a kind of miniature painting, anciently much practised for illustrating and adorning books. Besides the writers of books, there were artists whose profession was to ornament and paint manuscripts, who were called illuminators; the writers of books first finished their part, and the illuminators embellished them with ornamented letters and paintings. We frequently find blanks left in manuscripts for the illuminators, which were never filled up. Some of the ancient manuscripts are gilt and burnished in a style superior to later times. Their colours were excellent, and their skill in preparing them must have been very great.

The practice of introducing ornaments, drawings, emblematical figures, and even portraits, into manuscripts, is of great antiquity. Varro wrote the lives of 700 illustrious Romans, which he enriched with their portraits, as Pliny attests in his Natural History (lib. xxxv. chap. 2). Pomponius Atticus, the friend of Cicero, was the author of a work on the actions of the great men amongst the Romans, which he ornamented with their portraits, as appears in his life by Cornelius Nepos (chap. 18.). But these works have not been transmitted to posterity. There are, however, many precious documents remaining, which exhibit the advancement and decline of the arts in different ages and countries. These inestimable paintings and illuminations display the manners, customs, habits ecclesiastical, civil, and military, weapons and instruments of war, utensils and architecture of the ancients; they are of the greatest use in illustrating many important facts relative Illuminative to the history of the times in which they were executed. In these treasures of antiquity are preserved a great number of specimens of Grecian and Roman art, which were executed before the arts and sciences fell into neglect and contempt. The manuscripts containing these specimens form a valuable part of the riches preserved in the principal libraries of Europe. The Royal, Cottonian, and Harleian libraries, as also those in the two universities in England, the Vatican at Rome, the imperial at Vienna, the royal at Paris, St Mark's at Venice, and many others.

A very ancient MS. of Genesis, which was in the Cottonian library, and almost destroyed by a fire in 1731, contained 250 curious paintings in water colours. Twenty-one fragments, which escaped the fire, are engraved by the society of antiquarians of London. Several specimens of curious paintings also appear in Lamec's catalogue of the imperial library at Vienna, particularly in vol. iii., where 48 drawings of nearly equal antiquity with those in the Cottonian library are engraved; and several others may be found in various catalogues of the Italian libraries. The drawings in the Vatican Virgil, made in the fourth century, before the arts were entirely neglected, illustrate the different subjects treated of by the Roman poet. A miniature drawing is prefixed to each of the gospels brought over to England by St Augustin in the 6th century, which is preserved in the library of Corpus Christi college, Cambridge: in the compartments of those drawings are depicted representations of several transactions in each gospel. The curious drawings, and elaborate ornaments in St Cuthbert's gospels, made by St Ethelwald, and now in the Cottonian library, exhibit a striking specimen of the state of the arts in England in the 7th century. The same may be observed with respect to the drawings in the ancient copy of the four gospels preserved in the cathedral church of Litchfield, and those in the Codex Rushworthianus in the Bodleian library at Oxford. The life of St Paul the hermit, now remaining in Corpus Christi college, Cambridge, (G. 2.), affords an example of the style of drawing and ornamenting letters in England in the 8th century; and the copy of Prudentius's Psychomachia in the Cottonian library (Cleop. c. 8.) exhibits the style of drawing in Italy in the 9th century. Of the 10th century there are Roman drawings of a singular kind in the Harleian library (No. 2820.). Nos. 5280, 1802, and 432, in the same library, contain specimens of ornamented letters, which are to be found in Irish MSS. from the 12th to the 14th century. Cedmon's Poetical Paraphrase of the book of Genesis, written in the 11th century, which is preserved amongst F. Junius's MSS. in the Bodleian library, exhibits many specimens of utensils, weapons, instruments of music, and implements of husbandry used by the Anglo-Saxons. The like may be seen in extracts from the Pentateuch of the same age in the Cottonian library (Claud. B. 4.). The manuscript copy of Terence in the Bodleian library (D. 17.) displays the dresses, masks, &c. worn by comedians in the 12th century, if not earlier. The very elegant Psalter in the library of Trinity college, Cambridge, exhibits specimens of the art of drawing in England in the same century. The Virgil in the Lambeth library of the 13th century (No. 471.), written in Italy, shows both by the drawings and writing, that the Italians produced works much inferior to ours at that period. The copy of the Apocalypse in the same library (No. 200.), contains a curious example of the manner of painting in the 14th century.—The beautiful paintings in the history of the latter part of the reign of King Richard II. in the Harleian library (No. 1319.), afford curious specimens of manners and customs, both civil and military, at the close of the 14th and in the beginning of the 15th century; as does No. 2278. in the same library.—Many other instances might be produced; but those who desire farther information may consult Strutt's Regal and Ecclesiastical Antiquities, 4to, and his Horda Angelcynnay recently published in 3 vols.

