of all the salt. Tigre comprehends about four degrees of latitude, and the same of longitude; it possesses the sea-coast, is naturally strong, and is inhabited by a warlike people. Its divisions are, 1. Tigre proper; the general character of which is, a range of hills, intersected by deep gullies, and cultivated plains. 2. Agamé, which lies to the east of Tigre proper. This division, being level land, at a considerable height above the sea, and consequently enjoying a favourable climate, is rich and fertile. On its eastern frontier, and near the Taltal, it is strong; the salt plain is in its vicinity. 3. The division of Enderta, to the south of Agamé, is mostly mountainous; its capital is Antalo, in which the Ras resides, on account of its being situated so as to protect the southern provinces from the Galla. 4. To the south of Enderta is the division of Wojjerat; a wild district, full of forests, in which the lion, elephant, and rhinoceros are found. 5. Adjoining to Wojjerat, is the small and low division of Wofla, which borders on the lake Ashangel; here the Galla are intermixed with the native Abyssinians, and profess the Christian religion. 6. The division of Lasta is rugged, and almost entirely composed of inaccessible mountains. To the north of this there are two mountainous districts; and between them and the Tacazze are two low districts, inhabited by Christian Agows. 7. Further to the north lies the division of Avergale. It is very narrow, and stretches, for about fifty miles north and south, along the Tacazze. It is inhabited by the Agows. 8. The division of Samen, which is to the east of the Tacazze, is the highest land in Abyssinia. Its mountains run north and south, about eighty miles. 9. Between the northern border of Samen and Tigré proper, lies the valuable district of Zemen. 10. Above Zemen, to the west of Axum, is the division of Shire, the most picturesque part of Abyssinia, abounding in rich valleys, flowery meadows, and shady groves. 11. The last division of Tigré is commonly called the kingdom of the Baharnegosh.

The second independent state is that which still retains the name of Amhara. This is almost entirely in the possession of the Galla, whose chief is Guxa, the enemy of Ras Welud Selassé. His power, on the west side of the Tacazze is absolute; and it is much strengthened and increased by his connection with the southern Galla; his cavalry are estimated at twenty thousand, chiefly from the district of Begender. Gondar belongs to him.

The third grand division, which lies in the south of Abyssinia, is now entirely separated from the two others by the Galla; it consists of the united provinces of Shoa and Efát, which are supposed to retain a larger portion of Ethiopian literature and manners than any other part of Abyssinia. Efát lies between the ninth and eleventh degrees of latitude. It is principally high land, running north and south, and gradually declining on each side into a plain country. Streams flow from both sides of the mountains, and fall into the Nile and Hawush. Two branches of the latter nearly encircle this province. The present ruler is the grandson of Yasous, mentioned by Bruce, (but as Dofter Esther informed Mr Salt, incorrectly,) as having visited Gondar, while he was there. He resides at Aukoher, the capital of Efát. This district is one of the finest in Abyssinia, and in power equal to that of Ras Welud Selassé. Its force is chiefly cavalry, who are very skilful and courageous. The province of Shoa lies on a lower level than that of Efát; there is extremely rich pasturage in its valleys; it contains several large towns, and many monasteries. The districts of Walaka and Gondar are dependent on the united provinces of Shoa and Efát.

