re**, in Geometry, denotes any quantity assumed as one, or unity, to which the ratio of the other homogeneous or similar quantities is expressed.
**Measure**, in a legal and commercial sense, denotes a certain quantity or proportion of any thing bought, sold, valued, or the like.
It is necessary, for the convenience of commerce, that an uniformity should be observed in weights and measures, and regulated by proper standards. A foot-rule may be used as a standard for measures of length, a bushel for measures of capacity, and a pound for weights. There should be only one authentic standard of each kind, formed of the most durable materials, and kept with all possible care. A sufficient number of copies, exactly corresponding to the principal standard, may be distributed for adjusting the weights and measures that are made for common use. There are several standards of this kind both in England Measure. England and Scotland. See the article Weights and Measures.
If any one of the standards above mentioned be justly preserved, it will serve as a foundation for the others, by which they may be corrected if inaccurate, or restored if entirely lost. For instance, if we have a standard foot, we can easily obtain an inch, and can make a box which shall contain a cubical inch, and may serve as a standard for measures of capacity. If it be known that a pint contains 100 cubical inches, we may make a vessel five inches square, and four inches deep, which will contain a pint. If the standard be required in any other form, we may fill this vessel with water, and regulate another to contain an equal quantity. Standards for weights may be obtained from the same foundation; for if we know how many inches of water it takes to weigh a pound, we have only to measure that quantity, and the weight which balances it may be assumed as the standard of a pound.
Again, If the standard of a pound be given, the measure of an inch may be obtained from it; for we may weigh a cubical inch of water, and pour it into a regular vessel; and having noticed how far it is filled, we may make another vessel of like capacity in the form of a cube. The side of this vessel may be assumed as the standard for an inch; and standards for a foot, a pint, or a bushel, may be obtained from it. Water is the most proper substance for regulating standards; for all other bodies differ in weight from others of the same kind; whereas it is found by experience that spring and river water, rain, and melted snow, and all other kinds, have the same weight; and this uniformly holds in all countries when the water is pure, alike warm, and free from salt and minerals.
Thus, any one standard is sufficient for restoring all the rest. It may further be desired to hit on some expedient, if possible, for restoring the standards, in case that all of them should ever fall into disorder, or should be forgotten, through the length of time, and the vicissitudes of human affairs. This seems difficult, as no words can convey a precise idea of a foot-rule, or a pound weight. Measures, assumed from the dimensions of the human body, as a foot, a hand-breadth, or a pace, must nearly be the same in all ages, unless the size of the human race undergo some change; and therefore, if we know how many square feet a Roman acre contained, we may form some judgment of the nature of the law which restricted the property of a Roman citizen to seven acres; and this is sufficient to render history intelligible; but it is too inaccurate to regulate measures for commercial purposes. The same may be said of standards, deduced from the measure of a barley-corn, or the weight of a grain of wheat. If the distance of two mountains be accurately measured and recorded, the nature of the measure used will be preserved in a more permanent manner than by any standard; for if ever that measure fall into disuse, and another be substituted in its place, the distance may be measured again, and the proportion of the standards may be ascertained by comparing the new and ancient distances.
But the most accurate and unchangeable manner of establishing standards is, by comparing them with the length of pendulums. The longer a pendulum is, it vibrates the slower; and it must have one precise length in order to vibrate in a second. The slightest difference in length will occasion a difference in the time; which will become abundantly sensible after a number of vibrations, and will be easily observed if the pendulum be applied to regulate the motion of a clock. The length of a pendulum which vibrates seconds in London is about 39\(\frac{1}{2}\) inches, is constantly the same at the same place, but it varies a little with the latitude of the place, being shorter as the latitude is less. Therefore, though all standards of weights and measures were lost, the length of a second pendulum might be found by repeated trials; and if the pendulum be properly divided, the just measure of an inch will be obtained; and from this all other standards may be restored. See Whitehurst on Invariable Measures.
Measures are various, according to the various kinds and dimensions of the things measured.—Hence arise lineal or longitudinal measures, for lines or lengths; square measures, for areas or superficies; and solid or cubic measures, for bodies and their capacities; all which again are very different in different countries and in different ages, and even many of them for different commodities. Whence arise other divisions of ancient and modern measures, domestic and foreign ones, dry measures, liquid measures, &c.
I. Long Measures, or Measures of Application.
1.] The English and Scotch Standards.
The English lineal standard is the yard, containing 3 English feet; equal to 3 Paris feet 1 inch and \(\frac{1}{4}\) of an inch, or \(\frac{3}{7}\) of a Paris ell. The use of this measure was established by Henry I. of England, and the standard taken from the length of his own arm. It is divided into 36 inches, and each inch is supposed equal to 3 barleycorns. When used for measuring cloth, it is divided into four quarters, and each quarter subdivided into 4 nails. The English ell is equal to a yard and a quarter, or 45 inches, and is used in measuring linens imported from Germany and the Low Countries.
The Scots ell was established by King David I, and divided into 37 inches. The standard is kept in the council chamber of Edinburgh, and being compared with the English yard, is found to measure 37\(\frac{1}{2}\) inches; and therefore the Scots inch and foot are larger than the English, in the proportion of 180 to 185; but this difference being so inconsiderable, is seldom attended to in practice. The Scots ell, though forbidden by law, is still used for measuring some coarse commodities, and is the foundation of the land measure of Scotland.
Itinerary measure is the same both in England and Scotland. The length of the chain is four poles, or 22 yards; 80 chains make a mile. The old Scots computed miles were generally about a mile and a half each.
The reel for yarn is 2\(\frac{1}{2}\) yards, or 10 quarters, in circuit; 120 threads make a cut, 12 cuts make a hank or hank, and 4 hanks make a spindle.
2.] The French standard was formerly the aune or ell, containing 3 Paris feet 7 inches 8 lines, or 1 yard \(\frac{3}{7}\) English; the Paris foot royal exceeding the English by \(\frac{6}{7}\) parts, as in one of the following tables. This Measure. ell is divided two ways; viz. into halves, thirds, sixths, and twelfths; and into quarters, half-quarters, and sixteenths.
The French, however, have also formed an entirely new system of weights and measures, according to the following table.
| Proportions of the measures of each species to its principal measure or unity. | First part of the name which indicates the proportion to the principal measure or unity. | Length. | Capacity. | Weight. | Agrarian. | For firewood. | |---|---|---|---|---|---|---| | 10,000 | Myria | Metre. | Litre. | Gramme. | Are. | Stere. | | 1,000 | Kilo | | | | | | | 100 | Hecto | | | | | | | 10 | Deca | | | | | | | 1 | | | | | | | | 0.1 | Deci | | | | | | | 0.01 | Centi | | | | | | | 0.001 | Milli | | | | | |
Proportion of the principal measures between themselves and the length of the meridian.
| Proportion of the principal measures between themselves and the length of the meridian. | Weight of a centimetre cube of distilled water. | 100 square metres. | One cubic metre. | |---|---|---|---| | 10,000,000th part of the distance from the pole to the equator. | A decimetre cube. | | |
Value of the principal measures in the ancient French measures.
| Value of the principal measures in the ancient French measures. | 3 feet 11 lines and 1/2 nearly | 1 pint and 1/4 or 1 litre and 1/4 nearly | 18 grains and 8,100 parts | Two square perchées d'œufs et forêt. | 1 demi-voie, or 1/4 of a cord des caux et forêt. | |---|---|---|---|---|---| | | | | | | |
Value in English measures.
| Value in English measures. | Inches 39.383 | 61.083 inches, which is more than the wine, and less than the beer quart. | 22,966 grains. | 11,968 square yards. | |---|---|---|---|---|
The English avoirdupois pound weighs troy grains 7004; whence the avoirdupois ounce, whereof 16 make a pound, is found equal to 437.75 troy grains.