This art was much practised by the clergy, and even by some in the highest stations in the church. "The famous Osmond (says Bromton), who was consecrated bishop of Salisbury, A.D. 1076, did not disdain to spend some part of his time in writing, binding, and illuminating books." Mr Strutt, as already noticed, has given the public an opportunity of forming some judgment of the degree of delicacy and art with which these illuminations were executed, by publishing prints of a prodigious number of them, in his "Regal and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of England," and "View of the Customs, &c. of England." In the first of these works we are presented with the genuine portraits, in miniature, of all the kings, and several of the queens of England, from Edward the Confessor to Henry VII., mostly in their crowns and royal robes, together with the portraits of many other eminent persons of both sexes.

The illuminators and painters of this period seem to have been in possession of a considerable number of colouring materials, and to have known the arts of preparing and mixing them, so as to form a great variety of colours: for in the specimens of their miniature-paintings that are still extant, we perceive not only the five primary colours, but also various combinations of them. Though Strutt's prints do not exhibit the bright and vivid colours of the originals, they give us equally a view, not only of the persons and dresses of our ancestors, but also of their customs, manners, arts, and employments, their arms, ships, houses, furniture, &c. and enable us to judge of their skill in drawing. The figures in those paintings are often stiff and formal; but the ornaments are in general fine and delicate, and the colours clear and bright, particularly the gold and azure. In some of these illuminations the passions are strongly painted. How strongly, for example, is terror painted in the faces of the earl of Warwick's sailors, when they were threatened with a shipwreck, and grief in the countenances of those who were present at the death of that hero? After the introduction of printing, this elegant art of illuminating gradually declined, vol. ii., and at length was quite neglected.

Before concluding, it may not be improper to observe, that from the 5th to the 10th century, the miniature paintings which we meet with in Greek manuscripts are generally good, as are some which we find among those of Italy, England, and France. From the 10th to the middle of the 14th century they are commonly very bad, and may be considered as so many monuments of the barbarity of those ages; towards the latter end of the 14th, the paintings in manuscripts were much improved; and in the two succeeding centuries, many excellent performances were produced, especially after the happy period of the restoration of the arts, when great attention was paid to the works of the ancients, and the study of antiquity became fashionable.

**ILLUMINATORS.** See **ILLUMINATING.**

**ILLUMINED,** Illuminati, a church term, anciently applied to such persons as had received baptism. This name was occasioned by a ceremony in the baptism of adults; which consisted in putting a lighted taper in the hand of the person baptized, as a symbol of the faith and grace he had received in the sacrament.

**ILLUMINED,** Illuminati, is also the name of a sect of heretics, who sprang up in Spain about the year 1575, and were called by the Spaniards Alambrados. Their principal doctrines were, that by means of a sublime manner of prayer, which they had attained to, they entered into so perfect a state, that they had no occasion for ordinances, sacraments, nor good works; and that they could give way even to the vilest actions, without sin. The sect of Illumined was revived in France in the year 1624, and were soon after joined by the Guerins, or disciples of Peter Guerin, who together made but one body, called also Illumined; but they were so hotly pursued by Louis XIII. that they were soon destroyed. The brothers of the Rosy Cross are sometimes also called Illumined. See Rosycrusian.