Of the rivers, the Tacazze is described in the original work; from Mr Salt we learn, that it rises from three small springs in the plains of Margilla; that in the rainy season, it is swelled by the torrents; that it is joined by the river Arequa, which runs through the province of Avergale, in a north-west direction, in the district of Zemen; and that it forms one of the larger branches of the Nile. The Bahr-el-Asrek, or Blue River, or Azergue, the chief Abyssinian branch of the Nile, rises from two foun- Abyssinia, tains in Sacala, near Geesh, flows through the lake of Dembea, sweeps in a semicircular direction round the provinces of Damot and Gojam, when it quits the lake; and unites with the Bahr-el-Abiad, or White river, at Wed Hogela, in latitude 16°. This river, the real Nile, is supposed to rise in the Jibbel-el-Kumri, or mountains of the Moon. The other rivers are, the Maleg, which joins the Abyssinian Nile, after a parallel course, on the west; the Mareb, which forms the boundary between Tigre and the kingdom of the Baharnagosh; the Hanazo and Hawush, which flow in an opposite direction, towards the entrance of the Red Sea, and the Jemma. The principal lakes are Dembea, or Tzana, about sixty miles long, and thirty broad, where most extensive, and in the wet seasons; the lake of Lasa-wa, in the southern extremity of Abyssinia, a chief source of the Hawush; the lake of Haïk, near the rocks of Geshen and Ambazel, and the Ashangel.

The mountains of Abyssinia are described in the original work.

Our knowledge of its natural history is considerably increased by Dr Murray's edition of Bruce, and Mr Salt's two journeys; but we must confine ourselves to a brief notice of the most important particulars.

The lehem, or Toberne montana, a tree common near the lake of Dembea, is remarkable for its beauty and fragrance; it grows to a considerable size, the extremities of its branches trailing along the ground, loaded with flowers, from top to bottom, in great profusion, each cluster containing between eighty-five and ninety, open or shut; the fruit is eaten, but has rather a harsh taste. The anguah, found near the Tacazze, produces a gum resembling frankincense. The leaves of the gheesh, which is very common, are put by the Abyssinians into their maize; they are likewise reduced to powder, and mixed with the other materials of which they make sowa. The mergom-bey, a species of Solanum, is used as a cathartic; and from the niche, or niege, they extract their vegetable oil; it is a species of Sesamum. These are the principal plants, descriptions and plates of which are given from Mr Bruce's manuscripts and drawings by Dr Murray. Mr Salt's researches have added eight new genera, and one hundred and twenty-four new species, to botany. Near Shela, a species of narrow-leaved Ficus grows, called by the natives chekunit; the inner rind of the bark of which, having been bruised on a stone, twisted round a stick, and dried, is used as matches for their fire-arms. Near Adowa, Mr Salt found a new and beautiful species of Amaryllis, bearing ten or twelve spikes of bloom on each stem, from one receptacle, as large as those of the belladonna. The corolla is white; each petal is marked down the middle with a single streak of bright purple; it is sweet-scented, like the lily of the valley; the bulbs are frequently two feet under ground. Mr Salt brought this plant to England.

The domesticated animals are oxen: the Galla oxen, or sangga, were not seen by Mr Bruce; and his account of them is not strictly correct, their large horns not being the effect of disease. The largest Mr Salt ever saw was four feet in length, and the circumference at the base twenty-one inches. The horns of one of them are in the museum of the College of Surgeons in London. The animal itself is of Abyssinia, the usual size, and of various colours; it is by no means common in Abyssinia, being brought only by the cafila, or salt caravans, as a valuable present, from the south. Sheep,—these are small and black; goats; horses, strong and beautiful; mules, asses, a few camels, two species of dogs, one of which owns no master, but lives in packs in the villages, like the paria dog in India; the other is kept for game, especially for Guinea fowls, which it catches very expertly; tame cats are found in every house.

