MECHANICS. MECHANISM, either the construction or the machinery employed in any thing; as the mechanism of the barometer, of the microscope, &c.

MEOHOACAN, a province of Mexico, or New Spain, in America, bounded on the north by Pánuco and Guadalajara, on the east by Panuco and Mexico Proper, on the south by the Pacific ocean, and on the west by Guadalajara and the South Sea. It is about 200 miles in circumference, and its population in 1793 was 289,314. The soil is exceedingly fertile; and the climate so wholesome, that the Spaniards imagine it to be possessed of some peculiarly restorative quality; for which reason the sick and infirm flock to it from all quarters. The commodities are sulphur, indigo, sarsaparilla, sassafras, cacao, vanelloes, ambergris, hides, wool, cotton, silk, sugar, the root mechoacan or white jalap, and silver. This province formed an independent kingdom at the time Mexico was reduced by Cortez. The sovereign had long been the inveterate enemy of the Mexicans, and was considered next to the republic of Tlascala, as the most formidable barrier against the extension of the imperial frontier. However, he submitted to Cortez without striking a blow, being intimidated by the wonders he had performed with a handful of men; and thus Mechoacan became a province of the Spanish empire, and a valuable addition to Mexico. The country at that time was exceedingly populous, but the natives are now much thinned. The capital of the province, called Mechoacan by the natives, but Valladolid by the Spaniards, contained 17,093 inhabitants in 1793.

MEOHOACAN, or White Jalap, in the materia medica, the root of an American species of convolvulus, brought from Mechoacan, a province of Mexico, in thin slices like jalap, but larger, and of a whitish colour. It was first introduced into Europe about the year 1524 as a purgative: but since jalap became known, mechoacan has been little employed.

MECKLENBURG, a duchy of Germany, containing those of Schwerin and Gustro, is bounded by Pomerania on the east, by part of the marquisate of Brandenburg and the duchy of Lüneburg on the south, the Baltic on the north, and Holstein and Saxe Lawenburg on the west. Their greatest length is about 135 miles, and greatest breadth upwards of 90. With respect to the soil, much cannot be said in favour of it, as it consists, in general, either of sand, or large and desolate heaths interspersed with moors, woods, fens, and lakes. It yields very little wheat, and not a great deal of oats, rye, and barley; but breeds a considerable number of sheep and cattle, has plenty of fish, with stone quarries, salt springs, alum, iron, and some copper. The principal rivers here are the Elde and Stor, which fall into the Elbe as it glides along the borders of this country to the southwest; the Reckenitz, which discharges itself into the Baltic; as do the Peene, the Warno, and the Stopenitz. This country has only one harbour on the Baltic, namely that of Rostock. In both duchies, exclusive of Rostock, are 45 great and small cities, with three convents, and a great number of manors and farms, belonging either to the duke, the nobility, or convents. The peasants are in a state of villainage; but the nobility enjoy very considerable privileges.

The states are composed of the nobility and towns; and the diets, which are summoned annually, are held alternately at Sternberg and Malchin. The duchy of Schwerin appoints four provincial counsellors, and that of Gustro as many; who rank according to seniority, with the duke's actual privy counsellors, as their marshals do with the colonels. The lesser committee represents the whole body of the nobility and commons, by whom the members are chosen freely and without control, and no edict relative to the whole country can be published without their consent, or in prejudice of their rights. The inhabitants of this country are mostly Lutherans, under their superintendents. There are also some Calvinists and Roman Catholics. Besides the grammar schools in the towns, there is an university at Rostock. The commodities of the duchy are corn, flax, hemp, hops, wax, honey, cattle, butter, cheese, wool, and wood, a part of which is exported; but hardly any manufactures.

Of the house of Mecklenburg, there are two lines still subsisting, viz. that of Schwerin and that of Strelitz. The latter commenced in Duke Adolphus Frederick II., younger brother of the duke of Schwerin, and grandfather of Adolphus Frederick IV. who entered on the government in 1752, and whose family received a great additional lustre by his Britannic majesty's taking his second sister for his consort, and by her own great merit and noble deportment in that high station. Besides the duchy of Strelitz, to this duke belong the principality of Ratzeburg, with the lordship of Stargard, the ancient commanderies of Miro and Nemo, and a yearly pension of 9000 dollars out of the Boitzenburg toll. The title assumed by both the dukes is duke of Mecklenburg; prince of Wenden, Schwerin, and Ratzeburg; count of Schwerin and the country of Rostock, and lord of Stargard. By the agreement concluded at Wittstock in 1442, the elector of Brandenburg, on the extinction of the male line of the dukes of Mecklenburg, is entitled to their whole succession. The duke of Schwerin has two votes both in the diet of the empire and that of the circle. The matricular assessment for the duchies of Schwerin and Gustro is 40 horse and 67 foot, or 748 florins monthly, including what is paid by Sweden for Wismar, and the bailiwicks of Poll and Neukloster. To the chamber of Wetzlar, these two duchies pay each 243 rix-dollars, 43 kruitzters. For the government of Mecklenburg, the administration of justice, and the management of the revenue, there is the privy council of regency, the demesne chamber, the high and provincial court of justice, to which appeals lie in most causes, both from the consistory and the inferior civil courts, and which are common to both the dukes. As to the revenues, those of the Schwerin line must be very considerable, those arising from the demesne bailiwicks and regalia alone amounting to 300,000 rix-dollars per annum. There is a tax on land that produces no contemptible sum, and that called the princess's tax is fixed at 20,000 rix-dollars: besides all these, there are also free gifts. The whole revenues of the Strelitz branch are estimated at 120,000 rix-dollars. Each of these princes maintains a body of troops.

MECONIUM, the excrement contained in the intestines of an infant at its birth. MEDALS.

MEDAL denotes a piece of metal in the form of coin, such as was either current money among the ancients, or struck on any particular occasion, in order to preserve to posterity the portrait of some great person, or the memory of some illustrious action. Scaliger derives the word medal from the Arabic methalia; a sort of coin with a human head upon it. But the opinion of Vossius is generally received; viz. that it comes from metallium, "metal;" of which substance medals are commonly made.

Sect. I. Utility of Medals in History, and various other Sciences.

There are few studies of more importance to history than that of medals; the sole evidence we can have of the veracity of a historian being only such collateral documents as are evident to every body, and cannot be falsified. In modern times, these are found in public memoirs, instructions to ambassadors, and state papers of various kinds. Such memorials, however, are subject to various accidents, and besides commonly remain in the countries where they are first published, and cannot therefore give to the world at large that perfect and entire satisfaction which ought to be derived from genuine history; so that more durable and widely diffused monuments are still to be wished for. Such are public buildings, inscriptions, and statues; but these, excepting a few instances of the two last, are always confined to particular countries; so that medals alone remain as infallible documents of truth, capable of being diffused over all countries in the world, and of remaining through the latest ages.

The first who showed the importance of medals in ascertaining the dates, and arranging the order of events, in ancient history, by means of medals, was Vaillant, in his History of the Kings of Syria, printed at Paris in 1681. By medals alone, he has been enabled to fix the chronology and important events of history, in the three most ancient kingdoms of the world, viz. Egypt, Syria, and Parthia. Many coins have been discovered since his time, which confirm the accounts he has given. He was followed in this method by Father Hardouin, though with less success. Hardouin's best work is his Herodiades, or Series of Successors to Herod king of Judæa. The same plan was pursued by Noris, in his learned Treatise on the Syro-Macedonian princes, and by Bayer in his History of Osrhoene, as well as by Freulich, in the work entitled Annales Regum et Rerum Syrie, Vien. 1754, and another named Kevenhullers Regum veterum Numismata Anecdota, anet. Perrara, Vien. 1752, 4to, of which Freulich was properly the author. Corsini and Cary likewise published works of a similar nature; the former in 1744, De Minnifari, aliorumque Armeniae Regum, Nummis, &c.; the latter in 1752, Histoire des Rois de Thrace, et du Bosphore Cimmerien, eclaircie par les Medailles.

The study of the Greek coins does not show the dates of events, though it illustrates the chronology of reigns. This defect, however, is abundantly supplied by those of Rome, which commonly mark the date of the prince's consulship, the year of his tribunician power; giving also, upon the reverse, the representation or poetical symbol of some grand event. The year of the tribunician power is sometimes imagined by antiquaries to be synonymous with that of the emperor's reign: but this is not the case; and Mr Pinkerton is at some pains to set them right in this respect. He finds fault with Julius Caesar, when he assumed the sovereign authority, for taking upon him the title of Perpetual Dictator, as being synonymous with that of king or absolute governor, which the Romans abhorred. "He ought (says our author), under the disguise of some supreme magistrate of annual election, to have lulled the people with a dream, that they might terminate his power when they pleased; or that he himself would resign it, when the necessities of state which had required his temporary elevation had subsided." To this error Mr Pinkerton ascribes the assassination of the dictator, and commends the policy of Augustus, who, with far inferior abilities, continued in possession of the most absolute authority as long as he lived. The tribuneship was an office of annual election; and if put into the hands of any others than plebeians, must have been the supreme power of the state, as it belonged to that office to put a negative upon every public measure whatever. Augustus, being of senatorial rank, could not assume this office; but he invested himself with the tribunician power, which had the advantages of appearing to be only a temporary supremacy, though in truth it was continued during his whole lifetime. Towards the end of his reign, he frequently assumed his destined successor, Tiberius, for his colleague, though in the beginning he had enjoyed it alone. This, with his artifice of resigning his power every ten years, and reassuming it at the desire, as was pretended, of the senate, secured his sovereignty as long as he lived.—His example was followed by his successors; so that most of them have the inscription Tribunicia Potestate upon their medals, with the date affixed to it thus, Tr. Pot. VII. Yet though this date generally implies the year of the emperor's reign, it sometimes happens that the emperor, by special favour from a former prince, had been endowed with this title before he came to the throne, as being the successor to that prince, of which we have already given an instance in Tiberius. Besides the tribunician power, the emperors very frequently enjoyed that of the consuls; and the date of their consulship is frequently expressed in their coins.

The office of Pontifex Maximus was likewise assumed by the Roman emperors, in order to secure themselves in their authority; which, Mr Pinkerton observes, was one of the most efficacious artifices they could have fallen upon. "In the Greek heroic times..." (says he), king and priest were carefully united in one person; and when sovereigns arose in Denmark and Sweden, the same plan was followed, as appears from Snorro, and other writers. Nothing could lend more security to the person of the monarch than an office of supreme sanctity, which also confirmed his power by all the terrors of superstition. Even the Christian system was afterwards debased by a mock alliance with government; though it be clear from the whole New Testament, that such an alliance is subversive of its genuine institution, and the greatest of all its corruptions. But the Roman Catholic clergy, in the dark ages, were the authors of 'no church no king,' for their own interest; while the Roman emperors only sought to strengthen their power by the dark awe of superstition. The title of Pontifex Maximus was so important, that it was retained even by the Christian emperors till the time of Gratian. Its influence in the state was, indeed, prodigious. Cicero observes, that to this office were subject, temples, altars, penates, gods, houses, wealth, and fortune of the people.—That of augur is also borne by many emperors; and its authority was such, that by the law of the twelve tables no public business could be transacted without a declaration from the augur concerning its event.—The proconsular power was also given to Augustus and the other emperors. It conferred a direct authority over all the provinces, and implied the emperor to be chief proconsul, or governor of each, and of all. Another special power assigned to the emperors, but not occurring on coins, was the Jus Relationis Tertiae, Quarta, &c. or the right of making three or four motions in the senate on the same day, while the senators could only propose one.

Hence our author infers, that medals afford the most authentic documents of the Roman history, in particular, that could have been invented by man.—The histories of Nerva and Trajan are much better elucidated by medals than by authors; for the history of Suetonius ends with Domitian, and the Historia Augustae Scriptores begin with Adrian: so that the reigns of the two emperors just mentioned are almost unknown; and Mr Pinkerton is surprised that none of the learned have attempted to supply the defect.—"Capitolinus (says he), in his life of Maximinus Junior is quite puzzled to know if Maximus and Pupienus were two emperors, or two names for the same. Had it happened on any of those coins which bear M. C. Pupienus Maximus Aug. he would have seen at once that Maximus was only another name for Pupienus."

Medals are useful in other sciences besides history. In geography, we find the situation of towns determined by their vicinity to some noted river, mountain, &c. Thus, \(\text{ΜΑΓΝΗΤΩΝ ΣΙΠΥΛΟΙ}\) shows that Magnesia was situated under Mount Sipylus. In like manner, it is shown from a medal, that Ephesus stood on the river Cayster; and there is extant a medal, bearing an inscription, which signifies Alexandria on the Scamander; a name given to Troy by Alexander the Great. The reverse has upon it the famous Apollo Smintheus of Homer. In natural history also, medals are useful chiefly from the coins struck on the celebration of the secular games, in which the figures of various animals are preserved; and thus it may very often be determined whether any animal be known to the ancients or not. On many of the Greek medals are several uncommon plants and animals. Thus, on most of the medals of Cyrene is the figure of the celebrated Sylphium; and on those of Tyre, the shell-fish from which the famous Tyrian purple was procured.

By means of medals, also, the exact delineations of many noble edifices are preserved, though not even a vestige of their ruins be now existing; so that the uses of them to the architect are very considerable. To the fine connoisseur they are absolutely necessary; because by them alone he is enabled to ascribe ancient busts and statues to their proper persons, with multitudes of other points of knowledge which cannot be otherwise determined. The elucidations of obscure passages in ancient authors by means of medals are so numerous and well known, that it is needless to insist upon them.

Mr Addison has treated the connexion betwixt medals and poetry at considerable length; but Mr Pinkerton finds fault with him for preferring the Latin to the Greek poets. He observes also, that the knowledge of Greek medals is most necessary for a sculptor, and perhaps an architect: but an acquaintance with Latin ones is preferable for a poet, or perhaps a painter. The reason of this difference is, that the former generally have on the obverse the head of some king, god, or goddess, of exquisite relief and workmanship; but the reverse seldom affords much fancy of symbol in the early Greek coins; and in the imperial Greek coins, is chiefly impressed with the temples of their deities. To a person of poetical imagination, however, the Roman coins afford the greatest entertainment, from the fine personifications and symbols to be found on their reverses; of which our author gives the following instances:

"Happiness has sometimes the caduceus, or wand of Mercury, which Cicero, i. Offic. tells us was thought to procure every wish. She has, in a gold coin of Severus, heads of poppy, to express that our prime bliss lies in oblivion of misfortune.

Hope is represented as a sprightly girl, walking quickly, and looking straight forward. With her left hand she holds up her garments, that they may not impede the rapidity of her pace; while in her right hand she holds forth the bud of a flower; an emblem infinitely more fine than the trite one of an anchor, which is the symbol of Patience, and not of Hope. This personification, with some others, must have been very familiar to the ancients; for often in this, and in a few more instances, no name, as Spes Aug. or the like, is inserted in the legend.

Abundance is imagined as a sedate matron, with a cornucopie in her hands, of which she scatters the fruits, and does not hold up her cornucopie and keep the contents to herself, as many modern poets and painters make her do.

The emperor Titus, having cause to import a great supply of corn during a scarcity at Rome, that supply, or the Annona, is finely represented as a sedate lady, with a filled cornucopie in her left hand, which she holds upright, to indicate that she does not, however, mean to scatter it, as Abundance has a title to do, but to give it to Equity to deal out. This last particular is shown by her holding a little image of Equity, Utility of Equity, known by her scales, and hasta pura, or point-them in Hi-less spear, in her right hand, over a basket filled with wheat. Behind the Annona is the prow of a ship decked with flowers, to imply that the corn was brought by sea (from Africa), and that the ships had had a prosperous voyage. The best poet in the world would not have given us a finer train of imagery; the best painter would have been puzzled to express so much matter in so small a compass.

"Security stands leaning upon a pillar, indicative of her being free from all designs and pursuits; and the posture itself corresponds to her name. Horace, in describing the wise man, mentions his being teres atque rotundus; round and polished, against all the rules of chance: an idea seemingly derived from the column upon which this ideal lady reclines.

"The emblems of Piety, Modesty, and the like, are equally apposite and poetical.

"The happiness of the state is pictured by a ship sailing before a prosperous breeze: an image than which the superlative genius of Gray could find none more exquisite; and he has accordingly used it in his most capital production "The Bard," with due success.

"The different countries of the then known world are also delineated with great poetical imagery. It affords patriotic satisfaction in particular to a Briton, to see his native island often represented upon the earliest imperial coins, sitting on a globe, with a symbol of military power, the labarum, in her hand, and the ocean rolling under her feet. An emblem almost prophetic of the vast power which her dominion over the sea will always give her, provided she exerts her element of empire with due vigour and perseverance.

"Coins also present us with Achaia, Africa, Alamannia, Alexandria, Arabia, Armenia, Asia, Bithynia, Cappadocia, Dacia, Dardania, Egypt, Gallia, Hispania, Italia, Judea, Macedon, Mauritania, Pannonia, Parthia, Phrygia, Sarmatia, Sicily, Scythia, Syria, and the rivers Danube, Nile, Rhine, Tiber. This personification of provinces seems to have arisen from the figures of provinces carried in triumphs; as the personification of our old poets sprung from the ideal persons actually represented in the mystical plays.

"There is one colonial medal of rude execution of Augustus and Agrippa, which has a high claim to merit in displaying the ancient poetical imagery. It is inscribed IMP. and DIVI. F. and on the reverse, the conquest of Egypt is represented by the metaphor of a crocodile, an animal almost peculiar to that country, and at that period esteemed altogether so: which is chained to a palm tree, at once a native of the country, and symbolic of victory.

"As the reverses are so useful for knowledge of personification, symbols of countries and actions, and the like; so the portraits to be seen on old coins are no less important to a painter; the high merit of a great number of them, in every character, justly entitling them to be regarded as the best studies in the world. Not to mention, that, to an historic painter, the science of ancient medals is absolutely necessary, that he may delineate his personages with the features they really bore while in existence. This can only be attained in this way, or from statues and busts; any one of which will cost as much as hundreds of medals; Entertains indeed a collection of such is only attainable by men of study; princes.

The same things which render the study of medals important to a painter, do still more so to a sculptor; and, in this particular, the study of the Greek coins is To a so remarkably useful. The skill of the Greeks in the art of sculpture has always been admired throughout the world; and on their coins the heads of several deities are represented in the most exquisite alto relievo. Our author, therefore, thinks it strange, that the Grecian coins should have hitherto been so little attended to by men of learning and taste. They may have been looked upon, he supposes, as belonging only to the province of the antiquary; but he assures us, that the Greek medals will afford satisfaction to the persons who value them only as pieces of workmanship. In most respects, they greatly excel those of Rome even in its best times; which our author supposes to have been from the days of Augustus to Adrian. "In the days of Adrian," in particular (says he), the Roman mint seems to have been the very seat of art and genius; witness the vast number of exquisite personifications, engraven with equal workmanship, which swarm on the medals of that prince. Yet from his time down to Posthumus, coins of admirable workmanship are to be found. Those of the Faustinas and Lucilla deserve particular mention. There is one, and not an uncommon one, of the latter, in great brass, which yields to nothing of the kind. The reverse is a Venus with the name around her. The portrait of the obverse seems to spring from the field of the coin; it looks and breathes, nay talks, if you trust your eyes. The coins of Tarsus are extremely remarkable for a kind of perspective in the figures, as Froelich observes. On others are found triumphal arches, temples, fountains, aqueducts, amphitheatres, circi, hippodromes, palaces, basilicas, columns and obelisks, baths, sea-ports, pharoses, and the like. These furnish much pleasure and instruction to the architect, and serve to form his taste to the ancient manner; that manner which unites perfect simplicity with sublimity and grace; that manner which every age admires, in proportion as it has genius to imitate."

Sect. II. Entertainment arising from the Study of Medals.

Besides the purposes which the study of medals answers in the useful arts, a great variety of sources of entertainment are to be found in it. Mr Pinkerton observes, that the most barbarous nations are more pleased with the rudest efforts of art, than with the most admirable works of nature; and that in proportion as the powers of the mind are large and various, such are also the pleasures which it receives from those superlative productions of art, which can only be the offspring of vast genius. Hence works of art are agreeable both to the enlightened and to the ignorant. The chief amusement, therefore, which attends the study of medals, originates from the strength and spirit, the finish and beauty, which the engraver has displayed in the execution of them. It besides gives a kind of personal acquaintance with the persons of whom they are the representations. Portraits have always been The study of medals is not of very ancient date: None of the classic writers give any account of collections of them; though indeed many little particulars are passed without notice by them. In the times of the Greeks, a collection of such coins as then existed must have been but little regarded, as consisting only of those struck by the numerous little states which at that time used the Greek characters and language. Hence they would have had an air of domestic coinage, and no attention would have been paid to them, however exquisite their workmanship might have been. The little intercourse at that time carried on betwixt the different provinces also, greatly impeded any communication of knowledge to those who wrote histories; so that it is no wonder to find any small collections that might then have existed altogether unnoticed by them.

Almost as soon as any communication was opened between the Greeks and Romans, the latter treated the arts of the Greeks with all due respect and applause. Their coins were imitated by the Romans, and preserved in cabinets by the senators among their choicest treasures. Suetonius informs us, that on solemn occasions Augustus was accustomed to present his friends with medals of foreign states and princes, along with other valuable testimonies of his friendship. In a more advanced period of the Roman empire, however, individuals would undoubtedly form collections of coins peculiar to their own state; for Dr Stukeley, in his Medallie History of Carausius, informs us, that a complete series of silver coins was lately found in Britain, containing all the emperors down to Carausius inclusively. From Banduri we also know, that certain Greek coins were specially preserved by the Romans; and it appears from their code, that ancient gold and silver coins were made use of instead of gems; to which distinction those of Sicily were particularly entitled. From the decline of the Roman empire till towards the end of the fifth century, almost all branches of literature were involved in darkness, and the medallie science among the rest. While the Christian dominion of Constantinople lasted, indeed, almost all the arts and sciences may be said to have been kept within its own boundaries; though the Arabs and eastern nations had some arts and sciences of their own: but after the destruction of the imperial city by the Turks, the Greeks were once more compelled to become fathers to the European science. Even before this time, indeed, some vestiges of a revival of literature had appeared in Italy; and so intimate and necessary a connexion (says Mr Pinkerton), has now the study of medals with that of ancient erudition, that on the earliest appearance of a revival of the latter, the former was also disclosed."

The first among the moderns who began to study the medallie science was Petrarch. Being desired by the emperor Charles IV. to compose a book containing the lives of eminent men, and to place him in the list, he replied, that he would do so whenever the emperor's life and conduct deserved it. In consequence of this conversation, he afterwards sent the emperor a collection of gold and silver coins bearing the representations sentations of eminent men, with an address suitable to his former declaration. A collection of coins was made in the next age by Alphonso king of Arragon; but though this monarch collected all that could be found throughout Italy, we know that there could not have been very many, as the whole were contained in an ivory cabinet, and carried always about with him.

A very considerable collection was made by Anthony Cardinal St Mark, nephew to Eugene IV, who ascended the pontifical chair in 1431; and soon after the grand museum at Florence was begun by Cosmo de Medici, where a collection of ancient coins and medals had a place among other curiosities. Corvinus king of Hungary about the same time formed a noble collection of coins along with ancient manuscripts and other valuable relics of antiquity.

Mr Pinkerton considers Agnolo Poliziano, more commonly known by the name of Angelus Politianus, as the first writer who adduced medals as vouchers of ancient orthography and customs. He cites different coins of the Medicean collection in his Miscellanea written about the year 1490. By means of a cabinet of medals collected by Maximilian I, emperor of Germany, Joannes Hutichins was enabled to publish a book of the lives of the emperors, enriched with their portraits, delineated from ancient coins. It is generally supposed that this book, which appeared in 1525, was the first work of the kind; but Labbe, in his Bibliotheca Nummaria, mentions another named Illustrium Imagines, by one Andreas Fulvius, printed in 1517, in which most of the portraits seem to be from medals. About the year 1512 also, Guillaume Bude, a French author, had written his treatise De Asse, though it was not printed till many years afterwards.

M. Grolier, treasurer of the French armies in Italy, during part of the 16th century, had a great collection of coins of different kinds of metals. After his death, his brass medals were sent to Provence, and were about to be sent into Italy; when the king of France, having got information of the transaction, gave orders to stop them, and purchase the whole at a very high price for his own cabinet of antiquities. M. Grolier had an assortment of gold and silver as well as of brass medals; the cabinet in which they were contained fell two centuries afterwards into the hands of M. l'Abbe de Bothelin; and was known to have been that of Grolier from some slips of paper, on which was his usual inscription for his books, Joannis Grolierii, et amicorum.

Contemporary with Grolier was Guillaume de Choul, who was likewise a man of rank and fortune. He had a good collection of medals, and published many in his Treatise on the Religion of the ancient Romans in 1557. In the Low Countries we know, from the letters of Erasmus, that the study of medals was begun about the beginning of the 16th century. About the middle of that century, Hubertus Goltzius, a printer and engraver, travelled over most countries in Europe searching for coins and medals, in order to publish books concerning them. From one of these works it appears, that there were then in the Low Countries 200 cabinets of medals; 175 in Germany, upwards of 380 in Italy, and 200 in France. It is probable, however, that there are now four times as many in these countries, besides 500 in Britain; but we are not to imagine that all these were grand collections, for of such there are not above a dozen even in Italy: most of those just mentioned were of the class named caskets of medals, containing from 100 to 1000 or 2000.