**ILLUSTRIUS,** Illustres, was heretofore, in the Roman empire, a title of honour peculiar to people of a certain rank. It was first given to the most distinguished among the knights, who had a right to bear the latus clavus: afterwards, those were intitled illustrius who held the first rank among those called honorati; that is, the prefecti praetorii, prefecti urbis, treasurers, comites, &c.

There were, however, different degrees among the illustrius; as in Spain they have grandees of the first and second class, so in Rome they had their illustres, whom they called great, majores; and others less, called illustres minores.—For instance; the prefectus praetorii was a degree below the master of the offices, though they were both illustres.

The Novels of Valentinian distinguish as far as five kinds of illustres; among whom, the illustres administratores bear the first rank.

**ILLYRICUM,** (Solum perhaps understood) Livy, Herodian, St Paul; called Illyris by the Greeks, and sometimes Illyria; the country extending from the Adriatic to Pannonia thus called. Its boundaries are variously assigned. Pliny makes it extend in length from the river Ardia to the Drinius, thus including Liburnia to the west, and Dalmatia to the east; which is also the opinion of Ptolemy; who settles its limits from Mount Scardus and the Upper Moesia on the east, to Istria in the west. A Roman province, divided by Augustus into the Superior and Inferior, but of which the limits are left undetermined both by ancient historians and geographers. Illyris the people; called Illyres by the Greeks. The country is now called Slavonia.

**ILYRIUS,** Mathias, Flaccus, or Francowitz, one of the most learned divines of the Augsburg confession, born in Istria, anciently called Illyrica, in 1520. He is said to have been a man of vast genius, extensive learning, of great zeal against Popery; but of such a restless and passionate temper, as overbalanced all his good qualities, and occasioned much disturbance in the Protestant church. He published a great number of books, and died in 1575.

**IMAGE,** in a religious sense, is an artificial representation or similitude of some person or thing, used either by way of decoration and ornament, or as an object of religious worship and adoration: in which last sense it is used indifferently with the word IDOL.

The noble Romans preserved the images of their ancestors with a great deal of care and concern, and had them carried in procession at their funerals and triumphs: these were commonly made of wax, or wood, though sometimes of marble or brass. They placed them in the vestibules of their houses; and they were to stay there, even if the houses happened to be sold, it being accounted impious to displace them. Appius Claudius was the first who brought them into the temples, in the year of Rome 259, and he added inscriptions to them, showing the origin of the persons represented, and their brave and virtuous achievements.—It was not, however, allowed for all, who had the images of their ancestors in their houses, to have them carried at their funerals; this was a thing only granted to such as had honourably discharged themselves of their offices; for those who failed in this respect forfeited that privilege; and in case they had been guilty of any great crime, their images were broken in pieces. See IGNOBILES and Jus.

The Jews absolutely condemn all images, and do not so much as suffer any statues or figures in their houses, much less in their synagogues or places of worship.

The use and adoration of images are things that have been a long time controverted in the world.

It is plain, from the practice of the primitive church, recorded by the earlier fathers, that Christians, for the first three centuries after Christ, and the greater part of the fourth, neither worshipped images nor used them in their worship. However, the greater part of the Popish divines maintain, that the use and worship of images were as ancient as the Christian religion itself: to prove this, they allege a decree, said to have been made in a council held by the Apostles at Antioch, commanding the faithful that they may not err about the object of their worship, to make images of Christ and worship them. Baron. ad ann. 102. But no notice is taken of this decree, till 700 years after the Apostolic times, after the dispute about images had commenced. The first instance that occurs in any credible author of images among Christians, is that recorded by Tertullian de Pudicit. c. 10. of certain cups, or chalices, as Bellarmine pretends, on which was represented the parable of the good shepherd carrying the lost sheep on his shoulders: but this instance only proves, that the church, at that time, did not think emblematical figures unlawful ornaments of cups or chalices. Another instance is taken from Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. lib. vii. cap. 18. who says, that in his time there were to be seen two brass statues in the city of Paneas or Cesarea Philippi; the one of a woman on her knees, with her arms stretched out, the other of a man over against her, with his hand extended to receive her: these statues were said to be the images of our Saviour and... and the woman whom he cured of an issue of blood.