The wild animals are the elephant, which is hunted by the Shangalla for their teeth; the cave leopard, rare, only found in the interior districts; very shy; its skin is an article of barter: the two-horned rhinoceros, also rare, only found in the forests of Wojjerat, and the low land near the Fungo; its horns have no connection with the bone of the head, consequently the opinion of Sparman, that they can raise and depress them at pleasure, may be correct. This rhinoceros has no folds in the skin, as the one-horned has; its skin is used for shields; its horns for handles to swords and daggers; and, according to the Abyssinian Dean, whom Dr Clarke interrogated at Cairo, as a lining to drinking-vessels, being regarded as an antidote to poison. The foremost horn is two feet long, and very large in other respects. The buffalo is very common in the forests of Ras-el-fil; shields are made from its skin with great art. The zebra, in the south chiefly; its mane decorates the collars of the war-horses belonging to chiefs of great rank, on days of state. The wild ass is found in some parts; lions occasionally, especially in the sandy districts near the Tacazze. Whoever kills one wears the paw on his shield; the skin, richly ornamented, forms a dress like that worn by the Caffire chiefs. There are several species of leopard, one black, extremely rare, the skin of which is worn only by governors of provinces. The lion-cat, tiger-cat, or grey lynx, and wild-cat, are not uncommon. From the libet, civet is procured, and is an article of commerce. The hyena: Mr Salt remarks that it has a singular cry; three distinct deep-toned cries; then silence for a few minutes, succeeded by the same kind of cry. The hyena and dog seldom fight; they even feed on the same carcass: a small kind of wolf; common fox; sea fox; and jackall. There is a great variety of antelopes, one of which is probably allied to the chamois, being confined to the cold and mountainous district of Sama. Several species of monkey; the wild boar; porcupine; cavy, nearly allied to that of the Cape; a small grey hare, deemed by the natives unclean; squirrel; rats, very numerous in the fields; an undescribed species of lemur, the size of a cat, with a long tail, faintly striped with black and white, with white bushy hair at the end: the hair on the body is long, and of a clear white, except on the back, where there is a large oval spot, covered with short, deep black hair. Of this every man in Tigre endeavours, if possible, to have a piece on his shield. The hippopotami are chiefly found in the deep pits, like lochs, between the fords of the Tacazze; they roll and snort like a porpus; they cannot remain longer than five or six minutes under water: their colour is a dusky brown, like the elephant; their usual length sixteen Abyssinia. feet. Whips are made of their skin; and used to brush away the flies, which are very troublesome in hot weather; the butt-ends of the whips are ornamented with hair from the tail of the cameleopard.

Besides the two species of Falco, described by Mr Bruce, there is another called goodie-goodie, the size of the common falcon, the feet and back bluish, the general colour a deep brown, the whole of the breast a clear white. Mr Salt also found a new species of vulture. The ostrich is rarely met with in Abyssinia, except in the low districts to the north. The hern is common in marshy ground. The hornbill, in the cultivated lands of Tigré, destroys the grubs, &c., builds in low branches of lofty trees, and is often seen solitary. The Egyptian goose, allied to the Anas Lybica, is occasionally seen. Guinea fowls, partridges, quails, &c. abound.

The rarest birds brought home by Mr Salt from Abyssinia are a new species of Bucco, since called B. Saltii, which clings like the woodpecker to the branches of trees; a variety of the Úpupa erythrocephalos, with a black tail; it feeds on the figs of the Ficus sycomorus; a non-descript species of Merops; a non-descript species of Tanapa, which perches on the backs of the cattle, and feeds on the grubs which infest them in hot weather; the Columba Abyssinica, wild among the daro trees, eaten by the Abyssinians; the Tringa Senegalla; the Erodia amphioris, allied in some degree to the Arodea Pondicieriana, probably a new genus; the Cursarius Europaeus, an extremely rare bird, shot on the sandy plains near the Tacazze.

Bees are domesticated in the province of Wojjerat, which is famous for white honey, sold at Antalo. Mr Salt gives a dreadful account of the ravages of the Abyssinian locust.