There are few countries, Italy excepted, in which a greater number of coins have been found than in Britain; though we are by no means well acquainted with the time when the study of them commenced. Mr Pinkerton suspects that Camden was one of the first, if not the very first British author, who produced medals in his works, and who must have had a small collection. Speed's Chronicle, published in the 17th century, was illustrated with coins from Sir Robert Cotton's cabinet. Gorlitz's collection was purchased by Henry prince of Wales, brother to Charles I, to whom he left it at his death. According to Joseph Scaliger, it consisted of 30,000 coins and medals. A collection of 5500 coins was purchased by Archbishop Laud for 600l. and given to the Bodleian library. Thomas earl of Arundel, earl-marshal of England, well known from the Arundelian tables and other antiquities which he imported from Greece and Italy into Britain, had a rich cabinet of medals collected by Daniel Nisum. The dukes of Buckingham and Hamilton, Sir William Paston, Sir Thomas Fanshaw of Ware-Park, Sir Thomas Hamner, Ralph Sheldon, Esq. Mr Selden, &c. are enumerated by Evelyn as collectors of medals. Charles I, as well as his historian the earl of Clarendon, were also collectors. The king had a very fine cabinet; which, however, was dissipated and lost during the civil commotions. Oliver Cromwell had a small collection; and the cabinet of Charles II, is mentioned by Vaillant in the preface to his treatise entitled "Nummi in Coloniiis," &c. This branch of magnificence has not been much attended to by succeeding British monarchs; though his present majesty has a very good collection of ancient gold coins.

A great number of fine cabinets have been formed in Britain since the time of Evelyn. About the year 1720, Haym makes mention of those of the duke of Devonshire, the earls of Pembroke and Winchelsea, Sir Hans Sloane, Sir Andrew Fontaine, Mr Sadler, Mr Abdy, Mr Wren, Mr Chicheley, and Mr Kemp. At present there are many remarkable collections; but that of the late Dr William Hunter is deservedly esteemed the most remarkable in Europe, excepting that of the late French king. Is was not only formed at a great expense, but with much care and ability; many foreign medals offered to it having been rejected (a). The other remarkable collections are those of the duke of Devonshire, the earl of Pembroke, Earl Fitzwilliam, formerly the marquis of Rockingham's, the honourable Horace Walpole, the reverend Mr Crachrode, the reverend Mr Southgate, Mr Townley, Mr R. P.

(a) This collection, as well as the rest of Dr Hunter's Museum, is now in the possession of the university of Glasgow, to which it was bequeathed by the doctor's will. MEDALS

R. P. Knight, Mr Edward Knight, Mr Tyson, Mr Barker, Mr Brown, and several others. The British museum and universities in England have also collections; as well as the Advocates library, the Antiquarian Society, and the universities in Scotland.

Sect. IV. Materials of which Medals are constructed.

Medals are formed of gold, silver, and the various modifications of copper. The gold usually made use of in coinage is about the fineness of 22 carats; and as the art of purifying this metal was very much unknown in former times, the most ancient medals are for this reason much more impure than the modern coins. Gold is never found in its native state above 22 carats fine; and the very ancient medals are much under that standard. Many of them are composed of a mixture of gold and silver, called by the ancients electrum. The gold medals were made of much finer metal after Philip of Macedon became possessed of the gold mines of Philippi in Thrace, and the medals of his son Alexander the Great are equally fine; as well as those of some other princes of that age. Those of the Egyptian Ptolemies are of the fineness of 23 carats three grains, with only one grain of alloy. The Roman coins are very pure even from the earliest times; the art of refining gold being well known before any was coined at Rome. Some authors are of opinion, that the Roman coins begin to fall short of their purity after the time of Titus; but Mr Pinkerton denies that any thing of this kind takes place till the time of the emperor Severus; and even then only in a very few instances. Most of the Roman gold was brought from Dalmatia and Dacia, where that metal is still to be met with. A very remarkable circumstance is observed in the eastern part of Hungary, which belonged to the ancient Dacia. It germinates in the vines of Tokay, and is found in their stems; as it is elsewhere in the straw of corn.

Pliny informs us, and indeed it is generally known, that gold and silver are found mixed together in the earth. Where the silver amounted to one-fifth part of the gold, the metal was called electrum; but sometimes the quantity of silver was added artificially. The gold was in those days as well as at present refined by means of mercury; and the ancient artists had certainly attained to great perfection in this branch of metallurgy; as Bodin tells us, that the goldsmiths of Paris upon melting one of Vespasian's gold coins found only 1/8th part of alloy.

Most of the ancient silver, particularly that of Greece, is less pure than that of succeeding times; even the Roman silver is rather inferior to the present standard, and that from the very beginning; but in the time of Severus, the silver appears very bad, and continues so until the time of Dioclesian. Many writers upon this subject have mistaken the denarii ærei, "coins of brass washed with silver," for silver currency. Silver coins are extremely scarce from the time of Claudius Gothicus to that of Dioclesian, or from the year 270 to 284: in which short space no fewer than eight emperors reigned. Silver at that time was found mostly in Spain; and the commerce with that country was disturbed by the usurpers who arose in Gaul; and such were the troubles of the times, that not only the silver but also the gold coins of those eight emperors, are extremely scarce. There is still, however, some silver extant of these eight emperors; and it is certain, that copper washed was never used as silver currency, but was entirely a distinct coinage. Occasional deprivations of silver had taken place long before; as Pliny tells us, that Mark Antony mixed iron with his silver denarii; and Mr Pinkerton informs us, that he had seen a denarius of Antony, which was attracted by a magnet.

The ancient brass coins consist of two kinds: the Ancient red or Cyprian, which indeed is no other than copper; and the common yellow brass. Our author observes, that in the Roman coinage brass was of double the value of copper, and he is of opinion, that it was the same among the Greeks; and the latter is the metal most commonly made use of in the Greek coinage. The Roman sesterii was always of brass: the middling-sized kind are partly copper and partly brass; the former being double the value of the latter, which are the asses.

Mr Pinkerton next proceeds to give an account of the mixed metals used among the Romans. In Britain all kinds of coins made of mixed metal are without hesitation alleged to be forgeries; although it is certain that the variety of mixed metals used in coinage was very considerable. The most valuable mixture was that of gold and silver, already mentioned, named electrum; the silver commonly amounting to one-fifth part of the gold made use of, or perhaps more. Of this mixture are many of the early coins of Lydia, and some other Asiatic states; also those of the kings of the Bosphorus Cimmerius, during the imperial ages of Rome. Next to the electrum were the coins of Corinthian brass: but Mr Pinkerton informs us, that not a single coin was ever struck of this metal by the ancients; it having been constantly employed only in the fabrication of vases or toys. It was in use at any rate only for a very short time; being altogether unknown in the days of Pliny the Elder. Our author therefore ridicules those who pretend not only to find out imperial coins of this metal, but to discover three kinds of it; viz. one in which the gold predominates, another in which the silver prevails, and a third where the brass is most conspicuous. He gives Æneas Vico, one of the most ancient writers on medals, as the author of this idea; but whose opinions were confuted by one Savot, a writer in the 17th century. Vico mentions a coin of this kind struck under Augustus, another of Livia, and a third of Claudius. The mistake, he is of opinion, arose from the circumstance of the first propagator not being able to account for the various mixtures and modifications of brass observable in ancient coins of the large size; and which in so common a metal appear very odd to the moderns. Besides the authority of Pliny and other antiquaries of a more modern date, who all declare that they never saw a single medal of Corinthian brass, or of that metal mixed with silver and gold, our author adduces another evidence which he looks upon to be superior to either; viz. that those who have given into this supposition, imagine, that the large pieces called sestertii, and others called dupondiarii, worth about twopence or a penny, are said to have been composed of this precious metal. It is unreasonable to think, that any proportion of gold gold or silver could have been made use of in these. The coins said to have been struck upon Corinthian brass are only done upon a modification of common brass; of which we know, that in proportion to the quantity of zinc made use of in conjunction with the copper, the metal assumes a variety of hues. On the authority of Pliny he informs us, that the coins mistaken for Corinthian brass were no other than prince's metal.

The Egyptian silver coins struck under the Roman emperors are at first of tolerably pure silver; but afterwards degenerate into a mixture of copper and tin with a little silver. They are very thick, but many of them are elegantly struck, with uncommon reverses. There are likewise three sets of brass coins belonging to this country from the earliest times of the Roman emperors there. Some of these are of bell-metal or pot-metal; and after the time of Gallienus and Valerian, the coinage of brass with a small addition of silver, becomes authorised by the state; the coins struck upon it, being called denarii aurei. Those of lead or copper plated with silver have been fabricated by Roman forgers. Some coins of lead, however, have been met with of undoubted antiquity: and an ancient writer informs us, that tin money was coined by Dionysius; but none has been found. The lead coins of Tigranes king of Armenia, mentioned as genuine by Jobert, are accounted forgeries by Mr Pinkerton and other modern medallists. Plautus, however, makes mention of leaden coins, and several of them have been found; but our author looks upon them to have been chiefly essay pieces, struck in order to let the artist judge of the progress of the die. Others are the plated kind already mentioned, fabricated by ancient forgers, but having the plating worn off. A great number of leaden coins are mentioned by Fracorini in a work entitled Piombi Antichi, in which he supposes them to have served as tickets for guests; and coins of the same kind are also mentioned by Passeri. In the work entitled Notitia Imperii Romani, there is mention of coins made of leather, but none of them have ever been found.

Sect. V. Of Ancient Money.

In considering the different sizes, values, &c. of the Greek and Roman coins, our author treats of the medals as money; a knowledge of which, he says, is essentially necessary to every reader of the classics; insomuch that it may almost dispute the preference with the studies of ancient geography and chronology. Notwithstanding all that has been written upon the subject, however, our author is of opinion, that the science is still in its infancy, in as far as it relates to the real money of the ancients. "The ideal (says he), which is indeed the most important province of discussion, has been pretty clearly ascertained; and we are almost as well acquainted with the Attic mina or mina, and the perplexing progress of the Roman sestertia, as with our own pounds. But with the actual coin of the ancients the case is different; and the ignorance even of the learned in this point is wonderful."

Our author now goes on, with great asperity of language, to particularize the ignorant manner in which modern authors have treated the subject of medals. "Arbuthnot and Clarke (says he), are, if possible, more ignorant of medals than Budaeus the very first. The latter professes his love of medals, but quotes a consular coin with the head of Cicero; and looks upon one of the 30 pieces of silver, the reward of the treachery of Judas, and which was said to be preserved among some relics at Paris, to be worthy of reference, and commemoration. Arbuthnot, if we may judge from his book, had never seen any ancient coins; and Clarke, it is well known, was quite ignorant of them. The latter, with all his labour, seems even to have known nothing of the theoretic part of the real ancient money. Indeed Dr Mead's catalogue seems to have been almost the only book on medals which had undergone his perusal. On the other hand, the ignorance of medallists on this score is no less profound. To this day they look upon the didrachms of Eginus, so celebrated in antiquity, as tridrachms of Eginus; and upon the early obolus as a brass coin. In the Roman class the large brass is esteemed the as, while it shall be proved that it is the sestertius, and worth four asses. The denarius is reckoned at ten asses even in the imperial times; whereas it only went at that rate for the first 90 years after the coinage of silver at Rome. The denarius aureus is taken for silver currency; with other mistakes, which evince that medallists are as ignorant of the theory, as the others are of the practice."

In his account of the ancient Greek money, Mr Pinkerton observes, that the light of science, like that of the sun, has proceeded from east to west. "It is most probable (says he), that the first invention of money arose like the other arts and sciences; and spread from thence into the western parts of the world. In its first shape it appeared as mere pieces of metal, without any stated form or impression; in lieu of rude which, it was regulated by weight. Even down to the Saxon government in England, large sums were regulated by weight; and in our own times every single piece is weighed in gold; though with regard to silver this nicety is not minded, nor indeed does it seem practicable. Among the ancients, whose commercial transactions were less important and extensive than those of the moderns, silver was weighed as well as gold; nay even brass in some cases.

In Greece, large sums were determined by mina or Greek mine; and the most capital sums by talents. In every country the mina is supposed to have contained 100 drachmae, or small silver coins, of that country, and the talent 60 minae. The mina is supposed to be a pound weight of the country to which it belonged. The Attic pound, according to Dr Arbuthnot, contained 16 ounces, equal to our avoirdupois pound; but Mr Pinkerton looks upon this as a very absurd opinion, and accuses the doctor of having adopted it merely that he may explain a passage in Livy. He is of opinion, that the Attic pound is very nearly the same with the pound Troy. The mina of Athens had at first 73 drachmas; but by Solon it was fixed at 100. The ancient drachm weighed the same which it does at present in medical weight, viz. the eighth part of an ounce. The mina or pound of 12 ounces had consequently 96 of these drachmas; but four of them were given to the round sum to supply defects in the alloy; and indeed (says our author), in consequence of a common practice in all ages and in all countries, of giving some addition to a large weight. Thus the pound in weight had but 96 drachmae in fact, while the pound in tale had 100; as the Roman libra in weight had but 84 denarii, in tale 108; and as our pound in tale, by an inverse progress, is not a third of our pound in common weight.

Notwithstanding the very severe criticism on Dr Arbuthnot just mentioned, however, we find our author adopting his account of the talents used in coinage in several countries. Thus, according to the doctor,

| The Syrian talent had | 15 Attic minae | |-----------------------|---------------| | Ptolemaic | 20 | | Antiochian | 60 | | Euboean | 60 | | Babylonian | 70 | | Larger Attic | 80 | | Tyrian | 80 | | Egyptian | 80 | | Aeginean | 100 | | Rhodian | 100 |

Notwithstanding the concession made here by Mr Pinkerton to the doctor, he tells us, that he very much questions this list of talents, and that many ancient writers are little to be relied upon. "Writers on this subject confess, that the numbers in all ancient manuscripts are the parts most subject to error, as being almost always contracted. They ought to allow that the authors themselves must often be liable to wrong information.

"Herodotus mentions, that King Darius ordered gold to be paid into his treasury by the Euboic talent, and silver by the Babylonian. The Euboic is esteemed the same with that called afterwards the Attic; and as we estimate gold by carats, so it is natural to suppose, that the most precious metal would be regulated by the most minute weight. But I confess I take the Babylonic talent to be the same with that of Aegina. Mr Raper has proved the first coins of Macedon to be upon the standard of Aegina. Now the early Persian coins are upon that very scale, the largest tetradrachms weighing from 430 to 440 grains. Hence it follows, that the Persian silver coins were of the Aeginean standard; and the payment was certainly to be made according to the standard of the money. The larger Attic talent was of 80 lesser minae; because the larger Attic mina was of 16 ounces. The Alexandrian talent, according to Festus, consisted of 12,000 denarii, being the same with that used by the Egyptian kings in their coins; and is shown by Mr Raper to have been the same with the talent of Aegina. Perhaps the whole of the ancient coins of Asia, Africa, Greece, Magna Graecia, and Sicily, are reducible to three talents or standards. 1. That of Aegina, used in most of the more ancient silver coinages; as would seem in even the later of Egypt, Carthage, Cyrene, &c. 2. The Attic (being the Asiatic gold standard, afterwards used by Phidon king of Argos in estimating gold, and called Euboic from Euboea, one of the quarters of the city of Argos), used in Athens and the greater part of the world as the standard both of gold and silver. 3. The Doric or Sicilian talent of 24 nummi, each worth an obolus and a half; whence the talent is estimated at six Attic drachms or three daries. These weights continued to be the standard of money after it began to be distinguished by impression; nay, to the fall of Greece and prevalence of the Roman empire."

Coinage, according to Herodotus, was first invented by the Lydians, from whom the Greeks quickly received it. The former could not have received it from the Persians, whose empire did not begin till 570 B.C., though our author supposes that it might have proceeded from the Syrians, who carried on commerce in very ancient times. The most ancient Greek coins of most ancient silver have an indented mark upon one side, and a tortoise upon the other; and those of the greatest antiquity have no letters upon them. Those of later date have AITI marked upon them, which medallists interpret of Aegium in Achaia; being led into that supposition by the tortoise, which they look upon as a sure mark of the Peloponnesus. But though our author agrees that the tortoise was so, he thinks that they are otherwise very far wrong in their conclusions. Aegium in Achaia was a place of no consequence till the times of Aratus and the Achaean league; but there are 11 of these coins in Dr Hunter's cabinet, which show that they must have been struck in times of the most remote antiquity, and that the place where they were struck was rich and flourishing at the time. The coins we speak of are not common; but those which have the name AITEION at full length, and which may perhaps belong to Aegium in Achaia, are extremely scarce; insomuch that in all Dr Hunter's vast collection there are not above one or two. They are likewise constructed upon a scale quite different from all other Grecian money; being of 8, 13, 15½, 90, and about 186 grains. The Grecian drachma at an average is 66 grains; and Mr Pinkerton thinks it would have been strange if pieces had been struck of eight-tenths of an obolus, of an obolus and a half, or of a drachma and a half. Aegium being originally an obscure village, could not be the first which coined money; so that Mr Pinkerton supposes the name AITI to have stood for Aegialus, the ancient name of Sicyon, a wealthy and powerful city; or rather Aegina, the mint of which was much celebrated, and perhaps the most ancient in Greece.

Other arguments in favour of these coins being derived from Aegina, are drawn from their weight as well as their workmanship, which are quite different from those bearing the name of Aegium at full length. The coinage of Aegina is known to have been different from that of the rest of Greece; insomuch that its drachma was worth 10 Attic oboli, while the Attic drachma was valued only at six. Hence the drachmas of Aegina were named by the Greeks παξιμα, or thick; a name very applicable to the coins in question. From these observations, our author is of opinion, that we may even distinguish the precise weight of the ancient coins of Aegina. According to the exact proportion, the drachma of this place should weigh exactly 100 grains; and one of them very much rubbed weighed above 90. The others of larger size, which seem to be didrachms of Aegina, weigh from 181 to 194 grains; but the latter being the only one he could meet with in good preservation, it was impossible to form any just medium. Even in those best preserved, he thinks that 10 grains may be allowed for a waste of the metal in so long a time, as 2400 years, which would bring the drachma of Ægina near its proper standard. The obolus of Ægina was in proportion to its drachma of six oboli. It is the piece of $15\frac{1}{2}$ grains, and 13 when very much rubbed. The hemiobolon is that of eight, but when rubbed it falls short of this weight.

The general denomination of the Greek money is the drachma, or eighth part of an ounce; which to this day is retained in the medical weights, the Grecian coins receiving the names they bore from their weights: though in some instances the weights received their appellations from the coins. The silver drachma, according to Mr Pinkerton, was about ninepence sterling; and he finds fault with those who make the drachma and denarius both equal to one another, the latter being no more than eightpence. The didrachm of silver, according to the same calculation, was worth 18d.; but the tridrachm occurs very rarely: and Mr Pinkerton is even of opinion, that medallists give this name to the didrachm of Ægina. The largest of all the Grecian coins is the tetradrachm, which on the Æginean standard is worth five shillings; but in those of the other states only four. There are, however, many subdivisions in the silver drachma; the highest being the tetrobolion or coin of four oboli; being in proportion to the drachma as our groat to a sixpence, weighing about 44 grains, and being in value about sixpence. The hemidrachm or triobolion comes next in value, weighing about 33 grains, and worth fourpence halfpenny. The silver diobolion, or third of the drachma, weighs about 22 grains, and is worth threepence. The obolus of silver weighs about 11 grains, and is worth only three halfpence. There is likewise a hemiobolion in silver, or half the obolus, of five grains and a half, value three farthings: and another called tetrobolion dichalcos or quarter obolus, which is the most minute coin yet met with; and by reason of its extreme smallness, weighing only two grains and a quarter, is now very scarce: but there is one in the cabinet of Dr Hunter, and some more have been lately brought from Athens by Mr Stuart. Some of them are likewise met with at Tarentum. It would appear, however, that there were some still smaller, and of value only three-fourths of a farthing. None of these have been met with; and the smallness of the size renders it improbable that any will ever be met with; as the peasants, who commonly discover coins, would probably either not observe them at all, or, if they did, would neglect them as things of no value.

Many different names have been imposed on the coins belonging to the different states of Greece: thus Καρπη, the maiden, was a name often applied to the tetradrachm, and which would seem to apply to those of Athens; though there are coins of other cities with the head of Proserpine, and the word Καρπη, to which it would appear more applicable in our author's opinion. Χίλιος, the shell, was the name of another coin, from its type. A Sicilian coin was named Διαμετρίου, from Gelon's wife. A tetradrachm was named Κρατηστήριον, and had eight σύλλικα or hemidrachms. The Τροιζηνιον, so called from its country Troizene, had Pallas on one side and a trident on the reverse.

The hemiobolion was the πελάγειον of Lacedaemon; and the καλλιόπης is supposed to have been equal to the Roman sesterius or quarter drachma. The cystophori were coins with the mystic chest or hamper of Bacchus upon them, out of which a serpent rises; and are much celebrated in antiquity. We are told by Livy, that Marcus Acilius, in his triumph over Antiochus and the Ætolians, carried off 248,000 of them; Cnecius Manlius Vulso in that over Gallo-Graecia had 250,000; and Lucius Emilius Regillus, in his naval triumph over the fleets of Antiochus, had 131,300. Cicero likewise mentions his being possessed of a vast sum in them. The most probable opinion concerning them seems to be, that they are all silver tetradrachms; such as belong to the cities of Apamea and Laodicea in Phrygia; Pergamus in Mysia; Sardis and Tralles in Lydia; and Ephesus; but it is a mistake to ascribe any to Crete. Mr Pinkerton thinks it absurd to imagine that Crete, a small island, should strike such vast numbers of coins; though Cicero mentions his being in possession of an immense treasure in them at the time he was governor of Asia Minor. "It is most likely (says Mr Pinkerton), that his wealth should be in the coin of the country to which he belonged. But what had these triumphs of Cicero's government to do with Cretan money? But indeed the coins themselves, as above noticed, establish the fact."

Another set of coins famous in antiquity were those of Cyzicus in Mysia, which were of gold; but they are now almost entirely vanished by being recoined in other forms. The Ἀρχαιοτάτων νομίσματα, or money of Aryandes, who was made governor of Egypt by Cambyses, is made mention of by Hesychius; but none of them, as far as is known, have reached our times. They must have been marked with Persian characters, if with any. The coin of Queen Philistis is mentioned by the same writer, and many of these pieces are still extant; but we know not where this queen reigned, nor does there seem to be any method of finding it out. Mr Pinkerton inclines to believe, that she presided over Sicily; and as a confirmation of that supposition, mentions some inscriptions of ΒΑΣΙΛΕΙΣΣΑΣ ΦΙΛΙΣΤΙΔΟΣ on the Gradini of the theatre at Syracuse; but which appear not older than the Roman times. Some authors are of opinion, that she reigned in Cosara or Malta; which our author thinks much more improbable.

The most particular attention with regard to the Athenian names and standard of coins is due to those of Athens; and it is most remarkable, that most of them which have reached us are of a very late period, with the names of magistrates inscribed upon them. Some of these bear the name of Mithridates; and few are older than the era of that prince; who, it is well known, took the city of Athens in his war with the Romans. I suspect (says Mr Pinkerton), that no Athenian coins of silver are posterior to Sylla's infamous destruction of that city; an event the more remarkable, as Sallust tells us, that Sylla was learned in Greek. Indeed Caligula, Nero, and most of the pests of society, have been learned men, in spite of a noted axiom of Ovid,

Sed ingenuea didicisse feliciter artes Emollit mores, nec sint esse ferros.

It is still more remarkable, that the fabric of Athenian M E D A L S.

Ancient Greek coins is almost universally very rude; a singular circumstance, if we reflect how much the arts flourished there. It can only be accounted for from the excellence of their artists being such as to occasion all the good ones to be called into other countries, and none but the bad left at home. In like manner, the coins struck at Rome in the imperial times are excellent, as being done by the best Greek artists; while those of Greece, though famous at that time for producing miraculous artists, are during that period commonly of very mean execution. The opulence of Athens in her days of glory was very great; owing in an eminent degree to her rich commerce with the kingdoms on the Euxine sea, carried on chiefly from Delos, which belonged to Athens, and was the grand centre of that trade." Hence it has become matter of surprise to Neumann, that when there are so many coins of Mycene, an island even proverbially poor, there should be none of Delos. But Mr Pinkerton accounts for this from Mycene's being a free state, and Delos subject to Athens. "It may be well supposed (says he), that Athens had a mint at Delos; and such Athenian coins as have symbols of Apollo, Diana, or Latona, were struck in this island."

The copper money of the Greeks is next in antiquity to the silver. Mr Pinkerton is of opinion, that it was not used at Athens till the 26th year of the Peloponnesian war; about 404 years before Christ, and 300 after silver was first coined there. The first copper coins were those of Gelo of Syracuse, about 490 B.C.

The chalcos of brass, of which eight went to the silver obolus, seems to have been the first kind of Greek coin. At first it was looked upon as of so little consequence, that it became proverbial; and to say that a thing was not worth a chalcos, was equivalent to saying that it was worth nothing. As the Greeks became poor, however, even this diminutive coin was subdivided into two, four, nay eight λεπτα or small coins; but our author censures very severely those who have given an account of those divisions. "Pollux, and Suidas copying from him (says he), tell us, that there were seven lepta to one chalcos; a number the most unlikely that can be, from its indivisibility and incapacity of proportion.