And it follows that the troy pound is to the avoirdupois pound as 88 to 107 nearly; for as 88 to 107, so is 5760 to 7023.636, that the troy ounce is to the avoirdupois ounce, as 80 to 73 nearly; for as 80 to 73, so is 480 to 438. And, lastly, That the avoirdupois pound and ounce is to the Paris two marc weight and ounce, as 63 to 68 nearly; for as 63 to 68, so is 7504 to 7559.873. See Weight. The Paris foot, expressed in decimals, is equal to 1.0654 of the English foot, or contains 12.785 English inches. See Foot.
3.] The standard in Holland, Flanders, Sweden, a good part of Germany, many of what were formerly called the Hans-towns, as Danzick and Hamburg, and at Geneva, Frankfort, &c. is likewise the ell: but the ell in all these places differs from the Paris ell. In Holland it contains one Paris foot eleven lines, or four-sevenths of the Paris ell. The Flanders ell contains two feet one inch five lines and half a line; or seven-twelfths of the Paris ell. The ell of Germany, Brabant, &c. is equal to that of Flanders.
4.] The Italian measure is the braccio, brace, or fathom. This obtains in the states of Modena, Venice, Florence, Lucca, Milan, Mantua, Bologna, &c. but is of different lengths. At Venice, it contains one Paris foot eleven inches three lines, or eight-fifteenths of the Paris ell. At Bologna, Modena, and Mantua, the brace is the same as at Venice. At Lucca it contains one Paris foot nine inches ten lines, or half a Paris ell. At Florence, it contains one foot nine inches four lines, or forty-nine hundredths of a Paris ell. At Milan, the brace for measuring of silks is one Paris foot seven inches four lines, or four-ninths of a Paris ell: that for woollen cloths is the same with the ell of Holland. Lastly, at Bergama, the brace is one foot seven inches six lines, or five-ninths of a Paris ell. The usual measure at Naples, however, is the canna, containing six feet ten inches and two lines, or one Paris ell and fifteen-seventeenth.
5.] The Spanish measure is the vara or yard, in some places called the bara; containing seventeen twenty-fourths of the Paris ell. But the measure in Castile and Valencia is the pan, span, or palm; which is used, together with the canna, at Genoa. In Arragon, the vara is equal to a Paris ell and a half; or five feet five inches six lines.
6.] The Portuguese measure is the cavedos, containing two feet eleven lines, or four-sevenths of a Paris ell; and the vara, an hundred and six whercof make an hundred Paris ells.
7.] The Piedmontese measure is the ras, containing... Measure. one Paris foot nine inches ten lines, or half a Paris ell. In Sicily, their measure is the canna, the same with that of Naples.
8.] The Muscovy measures are the cubit, equal to one Paris foot four inches two lines; and the arcin, two whereof are equal to three cubits.
9.] The Turkish and Levant measures are the picq, containing two feet two inches and two lines, or three-fifths of the Paris ell. The Chinese measure, the cobre; ten whereof are equal to three Paris ells. In Persia, and some parts of the Indies, the gueze, whereof there are two kinds; the royal gueze, called also the gueze monkelsei, containing two Paris feet ten inches eleven lines, or four-fifths of the Paris ell; and the shorter gueze, called simply gueze, only two-thirds of the former. At Goa and Ormuz, the measure is the vara, the same with that of the Portuguese, having been introduced by them. In Pegu, and some other parts of the Indies, the cando or candi, equal to the ell of Venice. At Goa, and other parts, they use a larger cando, equal to seventeen Dutch ells; exceeding that of Babel and Balsora by $\frac{7}{8}$ per cent. and the vara by $6\frac{1}{2}$. In Siam, they use the ken, short of three Paris feet by one inch. The ken contains two sok, the sok two keubs, the keub twelve nious or inches, the niou to be equal to eight grains of rice, i.e. to about nine lines. At Cambodia, they use the haster; in Japan, the tatam; and the span on some of the coasts of Guinea.
**Tables of Long Measure.**
### 1. English
| Barley-corn | Inch | Palm | Span | Foot | Cubit | Yard | Pace | Fathom | Pole | Furlong | Mile | |-------------|------|------|------|------|-------|------|------|--------|------|---------|------| | | 3 | 9 | 27 | 36 | 54 | 108 | 180 | 216 | 594 | 23760 | 193080 |
### 2. Scripture Measures reduced into English.
| Digit | Palm | Span | Cubit | Fathom | Ezekiel's reed | Arabian pole | Schœnus, or measuring line | |-------|------|------|-------|--------|----------------|--------------|---------------------------| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Eng. feet. Inch. Dec.
- o 0.912 - o 3.648 - o 10.944 - 1 9.888 - 7 3.552 - 10 11.328 - 14 7.104 - 145 11.04 ### 3. The Scripture Itinerary Measures.
| Cubit | Eng. Miles | Paces | Feet | |-------|------------|-------|------| | 400 | Stadium | 145 | 4.6 | | 2000 | Sabbath day's journey | 729 | 3000 | | 4000 | Eastern mile | 403 | 1000 | | 12000 | Parasan | 153 | 3000 | | 96000 | A day's journey | 172 | 4000 |
### 4. Grecian.
| Dactylus, digit | Paces | Feet | Dec. | |-----------------|-------|------|------| | 4 Doron, dochme | | | 0.7554 | | 10 Lichas | | | 3.0218 | | 11 Orthodon | | | 7.5546 | | 12 Spithame | | | 8.3101 | | 16 Foot | | | 9.0656 | | 18 Cubit | | | 0.0875 | | 20 Pygon | | | 1.5984 | | 24 Cubic larger | | | 3.109 | | 96 Pace | | | 6.1312 | | 960 Furlong | | | 0.525 | | 9600 Mile | | | 4.5 |
### 5. Roman.
| Digitus transversus | Paces | Feet | Dec. | |---------------------|-------|------|------| | 1 Uncia | | | 0.725 | | 4 Palmus minor | | | 0.967 | | 16 Pes | | | 2.901 | | 20 Palmipes | | | 11.604| | 24 Cubitus | | | 2.505 | | 40 Gradus | | | 5.406 | | 80 Passus | | | 5.01 | | 10000 Stadium | | | 10.02| | 80000 Milliare | | | 4.5 |
### 6. Proportion Measure. 6. Proportion of several Long Measures to each other, by M. Picard.
The Rhinland or Leyden foot (12 whereof make the Rhinland perch) supposed 696 The English foot 725 The Paris foot 725 The Amsterdam foot, from that of Leyden, by Snellius 629 The Danish foot (two whereof make the Danish ell) 701 The Swedish foot 658 The Brussels foot 629 The Dantzick foot, from Hevelius's Selenographia 636 The Lyons foot, by M. Auzout 757 The Bologna foot, by the same 843 The braccio of Florence, by the same, and Father Marsenne 1290 The palm of the architects at Rome, according to the observations of Messrs Picard and Auzout 419 The Roman foot in the Capitol, examined by Messrs Picard and Auzout 653 or 653½ The same from the Greek foot 652 From the vineyard Mattei 653½ From the palm 653 From the pavement of the Pantheon, supposed to contain 10 Roman feet 653 From a slip of marble in the same pavement, supposed to contain three Roman feet 650 From the pyramid of Cestius, supposed to contain 95 Roman feet 653½ From the diameters of the columns in the arch of Septimius Severus 653½ From a slip of porphyry in the pavement of the Pantheon 653½ See on this subject Phil. Trans. vol. iv. art. 69. p. 774.