Little is still known respecting the mineralogy of Abyssinia. Near Wéah there are low hills of granitic rocks, resting on a bed of micaceous earth. In the district of Tigré the soil is sandy; the rocks, composed of slate, schistus, and granite, lie in perpendicular strata. In the districts of Geralta and Enderta the strata are rather horizontal. But the Salt Plain is the most interesting, not only in a mineralogical, but also in an economical view, as from it the Abyssinians obtain the pieces of salt which they use as money. This plain lies near the country of the Assa Durwa, about fifty miles west of Amphiha, on the road to Massowa; it is about four days' journey in extent from north-east to south-west: it is crossed in sandals made of the leaves of a species of palm. The plain is perfectly flat; for the first half mile the salt is soft; it then becomes hard and crystallized, like ice on which snow has fallen, after it has been partially thawed; branches of pure salt occasionally rise above the surface. It is cut with an adze into pieces the shape of a whetstone. For about two feet immediately under the surface it is hard and pure; afterwards it is coarse and softer, till exposed to the air. The employment of cutting the salt is very dangerous, on account of the Galla, who frequently attack the workmen; none, therefore, are employed except the lowest order of the natives, who lie down on their backs, or flee to the mountains, on the approach of the Galla. Salt caravans, called caflias, are regularly sent for salt from Antalo; and the Balgudda, or protector of these caravans, is a situation of great importance as well as emolument; for on their safe arrival mainly depends the internal and external commerce of the Abyssinians; when they arrive, therefore, they are received with great acclamation and joy. The Galla frequently attack them. The emolument of the Balgudda is derived from the duty imposed on the importation of salt;—a camel, the usual load of which is two hundred pieces, pays eleven; a mule, carrying eighty, pays nine; an ass pays six; when it is brought away by men, no duty is paid.

With respect to the climate, Mr Salt found that the thermometer, in March, April, and May, averaged 70° at Chelicut, 65° at Antalo, 95° on the banks of the Tacazze, and on the mountains of Samen, he supposed it to be below the freezing point. He contradicts, from his own observation, Mr Bruce's statement, that snow is not known in Abyssinia: on the mountains it is not uncommon. The Samen mountains were covered with snow at the time Mr Salt saw them; and Mr Pearce, in his passage over them, experienced a heavy fall.

Two varieties of wheat are cultivated, of which Agriculture they make large loaves, either baked or prepared by steam. These, however, are used only at the tables of the great. The teff, which is their usual food, varies in colour from white to black. The Abyssinian Dean informed Dr Clarke that beer, or sora, was made from sellehi, and not from teff; and that it is not made from the latter, is confirmed by the testimony of Michael, Mr Bruce's servant. (Murray's Life of Bruce, 4to p. 252). The nege, which is like the Raggy of India, is next in esteem to the teff, with which, or with barley, it is mixed to make bread. It is harsh and dry. Two kinds of barley are sown, the black, in great quantity, but it is only given to horses and mules. Maize is much cultivated between Galla and Dixan, but not made into bread. The vetch is cultivated for the purpose of mixing it with teff, or forming it with ghee and curds into balls. It is eaten in the morning. The worst grain of every kind is generally used for seed. As almost every man cultivates enough for his family, it is seldom sold. On the low lands there are two crops. The ploughs are rudely made, from the root or branch of a tree; sometimes the shares are of iron. They are drawn by oxen. The land is twice ploughed, afterwards the clods are broken by women, and when the corn is half ripe, it is weeded by men, women, and children, singing as they work; only females reap, and when strangers pass they utter a sharp shrill cry, the Liralect of Syria, where it is used on the same occasion. It is caused by trilling the tongue against the roof of the mouth, without any distinct words, but a constant repetition of the syllable al, uttered with the utmost rapidity. In some parts, the grain, when carried, is secured from the weather by means of tanned kid skins. The plain of Laraï, near Dixan, resembles the vale of Evesham. It is highly cultivated, and irrigation is practised in it. Cotton is grown near the Tacazze, and sold at Adowa.