"Pollux lived in the time of Commodus, so was too late to be of the smallest authority: Suidas is four or five centuries later, and out of the question. Pliny tells us, that there were ten chalci to the obolus; Diodorus and Cleopatra that there were six; Isidorus says there were four: and if such writers differ about the larger denomination, we may well imagine that the smaller equally varied in different states; an idea supported by these undeniable witnesses, the coins which remain. Most of the Greek copper coin which has reached our times consists of chalci; the lepta being so small as to be much more liable to be lost." In Dr Hunter's cabinet, however, there are several of the dilepta of Athens: and from being stamped with the representation of two owls, seem to be the same with the silver diobolus: "a circumstance (says Mr Pinkerton), of itself sufficient to confute Pollux; for a dilepton can form no part of seven; a number indeed which never appeared in any coinage of the same metals, and is contradictory to common sense. It may be observed, that the whole brass coins of Athens published by Dr Combe are reducible to four sizes, which may be the lepton, dilepton, tetraleeton or hemichalcos, and chalcos. The first is not above the size of one of King Lepton, James I.'s farthing tokens; the last about that of our dilepton, common farthing." The lepta was also called στεγεια, &c., as being change for the poor. The zidaδος; perhaps so called from the figure of a wolf upon it, was the coin of a particular state, and if of brass must have weighed three chalci. The other names of the copper coins of Greece are but little known. Lyceurgus ordered iron money to be coined at Sparta; but so perishable is this metal, that none of that kind of money has reached our times.

After the conquest of Greece by the Romans, most of the coins of that country diminished very much in their value, the gold coinage being totally discontinued: though some of the barbarous kings who used the Greek character were permitted to coin gold, but they used the Roman model; and the standard used by the few cities in Asia who spoke the Greek language in the times of the emperors is entirely unknown. Copper seems to have been the only metal coined at that time by the Greeks themselves; and that upon the Roman standard, then universal through the empire, that there might be no impediment to the circulation of currency. They retained, however, some of their own terms, using them along with those of the Romans. The assarion or assercion of Rome, the name of the diminished as, being 16 to the drachma or denarius, the obolus was so much diminished in value as to be struck in brass not much larger than the old chalcos, and valued at between two or three assaria; which was indeed its ancient rate as to the drachma. This appears from the copper coins of Chios, which have their names marked upon them. The brass obolus, at first equal in size to the Roman sestertius or large brass, lessens by degrees to about the size of a silver drachma. From the badness of the imperial coinage in Greece also, it appears that brass was very scarce in that country, as well as in all the cities using the Greek characters; being found mostly in the western countries of the Roman empire. The declension time of this declension in size of the Greek coins is of the age by Mr Pinkerton supposed to have been from Augustus down to Gallicenus. He is of opinion, however, that the copper obolus, at first above the size of large brass, was used in Greece about the time of its first subjection to Rome; and that the lepta ceasing, the chalci came in their room, with the dichalcus and the hemibolion of brass.

With respect to the gold coins of the Greeks, Mr Gold coins Pinkerton is of opinion that none of that metal was of Greece-coined before the time of Philip of Macedon, as none have reached our times prior to the reign of that monarch. From a passage in Thucydides our author concludes, that in the beginning of the Peloponnesian war the Athenians had no gold coin. Mentioning the treasure in the Acropolis or citadel of Athens, at the commencement of that war, the historian mentions silver coin, and gold and silver in bullion; and had any of the gold been in coin, he would certainly have mentioned it. Philip began his reign about 68 years after the beginning of the Peloponnesian war; and we can scarce suppose that any city would have preceded ceeded the elegant and wealthy Athens in the coining of gold.

Notwithstanding, however, this deficiency of gold coin among the Greeks, it is certain that the coining of gold had taken place in Sicily long before; as we have gold coins of Gelo about 491 B.C. of Hiero I., 478, and of Dionysius I. in 404, all using the Greek characters; though not to be ranked among the gold coins of Greece, as Philip caused his to be. Gold coins of Syracuse even appear of the third class of antiquity, or with an indented square, and a small figure in one of its segments. Gold coins are used in the cities of Bruttium, Tarentum, and throughout Magna Graecia; also in Panticapaeum in Thrace, and likewise Cosa in that country; but not in Tuscany, as is commonly believed, though Neumann proves that they were struck by Brutus, and are unquestionably as ancient as the Greek coins. The Thebans and Athenians probably coined the first gold after Philip had set them the example, and when they were attempting to resist the projects of that enterprising monarch. The Aetolians probably coined their gold during the time of their greatest power, about a century after Philip, and when they were combating the power of Aratus and the Achaean league. "There is (says Mr Pinkerton) but one ἐπικήρυξ of Thebes, much worn, in Dr Hunter's cabinet, and weighing but 59 grains; and perhaps not above two or three ἐπικήρυξ or gold didrachms of Athens in the world; one of which is also in the collection of Dr Hunter, and weighs 13 2/3 grains. It appears to be more modern than the reign of Philip. That monarch having got possession of the mines of Philippi in Thrace, improved them so much, that they produced him annually above a thousand talents of gold, or 2,880,000l. of our money. From this gold the first coins named from the monarch, Philippi, were struck. They were marked with his portrait; and for many ages after were so numerous, that they were common in the Roman empire; whence the name Philippi became at length common to gold, silver, and at last even brass coins of their size. Even in the time of Philip gold was very scarce in Greece; but after the Phocians had plundered the temple of Delphos, this precious metal, which had been valued as gems, and consecrated only to the decoration of the temples of the gods, began to be known among the Greeks. The comparative value of gold and silver, however, seem to have been at that time very different from what they are now. Herodotus values gold at 13 times its weight in silver; Plato in his Hipparchus at 12; and even the low value of 10 to 1 seems to have been the stated value in Greece, though in Rome the plenty of silver from the Spanish mines made the value of gold to be much higher; and there is no reason to think that it was ever valued in that city at less than 12 times its weight in silver. The Philippus ἐπικήρυξ, gold piece, or stater, is a didrachm, and is the most common of all the ancient coins. Mr Pinkerton is of opinion that it went for 20 silver drachms on its first appearance; but in latter times for 25 Greek drachmae or Roman denarii. There are proofs of the Philippi being didrachms, both from the writings of ancient authors and from numbers of the coins themselves, which remain to this day; and that the ἐπικήρυξ, or principal gold coin of Greece, was of the same weight, is also evident from ancient writings. It was anciently worth about 15s. but valuing gold now at the medium price of 4l. per ounce, it is worth about 20s. The ἐπικήρυξ, or half the former coin, scarcely occurs of the coining of Philip and Alexander, though it does of Hiero I. of Syracuse and of King Pyrrhus. It passed for ten silver drachmas, and was valued only at 7s. 6d. though now worth 10s. There was another division of this kind worth about 5s. There were besides some lesser divisions of gold coins, which could not be worth above two drachmas. These were coined in Cyrene; and there were besides several old gold coins of Asia Minor, the value of which is now unknown. Our author supposes that they were coined not with relation to their weight as parts of the drachma, but merely to make them correspond with so many silver pieces as was necessary. There are also larger coins than the ἐπικήρυξ, the ἐπικήρυξ of Alexander and Lysimachus being double its value. Some others are met with of Lysimachus, Antiochus III., and some of the Egyptian monarchs, weighing four times the ἐπικήρυξ, and now worth about 4l. sterling. Some weigh even more; but this our author supposes owing to a difference in the purity of the gold.

In Rome, as well as in Greece, the money was at first estimated by weight; and the first metal coined Money, by that people was copper, silver being long unknown in Rome; nor is it certainly known that any silver has ever been found in the Italian mines. In Rome the first valuation of money was by the libra gravis eris, or pound of heavy brass; and in the progress of their conquests, the little silver and gold that came in their way was regulated by the same standard, as appears from the story of Brennus. The weights made use of were the same with those which continue to this day. The pound consisted of 12 ounces of 458 grains each; but the pound by which the money was weighed appears to have consisted only of 420 grains to the ounce, or to have contained in all 5040 grains. This became the standard of copper; and when silver came to be coined, seven denarii went to the ounce as eight drachms did in Greece. Gold was regulated by the scriptulum or scrupulum, the third part of a denarius, and by the larger weights just mentioned. The number 10 was at first used by the Romans in counting their money; but finding afterwards that a smaller number was more convenient, they divided it into quarters; and as the quarter of 10 is 2½, they for this reason bestowed upon it the name of sestertius or "half the third;" to express that it was two of any weights, as, &c. measures, &c. and half a third; whence the sestertius came at last to be the grand estimate of Roman money. The as being at first the largest, and indeed the only Roman coin, the word sestertius means sestertius as, or "two ases and a half." On the first coining of silver, the denarius of ten ases was struck in the most common and convenient denary division of money, or that by tens; the sestertius being of course two ases and a half. But the denarius being afterwards estimated at 16 ases, the name sestertius was still applied to a quarter of the denarius, though it now contained four ases. The term sestertius was applied to all sums not exceeding 1000 sestertii, or 8l. 6s. 8d.; but for greater sums the mode of the sestertius was likewise altered, though not to exclude the former. Very large sums sums of money were estimated by the hundred weight of brass; for the Romans were at first unacquainted with the talent. The hundred weight, by way of eminence, was distinguished by the name of pondus, and sestertium pondus became a phrase for two hundred weight and a half. Mr Pinkerton is of opinion, that we may value the as libralis of ancient Rome at about eightpence English. Estimating the as therefore at a pound weight, the sestertium pondus was equal to 1000 sesterti, or 8l. 6s. 8d.; and by coincidence which our author supposes to have been the effect of design, as soon as the silver coinage appeared, the sestertium centum denariorum was always equal to 8l. 6s. 8d. also. The word sestertium itself, however, seems to have been unknown prior to the coinage of silver money at Rome: the pondera gravis eris being sufficient before that time for all the purposes of a state in which money was so scarce. But however this may be, the pondus or hundred weight of brass was precisely worth 100 denarii, or a pound of silver. As the greatest sestertium was always valued at 1000 of the smaller, or 8l. 6s. 8d., we never find one sestertium mentioned in authors, but two, three, or more; ten thousand of them being equal to 83,333l. 6s. 8d.

The states from which the Romans may be supposed first to have derived their coinage, were the Etruscans and the Greek colonies in Magna Graecia and Sicily. Joseph Scaliger, Gronovius, &c. contend that it was from the Sicilians that the Romans first derived their knowledge of money; but Mr Pinkerton argues that it was from the Etruscans. In confirmation of his opinion, he appeals to the state of the Roman territories in the time of Servius Tullius, who is looked upon to have been the first who coined money at Rome. At that time the whole Roman dominion did not extend beyond ten miles round the city; and was entirely surrounded by the Etruscan and Latin states; Cumae being the next Greek colony to it that was of any consequence, and which was in the neighbourhood of Naples, at about the distance of 150 miles. Our author asks, Is it reasonable to think that the Romans received the use of money from the Etruscans and Latins who were their neighbours, or from the Greeks, who were at a distance, and at that time, as far as appears from their history, absolutely unknown to them? "If this argument (adds he), is strong with regard to the nearest Grecian colonies, what must it be with respect to Sicily, an island 300 miles distant from Rome, where it was not known, at that time, if a boat went by land or water?" Arguments, however, for this opinion have been derived from the similarity betwixt the Sicilian and Roman coins; which Mr Pinkerton now proceeds to examine. The Greek pound in Sicily was called λίρα, and consisted, like the Roman, of 12 ουράνια, or ounces; and Mr Pinkerton grants that the Roman libra was derived from the Greek λίρα, but denies that the as, or libra, a coin, was from Sicilian model. The Sicilians had indeed a coin named λίρα; but it was of silver, and of equal value to the Ἀγρινεῖαν standard, ten of which went to the Sicilian δεκάλιτρα. He differs from Gronovius, that the standard of Ἀγρινεῖα was used at Corinth, and of course at Syracuse; and it appears from Aristotle, that the Sicilians had a talent or standard of their own. The Sicilian obolus or λίρα contained all so 12 ounces or χαλκοί, so named at first because they weighed an ounce weight; but the χαλκοί of Hiero weigh more than a troy ounce; and the brass coins of Agrigentum are marked with cyphers as far as six: the largest weighing only 186 grains, or about one-third of the primitive ounce. Our author denies that even the Roman denarius took its rise from the Sicilian δεκάλιτρα, as many authors assert. Were this the case, it would have weighed 180 grains; whereas the Roman denarii are not above the third part of the quantity.

From all these considerations, our author is of opinion that the Sicilians borrowed the division of their λίρα from the Etruscans, or possibly from the Romans themselves; which our author thinks is more probable than that the Romans had it from Sicily. The strongest argument, however, against the Roman coinage being borrowed from the Sicilian is, that though great numbers of Sicilian coins are to be found in the cabinets of medalists, yet none of them resemble the as libralis of the Romans in any degree. In most cabinets also there are Etruscan coins upon the exact scale of the as libralis, and several of its divisions; from whence Mr Pinkerton concludes, that "these, and these alone, must have afforded a pattern to the primitive Roman coinage." The Etruscans were a colony from Lydia, to which country Herodotus ascribes the first invention of coinage. "Those colonists (says Mr Pinkerton), upon looking round their settlements, and finding that no silver was to be had, and much less gold," supplied the mercantile medium with copper; to which the case of Sweden is very similar, which, as late as the last century, had copper coins of such magnitude, that wheelbarrows were used to carry off a sum not very considerable.

Some coins are found which exceed the as libralis in weight; and these are supposed to be prior to the time of Servius Tullius. Some of them are met with of 34 coins, and of 53 Roman ounces; having upon one side the figure of a bull rudely impressed, and upon the other the bones of a fish. They are most commonly found at Tudder, or Tudertum, in Umbria; but they appear always broken at one end: so that Mr Pinkerton is of opinion, that perhaps some might be struck of the decussis form, or weighing ten pounds. These pieces, in our author's opinion, make it evident, that the Romans derived their large brass coins from the Etruscans and the neighbouring states: they are all cast in moulds; and the greater part of them appear much more ancient than the Roman asces, even such as are of the greatest antiquity.

Mr Pinkerton agrees with Sir Isaac Newton as to the time that Servius Tullius reigned in Rome, which he supposes to be about 460 B.C. His coinage seems to have been confined to the as, or piece of brass having the impression of Janus on the one side, and the prow of a ship on the other; because Janus arrived in Italy by sea. Varro, however, informs us, that the very first coins of Tullius had the figure of a bull or other cattle upon them, like the Etruscan coins, of which they were imitations. Those with the figure of Janus and the prow of a ship upon them may be supposed first to have appeared about 400 B.C. but in a short time, various subdivisions of the as were coined. The Subdivisi semis, or half, is commonly stamped with the head of Jupiter. Jupiter laureated; the triens or third, having four cyphers, as being originally of four ounces weight, has the head of Minerva; the quadrans or quarter, marked with three cyphers, has the head of Hercules wrapt in the lion's skin; the sextans or sixth, having only two cyphers, is marked with the head of Mercury with a cap and wings; while the uncia having only one cypher, is marked with the head of Rome. All these coins appear to have been cast in moulds, by a considerable number at a time; and in the British museum there are four of them all united together as taken out of the mould in which perhaps dozens were cast together. In process of time, however, the smaller divisions were struck instead of being cast; but the larger still continued to be cast until the as fell to two ounces. Even after this time it was still called libra, and accounted a pound of copper; though there were now larger denominations of it coined, such as the bissus or double as; tressis and quadrussis of three and four asses; nay, as far as decussis or ten asses, marked X. Olivieri mentions one in his own cabinet weighing upwards of 25 ounces, and cast when the as was about three ounces weight. There is likewise in the Museum Etruseum a decussis of 40 Roman ounces, cast when the as was at four ounces. There was likewise a curious decussis in the Jesuits' library at Rome, for which an English medallist offered 20l.; but it was seized by the pope along with every other thing belonging to the society.

Mr Pinkerton contests the opinion of Pliny that the as continued of a pound weight till the end of the first Punic war. His opinion (he says), is confirmed by the coins which still remain; and it appears probable to him that the as decreased gradually in weight; and from one or two of the pieces which still exist, he seems to think that the decrease was slow, as from a pound to eleven ounces, then to ten, nine, &c.; but neither the as nor its parts were ever correctly sized. During the time of the second Punic war, when the Romans were sore pressed by Hannibal, the as was reduced to a single ounce. It is said to have taken place in the 215th year before our era, being about 30 years after the former change. This as libralis, with the faces of Janus upon it, is the form most commonly met with previous to its being reduced to two ounces. Our author supposes that the as libralis continued for at least a century and a half after this coining of Tullius down to 300 B.C., about the year of Rome 452, between which and the 502d year of Rome a gradual diminution of the as to two ounces must have taken place. The following table of the dates of the Roman coinage is given by Mr Pinkerton.

| As libralis with Janus and the prow of a ship | 400 | | As of ten ounces | 300 | | Eight | 290 | | Six | 280 | | Four | 270 | | Three | 260 | | Two, according to Pliny | 250 | | One, according to the same author | 214 |

About 175 B.C. also, we are informed by Pliny that the as was reduced to half an ounce by the Papyrian law, at which it continued till the time of Pliny himself, and long after.

After the Romans began to have an intercourse with Greece, a variety of elegant figures appear upon the parts of the as, though not on the as itself till after the time of Sylla. Towards the latter end of the republic also, dupondii, or double asses, were coined, together with the sestertii aerii, which came in place of the quadrusses, when the denarius began to be reckoned at 16 asses; probably at the time the latter was reduced to half an ounce. In some instances it is to be observed, that the Romans accommodated their coins to the country where their army was stationed; whence we have many coins marked as Roman, which have been coined in Magna Grecia and Sicily, and are evidently upon the Greek and not the Roman scale. In the latter part of the republican times, also, the types begin to vary; so that we have a brass coin supposed to be struck by Sextus Pompeius in Sicily, having upon it a double head of that warrior, representing a Janus. Mr Pinkerton supposes it to have been a dupondius; which indeed appears to be the case from the double head. This coin is of copper, and still weighs an ounce, notwithstanding its antiquity.

The largest imperial copper coin was the sestertius, of a piece worth about twopence of our money. Mr Pinkerton censures severely the opinion of other medallists, all of whom say that the sestertius was of silver. "In fact (says he), it would be as rational in any antiquary, a thousand years hence, to contend that the halfpenny and farthing are of silver, because they were so in the reign of Henry VIII." In confirmation of his own opinion, he quotes the following passage from Pliny: "The greatest glory of brass is now due to the Marian, called also that of Cordova. This, after the Livian, most absorbs the lapis calaminaris, and imitates the goodness of native orichalcum in our sestertii and dupondiarii, the asses being contented with their own copper." Gronovius confesses that he does not know what to make of this passage, and that it causes him hesitate in his opinion. The Livian mine mentioned here by Pliny, is supposed to have got its name from Livia the wife of Augustus; and it is probable that the pieces marked with her portraits, entitled Justitia, Salus, Virtus, &c. were dupondii from this very mine, the metal being exceedingly fine, and of the kind named Corinthian brass by the ancient medallists. "Perhaps (says Mr Pinkerton), the mine received its name from this very circumstance of her coins being struck in the metal taken from it."

No change took place in the Roman coinage from the time that the as fell to half an ounce to the days of Pliny: but Mr Pinkerton observes, that before the time of Julius Caesar yellow brass began to be used, and was always looked upon to be double the value of Cyprian or red copper. There are but few coins in large brass immediately before Julius Caesar, or even belonging to that emperor; but from the time of Augustus downward, the large coins are all found of brass, and not one of them copper. The largest of what are called the middle size are all of yellow brass; and the next size, which is the as, and weighs half an ounce, is universally copper. What the ancients na- med orichalcum, or what we call brass, was always looked upon to be greatly superior in value to the aes Cyprium. Procopius, speaking of a statue of Justinian, tells us, that brass inferior in colour to gold is almost equal in value to silver. The mines of native brass were very few in number, and were owing entirely to the singular combination of copper and lapis calaminaris in the bowels of the earth, which very seldom occurs; and the ancients were very far from being well acquainted with the method of combining these two bodies artificially; so that yellow brass was always esteemed at double the value of copper; and hence, in the ancient coinages, the brass and copper pieces were kept as distinct as those of gold and silver.

Mr Pinkerton challenges to himself the discovery that the imperial sestertius was of brass; and is at considerable pains to bring proofs of it. Besides the testimony of Pliny, which of itself would be decisive, this is supported by the strongest collateral evidence of other authors. From a passage in Julius Africanus, who wrote the Targinix, or Treatise on Medicine, it appears that the nummus, or sestertius, weighed an ounce, and of consequence that it could not be silver but brass; and all the large imperial Roman coins weigh an ounce. We know not the age in which Julius Africanus lived; and as he makes the denarius to contain 16 ases, he must have been before the age of Gallienus, when it had 60. Gronovius supposes him to have been the same mentioned by Eusebius. This author speaks of a Julius Africanus who lived in the time of Heliogabalus, and whom Mr Pinkerton supposes to have been the same with him above mentioned.

The sestertius underwent no change till the time of Alexander Severus, when it was diminished by one-third of its weight. Trajanus Decius was the first who coined double sestertii, or quinarii, of brass; but from the time of Trebonianus Gallus to that of Gallienus, when the first brass ceases, the sestertius does not weigh above the third part of an ounce; the larger coins are accounted double sestertii; and after the time of Gallienus it totally vanishes. In the times of Valerian and Gallienus we find a new kind of coinage, mentioned by the name of denarii æreis, or Philippri æreis. Two sizes of denarii began to be used in the time of Caracalla; the larger of six sestertii, or 24 assaria; the smaller of four sestertii, or 16 assaria as usual. In the time of Papinius, the latter was reduced to such a small size as not to weigh more than 36 grains; though in Caracalla's time it weighed 56. After the time of Gordian III. the smaller coin fell into disuse, as breeding confusion. The larger denarius of six sestertii, though diminished at last to the size of the early denarius, still retained its value of six sestertii, or 24 assaria. The Philippus æreus came at length in place of the sestertius. It was also called denarius; from which we may learn not only their size, but that they were in value ten assaria as the first denarius. In the reign of Dioclesian, the place of the sestertius was supplied by the follis, that emperor having restored the silver coin to its purity, and likewise given this form to the copper; but it would seem that this restoration of the coinage only took place towards the end of his reign; whence we have but few of his silver coins, and still fewer of the follis, though the denarii ærei continue quite common down to the time of Constantine. The follis of Dioclesian seems to have weighed above half an ounce; and Mr Pinkerton is of opinion, that Dioclesian designed this coin to supply the place of the denarius æreus; which of course was worth ten assaria, and six of them went to the silver denarius. From this time the assarium diminishes to the size of 30 grains; and soon after the follis appeared, the denarius æreus was entirely dropped, the former having gradually supplied its place. Some mints appear to have retained the use of the denarius longer than others; and in some the change was preceded, and gradually brought in, by washing the follis with silver or tin, as the denarius had formerly been. Pieces of this kind occur in the times of Dioclesian, Maximian I. and II., and Constantius I.; that is, for about ten years after the follis made its appearance. Some countries, however, retained the denarius æreus; others the follis; and some had a medium betwixt the two, or the follis washed in imitation of the denarius.

Towards the end of the reign of Constantine I. a new coinage was introduced throughout the whole empire. The follis coined by this prince was of half an ounce weight; 24 of them going to the milliarensis, or larger silver coin. The word follis signifies also a purse, in which sense we sometimes find it mentioned in the Byzantine history. The common follis of silver, when it occurs by itself, means a purse of 250 milliarenses, as the sestertium was 250 denarii; and by a law of Constantine I. every man paid to the state a follis or purse according to his income. The method of counting by purses continues in Turkey to this day.

The dupondius was only half the value of the sester-Of the du-tius, or about one penny sterling; and before the pondius. yellow brass appeared it seems to have been struck upon copper, and double the size of the as. There are some of this coin, struck in the time of Julius Caesar, in yellow brass, weighing half an ounce, with a head of Venus Victrix upon one side; on the reverse, a female figure, with serpents at her feet: while others have a Victory on the reverse, with Q. Oppius Pr. After the time of Augustus, the dupondius was struck in yellow brass; which Pliny tells us was also the case in his time. The word dupondiarus seems to have been used by Pliny, and adopted, not to express that the coin was dupondius, but that it was of dupondiary value. Neither was the former word confined to signify double weight, but was used also for double length or measure, as in the instance of dupondius pes, or two feet, &c. In the imperial times, therefore, dupondius was used, not to signify a coin of double the weight of the as, but of double the value. It was one of the most common of the Roman coins; and seems to have been very common even in Constantinople. In the time of Justinian, it seems there was a custom of nicknaming young students of the law dupondii, against which the emperor made a law; but it is not known what gave rise to the name. The dupondins, though of the same size with the as, is commonly of finer workmanship, the metal being greatly superior in value. It continues to be of yellow brass, as well as the sestertius to the time of Gallienus; but the as is always in copper.