From the feet of the statue representing our Saviour, says the historian, sprung up an exotic plant, which, as soon as it grew to touch the border of his garment, was said to cure all sorts of distempers. Eusebius, however, vouches none of these things; may be supposes that the woman who erected this statue of our Saviour was a pagan, and ascribes it to a pagan custom. Farther, Philostorgius, Eccl. Hist. lib. vii. c. 3, expressly says, that this statue was carefully preserved by the Christians, but that they paid no kind of worship to it, because it is not lawful for Christians to worship brass, or any other matter. The primitive Christians abstained from the worship of images, not, as the Papists pretend, from tenderness to heathen idolaters, but because they thought it unlawful in itself to make any images of the Deity.

Justin Mart. Apol. ii. p. 44. Clem. Alex. Strom. 5. Strom. i. and Protr. p. 46. Aug. de Civit. Dei. lib. vii. c. 5. and lib. iv. c. 32. Id. de Fide et Symb. c. 7. Lactant. lib. ii. c. 3. Tertull. Apol. c. 12. Arnob. lib. vi. p. 222. Some of the fathers, as Tertullian, Clemens Alexandrinus, and Origen, were of opinion, that by the second commandment, the arts of painting and engraving were rendered unlawful to a Christian, styling them evil and wicked arts. Tert. de Idol. cap. 3. Clem. Alex. Admon. ad. Gent. p. 41. Orig. contra Celsum. lib. vi. p. 182. The use of images in churches, as ornaments, was first introduced by some Christians in Spain, in the beginning of the fourth century; but the practice was condemned as a dangerous innovation, in a council held at Eliberis in 305. Epiphanius, in a letter preserved by Jerome, tom. ii. ep. 6, bears strong testimony against images, and may be considered as one of the first Iconoclasts. The custom of admitting pictures of saints and martyrs into the churches (for this was the first source of image-worship) was rare in the latter end of the fourth century; but became common in the fifth; however, they were still considered only as ornaments; and even in this view, they met with very considerable opposition. In the following century the custom of thus adorning churches became almost universal, both in the east and west. Petavins expressly says (de Incar. lib. xv. cap. 14.), that no statues were yet allowed in the churches; because they bore too near a resemblance to the idols of the Gentiles. Towards the close of the fourth or beginning of the fifth century, images, which were introduced by way of ornament, and then used as an aid to devotion, began to be actually worshipped. However, it continued to be the doctrine of the church in the sixth and in the beginning of the seventh century, that images were to be used only as helps to devotion, and not as objects of worship. The worship of them was condemned in the strongest terms by Pope Gregory the Great; as appears by two letters of his written in 601. From this time to the beginning of the eighth century, there occurs no single instance of any worship given or allowed to be given to images by any council or assembly of bishops whatever. But they were commonly worshipped by the monks and populace in the beginning of the eighth century; insomuch, that in the year 726, when Leo published his famous edict, it had already spread into all the provinces subject to the empire.

The Lutherans condemn the Calvinists for breaking the images in the churches of the Catholics, looking on it as a kind of sacrilege; and yet they condemn the Romanists (who are professed image-worshippers) as idolaters: nor can these last keep pace with the Greeks, who go far beyond them in this point; which has occasioned abundance of disputes among them. See Iconoclasts.

The Mahometans have a perfect aversion to images; which was what led them to destroy most of the beautiful monuments of antiquity, both sacred and profane, at Constantinople.