Of the customs, manners, superstitions, laws, and Customs, languages, of the Abyssinians, and the neighbouring tribes, noticed by Mr Salt, the following are the Abyssinia, most curious and interesting. His description of a brind feast, though not so highly coloured as that of Mr Bruce, is still sufficient to prove the barbarism of the Abyssinians. The sides of the table are covered with piles of thin cakes made of teff, reaching to the height of a foot, and two feet and a half in diameter; in the middle a row of curry dishes is placed. Near the Ras there are a number of fine wheaten rolls, for his own use, and that of his favourites. The signal to begin the feast is given by his breaking and distributing them; immediately female slaves, having washed their hands, dip the teff into the curry, and serve it to all the guests, except the Ras, who receives his portion from a male slave, and afterwards distributes it among the chiefs, who acknowledge the favour by standing up and bowing. Balls composed of teff, greens, and curds, are next handed about. In the meantime the cattle are killing in the adjoining yard. The process of killing is simple:—the beast is thrown on the ground, and its head separated from the body with a Jambae knife, during which an invocation is always pronounced. The skin is immediately stript off one side, and the entrails being taken out, are devoured by the attendants. While the fibres are yet quivering, the flesh is cut into large pieces. These are of no regular size; but generally a piece of bone is attached to the flesh, by which it is brought into the dining-room. The chiefs with their crooked knives cut off large steaks, which they divide into long stripes, half an inch in diameter. If they are not pleased with the piece they have got, they hand it to a dependant, who, in his turn, if not pleased, hands it to another, till it comes to one whose taste or rank does not induce or authorize him to reject it. As soon as the first party is satisfied, they rise from the table and give way to others. The last cakes are scrambled for with a great noise. It appears from Mr Salt, that, though the chiefs sometimes feed themselves at these feasts, yet more frequently, as Mr Bruce relates, they feed one another.

Live meal. It has already been mentioned, that Mr Pearce witnessed a live meal, when travelling with the Lasta soldiers. Having fasted long, one of them proposed to cut out the shulada, upon which the cow was thrown down, and two pieces of flesh, weighing about a pound, cut from the buttock; these they called the shulada. Whenever Mr Salt mentioned the term, he was always understood. After the pieces were cut out, the wounds were sewed up, and plastered over with cow-dung. The animal was drove on, but killed at the end of the journey. The Abyssinians are very expert in dissecting a cow, as there are always a number of claimants, each of whom claims a right to a particular portion.

Pictures. The Abyssinians are very fond of pictures. Their churches are full of them, and such chiefs as can afford it, ornament the walls of their principal room with them. They paint their pictures on the surface of the walls, tracing the outline with charcoal; they afterwards go over it with coarse Indian ink, and lastly, introduce the colours, which are almost exclusively gaudy. They exaggerate the size of the eye, and paint all classes with full faces, except the Jews, whom they uniformly paint with side faces.

On their journeys, they sing extempore verses, one person alone composing and singing them at Abyssinia first, after which they are repeated in chorus by the rest.

Their dress consists of a large folding mantle, and close drawers. To these the priests add a vest of white linen next the skin. On their head they wear a small shawl of white cotton, with the crown exposed. Their houses are of a conic form, covered with thatch. In Dixan the houses are flat-roofed, without windows; instead of chimneys are pots of earthen ware on the roofs. There are also caves near this place used as dwellings, which are expeditiously made, in a very simple manner: the earth being dug out, and the mortar tempered occasionally with the blade-bone of an ox, and the stones that are used shaped with an adze. Their principal liquor is called sadoon, the liquor is drunk out of Venetian decanters, called brulles. But the common drink among the lower class is made of the bread left at their feasts, and parched barley; it is called sowa, and is drank out of horns.

Marriage is generally a civil contract. The female, who is seldom consulted on the occasion, is carried to the house of her husband on his shoulders, or those of his friends. The bride and bridegroom are sometimes seated on a throne of turf, shaded with boughs, round which the relations, &c. dance. The dowry consists of gold, cattle, musquets, and cloth, and is always kept apart, and returned in case of separation. Marriage by civil contract can be dissolved at pleasure; by religious contract it is more sacred, especially when the parties take the sacrament after marriage. Ladies of rank retain their estates and maiden names, and assume great superiority over their husbands. At Dixan they allow the nails on their left hand to grow to a great length, and cover them with cases of leather to preserve them. In some parts it is not uncommon for one man to have several wives; only one, however, is deemed his lawful wife; each has her separate residence.