The imperial as, or assarium, was worth only a halfpenny. halfpenny. At first it weighed half an ounce, and was always of copper till the time of Gallienus, when it was made of brass, and weighed only the eighth part of an ounce. From the time of Gallienus to that of Diocletian, it continued to diminish still more, the size being then twenty to an ounce. This was the same with the lepta, or smallest coins but the *repuca*, which weighed only ten grains.

The parts of the as occur but seldom: which may, indeed, be well expected, considering the low value of it; though there still occur some of those called semis, triens, quadrans, sextans, and uncia, coined in the times of Nero and Domitian. There is no small brass from the time of Pertinax to that of Gallienus, excepting that of Trajanus Decius; but in the time of Gallienus it becomes extremely common; and the coins of small brass, as well as the larger, are always marked S. C. such as want it being universally accounted forgeries; and were plated with silver, though the plating be now worn off. The small pieces struck for slaves during the time of the saturnalia, must also be distinguished from the parts of the as. The S. C. upon these most probably signifies *Saturni Consulto*, and were struck in ridicule of the true coins, as the slaves on that occasion had every privilege of irony.

The sestertius diminishes from Pertinax to Gallienus so fast, that no parts of the as are struck, itself being so small. Trajanus Decius, indeed, coined some small pieces, which went for the semis of the time. The small brass coins under Gallienus were called assaria, sixty of which went to the silver denarius. They are about the size of the denarius, and some of them occur of the coinage of Gallus and his family, of half that size, which appear to have been struck during the latter part of his reign, when the assarium was diminished to a still smaller size. It is probable, however, that some of these very small coins had been struck in all ages of the empire, in order to scatter among the people on solemn occasions. Mr Pinkerton is of opinion that they are the *missilia*, though most other medallists think that they are medallions. "But if so (says our author), they were certainly called *missilia* d'non mittendo; for it would be odd if fine medallions were scattered among the mob. It is a common custom just now to strike counters to scatter among the populace on such occasions, while medals are given to peers of the kingdom; and we may very justly reason from analogy on this occasion."

The *assarion* or *lepton* of the Constantinopolitan empire was, as we have already observed, one of the smallest coins known in antiquity, weighing no more than 20 grains; and the *nomia* were the very smallest which have reached our times, being only one half of the former. By reason of their extreme smallness, they are very scarce; but Mr Pinkerton informs us, that he has in his possession a fine one of Theodosius II., which has on it the emperor's head in profile. Theodosius P. F. AV.; on the reverse a wreath, having in the centre VOT. XX.: MUL.T. XXX.

The principal coin of the lower empire was the follis, which was divided into an half and quarter, named *hemi* and *tetra*; that latter of which is shown by Du Cange to have been a small brass coin, as the other is supposed to have been by Mr Pinkerton.—Besides these, the follis was divided into eight oboli, 16

Mr Pinkerton controverts an opinion, common among medallists, that the largest brass coin or follis of the lower empire had 40 small coins, expressed by the letter M upon it; the next had 30, expressed by the letter A; the half by the letter K; and the quarter marked I, which contained only 10. Mr Pinkerton informs us, that he has three coins of Anastasius, all marked M in large; one of them weighs more than half an ounce; the second 40 grains less; and the third of 160 grains, or one-third of an ounce; but the size is so very unequal, that the last, which is very thick, does not appear above half the size of the first. There are pieces of Justinian which weigh a whole ounce; but the size of copper was increased as the silver became scarcer; and the value of the coinage cannot be deduced from the weight of the coins, as it is plain that our own coinage is not of half the value with regard to the metal. A great number of medallions were struck by Constantius II., but there is no other copper larger than the half ounce, excepting that of Anastasius, when the follis began to be struck larger. All medallists allow the others to be medallions.

The metal employed in these very small coins, though at first of brass, was always a base and refuse kind; but copper is generally made use of in the parts of the as from the earliest times to the latest; and if brass be sometimes employed, it is never such as appears in the sesterti and dupondiarii, which is very fine and beautiful, but only the refuse. "Yellow brass of the right sort (says Mr Pinkerton), seems totally to have ceased in the Roman coinage with the sestertius, under Gallienus, though a few small coins of very bad metal appear under that hue as late as Julian II."

Silver was coined in Rome only as late as the 48th year of the city, or 266 B.C. Varro indeed speaks of silver having been coined by Servius Tullius, and the libella having been once in silver; but Pliny's authority must be accounted of more weight than that of this author, as he mistakes the *nurag* of Sicily for Roman coins, having been current at Rome during the time of the first Punic war. Even Pliny, according to our author, very frequently mistakes with regard to matters much antecedent to his own time; and among the moderns he criticises severely Erasmus and Hume. "Erasmus (says he), who had been in England for some time, talks of leaden money being used here." Not even a leaden token was struck in the reign of Henry VIII.; yet his authority has been followed with due deference to so great a name; for how could Erasmus, who must have seen the matter with his own eyes, assert a direct falsehood? To give a later instance in a writer of reputation, Mr Hume, in Vol. VI. of his history, has these words, in treating of the reign of James I., "It appears that copper halfpence and farthings began to be coined in this reign. Tradesmen had commonly carried on their retail business by leaden tokens. The small silver penny was soon lost; and at this time was nowhere to be found." Copper halfpence and farthings were not struck till Charles II., 1672; there were small tokens for for farthings struck in copper by James I. but not one for the halfpenny. The silver farthings had ceased with Edward VI., but the silver halpinece continued the sole coins till Edward II. It was by copper tokens that small business was carried on. The silver penny was much used till the end of the reign of George I.; and so far from being nowhere to be found, is superabundant of every reign since that period, not excepting even the present reign of George III. From these instances the reader may judge how strangely writers of all ages blunder, when treating of a subject of which they are entirely ignorant."

The first silver denarii coined at Rome, are supposed by our author to have been those which are impressed with the Roma; and he inclines to account those the most ancient that have a double female head on the one side, and on the reverse Jupiter in a car, with Victory holding the reins, and the word ROMA indented in a rude and singular manner. The double female head seems to denote Rome, in imitation of the Janus then upon the as. There are 15 of these in the cabinet of Dr Hunter; one of the largest weighs 98½ grains: and the rest, which seem to be of the greatest antiquity, are of various weights betwixt that and 84; the smaller and more modern weigh 58 or 59 grains; but Mr Pinkerton is of opinion, that the large ones are of the very first Roman coinage, and struck during that interval of time betwixt the coinage of the first silver denarius and the as of two ounces. He takes the indentation of the word ROMA to be a mark of great antiquity; such a mode being scarcely known anywhere else, except in Caulonia, Crotona, and other towns of Italy; all of them allowed to be struck at least 400 B.C. As these coins are not double denarii, they must have been struck prior to the small ones; and Nennmann has given an account of one of them re-coined by Trajan, in which the indentation of ROMA is carefully preserved. The first denarius was in value 10 asses, when the as weighed three ounces; and allowing 90 grains at a medium for one of these large denarii, the proportion of copper to silver must have been as 1 to 165: but when the as fell to one ounce, the proportion was as 1 to 80: when it fell to half an ounce, so that 16 asses went to the denarius, the proportion was as 1 to 64, at which it remained. Copper with us, in coinage, is to silver as one to 40; but in actual value as 1 to 72.

At Rome the denarius was worth 8d.; the quinarius 4d.; and the sestertius, whether silver or brass, 2d. The denarius is the coin from which our penny is derived, and was the chief silver coin in Rome for 600 years. According to Celsus, seven denarii went to the Roman ounce, which in metals did not exceed 430 grains; but all the denarii hitherto met with weigh at a medium only 60 grains, this would seem to make the Roman ounce only 420 grains; though perhaps this deficiency may be accounted for from the unavoidable waste of metal even in the best preserved of these coins. According to this proportion the Roman pound contained 84 denarii; but in tale there was a very considerable excess; for no fewer than 100 denarii went to the Roman pound. The Greek ounce appears to have been considerably larger than that of Rome, containing about 528 grains; yet notwithstanding this apparently great odds, the difference in the coins was so small, that the Greek money went current in Rome, and the Roman in Greece. The Ancient denarius at first went for 10 asses, and was marked X: it was afterwards raised to 16; which Mr Pinkerton supposes to have been about 175 B.C. Some are met with bearing the number XVI. nay, with every number up to CCCCLXXVI. These large numbers are supposed to have been mint-marks of some kind or other. After being raised to 16 asses, it continued at the same value till the time of Gallienus; so that till that time we are to look upon its constituent parts to be 16 asses or assaria, eight dupondii, four brass sestertii, and two silver quinarii. Under the emperor Severus, however, or his successor Caracalla, denarii were struck of two sizes, one of them a third heavier than the common; which we must of consequence suppose to have borne a third more value. This large piece obtained the name of argenteus, and argenteus Philippus, or the "silver Philip;" the name of Philip having become common to almost every coin. The common denarii now began to be termed minutii and argenti,Philippii minutuli, &c. to express their being smaller than the rest. Some have imagined that the large denarii were of the same value with the small, only of worse metal; but Mr Pinkerton observes, that among the few which have any difference of metal, the smallest are always the worst. The first mention of the minutii is in the time of Alexander Severus, who reduced the price of pork from eight minutii at Rome to two and to one. The minutus argenteus of that age was about 40 grains; and from the badness of the metal was not worth above 4d. of our money. Thus the price of meat was by this prince reduced first to 8d. and then to 4d.

According to Zozimus and other writers, the pu-Restoration of the Roman coin was restored by Aurelian: of the pu-but Mr Pinkerton controverts this opinion; thinking rity of the it more probable, that he only made the attempt with- Roman out success; or that his reformation might be entirely coins. confined to gold, on which there is an evident change after the time of this emperor. His successor Tacitus is said to have allowed no brass to be mixed with silver upon any account; yet the few coins of this emperor are very much alloyed. We are certain, however, that the emperor Dioclesian restored the silver to its ancient purity; the denarius struck in his reign being very small indeed, but of as fine silver as the most ancient coins of the empire. After Gordian III. the small denarius entirely vanished, while the large one was so much diminished, that it resembled the minutus, or small one of Caracalla, in size. Gallienus introduced the denarii aurei instead of the sestertii. The argenteus, though reduced more than one-third in size, contained six denarii aurei, the old standard of sestertii. According to the writers of this period, and some time afterwards, the denarius or argenteus contained 60 assaria; whence it follows, that each denarius aureus had 10; and from this it probably had its name. The assaria are of the size of the argentei already mentioned; and show the copper to have retained nearly its old proportion of value to the silver, viz. 1 to 60.

A larger silver coin was introduced by Constantine I. who accommodated the new money to the pound of gold in such a manner, that 1000 of the former in tale were equal to the latter in value; so that this new piece from thence obtained the name of the milliarensis. milliarensis or "thousander." Its weight at a medium is 70 grains, or 70 to the pound of silver: but Mr Pinkerton is of opinion, that it might have contained 72 grains, of which two have now perished by the softness of the silver; that the pound contained 72; or that two of the number might be allowed for coinage; while the alloy alone would pay for coining gold. The code says, that 60 went to the pound; but the numbers of this are quite corrupt. The milliarensis was worth about a shilling sterling. The argentei or denarii, however, were still the most common currency; and having been originally rated at 100 to the pound of silver in tale, they from thence began to be called centenariales, or "hundreders." Those of Constantine I. and II. Constans, and Constantius, weigh from 50 grains down to 40; those of Julian and Jovian, from 40 to 30; and of the succeeding emperors from that time to Justinian, from 30 to 20. Under Heraclius they ceased entirely; and from Justinian to their total abolition, had been brought down from 15 to 10 grains. A like decrease of weight took place in the milliarensis; those of Constantine and Constans being above 70 grains in weight; those of Arcadius not above 62; and the milliarensis of Justinian not more than 30 grains; but, from the weight of those in Dr Hunter's cabinet, Mr Pinkerton deduces the medium to have been exactly 70\(\frac{8}{9}\) grains. These coins were also called majorinae.

The smaller silver coins of Rome were, 1. The quinarius, at first called victoriatus, from the image of Victory on its reverse; and which it continued to bear from first to last. Its original value was five asses, but it was afterwards raised to eight, when the value of the denarius increased to 16. According to Pliny, it was first coined in consequence of the lex Clodia, about the 525th year of Rome. Some are of opinion, that it was called xestetos under the Constantinopolitan empire, because it was worth a xestetos of gold, 144 of which went to the ounce: but this is denied by Mr Pinkerton, because, at the time that the word xestetos first appears in history, the denarius did not weigh above 30 grains; and of consequence, as 25 must have gone to the gold solidus, of which there were six in the ounce, 130 denarii must have gone to the ounce of gold. He is therefore of opinion, that the word xestetos, was only another name for the denarius when much reduced in size; probably owing to the great scarcity of silver in Constantinople, though in the same city there was plenty of gold; and of consequence, the gold solidus was never diminished. "For Montesquieu (says our author) has well observed, that gold must be common where silver is rare. Hence gold was the common regulation of accounts in the Eastern empire." The xestetos met with in ancient authors, according to Mr Pinkerton, was merely an improper name for the milliarensis; when, on account of the scarcity of silver, the denarius was reduced, and no milliarenses coined: so that the current milliarensis of former reigns happened to be double to the denarius or centenariales. The quinarius diminishes in size along with the other coins; those of Augustus weighing 30 grams, of Severus 25, of Constantine I. 20, of Justinian 12, and of Heraclius only 5. A new silver coinage seems to have taken place after the days of this emperor; as the little we then meet with, which in the best cabinets scarce exceeds a dozen of ancient coins, consists entirely of large unshapely pieces of coarse metal.

2. The consular denarius had also four silver sesterces, till the as fell to half an ounce, when it was thought proper to coin the sestertius in brass, as it continued to be ever afterwards. "The very last silver sestertius (says Mr Pinkerton) which appears, is one with a head of Mercury, and H.S.; on the reverse a caduceus P. SEPVLLIVS; who appears to be the P. SEPVLLIVS MACER of the denarii of Julius Caesar. If so, as is most probable, the sestertius was coined in silver down to Augustus; and it is of course not to be expected that any of brass can appear till Augustus, under whom they are actually quite common. I have indeed seen no coin which could be a consular brass sestertius; and though we have certainly brass dupondii of Caesar, yet it is reasonable to infer, that the brass sestertius was first coined by Augustus. Not one silver sestertius appears during the whole imperial period, yet we know that the sestertius was the most common of all silver coins. The consular sesterces of silver, marked H. S. are not uncommon, nor the quinarii; but the latter are very scarce of all the emperors, if we except one instance, the ASIA RECEPTA of Augustus.

"The Roman gold coinage was still later than that Roman of silver. Pliny tells us, that "gold was coined 62 years after silver;" and the scruple went for 60 sesterces. It was afterwards thought proper to coin 40 pieces out of the pound of gold. And our princes have by degrees diminished their weight to 45 in the pound." This account is confirmed by the pieces which still remain; for we have that very coin weighing a scruple, which went for 20 sesterces. On one side is the head of Mars, and on the other an eagle; and it is marked xx. We have another coin of the same kind, but double, marked xxx; and its triple, marked \(4x\) or 60; the \(4\) being the old numeral character for 50. Mr Pinkerton, the discoverer of this, treats other medallists with great asperity. Savot and Hardouin are mentioned by name; the latter (he says) is "ignorant of common sense;" and neither he nor Savot could explain it but by reading backward; putting the \(4\) for the Roman V, and thus making it xv. Other readings have been given by various medallists, but none have hit upon the true one excepting our author, though the coin itself led to it; being just three times the weight of that marked xx. We have likewise half the largest coin, which is marked xxx, and which weighs 26 grams; the smallest is only 17\(\frac{1}{2}\); the xxxx weighs 34; and the lx or drachma 53. There is also the didrachm of this coinage, of 106 grams.

The aurei, or Roman gold coins, were at first 48 in the pound; but they were afterwards diminished in the number to 40, owing to an augmentation in the weight of each coin. In the time of Sylla, the aureus weighed no less than from 164 to 168 grams, and there were only 30 in the pound; but such confusion in the coining was introduced by that conqueror, that no person could know exactly what he was worth. Till this time the aureus seems to have continued of the value of 30 silver denarii, about one pound sterling; for about that time it was enlarged a whole third, that it might still be equivalent to the full number of denarii. But after Sylla had taken Athens, and the arts and manners of Greece became objects of imitation to the Romans, the aureus fell to 40 in the pound, probably when Sylla had abdicated his dictatorship. Thus, being reduced near to the scale of the Greek ἀργυρός, it passed for 25 denarii, as the latter did for as many drachmas, being in currency 13s. 4d. sterling. "This (says Mr Pinkerton) is the more probable, because we know from Suetonius, that the great Caesar brought from Gaul so much gold, that it sold for nine times its weight of silver: but the Gallic gold was of a very base sort."

In the time of Claudius, the aureus was valued at 100 sesterii, or 25 silver denarii, at which it continued till the time of Heliogabalus, when it fell to about 92 grains at a medium, or rose in number to 55 in the pound. In the reign of Philip, during which the city completed its thousandth year, the aureus was coined of two or three sizes. These are impressed with a head of Rome on one side, and various figures on the other; but the workmanship is so rude, that they are supposed to have been struck in some of the more uncivilized provinces of the empire. The practice of having different gold coins, however, continued under Valerian, Gallienus, and his successors. In the time of Gallienus, they were of 60, 65, and from 86 to 93 grains; the double aurei being from 172 to 183½ grains; but the aureus properly so called was from 86 to 93; those of 30 and 32 being the trientes aurei of the Historiae Augustae Scriptores; while the larger, from 62 to 65, are to be accounted double trientes, and were perhaps called minuti aurei. The value of these different sizes of aurei is not known.

That Aurelian made some alteration in the coin is certain; but Mr Pinkerton supposes it to have been only in the gold; because under him and his successor Probus, the common aureus was of 100 grains, a size confined to those emperors: there are likewise halves of about 50 grains; and double aurei, commonly, of very fine workmanship, of upwards of 200 grains. In the time of Gallienus, the precious metal was so common, that this emperor vied in magnificence with Nero and Heliogabalus. Aurelian, who plundered the rich city of Palmyra, and thus became master of the treasures of the east, obtained such a profusion of gold, that he looked upon it to be produced by nature in greater plenty than silver. It is remarkable that during this emperor's reign there was a rebellion among the money coiners, which could not be quelled but by the destruction of several thousands; which Mr Pinkerton ascribes to his having ordered the gold to be restored to its former size, but to go for no more silver than it formerly did. "So very little silver (says he) occurs of this period, that it is plain no alteration in the silver produced the war with the moneyers; and in the brass he made no change; or if he had, it were strange that such commotions should arise about so trifling a metal. But if, as appears from the coins, he ordered the aureus, which had fallen to 80 grams, to be raised to about 100, it is no wonder that the contractors should be in an uproar; for a whole quarter of their coinage, amounting as would seem, to all their profits, was lost. Aurelian judged, that when he found gold so common in the east, it was equally so in the west; and that the moneyers must have made a most exorbitant profit; but his ideas on this subject were partial and unjust: and after his short reign, which did not exceed five months after the alteration, the gold returned to its former course; though a few pieces occur of Aurelian's standard, struck, as would seem, in the commencement of the reign of Probus his successor.

From this time to that of Constantine I., the aureus weighed between 70 and 80 grains; but in his reign it was changed for the solidus, of which six went to the ounce of gold, which went for 14 milliarenses, and 25 denarii as before; the value of silver being now to gold as 14 to 1. This new coin continued of the same value to the final downfall of the Constantinopolitan empire; gold being always very plentiful in that city, though silver became more and more scarce. The solidus was worth 12s. sterling. Here again our author most severely criticises Mr Clarke and Mr Raper: the former (he says) with respect to the value of gold in the time of Constantine I. "has left all his senses behind him. In page 267, he absurdly asserts, that 20 denarii went to the solidus in the time of Theodosius I. and proceeds with this deplorable error to the end of his work. He then tells us, that only 14 denarii went to the solidus under Constantine I.," &c. To Mr Raper, however, he is a little more merciful, as he owns, that "though he (Mr Raper) has strangely confounded the milliarensis with the denarius, he has yet kept common sense for his guide." Mr Pinkerton, indeed, argues with great probability, "that had any change in the coinage taken place between the time of Constantine and Theodosius I., that is, in less than 50 years, the laws of that period, which are all in the Theodosian code, must have noticed it." To this and other arguments upon the subject, Mr Pinkerton adds the following observation upon the value of gold and silver: "As a state advances to its height, gold increases in value; and as a state declines, it decreases, providing the metals are kept on a par as to purity. Hence we may argue, that gold decreased in its relation to silver perhaps four or five centuries, furnished most European kingdoms with gold in coin, which otherwise would, from their want of arts and of intercourse with the east, then the grand seminary of that metal, have almost been ignorant of what gold was. These gold coins were called Byzants in Europe, because sent from Byzantium or Constantinople; and were solidi of the old scale, six to the ounce. In Byzantine writers, the solidus is also called nomisma, or "the coin;" crysinos, because of gold; hyperperos, from its being refined with fire, or from its being of bright gold flaming like fire. The solidi also, as the aurei formerly, received names from the princes whose portraits they bore; as Michelclati, Manuelclati. Solidus is a term used also for the aureus by Apuleius, who lived in the time of Antoninus the Philosopher; nay, as early as the praetorian edicts of the time of Trajan. It was then a distinction from the semissis or half." In the time of Valerian, when aurei of different sizes had been introduced, it became necessary to distinguish the particular aurei meant. Hence in the Imperial Rescripts, published by the Historiae Augustae Scriptores, Valerian uses the term Philippoeos nostri vultus, for the common aurei. Aurelian uses the same term aurei Philippei, for the aurei which he had restored to their size in some degree. Gallienus uses aurei Valeriani for his father's coins. Aurei Antoniniani are likewise put by Valerian for coins of the early Antonini, of superior standard to any then used.

In the first gold coinage at Rome the aureus was divided into four parts: the semissis of 60 sesterii; the tremissis or third, of 45; the fourth, the name of which is not mentioned, of 30; and the scrupulum of 20. But in a short time all of these fell into disuse, except the semissis or half, which is extremely scarce; so that it is probable that few have been struck. It is an erroneous opinion (according to Mr Pinkerton), that the semissis was called a denarius aureus. The aureus itself indeed had this name; but the name of quinarius is applied to the semissis with greater propriety than the former. Trientes, or tremisses of gold, are found of Valerian and his son Gallienus, and weigh about 30 grains. Those of Salonina the wife of Gallienus weigh 33 grains. Under the Constantinopolitan empire, tremisses again made their appearance; and from the time of Valentinian downwards, the thirds are the most common kinds of gold, being worth about 4s. sterling. The semissis is likewise mentioned, but none occur earlier than the time of Basiliscus. The gold tremissis was the pattern of the French and Spanish gold coins; as the silver denarius, in its diminished state, was of the Gothic and Saxon penny.

We shall close this account of the Roman money with some remarks concerning the mint, and method of coinage. This at first seems to have been under the direction of the quaestor. About the time that silver was first coined in Rome, viz. about 266 B.C., the triumviri monetales were created. They were at first of senatorial rank, but were by Augustus chosen from among the equestrian; and the title of triumviri was continued till after the time of Caracalla; but under Aurelian there was probably but one master of the mint, called rationalis; and Mr Pinkerton is of opinion that the change took place under Gallienus. He seems also to have permitted the provincial cities to coin gold and silver, as well as to have altered the form of the mints in the capital, and to have ordered them all to strike money with Latin legends, and of the same forms; as in his time we first meet with coins with mint marks of cities and offices. The violent insurrection which took place in his reign has already been mentioned, as well as its probable cause; and Mr Gibbon has shown, that the concealed enemies of Aurelian took such advantage of this insurrection, that it cost 7000 of his best troops before it could be quelled. About this time the procurator monetarum seems to have succeeded the rationalis as director of the mint. In the colonies, the direction of the mint seems to have been given to the decemviri, whose names frequently occur in colonial coins; "which (says Mr Pinkerton), though generally of rude invention, and ruder execution, are yet often interesting and important."

The engraving of the ancient dies used in coinage was a work of much genius and labour; and at Rome Greek artists were generally employed in it; but it has been thought a matter of great surprise, that scarce any two ancient coins are to be found exactly the same. Hence some antiquaries have imagined that only a single coin was thrown off from each die. M.

Beauvais informs us, that the only two Roman imperial coins of the first times which he had seen perfectly alike were those of the emperor Galba. It is, however, the opinion of the best judges, that a perfect similarity betwixt two medals is a very great reason for supposing one of them to be forged. "It must also be observed (says Mr Pinkerton), that the differences in coins, apparently from the same die, are often so minute as to escape an eye not used to microscopic observations of this sort. But it would be surprising if any two ancient coins were now found struck with the same die; for out of each million issued, not above one has reached us. Dies soon give way by the violence of the work, and the ancients had no puncheons nor matrices, but were forced to engrave many dies for the same coin. Even in our mint, upon sending for a shilling's worth of new halfpence, it will appear that three or four dies have been used. Sometimes the obverse of the die gives way, sometimes the reverse; but among us it is renewed by puncheons, though with variations in the lettering or other minute strokes; while the ancients were forced to recur to another die differently engraved. The engravers of the die were called caelatores; other officers employed in the mint were the spectatores, expectatores, or nummularii. The melters were styled fusarii, flatuarii, and flaturarii; those who adjusted the weight were called aquatores monetarum; those who put the pieces into the die suppositores, and those who struck them mallcatores. At the head of each office was an officer named primicerius, and the foreman was named optio et exactor."