7. Proportions of the Long Measures of several nations to the English foot, taken from Messrs Greaves, Auzout, Picard, and Eisenchmid. See Foot.
The English standard foot being divided into 1000 equal parts, the other measures will have the proportions to it, which follow.
| Measure | Feet | Inches | |------------------|------|--------| | English foot | 1000 | 12 | | Paris foot | 1068 | 12.816 | | Venetian foot | 1161 | 13.944 | | Rhinland foot | 1033 | 12.396 | | Strasburgh foot | 952 | 14.424 | | Norimberg foot | 1000 | 12 | | Dantzick foot | 944 | 11.328 | | Danish foot | 1042 | 12.504 | | Swedish foot | 977½ | 11.733 | | Decahor cubit of Cairo | 1824 | 12.888 | | Persian arish | 3197 | 38.364 | | Greater Turkish pike | 2200 | 26.4 |
Lesser Turkish pike 2131 25.572 Braccio at Florence 1913 22.956 Braccio for woollen at Sienna 1242 14.904 Braccio for linen at Sienna 1974 23.688 Canna at Naples 6385 82.56 Vera at Almario and Gibraltar 2760 33.12 Palmo di Archetti at Rome 732 87.84 Canna di Archetti 7320 87.84 Palmo di braccio di mercantia 695½ 83.46 Genoa palm 815 9.78 Bolognian foot 1250 15 Antwerp ell 2283 27.396 Amsterdam ell 2268 27.216 Leyden ell 2260 27.12 Paris draper's ell 3929 47.148 Paris mercer's ell 3939 47.244
8. Different Itinerary Measures.
A French league is about 2¾ English miles A German mile 4 ditto A Dutch mile 3¼ ditto An Italian mile 3½ ditto A Spanish league 3½ ditto A Russian verst 3½ ditto
II. SQUARE, SUPERFICIAL, or LAND Measure.
1. English square measures are raised from the yard of 36 inches multiplied into itself, and thus producing 1296 square inches in the square yard; the divisions of this are square feet and inches; and the multiples, poles, rods, and acres. Because the length of a pole is 5½ yards, the square of the same contains 30¼ square yards. A square mile contains 640 square acres. In measuring fens and woodlands, 18 feet are generally allowed to the pole, and 21 feet in forest lands.
A hide of land, frequently mentioned in the earlier part of the English history, contained about 100 arable acres; and 5 hides were esteemed a knight's fee. At the time of the Norman conquest, there were 243,600 hides in England.
2. Scotch square or land measure is regulated by the Scotch ell: 36 square ells = 1 fall, 40 falls = 1 rood, 4 roods = 1 acre.—The proportion between the Scotch and English acre, supposing the feet in both measures alike, is as 1369 to 1089, or nearly as 5 to 4. If the difference of the feet be regarded, the proportion is as 10,000 to 7869. The length of the chain for measuring land in Scotland is 23 ells, or 74 feet.—A husband-land contains 6 acres of sock and scythe land, that is, of land that may be tilled with a plough or mown with a scythe; 13 acres of arable land make one ox-gang, and four ox-gangs make a pound-land of old extent.
3. French square measures are regulated by 12 square lines in the inch square; 12 inches in the foot, 22 feet in the perch, and 100 perches in the arpent or acre. Tables of Square Measure.
1. English.
| Inches | Feet | Yards | Paces | Poles | Rood | Acre | |--------|------|-------|-------|-------|------|------| | 144 | | | | | | | | 1296 | 9 | | | | | | | 3600 | 25 | 2 | | | | | | 39204 | 272 | 30 | 10.89 | | | | | 1568160| 10890| 1210 | 435.6 | 49 | | | | 6272640| 43560| 4840 | 1743.6| 160 | 4 | |
2. Grecian square measures were the plethron or acre, by some said to contain 1444, by others 10,000 square feet; and aroura, the half of the plethron. The aroura of the Egyptians was the square 100 cubits.
3. Roman square measure reduced to English. The integer was the jugerum or acre, which the Romans divided like the libra or as; thus the jugerum contained
| Square feet | Scriples | English roots | Sq. poles | Square feet | |-------------|----------|---------------|-----------|-------------| | As | 288 | 2 | 18 | 250.05 | | Deunx | 264 | 2 | 10 | 183.85 | | Sextans | 240 | 2 | 2 | 117.64 | | Dodrans | 216 | 1 | 34 | 51.42 | | Bes | 192 | 1 | 25 | 257.46 | | Septunx | 168 | 1 | 17 | 191.25 | | Semis | 144 | 1 | 9 | 125.03 | | Quincunx | 120 | 1 | 1 | 88.82 | | Triens | 96 | 0 | 32 | 264.85 | | Quadrans | 72 | 0 | 24 | 198.64 | | Sextans | 48 | 0 | 16 | 132.43 | | Uncia | 24 | 0 | 8 | 66.21 |
Note, Actus major was 1,440 square feet, equal to a semis; clima, 3600 square feet, equal to sesuncia; and actus minimus equal to a sextans.
III. Cubical Measures, or Measures of Capacity, for Liquids.
1. The English measures were originally raised from troy weight: it being enacted by several statutes, that eight pounds troy of wheat, gathered from the middle of the ear, and well dried, should weigh a gallon of wine measure, the divisions and multiples whereof were to form the other measures; at the same time it was also ordered, that there should be but one liquid measure in the kingdom: yet custom has prevailed; and there having been introduced a new weight, viz. the avoirdupois, we have now a second standard gallon adjusted thereto, and therefore exceeding the former in the proportion of the avoirdupois weight to troy weight. From this latter standard are raised two several measures, the one for ale, the other for beer. The sealed gallon at Guildhall, which is the standard for wines, spirits, oils, &c. is supposed to contain 231 cubic inches; and on this supposition the other measures raised therefrom will contain as in the table underneath: yet, by actual experiment, made in 1688, before the lord mayor and the commissioners of excise, this gallon was found to contain only 224 cubic inches; it was, however, agreed to continue the common supposed contents of 231 cubic inches: so that all computations stand on their own footing. Hence, as 12 is to 231, so is 14½ to 281¼ the cubic inches in the ale gallon: but in effect the ale quart contains 70½ cubic inches, on which principle the ale and beer gallon will be 282 cubic inches. The several divisions and multiples of these measures, and their proportions, are exhibited in the tables underneath.
The barrel for ale in London is 32 gallons, and the barrel for beer 36 gallons. In all other places of England, the barrel, both for ale and beer, is 34 gallons.
2. Scotch liquid measure is founded on the pint. The Scotch pint was formerly regulated by a standard jug of cast metal, the custody of which was committed to the borough of Stirling. This jug was supposed to contain 105 cubic inches; and though, after several careful trials, it has been found to contain only about 103½ inches; yet, in compliance with established custom, founded on that opinion, the pint stamps are still regulated to contain 105 inches, and the customary ale measures are about ¼ above that standard. It was enacted by James I. of Scotland, that the pint should contain 41 ounces trone weight of the clear water of Tay, and by James VI. that it should contain .55 Scots troy ounces of the clear water of Leith. This affords another method of regulating the pint, and also ascertains the ancient standard of the trone weight. As the water of Tay and Leith is alike, the trone weight must have been to the Scots troy weight as 55 to 41; and therefore the pound trone must have contained about 21½ ounces Scots troy.
4 gills = 1 muthkin. 2 muthkins = 1 chopin. 2 chopins = 1 pint. 2 pints = 1 quart. 4 quarts = 1 gallon.