When a person is seized with a species of fever called Tigreter, his relations shew him all the dying and dead gold and silver ornaments, fine clothes, &c. which they can collect, making, at the same time, a dreadful noise with drums and other musical instruments, to drive the devil out; for they believe all diseases come from the devil. When death is at hand, the drums, &c. cease; and when it actually takes place, howling and tearing of the hair and skin from the temples ensue. No time is lost in washing the body, and fumigating it with incense, after which it is sewed up in the clothes of the deceased, and buried in great haste. When the burial is over, the toscar Feast of the deceased, in rich garments, on his favourite mule, is carried through the town, accompanied by other mourners, crying out, as in Ireland, "Why did you leave us? had you not houses and land?" When the procession returns, cattle are killed, and an immense number of people feasted; a repetition of this feast, at certain intervals, is given by the different relations When a person is murdered, the criminal is generally given up to the relations of the deceased, who take him to the market-place, and dispatch him with their knives and spears, every relation and friend making a point of striking a blow. When a person accused of any crime is apprehended, he is tied by his garments to another; and it is always considered a sure proof of guilt, if he runs away and leaves his garments behind. The Ras decides disputes before him each party makes his statement, and stakes a quantity of salt, a mule, slaves, gold, &c. on the veracity of his statement; the party convicted is punished by the forfeiture to the Ras of what he staked. Lands descend from father to son; when there is no son, they go to the brother. All the children and relations have a claim on the property of the deceased; if he has neither, he generally directs it to be sold, and one half to be given to the priests, and the other to the poor.

Their lent continues fifty-two days, during which they never taste food, till after sunset. The chief amusement on the holidays after lent, with the lower classes, very much resembles the English game of bandy.

On the feast of Epiphany, which, according to the Abyssinians, is the 11th of January, they assemble, in commemoration of our Saviour's baptism, near brooks, into which they jump, after having received the blessing of the priest, leaping, dancing, ducking one another, and shouting. In the performance of baptism, three priests are engaged; one with the incense, another with a golden cross, and the third with the consecrated oil from the patriarch of Alexandria. The person to be baptized is first washed over with water, and afterwards crossed on the forehead with some of that element, over which the incense has been waved, and into which the consecrated oil has been dropped. When the person is a Mahometan, every joint and limb is crossed with the consecrated oil; he is then wrapped in a white linen cloth, and partakes of the sacrament. No unbaptized person is allowed to enter a church. The sacrament is given in both kinds, with new leavened bread, and wine made of a red grape common in some parts of the country. Great numbers of pilgrims, in a yellow dress, with cords round their waists, resort to the rich and beautiful plains of Walasse, where they spend their time, by no means innocently, amidst its retired groves.

The Christians near Dixan are distinguished by a cross on their breast, arm, &c. and a blue silk string round their neck. They say prayers over whatever they eat, drink, receive, or give, and afterwards blow on it, turning their heads to the east. They turn the heads of animals to the west when they kill them. A striking resemblance may be traced between some of the superstitions of the Abyssinians, and those which still linger in our own country. The falcon, called goodie-goodie, already noticed, is never killed by them; and when an Abyssinian sets out on a journey and meets one, he watches it carefully; if it sit still, with its breast towards him, till he is past, he regards it as a good omen; if its back is towards him, it is unpropitious; and if it fly away, no motive will induce him to proceed on his journey.

It is a prevalent belief, that every worker in iron transforms himself, at night, into an hyena, and preys on human flesh; but if, while thus transformed, he is wounded, the wound remains in the corresponding part of his own body.