In order to assist the high relief on the coins, the metal, after being melted and refined, was cast into bullets, as appears from the ancient coins not being cut or filed on the edges, but often cracked, and always rough and unequal. These bullets were then put into the die, and received the impression by repeated strokes of the hammer, though sometimes a machine appears to have been used for this purpose: for Boiterue informs us, that there was a picture of the Roman mintage in a grotto near Baiae, where a machine was represented holding up a large stone as if to let it fall suddenly, and strike the coin at once. None of the ancient money was cast in moulds, excepting the most ancient and very large Roman brass, commonly called weights, and other Italian pieces of that sort; all the rest being mere forgeries of ancient and modern times. Some Roman moulds which have been found are a proof of this; and from these some medallists have erroneously imagined that the ancients first cast their money in moulds, and then stamped it, in order to make the impression more clear and sharp.

The ancients had some knowledge of the method of crenating the edges of their coins, which they did by cutting out regular notches upon them; and of this kind we find some of the Syrian and ancient consular coins, with a few others. The former were cast in this shape, and then struck; but the latter were crenated by incision, to prevent forgery, by showing the inside of the metal: however, the ancient forgers also found out a method of imitating this; for Mr Pinkerton informs us, that he had a Roman consular coin, of which the incisions, like the rest, were plated with silver over the copper. Sect. VI. Of the Preservation of Medals.

We now come to consider what it is that distinguishes one medal from another, and why some are so highly prized more than others. This, in general, besides its genuineness, consists in the high degree of preservation in which it is. This, by Mr Pinkerton, is called the conservation of medals, and is by him regarded as good and as perfect. In this, he says that a true judge is so nice, that he will reject even the rarest coins if in the least defaced either in the figures or legend. Some, however, are obliged to content themselves with those which are a little rubbed, while those of superior taste and abilities have in their cabinets only such as are in the very state in which they came from the mint; and such, he says, are the cabinets of Sir Robert Austin, and Mr Walpole, of Roman silver, at Strawberryhill. It is absolutely necessary, however, that a coin be in what is called good preservation; which in the Greek or Roman emperors, and the colonial coins, is supposed to be when the legends can be read with some difficulty; but when the conservation is perfect, and the coin just as it came from the mint, even the most common coins are valuable.

The fine rust, like varnish, which covers the surface of brass and copper coins, is found to be the best preserver of them; and is brought on by lying in a certain kind of soil. Gold cannot be contaminated but by iron mold, which happens when the coin lies in a soil impregnated with iron; but silver is susceptible of various kinds of rust, principally green and red; both of which yield to vinegar. In gold and silver coins the rust must be removed, as being prejudicial; but in brass and copper it is preservative and ornamental; a circumstance taken notice of by the ancients. "This fine rust (says Mr Pinkerton), which is indeed a natural varnish not imitable by the art of man, is sometimes a delicate blue, like that of a turquoise; sometimes of a bronze brown, equal to that observable in ancient statues of bronze, and so highly prized; and sometimes of an exquisite green, a little on the azure hue, which last is the most beautiful of all. It is also found of a fine purple, of olive, and of a cream colour or pale yellow; which last is exquisite, and shows the impression to as much advantage as paper of cream colour, used in all great foreign presses, does copperplates and printing. The Neapolitan patina (the rust in question) is of a light green; and when free from excrescence or blemish is very beautiful. Sometimes the purple patina gleams through an upper coat of another colour, with as fine effect as a variegated silk or gem. In a few instances a rust of a deeper green is found; and it is sometimes spotted with the red or bronze shade, which gives it quite the appearance of the East Indian stone called the blood-stone. These rusts are all, when the real product of time, as hard as the metal itself, and preserve it much better than any artificial varnish could have done; concealing at the same time not the most minute particle of the impression of the coin."

The value of medals is lowered when any of the letters of the legend are misplaced; as a suspicion of forgery is thus induced. Such is the case with many of those of Claudius Gothicus. The same, or even greater, diminution in value takes place in such coins as have not been well fixed in the die, which has occasioned their slipping under the strokes of the hammer, and thus made a double or triple image. Many coins of this kind are found in which the one side is perfectly well formed, but the other blundered in the manner just mentioned. Another blemish, but of smaller moment, and which to some may be rather a recommendation, is when the workmen through inattention have put another coin into the die without taking out the former. Thus the coin is convex on one side, and concave on the other, having the same figure upon both its sides.

The medals said by the judges in this science to be countermarked are very rare, and highly valued. They marked have a small stamp impressed upon them, in some a head, in others a few letters, such as AUG : N. PROBUS, &c., which marks are supposed to imply an alteration in the value of the coin; as was the case with the countermarked coins of Henry VIII., and Queen Mary of Scotland. Some have a small hole through them; sometimes with a little ring fastened in it, having been used as ornaments; but this makes no alteration in their value. Neither is it any diminution in the value of a coin that it is split at the edges; for coins of undoubted antiquity have often been found in this state, the cause of which has been already explained. On the contrary, this cracking is generally considered as a great merit; but Mr Pinkerton suspects that one of these cracked coins has given rise to an error with respect to the wife of Carausius who reigned for some time in Britain. The inscription is read ORIUNA AUG : and there is a crack in the medal just before the O of oriuna. Without this crack Mr Pinkerton supposes that it would have been read FORTUNA AUG.

Some particular soils have the property of giving silver a yellow colour as if it had been gilt. It naturally acquires a black colour through time, which any tarnished sulphureous vapour will bring on in a few minutes. From its being so susceptible of injuries, it was always mixed by the ancients with much alloy, in order to harden it. Hence the impressions of the ancient silver coins remain perfect to this day, while those of modern coins are obliterated in a few years. On this account Mr Pinkerton expresses a wish that modern states would allow a much greater proportion of alloy in their silver coin than they usually do. As gold admits of no rust except that from iron above-mentioned, the coins of this metal are generally in perfect conservation, and fresh as from the mint.

To cleanse gold coins from this rust, it is best to steep them in aquafortis, which, though a very powerful solvent of other metals, has no effect upon gold. Silver may be cleansed by steeping for a day or two in vinegar, but more effectually by boiling in water with three parts of tartar and one of sea salt; on both these metals, however, the rust is always in spots, and never forms an entire incrustation as on brass or copper. The coins of these two metals must never be cleansed, as they would thus be rendered full of small holes eaten by the rust. Sometimes, however, they are found so totally obscured with rust, that nothing can be discovered upon them; in which case it is best to clear them with a graver; but it may also be done by boiling them for 24 hours in water with three How to distinguish true from counterfeits.

The high state of preservation in which ancient coins are usually found, is thus accounted for by Mr. Hancarville. He observes, that the chief reason is the custom of the ancients always to bury one or more coins with their dead, in order to pay for their passage over the river Styx. "From Phidon of Argos (says he) to Constantine I. are 36 generations: and from Magna Graecia to the Euphrates, from Cyrene to the Euxine sea, Grecian arts prevailed, and the inhabitants amounted to above 30,000,000. There died, therefore, in that time and region, not less than ten thousand millions of people, all of whom had coins of one sort or other buried with them. The tombs were sacred and untouched; and afterwards neglected, till modern curiosity or chance began to disclose them. The urn of Flavia Valentina, in Mr. Towlery's capital collection, contained seven brass coins of Antoninus Pius and Heliogabalu. Such are generally black, from being burnt with the dead. The best and freshest coins were used on these occasions from respect to the dead; and hence their fine conservation. At Syracuse a skeleton was found in a tomb, with a beautiful gold coin in its mouth; and innumerable other instances might be given, for hardly is a funeral urn found without coins. Other incidents also conspire to furnish us with numbers of ancient coins, though the above-recited circumstance be the chief cause of perfect conservation. In Sicily, the silver coins with the head of Proserpine were found in such numbers as to weigh 600 French livres or pounds. In the 16th century, 60,000 Roman coins were found at Modena, thought to be a military chest hid after the battle of Bedriacum, when Otho was defeated by Vitellius. Near Brest, in the year 1760, between 20 and 30,000 Roman coins were found. A treasure of gold coins of Lysimachus was found at Deva on the Marus; and Strabo, lib. vii. and Pausan. in Attic, tell that he was defeated by the Getæ; at which time this treasure seems to have fallen into their hands."

Thus Mr. Pinkerton, from the authority of Mr. Hancarville and others: but considering these vast numbers of coins found in various places, it seems surprising how so few should now remain in the cabinets of the curious, as the same author informs us that the whole of the different ancient coins known to us amount only to about 80,000, though he owns that the calculation cannot be esteemed accurate.

Sect. VII. How to distinguish true Medals from counterfeits.

The most difficult and the most important thing in the whole science of medals is the method of distinguishing the true from the counterfeit. The value put upon ancient coins made the forgery of them almost coeval with the science itself; and as no laws inflict a punishment upon such forgers, men of great genius and abilities have undertaken the trade: but whether to the real detriment of the science or not, is a matter of some doubt; for if only exact copies of genuine medals are sold for the originals, the imposition may be deemed trifling: but the case must be accounted very different, if people take it upon them to forge medals which never existed. At first the forgeries were extremely gross; and medals were forged of Priam, of Aristotle, Artemisia, Hannibal, and most of the other illustrious personages of antiquity. Most of these were done in such a manner, that the fraud could easily be discovered; but others have imposed even upon very learned men. Mr. Pinkerton mentions a remarkable medal of the emperor Heraclius, representing him in a chariot on the reverse, with Greek and Latin inscriptions, which Joseph Scaliger and Lipsius imagined to have been struck in his own time, but which was certainly issued in Italy in the 15th century. "Other learned men (says our author) have been strangely misled, when speaking of coins; for to be learned in one subject excludes not gross ignorance in others. Budaeus, de Asse, quotes a denarius of Cicero, m. tull. Erasmus, in one of his Epistles, tells us with great gravity, that the gold coin of Brutus struck in Thrace, ΚΟΣΩΝ, bears the patriarch Noah coming out of the ark with his two sons, and takes the Roman eagle for the dove with the olive branch. Winkelman, in his letters informs us, that the small brass piece with Virgil's head, reverse EPO, is undoubtedly ancient Roman; and adds, that no knowledge of coins can be had out of Rome: but Winkelman, so conversant in statues, knew nothing of coins. It is from other artists and other productions that any danger of deceit arises. And there is no wonder that even the skilful are misled by such artists as have used this trade; for among them appear the names of Victor Gambello, Giovanni del Cavino, Coins for called the Paduan, and his son Alessandro Bassiano, gèd by cel-likewise of Padua, Benvenuto Cellini, Alessandro celentano, Greco, Leo Artino, Jacopo da Frezzo, Federigo Bonzagna, and Giovani Jacopo, his brother; Sebastiano Plumbo, Valerio de Vizenza, Gorlaeus, a German, Carteron of Holland, and others, all or most of them of the 16th century; and Cavino the Paduan, who is the most famous, lived in the middle of that century. The forgeries of Cavino are held in no little esteem, being of wonderful execution. His and those of Carteron are the most numerous, many of the other artists here mentioned not having forged above two or three coins. Later forgers were Dervieu of Florence who confined himself to medallions, and Cogornier who gave coins of the 30 tyrants in small brass. The chief part of the forgeries of Greek medals which have come to my knowledge are of the first mentioned, and a very gross kind, representing persons who could never appear upon coin, such as Priam, Æneas, Plato, Alcibiades, Artemisia, and others. The real Greek coins were very little known or valued till the works of Goltzius appeared, which were happily posterior to the era of the grand forgers. Why later forgers have seldom thought of counterfeiting them cannot be easily accounted for, if it is not owing to the masterly workmanship of the originals, which set all imitation at defiance. Forgeries, however, of most ancient coins may be met with, and of the Greek among the rest.

"The forgeries are more conspicuous among the Roman medals than any other kind of coins; but we are not to look upon all these as the work of modern artists. On the contrary, we are assured that many of them were fabricated in the times of the Romans themselves, some of them being even held in more estimation than the genuine coins themselves, on account of of their being plated, and otherwise executed in a manner to which modern forgers could never attain. Even the ancients held some of these counterfeits in such estimation, that Pliny informs us there were frequently many true denarii given for one false one."—Caracalla is said to have coined money of copper and lead plated with silver; and plated coins, the work of ancient forgers, occur of many Greek cities and princes; nay, there are even forgeries of barbaric coins. "Some Roman coins (says Mr Pinkerton), are found of iron or lead plated with brass, perhaps trials of the skill of the forger. Iron is the most common; but one decursio of Nero is known of lead plated with copper. Neumann justly observes, that no historic faith can be put in plated coins, and that most faulty reverses, &c. arise from plated coins not being noticed as such. Even of the Roman consular coins not very many have ever been forged. The celebrated silver denarii of Brutus, with the cap of liberty and two daggers, is the chief instance of a consular coin of which a counterfeit is known. But it is easily rejected by this mark: in the true coin the cap of liberty is below the guard or hilt of the daggers; in the false, the top of it rises above that hilt."

The imperial series of medals is the grand object of modern metallic forgeries; and the deception was at first extended to the most eminent writers upon the subject. The counterfeits are by Mr Pinkerton divided into six classes.

I. Such as are known to be imitations, but valued on account of the artists by whom they are executed. In this class the medals of the Paduan rank highest; the others being so numerous, that a complete series of imperial medals of almost every kind, nay almost of every medallion, may be formed from among them. In France, particularly, by far the greater part of the cabinets are filled with counterfeits of this kind. They are distinguished from such as are genuine by the following marks: 1. The counterfeits are almost universally thinner. 2. They are never worn or damaged. 3. The letters are modern. 4. They are either destitute of varnish entirely, or have a false one, which is easily known by its being black, shining, and greasy, and very easily hurt by the touch of a needle, while the varnish of ancient medals is as hard as the metal itself. Instead of the greasy black varnish above mentioned, indeed, they have sometimes a light green one, spotted with a kind of iron marks, and is composed of sulphur, verdigrise, and vinegar. It may frequently be distinguished by the hairstrokes of the pencil with which it was laid on being visible upon it. 5. The sides are either filed or too much smoothed by art, or bear the marks of a small hammer. 6. The counterfeits are always exactly circular, which is not the case with ancient medals, especially after the time of Trajan.

The Paduan forgeries may be distinguished from those of inferior artists by the following marks: 1. The former are seldom thinner than the ancient. 2. They very seldom appear as worn or damaged, but the others very frequently, especially in the reverse, and legend of the reverse, which sometimes, as in forged Othos, appear as half consumed by time. 3. The letters in moulds taken from the antique coins have the rudeness of antiquity. 4. False varnish is commonly light green or black, and shines too much or too little. 5. The sides of forged coins are frequently quite smooth, and distinguishable from the ancient, though to accomplish this requires but little art. 6. Counterfeit medals are frequently as irregular in their form as the genuine; but the Paduan are generally circular, though false coins have often little pieces cut off, in perfect imitation of the genuine. 7. In cast coins, the letters do not go sharp down into the medal, and have no fixed outline; their minute angles, as well as those of the drapery, are commonly filled up, and have not the sharpness of the genuine kind. Where the letters or figures are faint, the coin is greatly to be suspected.

The letters form the great criterion of medals, the ancient being very rude, but the modern otherwise; principal the reason of which, according to Cellini, is, that the ancients engraved all their matrices with the graver or burin, while the modern forgers strike theirs with a punch.

According to Vico, the false patina is green, black, russet, brown, gray, and iron colour. The green is made from verdigrise, the black is the smoke of sulphur, the gray is made of chalk steeped in urine, the coin being left for some days in the mixture. The russet is next to the natural, by reason of its being a kind of froth which the fire forces from ancient coins; but when false, it shines too much. To make it they frequently took the large brass coins of the Ptolemies, which were often corroded, and made them red hot in the fire; put the coins upon them, and a fine patina adhered. Our author does not say in what manner the iron-coloured patina was made. "Sometimes (adds he) they take an old defaced coin, covered with real patina, and stamp it anew; but the patina is then too bright in the cavities, and too dull in the protuberances. The trial of brass coins with the tongue is not to be despised; for if modern the patina tastes bitter or pungent, while if ancient it is quite tasteless."

Mr Pinkerton informs us, that all medallions from Julius Caesar to Adrian are much to be suspected of forgery; the true medals of the first 14 emperors being exceedingly valuable, and to be found only in the cabinets of princes.

II. The second class of counterfeit medals contains those cast from moulds taken from the Paduan forgeries, and others done by eminent masters. These are sometimes more difficult to be discovered than the former, because in casting them they can give any degree of thickness they please; and, filling the small sand-holes with mastic, they retouch the letters with a graver, and cover the whole with varnish. The instructions already given for the former class, however, are also useful for those of the second, with this addition, that medals of this class are generally lighter than the genuine, because fire rarefies the metal in some degree, while that which is struck is rather condensed by the strokes. In gold and silver medals there cannot be any deception of this kind; because these metals admit not of patina, and consequently the varnish betrays the imposition. The marks of the file on the margin of those of the second class are a certain sign of forgery; though these do not always indicate the forgery to be of modern date, because the Romans often filed the edges of coins to accommodate them to the purposes of ornament, as quarter guineas are sometimes How to distinguish the bottom of punch ladles. It is common to imitate the holes of medals made by time by means of aquafortis; but this destroys the sides of a coin more effectually than if it had been eaten into naturally. The fraud, however, is not easily distinguished.

III. Medals cast in moulds from an antique.—In this mode some forgers, as Beauvais informs us, have been so very careful, that they would melt a common medal of the emperor whom they meant to counterfeit, lest the quality of the metal should betray them. "This (says Mr Pinkerton), has been done in the silver Septimius Severus, with the reverse of a triumphal arch, for which a common coin of the same prince has been melted; and in other instances." Putting medals in the fire or upon hot iron to cleanse them, gives them an appearance of being cast; for some spots of the metal being softer than the rest will run, which makes this one of the worst methods of cleaning medals.—The directions given for discovering the two former deceptions hold good also in this.

IV. Ancient Medals retouched and altered.—This is a class of counterfeits more difficult to be discovered than any other. "The art (says Mr Pinkerton) exerted in this class is astonishing; and a connoisseur is the less apt to suspect it, because the coins themselves are in fact ancient. The acute minds of the Italian artists exerted themselves in this way, when the other forgeries became common and known. With graving-tools they alter the portraits, the reverses, and the inscriptions themselves, in a surprising manner. Of a Claudius struck at Antioch they make an Otho; of a Faustina, a Titiana; of a Julia Severa, a Didia Clara; of a Macrinus, a Pescennius, &c. Give them a Marcus Aurelius, he starts up a Pertinax, by thickening the beard a little, and enlarging the nose. In short, wherever there is the least resemblance in persons, reverses, or legends, an artist may from a trivial medal generate a most scarce and valuable one. This fraud is distinguishable by the false varnish which sometimes masks it; but, above all, by the letters of the legend, which are always altered. Though this be sometimes done with an artifice almost miraculous, yet most commonly the characters straggle, are disunited, and not in a line."

In counterfeits of this kind sometimes the obverse is not touched, but the reverse made hollow, and filled with mastic coloured like the coin, and engraven with such device and legend as was most likely to bring a great price; others are only retouched in some minute parts, by which, however, the value of the coin is much diminished. "Against all these arts (says Mr Pinkerton), severe scrutiny must be made by the purchaser upon the medal itself; and the investigation and opinion of eminent antiquaries had upon its being altered, or genuine as it is issued from the mint."

V. Medals impressed with new devices, or soldered.—In the first article of this class the reverses have been totally filed off, and new ones impressed with a die and hammer. This is done by putting the face or obverse, whichever is not touched, upon different folds of pasteboard, afterwards applying the die and striking it with a hammer. The forgery in this class is very easily discovered, as the devices and inscriptions on the counterfeits are known not to exist on true medals: as the Pons Aelius on the reverse of Adrian; how to ill. the Expeditio Judaica of the same emperor, &c. stingless. The difference of fabrication in the face or reverse will be discovered at the first glance by any person of counterfeits.

The soldered medals consist of two halves belonging to different medals, sawed through the middle and then joined with solder. This mode of counterfeiting is common in silver and brass coins. "They will take an Antoninus, for example, and saw off the reverse, then solder to the obverse which they have treated in the same manner. This makes a medal, which, from an unknowing purchaser, will bring a hundred times the price of the two coins, which compose it. When the decoit is used in brass coins, they take care that the metals be of one hue; though indeed some pretenders in this way sometimes solder copper and brass together, which at once reveals the deceit. Medals which have a portrait on each side, and which are generally valuable, are the most liable to a suspicion of this fraud. To a very nice eye the minute ring of solder is always visible; and upon inserting a graver, the fabrication falls into halves."

In the same manner reverses are sometimes soldered to faces not originally belonging to them; as one mentioned by Pere Jobert, of Domitian with an amphitheatre, a reverse of Titus joined to it. Another art is sometimes made use of in this kind of counterfeits, of which there is an instance in the temple of Janus upon Nero's medals; where the middle brass is taken off, and inserted in a cavity made in the middle of a large coin of that prince. In the coins of the lower empire, however, the reverses of medals are sometimes so connected with their obverses, that a suspicion of forgery sometimes occurs without any foundation. They are met with most commonly after the time of Gallicenus, when such a number of usurpers arose, that it was difficult to obtain an exact portrait of their features; the coiners had not time, therefore, to strike a medal for these as they could have done for other emperors who reigned longer. Hence, on the reverse of a medal of Marius, who reigned only three days, there is PACATOR ORBIS, which shows that at that time they had reverses ready fabricated, to be applied as occasion might require.

VI. Plated medals, or those which have clefts.—It has been already remarked, that many true medals are dals, &c. cracked in the edges; owing to the repeated strokes of the hammer, and the little degree of ductility which the metal possesses. This the forgers attempt to imitate by a file; but it is easy to distinguish betwixt the natural and artificial cleft by means of a small needle. The natural cleft is wide at the extremity, and appears to have a kind of almost imperceptible filaments; the edges of the crack corresponding with each other in a manner which no art can imitate.

"The plated medals which have been forged in ancient times were long supposed to be capable of resisting every effort of modern imitation; but of late years, 'some ingenious rogues (says Mr Pinkerton), thought of piercing false medals of silver with a red-hot needle, which gave a blackness to the inside of the coin, and made it appear plated to an injudicious eye. This fraud is easily distinguished by scraping the inside of the metal.' It is, however, very difficult to..." distinguish the forgeries of rude money, when not cast; and our author gives no other direction than to consult a skilful medallist. Indeed, notwithstanding all the directions already given, this seems to be a resource which cannot by any means with safety be neglected.

A real and practical knowledge of coins "is only to be acquired (says he) by seeing a great number, and comparing the forged with the genuine. It cannot therefore be too much recommended to the young connoisseur, who wishes to acquire some knowledge in this way, to visit all the sales and cabinets he can, and to look upon all ancient medals with a very microscopic eye. By these means only is to be acquired that ready knowledge which enables at first glance to pronounce upon a forgery, however ingenious. Nor let the science of medals be from this concluded to be uncertain; for no knowledge is more certain and immediate, when it is properly studied by examination of the real objects. A man who buys coins, trusting merely to his theoretic perusal of medallie books, will find himself woefully mistaken. He ought to study coins first, where only they can be studied, in themselves. Nor can it be matter of wonder or implication of caprice, that a medallist of skill should at one perception pronounce upon the veracity or falsehood of a medal; for the powers of the human eye, employed in certain lines of science, are amazing. Hence a student can distinguish a book among a thousand similar, and quite alike to every other eye: hence a shepherd can discern, &c.; hence the medallist can say in an instant, 'this is a true coin, and this is a false,' though to other people no distinction be perceptible."

Forgeries of modern coins and medals, Mr Pinkerton observes, are almost as numerous as of the ancient. The satiric coin of Louis XII. Perdam Babylonis nomen, is a remarkable instance: the false coin is larger than the true, and bears the date 1512. The rude coins of the middle ages are very easily forged, and forgeries have accordingly become common. Forged coins of Alfred and other early princes of England have appeared, some of which have been done with great art. "The two noted English pennies of Rich. I. says our author, are of this stamp; and yet have imposed upon Messrs Folkes and Snelling, who have published them as genuine in the two best books upon English coins. But they were fabricated by a Mr White of Newgate-street, a noted collector, who contaminated an otherwise fair character by such practices. Such forgeries, though easy, require a skill in the history and coinage of the times, which luckily can hardly fall to the lot of a common Jew or mechanic forger. But the practice is detestable, were no gain proposed: and they who stoop to it must suppose, that to embarrass the path of any science with forgery and futility, implies no infamy. In forgeries of ancient coin, the fiction is perhaps sufficiently atoned for by the vast skill required; and the artist may plausibly allege, that his intention was not to deceive, but to excite his utmost powers, by an attempt to rival the ancient masters. But no possible apology can be made for forging the rude money of more modern times. The crime is certainly greater than that which leads the common coiner to the gallows; inasmuch as it is committed with more ease, and the profit is incomparably larger."

Sect. VIII. Of the Value of Medals.