The Scotch quart contains 210 inches; and is, therefore, about ¼ less than the English wine gallon, and about ¼ less than the ale gallon.
3. As to the liquid measures of foreign nations, it is to be observed, that their several vessels for wine, vinegar, &c. have also various denominations according to their different sizes and the places wherein they are used. The woeders of Germany, for holding Rhenish and Moselle wines, are different in their gauges; some containing 14 annes of Amsterdam measure, and others more or less. The name is reckoned at Amsterdam for 8 steckans, or 20 verges, or for ¼ of a tun of 2 pipes, or 4 barrels, of French or Bordeaux, which at this latter place is called tiergon, because Measure, because 3 of them make a pipe or 2 barrels, and 6 the said tun. The steckan is 16 mingles, or 32 pints; and the verge is, in respect of the said Rhenish and Moselle, and some other sorts of wine, 6 mingles; but, in measuring brandy it consists of 6½ mingles. The same is divided into 4 anckers, and the ancker into 2 steckans, or 32 mingles. The ancker is taken sometimes for ¼ of a tun, or 4 barrels; on which footing the Bourdeaux barrel ought to contain at Amsterdam (when the cask is made according to the just gauge) 12½ steckans, or 200 mingles, wine and lees; or 12 steckans, or 192 mingles, racked wine; so that the Bourdeaux tun of wine contains 50 steckans, or 800 mingles, wine and lees; and 48 steckans, or 768 mingles, of pure wine. The barrels or poinçons of Nantes and other places on the river Loire, contain only 12 steckans, Amsterdam measure. The wine tun of Rochelle, Cogniac, Charente, and the isle of Rhé, differs very little from the tun of Bourdeaux, and consequently from the barrels and pipes. A tun of wine of Chalosse, Bayonne, and the neighbouring places, is reckoned 60 steckans, and the barrel 15, Amsterdam measure.
The muid of Paris contains 150 quarts or 300 pints, wine and lees; or 280 pints clear wine; of which muids 3 make a tun, and the fractions are,
| The muid | 36 setiers | |----------|-----------| | The setier | 4 quarts | | The quart | 2 pints | | The pint | 2 chopins | | The chopin | 2 demi-setiers | | The demi-setier | 2 poissons |
The muid is also composed of pipes or poinçons, quarteaux, queves, and demiqueves; those poinçons of Paris and Orleans contain about 15 steckans Amsterdam measure, and ought to weigh with the cask 666lb, a little more or less. In Provence they reckon by milleroles, and the millerole of Toulon contains 66 Paris pints, or 100 pints of Amsterdam, nearly, and the Paris pint is nearly equal to the English wine quart (A).
The butts or pipes from Cadiz, Malaga, Alicant, Benecarlo, Saloe, and Mataro, and from the Canaries, from Lisbon, Oporto, and Fayal, are very different in their gauges, though in affreightments they are all reckoned two to the tun.
Vinegar is measured in the same manner as wine; but the measures for brandies are different: these spirits from France, Spain, Portugal, &c. are generally shipped in large casks called pipes, butts and pieces, according to the places from whence they are imported, &c. In France, brandy is shipped in casks called pieces at Bourdeaux, and pipes at Rochelle, Cogniac, the isle of Rhé, and other neighbouring places, which contain some more and some less, even from 60 to 90 Amsterdam verges or veertcls, according to the capacity of the vessels, and the places they come from, which, being reduced into barrels, will stand as follows, viz.
At Rochelle, Cogniac, the isle of Rhé, and the country of Aunis, 27 Veertcls At Nantes, and several places of Bretagne and Anjou, 29 Veertcls At Bourdeaux, and different parts of Guienne, 32 Verges At Amsterdam, and other cities of Holland, 30 Veertcls At Hamburgh and Lubeck, 30 Verges At Embden, 27 Verges
In Provence and Languedoc, brandy is sold by the quintal, the casks included; and at Bruges in Flanders, the verges are called seeters of 16 stops each, and the spirits is sold at so much per stop.
Olive oil is also shipped in casks of various sizes, according to the custom of the places where it is embarked, and the conveniency of stowage. In England it is sold by the tun of 256 gallons; and at Amsterdam by the tun of 717 mingles, or 1434 pints. In Provence it is sold by milleroles of 66 Paris pints; from Spain and Portugal it is brought in pipes or butts, of different gauges; at the first place it is sold by roves, where 40 go to the butt; and at the latter place by almoudas, whereof 26 make a pipe. Train oil is sold in England by the tun, at Amsterdam by the barrel.
### Tables of Liquid Measure.
#### 1. English.
| Solid inches | [Wine.] | |--------------|---------| | 28½ Pint | 8 Gallon | | 231 | | | 4158 | 144 18 | | 7276½ | 252 31½ | | 9702 | 336 42 | | 14553 | 504 63 | | 19279 | 672 84 | | 29106 | 1008 126| | 38212 | 2016 252|
| Pints [Ale] | Pints [Beer.] | |-------------|---------------| | 8 Gallon | 8 Gallon | | 64 Firkin | 72 Firkin | | 128 Kilderkin | 144 Kilderkin | | 256 Barrel | 288 Barrel | | 512 Hogsh. | 576 Hogsh. |
#### 2. Jewish
(A) These are the old measures of France, the account of which, for the sake of comparison, is here retained. ### 2. Jewish reduced to English Wine Measure.
| Caph | Log | Cab | Hin | Seah | Bath, or Ephah | Coron, or Chomer | |------|-----|-----|-----|------|---------------|-----------------| | | | | | | | | | Gall.| Pints | Solid inches | Measure | | 0 | 0.177 | 0.356 | 0.0712 | 0.089 | 0.178 | 0.356 | | 0.211 | 3.44 | 2.533 | 5.067 | 15.2 | 7.625 |
### 3. Attic reduced to English Wine Measure.
| Cochliarion | Cheme | Mystrone | Conche | Cyathos | Oxybaphon | Cotyle | Xestes | Chous | Metretes | |-------------|-------|----------|--------|---------|-----------|--------|--------|-------|----------| | | | | | | | | | | | | Gal. Pints. | Sol. Inch. Dec. | | 0 | 0.0356 | 0.0712 | 0.089 | 0.178 | 0.356 | 0.535 | 2.141 | 4.283 | 25.698 | 19.629 |
### 4. Roman reduced to English Wine Measure.
| Ligula | Cyathus | Acetabulum | Quartarius | Hemina | Sextarius | Congius | Urna | Amphora | Culcus | |--------|---------|------------|------------|--------|-----------|---------|------|---------|--------| | | | | | | | | | | | | Gal. Pints. | Sol. Inch. Dec. | | 0 | 0.117 | 0.469 | 0.704 | 1.40 | 2.818 | 5.636 | 4.942 | 5.33 | 10.66 | 11.095 |
IV. Measures IV. Measure of Capacity for things Dry.
1.] English dry or corn measure. The standard for measuring corn, salt, coals, and other dry goods, in England, is the Winchester gallon, which contains 272\(\frac{3}{4}\) cubic inches. The bushel contains 8 gallons, or 2178 inches. A cylindrical vessel, 18\(\frac{1}{2}\) inches diameter, and 8 inches deep, is appointed to be used as a bushel in levying the malt tax. A vessel of these dimensions is rather less than the Winchester bushel of 8 gallons, for it contains only 2150 inches; though probably there was no difference intended. The denominations of dry measure commonly used, are given in the first of the subjoined tables. Four quarters corn make a chaldron, 5 quarters make a wey or load, and 10 quarters make a ton. In measuring sea coal, 5 pecks make a bushel, 9 bushels make a quarter or vatt, 4 quarters make a chaldron, and 21 chaldrons make a score.