The languages spoken in Abyssinia and the neighbouring districts, are a corruption of the Geez, called Tigre, Amharic, Falashan, Gafat, Agow, Tchetch Agow, Shangalla, and Galla. According to Dr Murray, the written Geez is the oldest dialect of the Arabic in existence. The Amharic, the modern language of Abyssinia, is likewise an Arabic dialect, more simple than the Geez in the form of its verbs, but in all other respects the same. The Falasha is spoken by the tribes professing the Jewish religion, who formerly ruled in Dembea, Samen, and near the Angrab and Kahha; it is one of the ancient Ethiopian tongues, and has no affinity to the Arabic or Hebrew. The language of the Gafat nation is a corrupted dialect of the Amharic.

Respecting the tribes which border upon, or are intermixed with, the Abyssinians, Mr Salt has supplied us with some additional information.

The Jews are very numerous in Gondar, and the provinces of Samen and Knara; they are chiefly employed in building and thatching houses.

The Hazorta tribe inhabit the mountains near Tubbo, and command the only practicable passage into Abyssinia. They are a brave and rude people. Their population is about 5000, over whom there are five chiefs. They possess many cattle, which they seldom kill, but barter with the Abyssinians for grain, being almost entirely ignorant of the art of raising corn. They assist the Abyssinians in getting in their harvests. During the rainy season, they go to the sea-side for three, four, or five months; and on their return bring salt, which they exchange for grain with the Abyssinians. When they beat their tom-toms, they clap their hands, and hiss in such a manner, that the sound resembles the quick alternate pronunciation of the letters p t s. Only one person dances at a time, generally a chief; his feet move little, but his body, and particularly his shoulders, are extremely agitated with a kind of writhing gesture.

The name Shangalla (or, according to Bruce, Shankala,) is applied by the Abyssinians to the whole race of negroes. One tribe of them were represented to Mr Salt as living three days' journey beyond the Nile, and as having a very imperfect notion of any supreme being. The only species of adoration which they exhibit occurs during a great holiday, when all the people assemble and kill a cow, by stabbing it in a thousand places. They have no priests or rulers, but pay respect to old age; the old men being allowed to drink first, and take two wives. In their marriages they mutually take each other's sisters. If one of the parties has no sister, he gives one of his female slaves. The women assist the men in ploughing, &c. and have an equal share of the produce of the land. These people are named from some circumstances relating to their birth, as "Born in the night;" or, "Born while making boozza;" or from some marks on their bodies. They are buried in their clothes, without ceremony, the relatives feasting on the cattle of the deceased, his wife getting the household furniture, and the sons his arms, land, and agricultural implements. When hunting, they eat whatever they can procure, even an elephant or a rat. They tie the legs of their prisoners, and employ them in making cloth, or manufacturing iron. Those who cannot work, they kill. The Abyssinians consider it as sport to hunt the Shangalla.

There are at least twenty tribes of the Galla, some of whom, entering Abyssinia from the south, have become naturalized, and adopted the manners of the Abyssinians. The tribes out of Abyssinia have little connection with one another, though they speak the same language; each has its own chief, and they are often engaged in mutual hostilities. There are two divisions larger than the rest, one of which, near the Abiad, or White River, retains its natural ferocity: they drink warm blood, adorn themselves with the entrails of animals, and ride on oxen. The Assube Galla wear garments like the Abyssinians; grease and powder their hair; and cover their arms with bracelets, and with trophies, according to the number of the enemies slain.

The inhabitants of Hamazen differ from the rest of the Abyssinians, being darker and stronger limbed, and more like the Fungè, who live near Sennaar; they fight desperately with two-edged swords. In the province of Wojjerat, also, the men are larger and stouter than the other Abyssinians. They are said to be the descendants of Portuguese soldiers. Their fidelity to their rulers is proverbial. The plain, eight hours' distance from Wojjerat, is inhabited by the Doba, one of the isolated tribes of negroes found in all parts of Africa. They are mentioned by Alvarez, as, in his time, not marrying till they could make oath that they had put to death twelve Christians.