All ancient coins and medals, though equally genuine, are not equally valuable. In medals as well as in every thing else, the scarcity of a coin stamps a value upon it which cannot otherwise be derived from its intrinsic worth. There are four or five degrees of rarity reckoned up; the highest of which is called unique. The cause is generally ascribed to the fineness of number thrown off originally, or to their having been called in, and recoined in another form. To the former cause Mr Pinkerton ascribes the scarcity of the copper of Otho and the gold of Pescennius Niger; to the latter that of the coinage of Caligula; "though this last (says he) is not of singular rarity; which shows that even the power of the Roman senate could not annihilate an established money; and that the first cause of rarity, arising from the small quantity originally struck, ought to be regarded as the principal."

In the ancient cities Mr Pinkerton ascribes the scarcity of coin to the poverty or smallness of the state; the scarcity but the scarcity of ancient regal and imperial coins of medals arises principally from the shortness of the reign; and sometimes from the superabundance of money before, which rendered it almost unnecessary to coin any money during the reign of the prince. An example of this we have in the scarcity of the shillings of George III. which shows that shortness of reign does not always occasion a scarcity of coin: and thus the coins of Harold II. who did not reign a year, are very numerous, while those of Richard I. who reigned ten, are almost unique.

Sometimes the rarest coins lose their value, and become common. This our author ascribes to the high price given for them, which tempts the possessors to bring them to market; but chiefly to the discovering and nice of hoards of them. The former cause took place with Queen Anne's farthings, some of which formerly sold at five guineas; nay, if we could believe the newspapers, one of them was some years ago sold for 960l.; the latter with the coins of Canute, the Danish king of England; which were very rare till a hoard of them was discovered in the Orkneys. As discoveries of this kind, however, produce a temporary plenty, so when they are dispersed the former scarcity returns; while, on the other hand, some of the common coins become rare through the mere circumstance of neglect.

As double the number of copper coins of Greek cities are to be met with that there are of silver, the latter are of consequence much more esteemed: but the reverse is the case with those of the Greek princes. All the Greek civic coins of silver are very rare, excepting those of Athens, Corinth, Messana, Dyrrachium, Massilia, Syracuse, and some others. Of the Greek monarchic coins, the most rare are the tetradrachms of the kings of Syria, the Ptolemies, the sovereigns of Macedon and Bithynia, excepting those of Alexander the Great and Lysimachus. Those of the kings of Cappadocia are of a small size, and scarce to be met with. Of those of Numidia and Mauritania, the coins of Juba, the father, are common; but those of the son, and nephew Ptolemy, scarce. Coins of the kings of Sicily, Parthia, and India, are rare; the last very much so. We meet with no coins of the kings of Arabia and Comagene except in brass; those of the kings of Bosporus are in electrum, and a few in brass, but all of them rare; as are likewise those of Philetis king of Pergamus, and of the kings of Pontus. In the year 1777, a coin of Mithridates sold for 26l. 5s. Didrachms of all kings and cities are scarce, excepting those of Corinth and her colonies; but the gold coins of Philip of Macedon, Alexander the Great, and Lysimachus, as has already been observed, are common. The silver tetradrachms of all kings bear a very high price. The didrachm of Alexander the Great is one of the rarest of the smaller Greek silver coins; some of the other princes are not uncommon.

In most cases the copper money of the Greek monarchs is scarce; but that of Hiero I. of Syracuse is uncommonly plenty, as well as that of several of the Ptolemies.

The most rare of the consular Roman coins are those restored by Trajan: of the others the gold consular coins are the most rare, and the silver the most common; excepting the coin of Brutus with the cap of liberty, already mentioned, with some others. Some of the Roman imperial coins are very scarce, particularly those of Otho in brass; nor indeed does he occur at all on any coin struck at Rome: but the reason of this may with great probability be supposed to have been the shortness of his reign. His portrait upon the brass coins of Egypt and Antioch is very bad: as well as almost all the other imperial coins of Greek cities. The best likeness is on his gold and silver coins; the latter of which are very common. The Greek and Egyptian coins are all of small or middling sizes, and have reverses of various kinds: those of Antioch have Latin legends, as well as most of the other imperial coins of Antioch. They have no other reverse but the SC in a wreath; excepting in one instance or two of the large and middle brass, where the inscriptions are in Greek. Latin coins of Otho in brass, with figures on the reverse, are certainly false; though in the cabinet of D'Ennery at Paris there was an Otho in middle brass restored by Titus, which was esteemed genuine by connoisseurs.

The leaden coins of Rome are very scarce: Most of them are pieces struck or cast on occasion of the saturnalia; others are tickets for festivals and exhibitions, both private and public. The common tickets for theatres were made of lead, as were the contorniati; perpetual tickets, like the English silver tickets for the opera. Leaden medallions are also found below the foundations of pillars and other public buildings, in order to perpetuate the memory of the founders. From the time of Augustus also we find that leaden seals were used. The work of Ticonini upon this subject, entitled Piombi Antichi, is much recommended by Mr Pinkerton.

The Roman coins, which have been blundered in the manner formerly mentioned, are very rare, and undeservedly valued by the connoisseurs. The blunders in the legends of these coins, which in all probability are the mere effects of accident, have been so far mistaken by some medallists, that they have given rise to imaginary emperors who never existed. A coin of Faustina, which has on the reverse SOUSTI. S. C. puzzled all the German antiquaries, till at last Klotz gave it the following factious interpretation: *Sine omni utilitate sectaminis tantas ineptias.*

The heptarchic coins of England are generally rare, Heptarchi except those called styca, which are very common, as well as those of Burgred king of Mercia. The coins of Alfred which bear his bust are scarce, and his other money much more so. Those of Hardynute are so rare, that it was even denied that they had an existence; but Mr Pinkerton informs us, that there are three in the British museum, upon all of which the name Harthcanut is quite legible. No English coins of King John are to be met with, though there are some Irish ones; and only French coins of Richard I. "Leake (says Mr Pinkerton) made a strange blunder, in ascribing coins of different kings with two faces, and otherwise spoiled in the stamping, to this prince; in which, as usual, he has been followed by a misled number."

Coins of Alexander II. of Scotland are rather scarce, but those of Alexander III. are more plentiful. Those coins of John Baliol are rare, and none of Edward Baliol are to be found.

**Sect. IX. Of the Purchase of Medals.**

Medals are to be had at the shops of goldsmiths and silversmiths, with those who deal in curiosities, &c., but in great cities there are professed dealers in them. The best method of purchasing medals, however, is that of buying whole cabinets, which are every year exposed to auction in London. In these the rare medals are sold by themselves: but the common ones are put up in large lots, so that the dealers commonly purchase them. Mr Pinkerton thinks it would be better that medals were sold one by one; because a lot is often valued and purchased for the sake of a single coin; while the others separately would sell for perhaps four times the price of the whole lot. "If any man of common sense and honesty (says Mr Pinkerton), were to take up the trade of selling coins in London, he would make a fortune in a short time. This profitable business is now in the hands of one or two dealers, who ruin their own interest by making an elegant study a trade of knavery and imposition. If they buy 300 coins for 10s., they will ask 3s. for one of the worst of them! nay, sell forged coins as true to the ignorant. The simpletons complain of want of business. A knave is always a fool."

The gold coins of Carthage, Cyrene, and Syracuse, Price arc worth about twice their intrinsic value as metal; but the other gold civic coins from 5l. to 3cl. each. The only gold coins of Athens certainly known to exist are two lately procured by the king. One of these remains in possession of his majesty, but the other was given by the queen to Dr Hunter. There was another in the British museum, but suspected not to be genuine. Dr Hunter's coin, then, if sold, would bear the highest price that could be expected for a coin.

The silver coins of Syracuse, Dyrrhachium, Massilia, Athens, and a few other states, are common; the drachmas and coins of lesser size are worth about five five shillings; the didrachms, tetradrachms, &c. from five to ten, according to their size and beauty; the largest, as might naturally be expected, being more valuable than the small ones. The tetradrachms, when of cities whose coins are common, are worth from 7s. 6d. to 1l. 1s.; but it is impossible to put a value upon the rare civic coins; ten guineas have been given for a single one.

The Greek copper coins are common, and are almost all of that kind called small brass; the middle size being scarce, and the largest in the ages prior to the Roman emperors extremely so. The common Greek coins of brass bring from 3d. to 18d. according to their preservation; but when of cities, whose coins are rare, much higher prices are given. "The want of a few cities, however," (says Mr Pinkerton), "is not thought to injure a collection; as indeed new names are discovered every dozen of years, so that no assortment can be perfect. To this it is owing that the rarity of the Grecian civic coins is not much attended to."

The gold coins of Philip and Alexander the Great being very common, bear but from five to ten shillings above their intrinsic value; but those of the other princes, being rare, sell from 3l. to 30l. each, or even more.

The tetradrachms are the dearest of the silver monarchic money, selling from five to ten shillings; and if very rare, from 3l. to 30l. Half these prices may be obtained for the drachmas, and the other denominations in proportion.

The Greek copper coins are for the most part scarcer than the silver, except the Syro-Grecian, which are common, and almost all of the size called small brass. They ought (says Mr Pinkerton), to bear a high price; but the metal and similarity to the copper civic coins, which are common, keep their actual purchase moderate, if the seller is not well instructed, and the buyer able and willing to pay the price of rarity."

The name of weights given to the ancient Roman ases is, according to our author, exceedingly improper; as that people had weights of lead and brass sides, without the least appearance of a portrait upon them. These denote the weight by a certain number of knobs; and have likewise small fleurettes engraved upon them. According to Mr Pinkerton, whenever we meet with a piece of metal stamped on both sides with busts and figures, we may lay it down as a certain rule that it is a coin; but when slightly ornamented and marked upon one side only, we may with equal certainty conclude it to be a weight.

The ancient Roman ases are worth from 2s. to 2l. according to the singularity of their devices. Consular gold coins are worth from 1l. to 5l. Pompey with his sons 2l., and the two Bruti 25l. The silver coins are universally worth from a shilling to half a crown, excepting that of the cap of liberty and a few others, which, if genuine, will bring from 10s. to 5l. The consular copper bears an equal price with the silver, but is more rare; the consular silver coins restored by Trajan are worth 20s. each.

With regard to the Roman imperial coins, it is to be observed, that some of those which belong to princes whose coins are numerous, may yet be rendered extremely valuable by uncommon reverses. Mr Pinkerton particularly points out that of Augustus, with the Arrangement C. Marius Trogvs, which is worth three guineas; though the silver coins of that prince in general are not worth above a shilling. In like manner, the common gold coins of Trajan are not worth above twenty shillings; while those with Basilica Ulpia, Forum Trajani, Divi Nerva et Trajanus, Pater, Divi Nerva et Platina Aug. Profectio Aug. Regna Assignata, Rex Parthius, and some others, bear from three to six pounds. The ticket medals belong to the Roman senate, and are worth from three to ten shillings. The forged coins and medallions of the Paduan sell from one to three shillings each.

Of the coins of other nations, those of Hilderic Barbaric king of the Vandals are in silver, and worth 10s.; coins, the small brass of Athanaric, 5s.; the gold of Theodoric 2l.; the second brass of Theodahat 5s.; the second brass of Baducta rare, and worth 10s.; the third brass, 3s. The British coins are very rare, and worth from ten shillings to two guineas each, sometimes much more. Medals with unknown characters are always scarce and dear. Saxon pennies of the heptarchy are rare, and worth from ten shillings to ten pounds, according to their scarcity and preservation. The coins of the English kings are common; those of Edward the Confessor, in particular; others are rare, and worth from ten shillings to two guineas, while two of Hardyknute are worth no less than ten guineas. The gold medals of Henry, in 1545, and the coronation of Edward, are worth 20l. each: the Mary of Trezzo, 3l.; Simon's head of Thurloe in gold is worth 12l.; his oval medal in gold upon Blake's naval victory at sea is worth 3el.; and his trial piece, if brought to a sale, would, in Mr Pinkerton's opinion, bring a still higher price. The medals of Queen Anne, which are intrinsically worth about two guineas and a half, sell for about 3l. each; the silver, of the size of a crown piece, sell for 10s. and the copper from five to ten shillings. Dassier's copper pieces sell from two to five shillings, and a few bear a higher price.

The Scottish gold coins sell higher than the English, but the others are on a par. The shilling of Mary with the bust is rare, and sells for no less than 30l.; the half 3l.; and the royal 5l. 5s. The French testoon of Francis and Mary brings 10l. 10s. and the Scottish one of Mary and Henry would bring 50l. as would also the medal of James IV. The coronation medal of Francis and Mary is worth 20l. Briot's coronation medal sold in 1755 only for two guineas at Dr Mead's sale; but would now bring 20l. if sold according to rarity.

The English coins struck in Ireland are of much the same price with those of the native country; but the coins struck St Patrick's halfpence and farthings are rather scarce, in Ireland, and the rare crown of white metal is worth 4l. The gun-money of James II. and all other Irish coins are very common.

Sect. X. Arrangement of Medals, with the Instruction to be derived from them.

Having thus given a full account of every thing in general relative to medals, we must now come to some particulars respecting their arrangement, and the enter- MEDALS.

Arrangement which a medallist may expect from the trouble and expense he is at making a collection.

It has already been observed, that one of the principle uses of medals is the elucidation of ancient history. Hence the arrangement of his medals is the first thing that must occur in the formation of a cabinet. The most ancient medals with which we are acquainted are those of Alexander I. of Macedon, who began to reign about 501 years before Christ. The series ought of consequence to begin with him, and to be succeeded by the medals of Sicily, Caria, Cyprus, Heraclia, and Pontus. Then follow Egypt, Syria, the Cimmerian Bosphorus, Thrace, Bithynia, Parthia, Armenia, Damaseus, Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, Pergamus, Galatia, Cilicia, Sparta, Paonia, Epirus, Illyrium, Gaul, and the Alps, including the space of time from Alexander the Great to the birth of Christ, and which is to be accounted the third medallie series of ancient monarchs. The last series goes down to the fourth century, including some of the monarchs of Thrace, Bosphorus, and Parthia, with those of Comagene, Edessa or Osrhoene, Mauritania, and Judaea. A most distinct series is formed by the Roman emperors, from Julius Caesar to the destruction of Rome by the Goths; nay, for a much longer period, were it not that towards the latter part of it the coins become so barbarous as to destroy the beauty of the collection. Many series may be formed of modern potentates.

By means of medals we can with great certainty determine the various ornaments worn by ancient princes as badges of distinction. The Grecian kings have generally the diadem, without any other ornament; and though in general the side of the face is presented to view, yet in some very ancient Greek and Roman consular coins, full faces of excellent workmanship are met with. On several coins also two or three faces are to be seen, and these are always accounted very valuable.

The diadem, which was no more than a ribbon tied round the head with a floating knot behind, adorns all the Grecian princes from first to last, and is almost an infallible mark of sovereign power. In the Roman consular coins it is seen in conjunction with Numa and Ancus, but never afterwards till the time of Licinius, the colleague of Constantine. Dioeclesian, indeed, according to Mr Gibbon, first wore the diadem, but his portrait upon coins is never adorned with it. So great an aversion had the Romans to kingly power, that they rather allowed their emperors to assume the radiated crown, the symbol of divinity, than to wear a diadem; but, after the time of Constantine, it becomes common. The radiated crown appears first on the posthumous coins of Augustus as a mark of deification, but in somewhat more than a century became common.

The laurel crown, at first a badge of conquest, was afterwards permitted by the senate to be worn by Julius Caesar, in order to hide the baldness of his head. From him all the emperors appear with it on their medals, even to our own times. In the lower empire the crown is sometimes held by a hand above the head, as a mark of piety. Besides these, the naval, mural, and civic crowns appear on the medals both of emperors, and other eminent men, to denote their great actions. The laurel crown is also sometimes worn by the Greek princes. The Arsacide of Parthia wearment, a kind of sash round the head, with their hair in rows of curls like a wig. The Armenian kings have the tiara, a kind of cap which was esteemed the badge of imperial power in the east. Conical caps are seen on the medals of Xerxes, a petty prince of Armenia, and Juba the father, the former having a diadem around it.

The impious vanity of Alexander and his successors in assuming divine honours is manifest on their medals, where various symbols of divinity are met with. Some of them have the horn behind their ear, either to denote their strength, or that they were the successors of Alexander, to whom this badge might be applied as the son of Jupiter Ammon. This, however, Mr Pinkerton observes, is the only one of these symbols which certainly denotes an earthly sovereign, it being doubted whether the rest are not all figures of gods.—According to Eekhet, even the horn and diadem belong to Bacchus, who invented the latter to cure his headaches; and, according to the same author, the only monarch who appears on coins with the horn is Lysimachus. We are informed, however, by Plutarch, that Pyrrhus had a crest of goats horns to his helmet; and the goat, we know, was a symbol of Macedon. Perhaps the successors of Alexander wore this badge of the horn in consequence. The helmet likewise frequently appears on the heads of sovereigns, and Constantine I. has helmets of various forms curiously ornamented.

The diadem is worn by most of the Greek queens, by Orodatiss, daughter of Lycomedes, king of Bithynia; and though the Roman empresses never appear with it, yet this is more than compensated by the variety of their headdresses. Sometimes the bust of an empress is supported by a crested, to imply that she was the moon, as her husband was the sun of the state. The toga, or veil drawn over the face, at first implied that the person was invested with the pontifical office; and accordingly we find it on the busts of Julius Caesar, while pontifex maximus. It likewise implies the augurship, the augurs having a particular kind of gown called lana, with which they covered their heads when observing an omen. In latter times this implies only consecration, and is common in coins of empresses. It is first met with on the coins of Claudius Gothicus as the mark of consecration of an emperor. The nimbus, or glory, now appropriated to saints, has been already mentioned. It is as ancient as Augustus, but is not to be met with on many of the imperial medals, even after it began to be appropriated to them. There is a curious coin, which has upon the reverse of the common piece, with the head of Rome, Urbs Roma, in large brass, Constantine I. sitting amid Victories and genii, with a triple crown upon his head for Europe, Asia, and Africa, with the legend SECURITAS ROMÆ.

In general only the bust is given upon medals, Porta though sometimes half the body or more; in which latter case the hands often appear with ensigns of majesty in them; such as the globe, said to have been introduced by Augustus as a symbol of universal dominion; the sceptre, sometimes confounded with the consular staff; a roll of parchment, the symbol of legislative Medals likewise afford a good number of portraits of illustrious men; but they cannot easily be arranged in chronological order, so that a series of them is not to be expected. It is likewise vain to attempt the formation of a series of gods and goddesses to be found on ancient coins. Mr Pinkerton thinks it much better to arrange them under the several cities or kings whose names they bear. A collection of the portraits of illustrious men may likewise be formed from medals of modern date.

The reverses of ancient Greek and Roman coins afford an infinite variety of instruction and amusement. They contain figures of deities at full length, with their attributes and symbols, public symbols and diversions, plants, animals, &c. &c. and in short almost every object of nature or art. Some have the portrait of the queen, son, or daughter of the prince whose image appears on the face obverse; and these are esteemed highly by antiquaries, not only because every coin stamped with portraits on both sides is accounted valuable, but because they render it certain that the person represented on the reverse was the wife, son, or daughter of him who appears on the obverse; by which means they assist greatly in the adjusting of a series. Some, however, with two portraits are common, as Augustus, the reverse of Caligula; and Marcus Aurelius, reverse of Antoninus Pius.

We find more art and design in the reverses of the Roman medals than of the Greek; but on the other hand, the latter have more exquisite relief and workmanship. The very ancient coins have no reverses, excepting a rude mark struck into the metal, resembling that of an instrument with four blunt points on which the coin was struck; and was owing to its having been fixed by such an instrument on that side to receive the impression upon the other. To this succeeds the image of a dolphin, or some small animal, in one of the departments of the rude mark, or in a hollow square; and this again is succeeded by a more perfect image, without any mark of the hollow square. Some of the Greek coins are hollow in the reverse, as those of Caulonia, Crotona, Metapontum, and some other ancient cities of Magna Graecia. About 520 B.C. perfect reverses appear on the Greek coins, of exquisite relief and workmanship. "The very muscles of men and animals (says Mr Pinkerton), are seen, and will bear inspection with the largest magnifier as ancient gems. The ancients certainly had not eyes different from ours; and it is clear that they must have magnified objects. A drop of water forms a microscope; and it is probable this was the only one of the ancients. To Greek artists we are indebted for the beauty of the Roman imperial coins; and these are so highly finished, that on some reverses, as that of Nero's decurion, the adventus and progressio of various emperors, the fundator pacis of Severus, the features of the emperor, riding or walking, are as exact as on the obverse. But though the best Greek artists were called to Rome, yet the Greek coins under the Roman emperors are sometimes well executed, arranged and always full of variety and curiosity. No Roman, Etruscan coins have been found of the globular form, or indented on the reverse like the early Greek. The first Greek are small pieces of silver, while the Roman are large masses of copper. The former are struck; the latter cast in moulds. The reverses of the Roman coins are very uniform, the prow of a ship, a car, or the like, till about the year 100 B.C. when various reverses appear on their consular coins in all metals. The variety and beauty of the Roman imperial reverses are well known. The medallists much value those which have a number of figures; as the Puelle Faustinianae, of Faustina, a gold coin no larger than a sixpence, which has 12 figures; that of Trajan, regna assigazata, has four; the congiarium of Nerva five; the allocution of Trajan seven; of Hadrian 10; of Probus 12. Some Roman medals have small figures on both sides, as the Apollini sancto of Julian II. Such have not received any peculiar name among the medalists. Others have only a reverse, as the noted spintriati, which have numerals I. II. &c. on the obverse."

The names of the deities represented on the reverses of Greek coins are never expressed; perhaps, as Mr Pinkerton supposes, out of piety, a symbolical representation of their attributes being all that they thought proper to delineate; but the Roman coins always express the name, frequently with an adjunct, as Veneri Victrici, &c. In others, the name of the emperor or empress is added; as Pudicitiae Augustae, round an image of modesty; Virtus Augusti, a legend for an image of virtue.

The principal symbols of the divine attributes to be met with on the Greek medals are as follow:

1. Jupiter is known on the coins of Alexander the Great by his eagle and thunderbolts; but when the figure occurs only on the obverses of coins, he is distinguished by a laurel crown, and placid bearded countenance. Jupiter Ammon is known by the ram's horn twisting round his ear; a symbol of power and strength, assumed by some of the successors of Alexander the Great, particularly by Lysimachus.

2. Neptune is known by his trident, dolphin, or being drawn by sea horses; but he is seldom met with on the Grecian coins.

3. Apollo is distinguished by an harp, branch of laurel, or tripod; and sometimes by a bow and arrows. In the character of the sun, his head is surrounded with rays; but when the bust only occurs, he has a fair young face, and is crowned with laurel. He is frequent on the coins of the Syrian princes.

4. Mars is distinguished by his armour, and sometimes by a trophy on his shoulders. His head is armed with a helmet, and has a ferocious countenance.

5. Mercury is represented as a youth, with a small cap on his head, wings behind his ears and on his feet. He is known by the cap, which resembles a small hat, and the wings. He appears also with the caduceus, or wand twined with serpents, and the marsupium, or purse, which he holds in his hand.

6. Æsculapius is known by his bushy beard, and his leaning on a club with a serpent twisted round it. He sometimes occurs with his wife Hygeia or Health, with their son Telesphorus or Convalescence between them.

7. Bacchus is known by his crown of ivy or vine, his diadem and horn, with a tyger and satyrs around him.

8. The figure of Hercules is common on the coins of Alexander the Great, and has frequently been mistaken for that of the prince himself. He appears sometimes as a youth and sometimes with a beard. He is known by the club, lion's skin, and remarkable apparent strength; sometimes he has a cup in his hand; and a poplar tree, as a symbol of vigour, is sometimes added to the portrait.

9. The Egyptian Serapis is known by his bushy beard, and a measure upon his head.

10. Apis is delineated in the form of a bull, with a flower of the lotos, the water lily of the Nile, supposed by Macrobius to be a symbol of creation; and Jambliehus tells us, that Osiris was thought to have his throne in it.

11. Harpocrates, the god of Silence, appears with his finger on his mouth; sometimes with the sistrum in his left hand; a symbol common to most of the Egyptian deities.

12. Canopus, another Egyptian deity, appears in the shape of a human head placed on a kind of pitcher. "This deified pitcher (says Mr Pinkerton), seems to refer to an anecdote of ancient superstition, which, I believe, is recorded by Plutarch. It seems some Persian and Egyptian priests had a contest which of their deities had the superiority. The Egyptian said, that a single vase, sacred to Serapis, would extinguish the whole power of the Persian deity of fire. The experiment was tried; and the wily Egyptian, boring holes in the vase and stopping them with wax, afterwards filled the vase with water; which, gushing through the holes as the wax melted, extinguished the Persian deity. Hence the vase was deified."

13. The Holy Senate and Holy People, appear frequently on the Greek imperial coins, sometimes represented as old men with beards, at others as youths.

The goddesses represented on medals are,

1. Juno, represented by a beautiful young woman, sometimes with a diadem, sometimes without any badge, which is reckoned a sufficient distinction, as the other goddesses all wear badges. Sometimes she appears as the goddess of marriage; and is then veiled to the middle, and sometimes to the toes. She is known by the peacock, a bird sacred to her from the fable of Argus.

2. Minerva is very common on the coins of Alexander the Great; and her bust has been mistaken by the celebrated painter Le Brun for the hero himself. She is very easily distinguished by the helmet. Her symbols are, her armour; the spear in her right hand and the aegis, with a Medusa's head, in her left; an owl commonly standing by her.