- 40 feet hewn timber make a load. - 50 feet unhewn timber make a load. - 32 gallons make a herring barrel. - 42 gallons make a salmon barrel. - 1 cwt. gunpowder makes a barrel. - 256 lbs. soup make a barrel. - 10 dozen candles make a barrel. - 12 barrels make a last.
2.] Scotch dry measure. There was formerly only one measure of capacity in Scotland; and some commodities were heaped, others strained, or measured exactly to the capacity of the standard. The method of heaping was afterwards forbidden, as unequal, and a larger measure appointed for such commodities as that custom had been extended to.
The wheat firlot, used also for rye, peas, beans, salt, and grass seeds, contains 21 pints 1 nyctchkin, measured by the Stirling jug. The barley firlot, used also for oats, fruit, and potatoes, contains 31 pints. A different method of regulating the firlot was appointed from the dimensions of a cylindrical vessel. The diameter for both measures was fixed at 10\(\frac{1}{2}\) inches, the depth 7\(\frac{1}{4}\) inches for the wheat firlot, and 10\(\frac{1}{2}\) for the barley firlot. A standard constructed by these measures is rather less than when regulated by the pint; and as it is difficult to make vessels exactly cylindrical, the regulation by the pint has prevailed, and the other method gone into disuse.
If the Stirling jug contains 10\(\frac{1}{2}\) inches, the wheat firlot will contain 2100 inches; which is more than 2 per cent. larger than the legal malt bushel of England, and about 1 per cent. larger than the Winchester bushel; and the barley firlot will contain 3298 inches. The barley boll is nearly equal to six legal malt bushels.
In Stirlingshire, 17 pecks are reckoned to the boll; in Inverness-shire, 18 pecks; in Ayrshire the boll is the same as the English quarter. And the firlots, in many places, are larger than the Linlithgow standard.
3.] French dry, are, the litron, bushel, minot, mine, septier, muid, and tun. The litron is divided into two demilitrons, and four quarter litrons, and contains 36 cubic inches of Paris. By ordonnance, the litron is to be three inches and a half high, and three inches 10 lines broad. The litron for salt is larger, and is divided into two halves, four quarters, eight demi-quarters, and 16 mesurettes. The French bushel is different in different jurisdictions. At Paris it is divided into demibushels; each demibushel into two quarts; the quart into two half quarts; and the half quart into two litrons: so that the bushel contains 16 litrons. By ordonnance the Paris bushel is to be eight inches two lines and a half high, and ten inches broad, or in diameter within-side. The minot consists of three bushels, the mine of two minots or six bushels, the septier of two mines or 12 bushels, and the muid of 12 septiers or 144 bushels. The bushel of oats is estimated double that of any other grain: so that there go 24 bushels to make the septier, and 288 to make the muid. It is divided into four picotins, the picotin containing two quarts, or four litrons. The bushel for salt is divided into two half bushels, four quarters, eight half quarters, and 16 litrons: four bushels make a minot, 16 a septier, and 192 a muid. The bushel for wood is divided into halves, quarters, and half quarters. Eight bushels make the minot, 16 a mine; 20 mines or 320 bushels, the muid. For plaster, 12 bushels make a sack, and 36 sacks a muid. For lime, three bushels make a minot, and 48 minots a muid. The minot is by ordonnance to be 11 inches 9 lines high, and 14 inches 8 lines in diameter. The minot is composed of three bushels, or 16 litrons: four minots make a septier, and 48 a muid. The French mine is no real vessel, but an estimation of several others. At Paris the mine contains six bushels, and 24 make the muid; at Rouen the mine is four bushels; and at Dieppe 18 mines make a Paris muid. The septier differs in different places: at Paris it contains two mines, or eight bushels, and 12 septiers the muid. At Rouen the septier contains two mines or 12 bushels. Twelve septiers make a muid at Rouen as well as at Paris; but 12 of the latter are equal to 14 of the former. At Toulon the septier contains a mine and a half; three of which mines make the septier of Paris. The muid or mui of Paris consists of 12 septiers; and is divided into mines, minots, bushels, &c. That for oats is double that for other grain, i.e. contains twice the number of bushels. At Orleans the muid is divided into mines, but those mines only contain two Paris septiers and a half. In some places they use the tun in lieu of the muid; particularly at Nantes, where it contains 10 septiers of 16 bushels each, and weighs between 2200 and 2250 pounds. Three of these tuns make 28 Paris septiers. At Rochelle, &c. the tun contains 42 bushels, and weighs two per cent. less than that of Nantes. At Brest it contains 20 bushels, is equal to 10 Paris septiers, and weighs about 2240 pounds. See Tun.
4.] Dutch, Swedish, Polish, Prussian, and Muscovite. In these places, they estimate their dry things on the foot of the last, lest, leth, or lecht; so called according to the various pronunciations of the people who use it. In Holland, the last is equal to 19 Paris septiers, or 38 Bourdeaux bushels, and weighs about 4560 pounds; the last they divide into 27 mudes, and the mude into four scheplecs. In Poland, the last is 40 Bourdeaux bushels, and weighs about 4800 Paris pounds. In Prussia, the last is 133 Paris septiers. In Sweden and Muscovy they measure by the great and little last; the first containing 12 barrells, and the second half as many. See Last. In Museovy, they likewise use the chefford, which is different in various places: that of Archangel is equal to three Ronen bushels.
5.] Italian. At Veniee, Leghorn, and Lucca, they estimate their dry things on the foot of the staro or staio; the staro of Leghorn weighs 54 pounds: 112 staros and seven-eighths are equal to the Amsterdam last. At Lucea, 119 staros make the last of Amsterdam. The Venetian staro weighs 128 Paris pounds: the staro is divided into four quarters. Thirty-five staros and one-fifth, or 140 quarters and four-fifths, make the last of Amsterdam. At Naples and other parts, they use the tomolo or tomalo, equal to one-third of the Paris septier. Thirty-six tomoli and a half make the carro, and a carro and a half, or 54 tomoli, make the last of Amsterdam. At Palermo, 16 tomoli make the salma, and four mondili the tomolo. Ten salmas and three-sevenths, or 171 tomoli and three-sevenths, make the Measure last of Amsterdam.
6.] Flemish. At Antwerp, &c., they measure by the viertel; 32 and one-half whereof make 19 Paris septiers. At Hamburgh, the schepel; 90 whereof make 19 Paris septiers.
7.] Spanish and Portuguese. At Cadiz, Bilboa, and St Sebastian, they use the fanega; 23 whereof make the Nantes or Rochelle tun, or 9 Paris septiers and a half: though the Bilboa fanega is somewhat larger, insomuch that 21 fanegas make a Nantes tun. At Seville, &c., they use the anagoras, containing a little more than the Paris mine; 36 anagoras make 19 Paris septiers. At Bayonne, &c., the concha; 30 whereof are equal to nine Paris septiers and a half. At Lisbon, the alquier, a very small measure, 240 whereof make 19 Paris septiers, 60 the Lisbon muid.