The Agows, who were worshippers of the Nile till the seventeenth century, always fix their residence near the great branches of that river, for whose waters they still retain a veneration so great, that they will supply a stranger with milk, but not with water. Their buildings are without mortar. The houses of the higher ranks are in the form of Egyptian temples. At the earliest dawn of day they assemble before the doors of their chiefs, and chant their prayers.

It has already been mentioned, that one of the objects of Mr Salt's journeys was to ascertain, whether Abyssinia was likely to afford any new openings to British commerce. How far this is likely, will best appear from a sketch of the manufactures and commerce of that country. The former are few and contemptible: though cotton grows in many parts, and is of a superior quality, yet they import a considerable quantity from India, which they manufacture into a coarse cloth. As they have no dark blue colour, they unravel the threads of the blue cloth of Surat, and weave them again into their own webs: they procure a black dye from an earth, and red, yellow, and light blue from vegetables. Fine cloth is manufactured at Gondar, and coarse at Adowa; the latter, besides its common use, circulates as money: a coarse piece, sixteen cubits long, and one-three-fourths wide, is equal to thirty pieces of salt or one dollar; a piece, not so coarse, fifty cubits long, sufficient to make a dress for a chief, is equal to twelve dollars. Coarse Abyssinian carpets from sheep's wool, and the hair of goats dyed red, and light blue, are manufactured at Gondar and in Samen. In some parts the sheep skins are tanned, and worn by the women round their waists, or over their shoulders, whenever they stir out. At Axum, skins are made into parchment and finished well. Manufactures of iron and brass are common; the former is procured from Sennaar, Walkayt, and Barbera; knives are made at Adowa; and spears at Antalo; highly finished chains of brass are made by the Galla. There are many fairs and weekly markets. At a weekly market near Abha, were exposed for sale, iron, wrought and unwrought, for ploughshares, &c., cattle, horses, skins, cotton, ghee, butter in round balls and very white, &c. It is not infamous, as Mr Bruce asserts, for men to attend the markets.

Through Adowa, there are imported for Gondar and the interior of Abyssinia, lead, block-tin, gold-foil, Persian carpets, raw silks from China, velvets, French broad cloths, coloured skins from Egypt, and glass beads and decanters from Venice. Ivory, gold, and slaves, are the principal exports through Adowa to the coast. A few slaves from Abyssinia reach Cairo, by way of Cossir and Suez; they are esteemed more beautiful than those of Soudan.

In estimating the probability, that Abyssinia may afford a new opening for British commerce, there are of its two circumstances which require particular consideration. There can be no doubt, that, in so far as a more accurate knowledge of the navigation of the Red Sea, and convenient places for landing the goods aimed at are requisite for this object, the journeys of Lord Valentia and Mr Salt have been of great utility; but, there can be no communication with Gondar and the interior of Abyssinia, unless we could either form an alliance with the chief who commands there,—in which case we should be exposed to the enmity of the Ras of Tigrè, and thus be prevented even from advancing to a short distance from the coast,—or assist the Ras to liberate his sovereign, and replace him on his throne. Direct assistance could not be given, and the result seems very doubtful, were we only to furnish the Ras with a supply of arms. In the second place, supposing the communication with Gondar to be open and easy, Abyssinia at present can furnish nothing in exchange for our goods. We could indeed supply them, either from Britain, or from our Indian possessions, with most of the articles which they procure from Arabia; especially with India goods and raw cotton from India, for which, as cotton is used for clothing in the greatest part of Africa, there must be a great demand: besides, our goods could be sold cheaper, being exempt from the heavy duty imposed on what they now import. But for exchange with us, Abyssinia produces only ivory and gold: the latter in small quantities; the former we can procure cheaper elsewhere.

On the whole, therefore, when we consider, that the communication with the interior will probably always be liable to interruption; and that, even if the case were otherwise, no returns could be looked for, except from the increased industry and skill of the Abyssinians, or from regions with which the intercourse is slow and precarious, there seems but little reason to expect that this country will afford any new openings to British commerce. (c.)