3. Diana of Ephesus is commonly represented on the Greek imperial coins; and appears with a great number of breasts, supposed to denote universal Nature. She is supported by two deer, and carries a pannier of fruit upon her head. The bust of this goddess is known by the crescent on her brow, and sometimes by the bow and quiver at her side.

4. Venus is known by an apple, the prize of beauty, arranged in her hand. Sometimes she is distinguished only by her total want of dress; but is always to be known by her extraordinary beauty, and is sometimes adorned with pearls about the neck.

5. Cupid is sometimes met with on the Syrian coins, and is known by his infancy and wings.

6. Cybele is known by a turreted crown and lion; or is seen in a chariot drawn by lions.

7. Ceres is known by her garland of wheat, and is common on the Sicilian coins; that island being remarkable for its fertility. Sometimes she has two serpents by her, and is sometimes drawn in a chariot by them. She carries in her hands the torches with which she is fabled to have gone in search of her daughter Proserpine.

8. Proserpine herself is sometimes met with on coins, with the name of xegn, or the girl.

9. The Egyptian Isis has a bud or flower on her head; a symbol of the perpetual bloom of the inhabitants of heaven. She carries also a sistrum in her hand.

10. The Sidonian Astarte appears on a globe supported on a chariot with two wheels, and drawn by two horses.

These are the deities most commonly represented on the Greek coins. The more uncommon are, Saturn with his scythe, or with a hook on the Heraclian coins; Vulcan with his tongs on the reverse of a coin of Thyatira, represented at work in the presence of Minerva. Adranus, a Sicilian god, is sometimes represented on coins with a dog. Ambis, an Egyptian deity, has a dog's head. Atis is known by his Phrygian bonnet; Castor and Pollux by a star on the head of each; Dis, by his old face, dishevelled hair and beard, and a hook; Flora by her crown of flowers; Nemesis by her wheel; and Pan by his horns and ears belonging to some kind of beast.

There are likewise to be found on medals many different symbols by themselves; of the most remarkable of which we shall give the following table, with their signification:

| Symbols | Significations | |---------|---------------| | 1. Vases with sprigs | Solemn games | | 2. Small chest or hamper, with a serpent leaping out | Mystic rites of Bacchus | | 3. Anchor on Seleucian medals | Coin struck at Antioch, where an anchor was dug up | | 4. Apollo on Syrian coins, on an inverted hamper | Covered tripod | | 5. Bee | Aristaeus the son of Apollo | | 6. Laurel | Apollo | | 7. Reed | A river | | 8. Ivy and grapes | Bacchus | | 9. Poppy | Ceres and Proserpine | | 10. Corn | Ceres | | 11. Owl and olive | Minerva | | 12. Dove | Venus | Symbols.

13. Torch, 14. Mudnis, or comic stone,

Significations.

{ Diana, Ceres, or Proserpine. { The sun, Belus, or Venus.

Symbols of Countries, &c.

15. Pomegranate flowers, Rhodes. 16. Owl, Athens. 17. Pegasus, Corinth. 18. Wolf's head, Argos. 19. Bull's head, Boeotia. 20. Minotaur's head and labyrinth, Crete. 21. Horse's head, Pharsalia. 22. Lion, Marseilles. 23. Tortoise, Peloponnesus. 24. Sphinx, Scio. 25. Thrice legs joined as in the Isle Sicily. of Man money, 26. Horse, 27. The crescent, 28. Bull, 29. Ensign, with the letters COL. 30. Ball, 31. Caduceus, 32. Cornucopiae, 33. Pontifical hat, 34. Parazonium, 35. Globe on an altar with three stars, 36. Fort and gate, 37. Tribuli, a kind of chevaux de frise, 38. Altar or tripod, 39. Dolphin, 40. Lectisternia, 41. Lituus, or twisted wand, 42. Apex, or cap with strings, 43. Thensa, or chariot employed to carry images, 44. Peacock, 45. Eagle,

The legends put upon medals are designed as explanations of them; but as the compass of even the largest coins does not admit of any great length of inscription, it has always been found necessary to use abbreviations; and in readily deciphering these lies a considerable part of the difficulty of the science. This, however, is greater in the Roman than in the Greek medals; for the Greeks commonly insert as much of the word as is sufficient to enable us easily to understand its meaning; but it is common for those who attempt to explain letters that do not often occur, to fall into very ridiculous errors. Of this Mr Pinkerton gives a most remarkable instance in Fortunius Licetus, a learned man, who finding upon a coin of Adrian the letters, F. I.A signifying the 14th year of that emperor's reign, imagined that they signified Lucernas invent Delta; "Delta invented lanthorns;" and thence ascribed the origin of lanthorns to the Egyptians. Tables explaining the meaning of the abbreviations found upon medals have been published by Patin, Ursatus, and others.

Sect. XI. Of Medallions, Medalets, &c.

Besides the ordinary coins of the ancients, which passed in common circulation through the country, there were others of a larger size, which are now termed medallions. These were struck on the commencement of the reign of a new emperor and other solemn occasions: frequently also, by the Greeks in particular, as monuments of gratitude or of flattery. Sometimes they were mere trial or pattern pieces; and those abound after the time of Maximian, with the words Tres Monetae on the reverse. The common opinion is, that all the Roman pieces of gold exceeding the denarius aureus, all in silver exceeding the denarius, and all in brass exceeding the sestertius, went under the denomination of medallions: but Mr Pinkerton thinks that many of these large pieces went in circulation, though not very commonly, as our five and two guinea pieces, silver crowns, &c. do in this country. The finest medallions were presented by the mint-masters to the emperor, and by the emperor to his friends, as specimens of fine workmanship. The best we have at present are of brass, and many of them composed of two sorts of metal; the centre being copper, with a ring of brass around it, or the contrary; and the inscription is sometimes confined to one of the metals, sometimes not. There is a remarkable difference between the Greek and Roman medallions in point of thickness; the latter being frequently three or four lines thick, while the other seldom exceed one. Very few medallions, however, were struck by the Greeks before the time of the Roman emperors; but the Greek medallions of the emperors are more numerous than those

(a) This appears on the early coins of Byzantium, with the legend BYZANTIN. ΣΩΤ. "the preserver of Byzantium." The reason of this was, that when Philip of Macedon besieged the city, and was about to storm it in a cloudy night, the moon shone out on a sudden and discovered him; by which means the inhabitants had time to collect their forces and repulse him. The Turks on entering Constantinople, found this badge in many places; and suspecting some magical power in it, assumed the symbol, and its power, to themselves; so that the crescent is now the chief Turkish ensign. those of the Romans themselves. And all these pieces, however, are of such high price that few private persons are able to purchase them. In the last century Christina queen of Sweden procured about 300. In the king of France's collection there are 1200; a number formerly supposed not to exist; and Dr Hunter's collection contains about 400, exclusive of the Egyptian.

Besides these large pieces, there are smaller ones, of a size somewhat larger than our half-crowns; and by Italian medallists are called medaglioni cini, or small medallions. They are still scarcer than the large kind.

There is still a third kind, which have almost escaped the notice of medallists, viz. the small coins or missilia scattered among the people on solemn occasions; such as those struck for the slaves on account of the saturnalia; counters for gaming; tickets for baths and feasts; tokens in copper and in lead, &c. These are distinguished by Mr Pinkerton by the name of medalets. Many, or perhaps almost all, of those struck for the saturnalia were satirical; as the slaves had then a license to ridicule not only their masters but any person whatever. Mr Pinkerton mentions one of the most common pieces of this kind, which has on the obverse the head of an old woman veiled, with a laurel crown; the reverse only s.c., within a wreath. Baudelot is of opinion that it is the head of Acca Laurentia, the nurse of Romulus, to whom a festival was ordained. "Perhaps (says Mr Pinkerton), it was struck in ridicule of Julius Caesar; for the manner of the laurel crown, and its high appearance over the head, perfectly resemble that of Julius on his coins." Some have a ship upon one side; on the reverse T, or a cross, which was the image of Priapus; and occasioned many false invectives against the first Christians, who paid such respect to the cross. Some pieces have the heads of the emperors upon one side, on the reverse only numerals, III, IV, V, &c., and the noted spintriati of Tacitus. Both these kinds appear tickets for the baths, as the number seems to denote the particular bath. Some have the head of a girl with a vessel used at the baths in her hand. The spintriati are so immodest, that few will bear mention. But some are merely ludicrous; as one which has an ass with a bell about his neck, and a soldier riding him; another with two figures hoisting a woman in a basket into the air. Of those that will just bear mention, is a man with titles around him, as chief of the games; and a woman in ridicule of the modest bath-girl above mentioned. There is also one marked XIX, on which appears an imperator triumphing in a car; this car is placed on the back of a camel; and behind the imperator is a monkey mimicking him.

A fourth class of medals are called contorniati from the Italian contorniato, "encircled;" because of the hollow circle which commonly runs around them. They are distinguished from medallions by their thinness, faint relief, reverses sometimes in relief, sometimes hollow; and in general by the inferiority in their workmanship. The opinions of medallists concerning these pieces are very various; some suppose them to have been struck by Gallicius to the memory of illustrious men and celebrated athletæ at the time that he caused all the consecration coins of his predecessors to be restored; others ascribe their invention to Greece, &c.; but Mr Pinkerton is of opinion that they were only tickets for places at public games. Many of them, notwithstanding their inferior workmanship, are very valuable on account of their preserving the portraits of some illustrious authors of antiquity, nowhere else to be found. Much dependence, however, cannot be put on the portraits of Greek authors and eminent men found upon some of them; for though we know that the busts of Sallust, Horace, &c. must have been struck when their persons were fresh in the memory of the artists, yet it was otherwise with Homer, Solon, Pythagoras, &c. which are to be found on some of them. Even these, however, are valuable, as being ancient and perhaps traditional portraits of these great men. The last whose portraits are supposed to have been delineated in this way, are Apollonius Tyaneus who flourished in the time of Domitian, and Apuleius in that of Marcus Antoninus. Mr Pinkerton thinks it a confirmation of his opinion concerning these medals, that the reverses always contain some device alluding to public games, as that of a charioteer driving a chariot, &c.

Sect. XII. Directions for making Cabinets.

We must now proceed to the last part of our subject, viz. that of giving directions for the formation of cabinets. As we have already seen that the formation of any one must be attended with very considerable expense, it is necessary for every one who attempts this to proportion the cabinet to his own circumstances. There are, properly speaking, three kinds of cabinets. 1. Those meant to contain a coin of every sort that has been issued from the mint in every age and country; but this, which may be called the large and complete cabinet, is not to be purchased by private persons. That of Dr Hunter already mentioned is perhaps one of the best private cabinets ever known; and cost 23,000l. but as many duplicates were sold as cost 2000l. by which means the expense was reduced to 21,000l. The vast collection made by the king of France cost upwards of 100,000l. 2. The smaller cabinet may be supposed to consist only of middle and small Roman brass, English pennies, groats, &c. with a few medals of the more valuable kind, and may be supposed to incur an expense of from 200l. to 1000l. 3. The smallest kind is called a casket of medals, and does not consist of above 1000 at most of various kinds; and consequently the expense must depend on the pleasure of the proprietor.

In the formation of the grand cabinet, it must be observed that the Greek medals of every denomination do not admit of any arrangement by the metals like the Roman; nor any regular series of this kind being met with even in the most opulent cabinets. Hence in all collections the civic coins are ranged according to an alphabetical order; and the monarchic in a chronological one. The same rule is to be observed in the Roman consular medals; they are ranged, like the coins of the Greek cities, in an alphabetical series of the families. The Roman imperial coins are These directions will likewise apply to the formation of a cabinet of the second kind: but if the collector means to form a series of large Roman brass, he will find the coins of four or five emperors so scarce as not to be attainable in that series, even at any price. He must therefore supply their places with middle brass, as is allowed with regard to Otho, even in the best cabinets; there not being above three coins of that emperor in large brass known in the world: whereas of the middle brass, two or three hundred may exist. For this reason Mr Pinkerton concludes, that in cabinets of the second class, the collector may mingle the large and second brass together as he thinks proper, in order to save expense; though it would not do so well to unite such disproportionate sizes as the large and small. "In the small sequence, however (says he), there can be no harm in his mixing gold, silver, and brass, as chance or curiosity may lead him to purchase any of these metals. And though your starched bigotted medallist may sneer because such a sequence would controvert his formal and narrow way of thinking, common sense will authorize us to laugh at the pedant in our turn, and to pronounce such a series more various, rich, and interesting, than if the collector had arranged only one metal, and rejected a curious article because he did not collect gold or silver. In like manner, if, in the modern part of the smaller cabinet, any coin of a series is of high price, or of bad impression, there can be no impropriety in putting another of the same reign, which is cheaper, or better executed, though of a different denomination or of a little larger size. In short, the collector has no rules but in the Greek cities and Roman families, to observe alphabetical order and chronology in everything else."

**Tables of Ancient Coins.**

The most ancient coins, according to Froelich, are distinguished by the following marks, which he accounts infallible. 1. Their oval circumference, and globulous swelling shape. 2. Antiquity of alphabet. 3. The characters being retrograde, or the first divisions of the legend in the common style, while the next is retrograde. 4. The indented square already described. 5. The simple structure of the mintage. 6. Some of the very old coins are hollowed on the reverse, with the image impressed on the front. 7. The dress, symbols, &c. frequently of the rudest design and execution.

**Table I. Ancient Greek Coins.**

1. Those without impression. 2. With one or more hollow indented marks on one side, and an impression in relief on the other.—Of Chalcedon on the Hellespont, Lesbos, Abdera in Thrace, Acanthus in Macedon, those said to belong to Egium in Achaia. This class continues from about 900 to 700 B.C. 3. With an indented square divided into segments; having a small figure in one of them; the rest blank, with a figure in relief on the obverse.—Of Syracuse and other places adjacent.—Continue from 700 to 600 B.C. 4. Coins hollow on the reverse, with figures in relief on the obverse.—Of Caulonia, Crotona, Metapontum, &c. Supposed by some to be a local coinage of Magna Graecia; but probably of equal antiquity with the former.

5. Coins in which a square die is used on one or both sides.—Of Athens, Cyrene, Argos, &c.—Of Alexander I. and Arethelaus I. of Macedon. Disused in the reign of the latter about 420 B.C.

6. Complete coins, both in obverse and reverse, occur first in Sicily in the time of Gelo, about 491 B.C.

7. Coins of Alexander the Great and his successors. About the time of this hero the Greek coins began to attain to perfection, and were struck of uncommon beauty. It is remarkable, that on the coins of this monarch his own image seldom occurs. The only one yet found of Alexander with his portrait upon it, and struck during his reign, is a silver hemidrachm in Dr Hunter's cabinet, which is represented Plate CCCXXXI. No. 3. After his death many coins bear his portrait. Trebellius Pollio informs us, that some coins, particularly those of Alexander, used to be worn as amulets; and many medals are met with in cabinets, bored seemingly with that intention.

8. Coins of the Successors of Alexander.—Those of the Syrian monarchs almost equal the coins of Alexander himself in beauty. Those of Antiochus VI. are supposed to be the most perfect patterns of male beauty to be met with anywhere. The Egyptian Ptolemies are somewhat inferior.

9. The coins of the Arsacidae of Parthia done by Greek workmen.

10. The Greek imperial coins, being such as have the head of the emperor or empress: such as have not these impressions being classed with the civic coins, though struck under the Roman power. None of the imperial coins occur in gold. Of silver there are those of Antioch, Tyre, Sidon, Tarsus, Berytus, Cesarea, Egyptian silver coins of base metal, Syrian silver coins, which sometimes bear on the reverse the club of Hercules, or the Tyrian shell-fish. Those of Sidon bear the image of the goddess Astarte, or her chariot. Those of Cesarea in Cappadocia of better work than the Syrian. Lycian coins of good workmanship: on the reverse two harps and an owl sitting upon them. Silver coins of Gelon in Sarmatia resembling the Syrian. The situation of this town is very much unknown. It seems to have been situated on the north of the Euxine sea, where some Sarmatic or Slavonic tribes were mingled with the Scythians or Goths. The Greek imperial brass coins are very numerous. A series of almost all the emperors may be had from those of Antioch, with a Latin legend on the obverse and Greek on the reverse. Those of Bithynia and Phrygia remarkable for good workmanship. The coins of Tarsus remarkable for their curious views of objects, almost in perspective. The Egyptian coins, from the time of Augustus to Nero, are worse executed than afterwards. From Nero to Commodus they are frequently of admirable workmanship, and in a peculiar style, distinct both from the Greek and Roman. From the time of Commodus they decline, and are lost after the reign of Constantius I. The Egyptian brass coins of the Roman period are likewise of excellent workmanship, especially in the time of Antoninus Pius.

**TABLE II. Roman Coins.**

I. The consular coins, called also the coins of families, and arranged alphabetically in cabinets, according to the names of the families which appear on them. They are,

1. Brass Coins.—These consist chiefly of large pieces of rude workmanship without any interesting imagery. In cabinets they are generally kept in boxes apart by themselves. The as bears the head of Janus; the semis of Jupiter with S; the triens of Minerva with four cyphers; the quadrans of Hercules with three cyphers; the sextans of Mercury with two cyphers; and the uncia bears the head of Rome with one cypher. In all these pieces the prow of a ship is constantly the figure on the reverse, with very few exceptions. Sometimes indeed they have a shell, two heads of barley, a frog, an anchor or a dog, on the reverse. About the time of Julius Caesar both the obverses and the reverses of the coins began to be altered.

2. Silver.—Of this the denarius was the first and principal coin. It was stamped originally with X, denoting that the value was ten asses. On the reverse was Castor and Pollux, or a chariot of Victory. Afterwards the busts of various deities make their appearance; and in the seventh century of Rome the portraits of illustrious persons deceased are met with: but till the time of Julius Caesar no figure of any living person is to be met with; Julius himself being the first who assumed that honour. The workmanship on the best and worst silver is much the same. The reverses are very curious, and point out many remarkable events in Roman history; but none of these occur till about a century before the Christian era. The large denarii, with Roma, are the most ancient; and some of these bear the Pelasgic A, not the Roman. The silver sestertii have a head of Mercury, with a caduceus on the reverse. The quinarii have always a head of Jupiter, with a Victory on the reverse.

3. Gold.—Most of these are of great value. The number of these exceeds not 100; those of brass 200; and of silver 2000. The aureus is the general gold coin; but two or three gold semisses of families likewise occur.

II. Roman imperial coins.

1. Brass.—This is of three sizes; large, middle, and small. The first forms a most beautiful series, but very expensive. The various colours of the patina have the finest effect. It is the most important of all the Roman coins, and exceeds even the gold in value.

The middle brass is next in value to the former; and in it are many rare and curious coins, particularly interesting to Britons, as elucidating the history of the island. Of these are the triumphal arch of Claudius; the Exerc. Britannicus of Adrian; the coins of Antoninus Pius, Commodus, Severus, with a Victory, Victoria Britan.: but especially those personifying the country Britannia. "The number of Roman coins relating to Britain (says Mr Pinerton) is remarkable, more than 20 having been struck at various times: while those personifying Italy, Gaul, Spain, Spain, and other regions of the empire, exceed not four or six at most for each country." Only one country vies with Britain, and that is Dacia on the extreme north-east of the empire, as Britain on the extreme north-west. No doubt this circumstance of remoteness in these two countries recommended them to this particular attention, as more expressive of the Roman power.

The small brass series abounds also with curious coins. They are scarce till the time of Valerian and Gallienus, but very common afterwards. Mr Pinkerton recommends, therefore, to form a series in silver as well as brass; both being the cheapest of all the Roman coins. "In this series (says he), it is a common fault to arrange many coins which have been plated with gold or silver, the forgeries of ancient times, but which time has worn off either wholly or in part." All real brass coins have the s. c. till the time of Gallienus; as the senate alone had the power of striking brass, while the emperor himself had that of gold and silver. When the s. c. therefore, is wanting, the coin was certainly once plated; as, in general, the different type and fabric, being those of gold and silver, sufficiently show themselves. With Pertinax, A.D. 192, there is a temporary cessation of small brass; nor after him do any princes occur in that series till Valerian, A.D. 254, excepting Trajanus Decius, A.D. 250 only. After Valerian the series is continuous and common. The brass coinage gradually declined in size from the time of Severus; so that parts of the as could not be struck, or at least it was held unnecessary to strike them. Trajanus Decius attempted in vain to restore the coinage; and Valerian and Gallienus were forced to issue denarii aerii and small assaria. The series of large and of middle brass are of two fixed and known sizes; the former about that of our crown, the latter of the half crown: though after Severus they gradually lessen. But the small brass takes in all parts of the as; and every brass coin not larger than our shilling belongs to this series. The minimi, indeed, or very smallest, it is proper to keep apart. The coins of Julius Caesar in this size are of peculiarly fine workmanship. They bear his portrait reverse of Augustus, or the reverse has a crocodile EGYPTO CAPTA. There are several with Mark Antony, and some with Cleopatra; but the more common pieces are those with only numerals on the obverse, which go the length of XIII.; probably tickets for the baths. A great many occur in the time of Nero; of which Mr Pinkerton particularizes one which has "on the reverse a table ornamented with griffins and other devices. Upon it is placed a wreath of laurel and a beautiful vase, of which the embossed human figures are so minute, and finished so surprisingly, as to stamp these coins the most exquisite productions of the ancient mint." From the time of Nero to that of Vespasian no small brass occurs; but there are many of this emperor, and of his son Titus; while Domitian has as many as Nero, and Domitia his wife has almost as many. Succeeding emperors to the time of Pertinax have also many brass coins; but from his time to that of Valerian there are no real small brass excepting those of Trajanus Decius. After Gallienus there are a great many coins of this kind; and Mr Pinkerton mentions one in Dr Hunter's cabinet, of an unknown person named Nigrianus. The coin seems to have been struck at Carthage; and our author concludes that he was an African usurper, father to Nigrianus.

2. Silver.—This series is very complete, and the cheapest of any; especially as the small brass becomes a fine supplement to it: the latter being had in plenty when the silver becomes scarce, and the silver being plentiful when the brass is scarce.

3. Gold.—The Roman imperial gold coins form a series of great beauty and perfection; but on account of their great price, are beyond the purchase of private persons.

4. The colonial coins occur only in brass; none, excepting that of Nemausus, having a right to coin silver. They begin in Spain with Julius Caesar and Antony, and cease with Caligula, who took away the privilege of coinage from the Spanish colonies. The most beautiful are those of Corinth. The other remarkable colonial coins are those of Emerita, Illice, Terraco, Cassandra, Babba, Berytus, Cesarea, Patrae, Emisa, Helopolis or Balbec, Ptolemais, Sidon, Tyre, Deultun, Dium, Troas, Rhesaina, Neapolis of Samaria, which bears a representation of Mount Gerizzim with the temple on it, Hippo in Africa, &c. On many of these coins we meet with fine representations of temples, triumphal arches, gods, goddesses, and illustrious persons. But coins with those representations are by no means common; the colonial coins till the time of Trajan bearing only a plough, or some other simple badge of a colony. Camelodunum is the only colony in Britain of which we have any coins.

5. The minimi.—This includes the smallest coins of all denominations; most of which do not exceed the size of a silver penny. They are the most curious of all; but no series of them was ever formed by any person except the abbe Rothelin, whose collection, formed of all metals, passed to the queen of Spain. The reason of the scarcity of these small coins is probably their diminutive size; by reason of which they are mostly lost.

It is surprising that numbers of Roman coins are found through all countries once subject to that powerful people. Some have been met with in the Orkneys, and many in the most remote parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa, known to the ancients.

**Table III. Coins of other Ancient Nations.**

1. The Lydians appear to have invented coinage; though, perhaps, this honour may be disputed with them by the Greeks.

2. The Assyrians, Medes, Babylonians, Phoenicians, and Egyptians, had no coins. In the mouths of the mummies, are only thin, unstamped, and round pieces of gold, to pay Charon's fare.

3. No Indian or Chinese coins are to be met with till a very late period; and even then so rude as scarce to be worth notice. Voltaire mentions a collection of ancient Chinese and Indian coins made by the emperor of China in 1700; but Mr Pinkerton supposes it to have consisted only of the Greek and Roman money which had been introduced into these countries.

4. The Lydian coins have no legends; so that mere conjecture only determines the ancient coins of electrum and Ancient Coins.

and silver found in Asia, and different from the Persian, to belong to Lydia. Croesus coined gold into a form which he called staters; and Mr Pinkerton mentions a very ancient gold coin in Dr Hunter's cabinet, which he supposes to have been one of these. It has a globous figure, with indented marks on one side, and on the other a man kneeling, with a fish held out in the left hand, and a sword depending in the right. It weighs four drachms; which Josephus tells us was the weight of the Lydian gold coins. In the same collection are other gold coins little inferior in antiquity; the most ancient of which, our author supposes, may have been coined by the cities of Asia Minor, as coinage passed through them to Greece. They are of admirable workmanship, and as much superior to the best Sicilian coins, as the latter are to all the rest in the world. These gold coins are all extremely pale; owing to the want of knowledge in refining gold.

5. Persian coins.—These were first struck by Darius Hystaspes, whence they had the name of darics. They are of gold, and generally have the figure of an archer: they weigh about four drachms; and some occur with the indented mark on one side, while others have figures upon both. The silver coins have generally a king in a chariot of two horses, with a charioteer, and sometimes another figure on foot behind, on the obverse: while the reverse presents a ship, sometimes a ram, bull, or other animal. The gold coins, which only had the title of darics, are extremely scarce, having been melted down, as is supposed, and recoined by Alexander, the Great on his conquest of Asia.