**Tables of Dry Measure.**
1. English.
| Solid inches | Pint | Gallon | Peck | Bush | Quarter | |--------------|------|--------|------|------|---------| | 33.6 | | | | | | | 268.8 | 8 | | | | | | 537.6 | 16 | 2 | | | | | 2150.4 | 64 | 8 | | | | | 17203.2 | 512 | 64 | 32 | 8 | |
2. Scripture Dry, reduced to English.
| Gachal | Cab | Gomor | Seah | Ephah | Leteeh | Chomer, or coron | |--------|-----|-------|------|-------|--------|-----------------| | | | | | | | | | 20 | | | | | | | | 36 | 15 | | | | | | | 120 | 6 | 3 | | | | | | 360 | 18 | 10 | 3 | | | | | 1800 | 90 | 50 | 15 | 5 | | | | 3600 | 180 | 100 | 30 | 10 | 2 | | | | | | | | | |
| Peck | Gall | Pint | Sol. inch. | Dec. | |------|------|------|------------|------| | | | | | 0.031| | | | | | 0.073| | | | | | 1.211| | | | | | 4.036| | | | | | 12.107| | | | | | 26.500| | | | | | 18.969|
Vol. XIII. Part I. 3. Attic Measures of Capacity for Things dry, reduced to English Corn Measure.
| Cochliarion | Peck | Gal. | Pint. | Sol. inch | Dec. | |------------|------|------|-------|-----------|------| | 10 Cyathos | | | | | 2.763 | | 15 Oxybaphon | | | | | 4.144 | | 60 6 Cotyle | | | | | 16.579| | 120 12 Xestes | | | | | 33.158| | 180 18 Chocnix | | | | | 15.705| | 864 864 Medinnos | | | | | 3.501 |
4. Roman Measures of Capacity for Things dry, reduced to English Corn Measure.
| Ligula | Peck | Gall. | Pint. | Sol. inch | Dec. | |--------|------|-------|-------|-----------|------| | 4 Cyathus | | | | | 0.04 | | 6 Acetabulum | | | | | 0.06 | | 24 6 Hemina | | | | | 0.24 | | 48 12 Sextarius | | | | | 0.48 | | 384 96 Semimodius | | | | | 3.84 | | 768 192 Modius | | | | | 7.68 |
Measure of Wood for Firing, is usually the cord four feet high, and as many broad, and eight long; this is divided into two half cords, called ways, and by the French membrures, from the pieces stuck upright to bound them; or voyes, as being supposed half a waggon load.
Measure for Horses, is the hand, which by statute contains four inches.
Measure, among Botanists. In describing the parts of plants, Tournefort introduced a geometrical scale, which many of his followers have retained. They measured every part of the plant; and the essence of the description consisted in an accurate mensuration of the whole.
As the parts of plants, however, are liable to variation in no circumstance so much as that of dimension, Linnæus very rarely admits any other mensuration than that arising from the respective length and breadth of the parts compared together. In cases that require actual mensuration, the same author recommends, in lieu of Tournefort's artificial scale, the following natural scale of the human body, which he thinks is much more convenient, and equally accurate.
The scale in question consists of 11 degrees, which are as follow: 1. A hair'sbreadth, or the diameter of a hair, (capillus). 2. A line, (linea), the breadth of the crescent or white appearance at the root of the finger (not thumb, measured from the skin towards the body of the nail; a line is equal to 12 hairbreadths, and is the 12th part of a Parisian inch. 3. A nail (unguis), the length of a finger nail; equal to six lines, or half a Parisian inch. 4. A thumb (pollex), the length of the first or outermost joint of the thumb; equal to a Parisian inch. 5. A palm (palma), the breadth of the palm exclusive of the thumb; equal to three Parisian inches. 6. A span (spithama), the distance between the extremity of the thumb and that of the first finger when extended; equal to seven Parisian inches. 7. A great span (dodrans), the distance between the extremity of the thumb and that of the little finger, when extended; equal to nine inches. 8. A foot (pes), measuring from the elbow to the basis of the thumb; equal to 12 Parisian inches. 9. A cubit (cubitus), from the elbow to the extremity of the middle finger; equal to 17 inches. 10. An arm length (brachium), from the armpit to the extremity of the middle finger; equal to 24 Parisian inches, or two feet. 11. A fathom (orgya), the measure of the human stature; the distance between the extremities of the two middle fingers, when the arms are extended; equal, where greatest, to six feet.
Measure is also used to signify the cadence and time observed in poetry, dancing, and music, to render them regular and agreeable.
The different measures or metres in poetry, are the different MEASURE, different manners of ordering and combining the quantities, or the long and short syllables. Thus, hexameter, pentameter, iambic, sapphic verses, &c., consist of different measures.
In English verses, the measures are extremely various and arbitrary, every poet being at liberty to introduce any new form that he pleases. The most usual are the heroic, generally consisting of five long and five short syllables; and verses of four feet; and of three feet and a caesura, or single syllable.
The ancients, by variously combining and transposing their quantities, made a vast variety of different measures. Of words, or rather feet of two syllables, they formed a spondee, consisting of two long syllables; a pyrrhic, of two short syllables; a trochee, of a long and a short syllable; and an iambic, of a short and a long syllable.
Of their feet of three syllables they formed a molossus, consisting of three long syllables; a tribrach, of three short syllables; a dactyl, of one long and two short syllables; and an anapest, of two short and one long syllable. The Greek poets contrived 124 different combinations or measures, under as many different names, from feet of two syllables to those of six.
Measure, in Music, the interval or space of time which the person who beats time takes between the rising and falling of his hand or foot, in order to conduct the movement, sometimes quicker, and sometimes slower, according to the kind of music, or the subject that is sung or played.
The measure is that which regulates the time we are to dwell on each note. See Time.
The ordinary or common measure is one second, or 60th part of a minute, which is nearly the space between the beats of the pulse or heart; the systole, or contraction of the heart, answering to the elevation of the hand; and its diastole, or dilatation, to the letting it fall. The measure usually takes up the space that a pendulum of two feet and a half long employs in making a swing or vibration. The measure is regulated according to the different quality or value of the notes in the piece; by which the time that each note is to take up is expressed. The semibreve, for instance, holds one rise and one fall; and this is called the measure or whole measure, sometimes the measure note, or time note; the minim, one rise, or one fall; and the crotchet, half a rise, or half a fall, there being four crotchets in a full measure.
Measure Binary, or Double, is that wherein the rise and fall of the hand are equal.
Measure Ternary, or Triple, is that wherein the fall is double to the rise; or where two minims are played during a fall, and but one in the rise. To this purpose, the number 3 is placed at the beginning of the lines, when the measure is intended to be triple; and a C, when the measure is to be common or double. This rising and falling of the hands was called by the Greeks ἀριστής and ἄριστος. St Augustine calls it plaustus, and the Spaniards compass. See Arsis and Thesis.
Powder Measures in Artillery, are made of copper, and contain from an ounce to 12 pounds: these are very convenient in a siege, when guns or mortars are loaded with loose powder, especially in ricochet firing, Measure &c.
MEASURING, or Mensuration, is the using a certain known measure, and determining thereby the precise extent, quantity, or capacity of any thing.
Measuring, in general, includes the practical part of geometry. From the various subjects on which it is employed, it acquires various names, and constitutes various arts. See Geometry, Levelling, Mensuration, Trigonometry, &c.
MEAT. See Food, Diet, Drink, &c.
Amongst the Jews, several kinds of animals were forbidden to be used as food. The flesh with the blood, and the blood without the flesh, were prohibited; the fat also of sacrificed animals was not to be eaten. Roast meat, boiled meat, and ragouts, were in use among the Hebrews, but we meet with no kind of seasoning except salt, bitter herbs, and honey.—They never mingled milk in any ragout or hash, and never ate at the same meal both meat and milk, butter, or cheese. The daily provision for Solomon's table was 30 measures of fine wheat flour, 60 of common flour, 10 fat oxen, 20 pasture oxen, 100 sheep, besides venison and wildfowl. See Luxury.
The principal and most necessary food among the ancient Greeks, was bread, which they called ἀρτός, and produced in a wicker basket called καρποῦς. Their loaves were sometimes baked under the ashes, and sometimes in an oven. They also used a sort of bread called μασά. Barley meal was used amongst the Greeks, which they called ἀργυρός. They had a frequent dish called ἐγκώμιον, which was a composition of rice, cheese, eggs, and honey, wrapped in fig leaves. The μυρτάλος was made of cheese, garlic, and eggs, beaten and mixed together. Their bread, and other substitutes for bread, were baked in the form of hollow plates, into which they poured a sauce. Garlic, onions, and figs, seem to have been a very common food amongst the poorer Athenians. The Greeks, especially in the heretical times, ate flesh roasted; boiled meat seldom was used. Fish seems not to have been used for food in the early ages of Greece. The young people only, amongst the Lacedemonians, ate animal food; the men and the old men were supported by a black soup called πύργος ξυλίτης, which to people of other nations was always a disagreeable mess. Grasshoppers and the extremities or tender shoots of trees were frequently eaten by the poor among the Greeks. Eels dressed with beech root were esteemed a delicate dish, and they were fond of the jowl and belly of salt-fish. Neither were they without their sweet-meats; the dessert consisted frequently of fruits, almonds, nuts, figs, peaches, &c. In every kind of food we find salt to have been used.
The diet of the first Romans consisted wholly of milk, herbs, and roots, which they cultivated and dressed with their own hands; they also had a kind of gruel, or coarse gross pap, composed of meal and boiling water; this served for bread: And when they began to use bread, they had none for a great while but of unmixed rye. Barley-meal was eaten by them, which they called polenta. When they began to eat animal food, it was esteemed a piece of luxury, and an indulgence not to be justified but by some particu- Meat, lar occasion. After animal food had grown into com- mon use, the meat which they most frequently produced upon their tables was pork.
Method of Preserving Flesh-Meat without spices, and with very little salt. Jones, in his Miscellanea Carissima, gives us the following description of the Moorish Elcholle, which is made of beef, mutton, or camel's flesh, but chiefly beef, which is cut in long slices, and laid for 24 hours in a pickle. They then remove it out of those jars or tubs into others with water; and when it has lain a night, they take it out, and put it on ropes in the sun and air to dry. When it is thoroughly dried and hard, they cut it into pieces of two or three inches long, and throw it into a pan or caldron, which is ready with boiling oil and suet sufficient to hold it, where it boils till it be very clear and red when cut. After this they take it out, and set it to drain; and when all is thus done it stands to cool, and jars are prepared to put it up in, pouring upon it the liquor in which it was fried; and as soon as it is thoroughly cold, they stop it up close. It will keep two years; will be hard, and the hardest they look upon to be the best done. This they dish up cold, sometimes fried with eggs and garlic, sometimes stewed, and lemon squeezed on it. It is very good any way, either hot or cold.
MEATH, commonly so called, or otherwise East Meath, to distinguish it from the county called West Meath: A county of Ireland, in the province of Leinster, bounded by the counties of Cavan and Louth on the north, the Irish channel on the east, Kildare and Dublin on the south, and West Meath and Long- ford on the west. It is a fine champaign country, abounding with corn, and well inhabited. It returns two members to parliament; and gives title of earl to the family of Brabazon. It contains 326,480 Irish plantation acres, 139 parishes, and 112,000 inhabi- tants. The chief town is Trim. This district being the most ancient settlement of the Belgians in Ireland, the inhabitants were esteemed the eldest and most honour- able tribe: from which seniority their chieftains were elected monarchs of all the Belgae; a dignity that was continued in the Hy-n-Faillian without intermission, until the arrival of the Caledonian colonies, under the name of Tuath de Danan, when Conor-Mor, chief- tain of these people, obtained, or rather usurped, the monarchical throne, obliged Eochy Failloch, with sev- eral of his people, to cross the Shannon, and establish themselves in the present county of Roscommon, where Crother founded the palace of Atha or Croghan, a circumstance which brought on a long and bloody war, between the Belgian and Caledonian races, which was not finally terminated until the close of the 4th cen- tury, when the Belgian line was restored in the person of O'Nial the Great, and continued until Brian Bo- romh usurped the monarchical dignity, by deposing Malachy O'Malachlin, about the year 1001. Tuathal Tetethomar, by a decree of the Tarah assembly, sepa- rated certain large tracts of land from each of the four provinces, where the borders joined together; whence, under the notion of adopting this spot for demesne lands to support the royal household, he formed the county or kingdom of Meath, which afterwards be- came the peculiar inheritance of the monarchs of Ire- land. In each of the portions thus separated from the four provinces, Tuathal caused palaces to be erect- ed, which might adorn them, and commemorate the name in which they had been added to the royal do- main. In the tract taken out of Munster, he built the palace called Flachtaga, where the sacred fire, so called, was kindled, and where all the priests and druids annually met on the last day of October; on the evening of which day it was enacted, that no other fire should be used throughout the kingdom, in order that all the fires might be derived from this, which being lighted up as a fire of sacrifice, their superstition led them to believe would render all the rest propitious and holy; and for this privilege every family was to pay three- pence, by way of acknowledgment to the king of Munster. The second royal palace was erected in the proportion taken out of Connaught, and was built for the assembly called the convocation of Visneach, at which all the inhabitants were summoned to appear on the 1st day of May, to offer sacrifice to Beal, or Bel, the god of fire, in whose honour two large fires being kindled, the natives used to drive their cattle between them, which was supposed to be a preservative for them against accidents and distempers, and this was called Beal-Tinne, or Bel-Tine, or the festival of the god of fire. The king of Connaught at this meeting claimed a horse and arms from every lord of a manor or chieftain, as an acknowledgment for the lands tak- en from that province, to add to the territory of Meath. The third was that which Tailtean erected in the part taken from Ulster, where the fair of that name was held, which was remarkable for this parti- cular circumstance, that the inhabitants brought their children thither, males and females, and contracted them in marriage, where the parents having agreed upon articles, the young people were joined according- ly; every couple contracted at this meeting paid the king of Ulster an ounce of silver by way of acknow- ledgment. The royal mansion of Tarah, formerly destroyed by fire, being rebuilt by Tuathal, on the lands originally belonging to the king of Leinster, was reckoned as the fourth of these palaces; but as a fa- bric of that name had stood there before, we do not find that any acknowledgment was made for it to the king of Leinster.
Meath, with Clonmacnois, is a bishop's see, valued in the king's books at £73l. 7s. 0½d. sterling, by an ex- tent returned anno 28th Elizabeth; but, by a former extent taken anno 30th Henry VIII., the valuation amounts to £73l. 12s., which being the largest and most profitable for the king, is the measure of the first fruits at this day. This see is reputed to be worth annually £400l. There were formerly many epis- copal sees in Meath, as Clonard, Duleck, Kells, Trim, Ardbraccan, Donshaglin, Slaine, and Foure, besides others of less note; all these, except Dulcek and Kells, were consolidated, and their common see was fixed at Clonard, before the year 1152; at which time the divisions of the bishopries in Ireland were made by John Paparo, cardinal priest, entitled Cardinal of St Lawrence in Damaso, then legate from Pope Eu- gene III. to the Irish. This division was made in a synod held on the 6th of March in the abbey of Mel- lifont, or, as some say, at Kells: and the two sees of Duleck and Kells afterwards submitted to the same fate. The constitution of this diocese is singular, hav- MECCA, an ancient and very famous town of Asia, in Arabia Felix; seated on a barren spot, in a valley surrounded with little hills, about a day's journey from the Red sea. It is a place of no strength, having neither walls nor gates; and the buildings are very mean. That which supports it is the resort of a great many thousand pilgrims annually, for the shops are scarcely open all the year besides. The inhabitants are poor, very thin, lean, and swarthy. The hills about the town are very numerous; and consist of a blackish rock, some of them half a mile in circumference. On the top of one of them is a cave, where they pretend Mahomet usually retired to perform his devotions, and hither they affirm the greatest part of the Alcoran was brought him by the angel Gabriel. The town has plenty of water, and yet little garden-stuff; but there are several sorts of good fruits to be had, such as grapes, melons, water melons, and cucumbers. There are also plenty of sheep brought thither to be sold to the pilgrims. It stands in a very hot climate; and the inhabitants usually sleep on the tops of their houses for the sake of coolness. In order to protect themselves from the heat through the day, they carefully shut the windows, and water the streets to refresh the air. There have been instances of persons suffocated in the middle of the town by the burning wind called Simoon.
As a great number of the people of distinction in the province of Hedsjas stay in the city, it is better built than any other in Arabia. Amongst the beautiful edifices it contains, the most remarkable is the famous Kaba or Caaba, "The house of God," which was held in great veneration by the Arabs even before Mahomet's time.
No Christian dares go to Mecca; not that the approach to it is prohibited by any express law, or that the sensible part of the Mahometans have any thing to object to it; but on account of the prejudices of the people, who regarding this ground as sacred, think Christians unworthy of setting their foot on it; it would be profaned in the opinion of the superstitious, if it was trod upon by infidels. The people even believe, that Christians are prevented from approaching by some supernatural power; and they tell the story of an infidel, who having got so far as the hills that surround Mecca, all the dogs of the city came out and fell upon him; and who, being struck with this miracle, and the august appearance of the Kaba, immediately became a musulman. It is therefore to be presumed that all the Europeans who describe Mecca as eye-witnesses, have been renegadoes escaped from Turkey. A recent example confirms this supposition. On the promise of being allowed to preserve his religion, a French surgeon was prevailed on to accompany the Emir Hadsji to Mecca, in quality of physician; but at the very first station, he was forced to submit to circumcision, and then he was permitted to continue his journey.
Although the Mahometans do not allow Europeans to go to Mecca, they do not refuse to give them descriptions of the Kaba, and information with regard to that building; and there are persons who gain their bread by making designs and little pictures of the Kaba, and selling them to pilgrims. See CAABA.
The Mahometans have so high an opinion of the sanctity... sanctity of Mecca, that they extend it to the places in the neighbourhood. The territory of that city is held sacred to certain distances, which are indicated by particular marks. Every caravan finds in its road a similar mark, which gives notice to the pilgrims when they are to put on the modest garb in which they must appear in those sacred regions. Every Mussulman is obliged to go once in his life at least to Mecca, to perform his devotions there. If that law was rigorously enforced, the concourse of pilgrims would be prodigious, and the city would never be able to contain the multitudes from all the countries where the Mahometan religion prevails. We must therefore, suppose, that devotees alone perform this duty, and that the others can easily dispense with it. Those whose circumstances do not permit a long absence, have the liberty of going to Mecca by a substitute.—A hired pilgrim, however, cannot go for more than one person at a time; and he must, to prevent frauds, bring an attestation in proper form, from an imam of Mecca, that he has performed the requisite devotions on behalf of such a person, either alive or dead; for, after the decease of a person who has not obeyed the law during his life, he is still obliged to perform the journey by proxy.
The caravans, which are not numerous, when we consider the immense multitude of the faithful, are composed of many people who do not make the journey for purposes of devotion. These are merchants, who think they can transport their merchandises with more safety, and dispose of them more easily; and contractors of every kind, who furnish the pilgrims and the soldiers who escort the caravans, with necessaries. Thus it happens, that many people have gone often to Mecca, solely from views of interest. The most considerable of those caravans is that of Syria, commanded by the pacha of Damascus. It joins at some distance the second from Egypt, which is conducted by a bey, who takes the title of Emir Hadsji. One comes from Yemen, and another, less numerous, from the country of Lachsa. Some scattered pilgrims arrive by the Red sea from the Indies, and from the Arabian establishments on the coasts of Africa. The Persians come in that which departs from Bagdad; the place of conductor to this last is bestowed by the pacha, and is very lucrative, for he receives the ransoms of the heretical Persians.
It is of consequence to a pilgrim to arrive early at the holy places. Without having been present from the beginning at all the ceremonies, and without having performed every particular act of devotion, a man cannot acquire the title of Hadsji: this is an honour very much coveted by the Turks, for it confers real advantages, and makes those who attain it to be much respected. Its infrequency, however, in the Mahometan dominions, shows how much the observation of the law commanding pilgrimages is neglected. A similar custom prevails among the Oriental Christians, who are exceedingly emulous of the title of Hadsji, or Mokdasi, which is given to pilgrims of their communion. In order to acquire this title, it is not sufficient that the person has made the journey to Jerusalem; he must also have kept the passover in that city, and have assisted at all the ceremonies of the holy weeks.
After all the essential ceremonies are over, the pilgrims next morning move to a place where they say Abraham went to offer up his son Isaac, which is about two or three miles from Mecca: here they pitch their tents, and then throw seven small stones against a little square stone building. This, as they affirm, is performed in defiance of the devil. Every one then purchases a sheep, which is brought for that purpose, eating some of it themselves, and giving the rest to the poor people who attend upon that occasion. Indeed these are miserable objects, and such starved creatures, that they seem ready to devour each other. After all, one would imagine that this was a very sanctified place; and yet a renegade who went in pilgrimage thither, affirms there is as much debauchery practised here as in any part of the Turkish dominions. It is 25 miles from Jodda, the sea port town of Mecca, and 220 south-east of Medina. E. Long. 40° 55'. N. Lat. 21° 45'.
MECHANICAL, an epithet applied to whatever relates to mechanics: Thus we say, mechanical powers, causes, &c. See the articles Power, Cause, &c.
The mechanical philosophy is the same with what is otherwise called corpuscular philosophy, which explains the phenomena of nature, and the operations of corporeal things, on the principles of mechanics; viz. the motion, gravity, arrangement, disposition, greatness or smallness, of the parts which compose natural bodies. See Corpuscular.
This manner of reasoning is much used in medicine; and, according to Dr Quincy, is the result of a thorough acquaintance with the structure of animal bodies: for considering an animal body as a composition out of the same matter from which all other bodies are formed, and to have all those properties which concern a physician's regard, only by virtue of its peculiar construction; it naturally leads a person to consider the several parts, according to their figures, contexture, and use, either as wheels, pulleys, wedges, levers, screws, cords, canals, strainers, &c. For which purpose, continues he, it is frequently found helpful to design in diagrams, whatsoever of that kind is under consideration, as is customary in geometrical demonstrations.
For the application of this doctrine to the human body, see the article Medicine.
Mechanical, in mathematics, denotes a construction of some problem, by the assistance of instruments, as the duplicature of the cube and quadrature of the circle, in contradistinction to that which is done in an accurate and geometrical manner.
Mechanical Curve, is a curve, according to Descartes, which cannot be defined by any algebraic equation; and so stands contradistinguished from algebraic or geometrical curves.
Leibnitz and others call these mechanical curves transcendental, and dissent from Descartes, in excluding them out of geometry. Leibnitz found a new kind of transcendental equations, where these curves are defined: but they do not continue constantly the same in all points of the curve, as algebraic ones do. See the article Transcendental.