There is a second series of Persian coins beginning with Artaxares, or Artaxerxes, who overthrew the Parthian monarchy about the year 210. These are large and thin, with the king's bust on one side, and the altar of Mithras on the other; generally with a human figure on each side. These coins continue till the year 636, when Persia was conquered by the Saracens. These have only Persian letters upon them, which have never been explained by any antiquaries. Mr Pinkerton says that they seem to partake of the ancient Greek, Gothic, and Alanic.

6. The Hebrew shekels, originally didrachms, but after the times of the Maccabees tetradrachms, are almost all forgeries of modern Jews, as well as the brass coins with Samaritan characters upon them. They have all a sprig upon one side and a vase on the other. Mr Pinkerton says, that the admission of one of them into a cabinet would almost be a disgrace to it.

7. Phoenician and Punic coins are very interesting on account of the great power and wealth of these nations. The alphabets have been cleared by their relation to the Hebrew and Syriac languages.

8. The coins of Palmyra come under the same denomination with the former, Palmyra being a Syrian city.

9. The Etruscan coins have the characters of that nation, which have been explained by their affinity to the Pelasgic, or oldest Greek and Latin.

10. The Spanish coins are inscribed with two or three alphabets allied to the old Greek or Punic; but the inscriptions have not been sufficiently explained.

11. Gaulish coins.—These are numerous, but the most ancient have no legends; and even after the Greek letters were introduced into Gaul by a colony at Marseilles, the legends are very difficult to be explained.

12. British coins.—From a passage in Caesar's Commentaries, it has been inferred that the Britons used some kind of coins even in his time. Mr Pinkerton informs us, that some rude coins of copper very much mingled with tin are frequently found in England; which, he supposes, may be some of the ancient British money. They are of the size of a didrachm, the common form of the nummus aureus among the ancients. After the time of Caesar, coinage increased among the Britons; and there are many found of Cunobelinus mentioned in the Roman history. Most of these have on one side cuno, with an ear of wheat, a horse, a kind of head of Janus, or other symbol; and have frequently also the letters camu; supposed to mean Cameldouaum. Sometimes the word Tascia occurs; the meaning of which has not yet been explained.

13. Gothic coins of France, Italy, and Spain, to the time of Charles the Great. These have the Roman characters upon them. The Italian coins are mostly of the size of small brass; and in this way we meet with coins of Athalaric, Theodahat, Witigez, and other Gothic princes. Many others occur, the inscriptions of which, though meant for Roman, are so perverted as to be illegible.

Table IV. Modern Coins.

1. Of Japan.—These are thin plates of gold and silver, of an oval figure, with small marks or figures stamped on them.

2. China.—These are only copper, about the size of a farthing, with a square hole in the middle to put them on strings. The inscriptions on them do not express the name of the sovereign, but the year of his reign; as the happy year, the illustrious year, &c.

3. The Tartarian coins are rude, having only inscriptions upon them; and they are all posterior to the time of Jenghiz khan.

4. Coins of Thibet, Pegu, and Siam, are much the same, presenting only inscriptions without any figures. They are also of late date.

5. India.—Some old coins have been found in the neighbourhood of Calcutta, of gold, silver, copper, and tin, all mixed together. These have commonly a warrior with a sword on one side, and an Indian female idol on the other, of the same form with the celebrated sculptures in the island of Elephanta; but it is impossible to tell what antiquity they are of. The modern coins are the pagoda of gold, worth little more than six shillings; the roupce of silver upwards of two shillings; and the cash, of copper. There is a remarkable set of roupces, which show the twelve signs; a lion on one, a bull on another, &c. but the occasion on which they were struck is unknown. The other coins of India have generally Persian inscriptions upon them.

6. Persia.—The Persian coins since its conquest by the Arabs continue on the Arabian model.

7. Arabia.—Some coins of the petty princes of Arabia are met with as old as the imperial ages of Rome; but till the time of Haroun Alrashid, no regular gular coinage appears in the vast empire of the Saracens. Even then the reverse has only an inscription, and the obverse is copied from any Greek or Syrian coin which happened to fall in the moneyer's way. The later Arabian coins are mostly silver, with the name and titles of the prince on one side, and some inscription from the Koran on the other. The more modern coins of this country are in the shape of a fishhook, with Arabic inscriptions.

8. Turkey.—No regular coinage was formed by the Turks till they became masters of Constantinople. They resemble those of Persia and Arabia, having merely inscriptions on both sides.

9. The coins of the African states, at least such as profess the Mohammedan religion, have merely inscriptions without any figures; those of the internal parts are unknown; and no coinage was used among the Mexicans and Peruvians, the only civilized nations in America; but La Hontan mentions an American savage who had a square medal of copper depending from his neck. Mr Pinkerton supposes it to have come from Japan.

10. Modern Italic coins. Besides the Gothic princes mentioned in the former table, the exarchs of Ravenna coined money with the inscription Felix Ravenna, &c. The Lombards issued no coins, but there are some still extant of Charlemagne. The following list shows the origin of the coinage in various Italian states.

Rome.—Papal coinage originates with Hadrian I. Size of silver pennies, with the Pope's name on one side, and Scos Petrus on the other. No coins appear from 975 to 1099, excepting of Leo IX. In 1393 appear pennies of the senate and people of Rome, with Peter on the one side and Paul on the other. There are groats of Clement V. with his portrait three quarters length; but the side-head begins with Sixtus V. in 1472. Gold was first coined by John XXII. in 1316. The coins of Alexander VI., Julius II., and Leo X., are remarkable for beauty and elegance.

Milan. Coinage began with Charlemagne. The first coin of the family of Visconti occurs in 1330, under Azo. The set finishes with Louis XII.

Naples. Coinage begins in 840 and 880, with Duke Sergius and Bishop Athanasius. The next coins are of Roger of Sicily, and Roger II. in 1130, William I., II., and Tancred. Naples and Sicily were subdued in 1194 by the emperor of Germany; in 1255 Manfred appears; in 1266 Charles of Provence; and others till Joan in 1414: after which follow the house of Arragon, and later kings.

Venice begins in the 10th century. The first coins are silver pennies marked Veneci. Then follow the coins of Henrico Dandulo in 1192, of Ziani in 1205, &c. Gold was first coined at Venice in 1280, and copper in 1471; but the silver groats are as old as 1192.

Florence. Silver was coined here in the 12th century, or before; but in 1252 the first gold coins struck in Europe after the 8th century made their appearance, and were named florins from the flower of the lily upon them. They were imitated by the popes, by France, and England. They have on one side St John the Baptist standing, on the other a large fleur de lis, and it is not doubted that the French fleurs de lis took their origin from these coins. They weigh a drachm, and are no less than 24 carats fine, according to Italian writers, and are worth about 12 shillings.

Genoa first began to coin money in 1129, under the government of Conrad. Those of the dukes of Savoy began in the same century.

Aquilia. Coins were issued from this city by the patriarchs from 1204 to 1440.

Ferrara. Coins of the marquises from 1340.

11. French coins. During the race of Clovis, from 490 till 751, the coins are chiefly gold tricentes, with some solidi and semisses. The former are of good workmanship, with the heads of kings. The reverse has a cross, with the name of the town where they were struck.

The coins of the second race begin with Pepin in 751, and continue till Hugh Capet in 987. The coins of the first race are elegant, but those of the second entirely the reverse, being almost all silver pennies, and seldom bearing the portrait of the king. Those of Charlemagne have only Carolus in the field; while the reverse bears R. F. or some such inscription; though one piece struck at Rome has a rude bust of him. The coins of Louis le Debonnaire are better done.

The third race begins with Hugh Capet in 987, and extends to this time. The coinage did not begin to improve till 1226 under St Louis, when the groat appears. Its name in Italian is grosso, in French grosse, in English groat, or great coin; so called from its size in comparison with the penny; and it passed from Italy to France, to Germany, and to England. After the conquest of France by the English, base coins of many kinds were introduced; and in the year 1574, in the time of Henry III., copper was first introduced into the French coinage. Besides these, the other remarkable coins of France are, the blanes or billon groats first issued in 1348; the ecus a la couronne, or crowns of gold, so called from the crown on one side, and begun by Charles VI. in 1384; those of Ann of Bretagne in 1498; the teston, or piece with the king's head, of Louis XII.; the Henri of Henry II., with Gaul sitting in armour, and a Victory in her hand. There are many coins of Cardinal Bourbon, elected king in 1589; and in 1642, Louis XIV. takes the title of Cataloniæ Princeps. The first louis d'or made its appearance in 1640; but such was the poverty of France, if we believe certain authors, that in 1719 the duke of Orleans regent struck copper for silver.

12. Spanish coins. The most early series of these consists almost entirely of trientes, finely done. On one side they have the head of the king with his name, and on the other a cross, with the name of the town, commonly in Baetica, or the south part of Spain, where there were a great many Roman colonies, and which was fertile to a proverb. The Moresque coins of Spain, like those of the rest of the Mohammedan states, present us only with insipid inscriptions on both sides. Indeed the Mohammedan religion by its absolute refusal to allow the representation of any living creature, has prevented the progress of coinage in any degree throughout those regions which it has overpread. Modern Coins.

13. Portugal. No description of the coins of this kingdom has yet appeared.

14. Germany. No account of the German coins has been published; though it is well known that not only the emperors, but many of the cities, particularly those called Hanse-towns, issued money; and many of the coins issued by the cities were superior in elegance even to those issued by the emperors.

15. Denmark. Here the coinage begins with Canute the Great in 1014. The pieces are at first extremely rude, ornamented only with rings and Runic characters. These are succeeded by copper pieces, some of which have a cross, others a pastoral staff, on one side, with the letter A on the other. Later coins have strokes IIII, &c., all round them; but those of Harold, Hardicanute, and Magnus Bonus, in 1041, are of neat workmanship, and have the portraits of the princes at half length. The coins of Nicolas, or Niel, as he is called by the Danes, are rude, as well as those of Waldemar I. and the celebrated Margaret. In 1376 Olaf caused money to be struck with a grinning full face, with a crowned O upon the other side. "The Swedes (says Mr Pinkerton) took these coins extremely ill, as they thought they grinned at them." Silver was first coined in Denmark by Philippa queen of Eric, and daughter to Henry IV. of England.

16. Sweden. The coinage of this kingdom began in 818 under Biorno, on the plan of Charlemagne. The coins are marked with a cross. Next follow those of Olaf in 1019: which Mr Pinkerton supposes to have been the first true Swedish coins; and that the art of coining first passed from England into Denmark in the time of Canute the Great, and from Denmark into Sweden. These coins were struck on the English model. During the time that Sweden was subject to Denmark, or miserably harassed by the Danes, the coins of both kingdoms were the same; but after the time of Gustavus Vasa many elegant pieces appear. In 1634, dollars were coined with the portrait of Gustavus Adolphus, who was killed two years before; on the reverse they have the arms of Sweden, with the chemical marks of mercury and sulphur. In 1716, 1717, and 1718, Charles XII. being in extreme want of money, issued small copper coins with Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, &c., upon them, to go for dollars; and on account of this scheme, Baron Goertz, the suggestor of it, was brought to the block.

17. Norway. The coins of this country begin with Olaf in 1006; after which time there are various coins of other princes; but copper was not coined till the year 1343.

Besides the coins already mentioned, there are ecclesiastic coins of France, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, &c. Those of Denmark and Sweden are numerous, but the Norwegian coins of this denomination are rare. Mr Pinkerton describes a silver one in his possession as having arms and a mitre, with the inscription on one side, Sanctus Olaws Rex Norveg; on the reverse, Olaws Dei Gra. Arcep. Nid'sen, meaning Nidrosiensis, or archbishop of Nidros, now Drontheim.

18. Bohemia. The coinage of this kingdom appears at a very early date, viz. in the year 909, under Duke Boleslaus I. These coins are followed by others of Boleslaus II. and Emma his wife in 970; of Boleslaus III. in 1002; Jaromir in 1020; Udalrich in 1030, and other princes. The bracteate money of Otocar I. was coined in 1197.

19. Poland. The coinage of this country is nearly as ancient as that of Bohemia. The coins are on the German model, but no particular account of them has been published.

20. Russia. None of the Russian money appears to be more ancient than the 13th century. The first are the kopecks or silver pennies, which have upon them rude figures of animals on one side, and a man standing with a bow or spear on the other. There are likewise coins of Moscow struck by Aristotle the architect in 1482. The roubles or dollars and their halves. There are some of the impostor Demetrius in 1605, which are very scarce.

21. Prussia. The first Prussian coins were struck at Culm by the Teutonic knights in 1235. They were silver pennies, and upon the German plan. In the next century were struck shillings, groats, and schots; the last were the largest, and are extremely rare. They have the Prussian shield, an eagle surmounting a cross, with a rose-shaped border, MONETA DOMINORUM PRUSSIAE: on the reverse is a cross fleurie, within a border of a similar kind, having the inscription HONOR MAGISTRI, JUSTITIAM DILIGET.—Gold coins were struck in the same century. In the time of Copernicus the money was so debased, that 12 or 13 marks were worth but one of pure silver.

22. England. The English coins are of various kinds.

1st. Heptarchic. These are only of two sorts, viz. the skeatta or penny of silver, and the styca of copper. Few of the pennies appear till after the year 700; though some are met with which bear the name of Ethelbert I. king of Kent, as old as 560. At first they had only rude figures of serpents, but in latter times legends were likewise added. Most of these pennies have pagan symbols upon them. The styca was only coined in Northumberland, and was a very small piece, about the value of half a farthing.

2d. Coins of the chief monarchs of England. Mr Pinkerton denies that an end was put to the heptarchy by Egbert in 832, as is commonly supposed; though he owns that he was chief monarch of the country, as several others had been before him. Edgar, who reigned in 959, according to him, was the first king of England; and the coins of the chief monarchs form almost a complete series from the time of Egbert to Edgar. The only chief monarch of whom there are no coins is Ethelbald, who reigned in 857. Most of these coins bear rude portraits; but the reverses are sometimes curious and interesting. Some have views of cathedrals and other buildings; particularly one of Edward the Elder in 900; which has the cathedral of York with three rows of windows, round arched as the other Saxon and Norman buildings: the Gothic arch being quite unknown till after the 12th century. Some coins of Anlaf king of Northumberland have the famous raven, the Danish ensign: and those of other princes have frequently very curious reverses.

3d. Ecclesiastic coins appear of the archbishops of Canterbury, Wulfred in 804, Ceolnoth, in 830, and Plegmund in 889.

4th. Coins of the kings of England. The silver penny, which had begun during the heptarchy, continued to be the general coin after the kingdom had been united under one head; and extends in a continued series from Egbert almost to the present reign. The only kings wanting are Edmund Ironside, Richard I., and John. At first the penny weighed $22\frac{1}{2}$ grains; but towards the close of the reign of Edward III. it fell to 18 grains; and in that of Edward IV. to 12. In the time of Edward VI. it was diminished to 8 grains; and in Queen Elizabeth's reign to $7\frac{1}{2}$; at which it still continues.

Halfpennies and farthings were first struck in silver by Edward I. in 1280; the former continued to the time of the commonwealth, but the latter ceased with Edward VI. The groat was introduced by Edward III. in 1354, and continues to this day, though not in common circulation. The half-groat or two-pence is of the same date, and also continues to the present time.

Shillings were first coined by Henry VII. in 1503. At first it was called testoon, from the teste, etc., or head of the king upon it; the name shilling being derived from the German schelling; under which appellation coins had been struck at Hamburgh in 1407. The crown was first coined in its present form by Henry VIII. Formerly it had appeared only in gold, whence the phrase of crowns of gold; though these indeed were the largest gold coins known for a long time in France and other countries on the continent, being worth about 10s. sterling. They had their name from the crown stamped on one side, and were first coined by Charles VI. in 1384, and continued till the time of Louis XIV. The half-crown, sixpence, and threepence, were coined by Edward VI. In 1558 Queen Elizabeth coined three halfpenny, and in 1561 three farthing pieces; but they were discontinued in 1582. From the year 1601 to the present time the coins of England remain the same.

Gold was coined in England by Henry III. in 1257; the piece was called a gold penny, and was larger than the silver one; and the execution is by no means bad for the time. The series of gold coinage, however, commences properly from Edward III. In 1344, this monarch first struck florins, in imitation of those in Italy; and it is remarkable, that though these coins at the time they were first issued bore only six shillings value, they are now intrinsically worth 10s.; so much has the value of gold increased since that time. The half and quarter florin were struck at the same time, but only the last has been found. The florin, however, being found inconvenient, gave place to the noble of 6s. 8d. value, and exactly half a mark. The latter had its name from being a limited sum in accounts: and was eight ounces in weight, two thirds of the money pound. It is sometimes also called sellbra, as being one-half of the commercial pound of 16 ounces. The noble had its name from the nobility of the metal; the gold of which it was coined being of the finest sort. Sometimes it was called rose noble, from both sides being impaled in an undulating circle. It continued with the half and quarter noble to be the only gold coin till the angels of Edward IV. appeared in 1465. These had their name from being stamped with the image of Michael and the dragon. The angels of 3s. 4d. value were substituted in their place. In 1527 Henry VIII. added to the gold coined the crown and half-crown at their present value; and the same year he gave sovereigns of 22s. 6d., and ryals of 11s. 3d. angels at 7s. 6d. and nobles at their old value of 6s. 8d. In 1546 he caused sovereigns to be coined of the value of 20s. and half-sovereigns in proportion. His gold crown is about the size of our shilling, and the half-crown of six-pence, but thin. All his coins, however, gold as well as silver, are much debased; and it was not without much labour and trouble that Edward VI. brought it back to its former standard. On the union of the two crowns, James gave the sovereign the name of unite; the value continuing of 20s. as before. He coined also rose-ryals of 30s. value, spur-ryals of 15s. angels of 10s. and angels of 5s. Under the commonwealth, the sovereign got the name of the twenty-shilling piece, and continued current till the coinage of guineas. These were so called from their being coined of Guinea gold, and were at first only to go for 20s. though by an universal but tacit consent they always passed for 21s. Half-guineas, double guineas, and five guinea pieces, were also coined during the same reign; which still continue, though the two latter are not in common circulation. Quarter guineas were coined by George I. and likewise by his present majesty; but they were found so troublesome on account of their small size, that they were stopped within a year or two, when received at the bank of England, and thus are not to be met with at present. A few pieces of 7s. value have likewise been coined, and are known by the lion above the helmet; but none have been issued. In 1688 the guinea rose to 21s. 6d. and continued to increase in value till 1696, when it was as high as 30s.; but after the recoinage in 1697 and 1698 it fell by degrees, and in 1717 was at its old standard of 21s. and at that time silver was fixed at its present standard value, viz. as 1 to $15\frac{1}{2}$ in weight.

Though the first money coined in Britain, as we have already observed, was copper, yet, excepting the Northumbrian stycaes, no copper coin was found in England from the time of the Saxon conquest till the year 1672. An aversion to a copper coinage it seems was prevalent throughout the nation; and Queen Elizabeth, who without hesitation used base money for Ireland, yet scrupled at coining copper for England. This want of small coin occasioned such an increase of private tokens for halfpennies and farthings that it became a serious object to government; and in 1594 a copper coinage was seriously thought of. This year a small copper coin was struck about the size of a silver twopence, with the queen's monogram on one side, and a rose on the other; the running legend on both sides being, THE PLEDGE OF A HALFPENNY. Of this there are patterns both in copper and silver, but both of them soon fell into disuse. On the 19th of May 1613, King James by royal proclamation issued farthing tokens. They are generally of the same size with the two pence, with two sceptres in saltier surmounted with a crown, and the harp upon the other; with an intention, as it would seem, that if they were refused in England, they might pass in Ireland. In 1635 Charles I. coined those with the rose instead of the harp; but the circulation of these was entirely stopped by the vast number of counterfeits which appeared, and by the king's death in 1648. After this the private tokens began again to be circulated, till put a stop to by the coinage of farthings in 1672. The workmanship of the tokens is quite contemptible. In 1672 the halfpence as well as the farthings which had been struck two years before began to circulate. They were of pure Swedish copper, the dies engraved by Roettier; and they continued till the year 1684, when some disputes arose about the copper lately obtained from the English mines. Tin farthings were coined with a stud of copper in the centre, and inscribed round the edge as the crown pieces, with *nummorum famulus*. In 1685 or 1686. In 1686 halfpence of the same kind were coined; and the tin coinage continued till the year 1692, to the value of more than £5,000l.; but next year the tin was all called in by government, and the copper coinage recommenced. The farthings of Queen Anne are all trial pieces, excepting those of 1714, the last year of her reign. "They are (says Mr Pinkerton) of exquisite workmanship, exceeding most copper coins either ancient or modern, and will do honour to the engraver Mr Croker to the end of time." The one, whose reverse is Peace in a car, *PAX MISSA PER ORBEM*, is the most esteemed; and next to it the *BRITANNIA* under a portal. The other halfpence and farthings are less valuable.

23. Scotland. Silver pennies of Alexander I. who reigned in 1107, are believed to exist; and there certainly are some of Alexander II. in 1214. There are likewise coins of David in 1124; but perhaps none of Malcolm IV. his successor, whose reign was very short. There are many coins of William I. in 1165; and a large hoard of his pennies was found at Inverness in 1780.

The money of Scotland continued to be of the same value with that of England till the country was drained by the vast ransoms of David II. after which it became necessary to reduce its size; and so much did this diminution affect England, that Edward III. found himself obliged to lessen the English coin also. The diminution of the Scottish coin, however, continued still to go on until it became impracticable to keep par with that of England. In the first year of Robert III. it passed only for one half of its nominal value in England: in 1293, Richard II. ordered it only to go for the weight of the genuine metal it contained. In 1600 it had sunk to such a degree as to pass only for a twelfth part of the English money, and continued at that low ebb till the coinage of Scotland was entirely cancelled by the union of the two kingdoms.

Of silver coins we have only pennies till the year 1293, when Edward I. having coined halfpence and farthings, Alexander III. of Scotland coined also halfpence, of which we have a few, but no farthings are to be met with; but there are silver farthings of Robert I. and David II. The latter introduced the groat and half-groat, which completed the set of Scottish silver. It continued unaltered till the time of Queen Mary, when they all ceased to be coined in silver, on account of the high price of that metal.

In 1553 shillings were first coined, with the bust of the queen on one side and the arms of France and Scotland on the other. The silver crown was first coined in 1565, which went for 30s. Scots; lesser pieces of 20s. and 10s. having likewise been struck, and marks of silver, worth 3s. 4d. English, were also coined about the same time. These coins have upon them the marks xxx. xx. x. to denote their value. They are commonly called Cruickstone dollars, from the palm-tree upon them, mistaken for a remarkable yew at Cruickstone near Glasgow, where Henry Darnley resided. It is described, however, in the act as a palm, with a "shell-padoc" (a tortoise) crawling up. This alludes to Darnley's marriage with the queen, as the motto from Propertius *DAT GLORIA VIRES* also implies. The motto *NEMO ME IMPUNE LACESSET* first appears on the Scottish coins in 1578, and the invention is given to the celebrated Buchanan. In 1582, the crown of an ounce weight went for 40s. Scots, and was accordingly marked XL.; in 1597 the mark was L., the Scottish money being then only one-tenth of the English: the mark was LX., in 1601, the value being then reduced to one-twelfth, at which it has ever since continued. In the time of Charles I. half marks, 40 and 20 penny pieces, were coined. In 1675 the Scottish dollars first appeared, in value 50s. Scots, with halves and quarters of proportional value. In 1686, James VII. coined 60s. 40s. 20s. 10s. and 5s. pieces; but only those of 40s. and 10s. are known, with these numbers under the bust. At the union of the kingdoms all the Scottish coins were called in, and recoined at Edinburgh, with the mark E. under the bust to distinguish it: since which there has been no coinage in Scotland. The Scottish silver coins are in general equal, if not superior, in the workmanship to the English.

Gold was first issued by Robert II. about 30 years after Edward III. of England had coined the same metal in that country. The pieces were at first called St. Andrews, from the figure of that tutelar saint upon the cross, and who appears on the obverse with the arms of Scotland, and on the reverse a lion in a shield. The lion was another name for the largest gold coin in Scotland, from the arms of the kingdom upon it. The next was the unicorn, under James III.; which were followed by the bonnet-pieces of James V. These last are of admirable workmanship, being almost equal to the ancient coins in this respect. In imitation of the French, the monarch we speak of diminished the size of the coin without lessening its weight; an improvement not adopted by the English for a whole century. The last gold coined in Scotland was the pistole and half pistole, of twelve and six pounds Scots. These coins have the sun under the head. The gold coins of Scotland fell in the same proportion with the silver.

The copper coinage of Scotland is of more early date than that of England. It was preceded by money of *hillon*, or copper washed with silver, called black money. James III. first coined black farthings in 1466; and this is recorded by historians as one of his greatest faults. This kind of coinage, however, continued as late as the reign of James VI. In his time the true copper coinage began; but as the value of Scottish money had now declined almost to the utmost, the pieces suddenly assumed a form almost resembling that of the French coins. The bodle, so called from Bothwell the mintmaster, being equal in size to the liard, and worth two pennies Scottish, was struck. The billon coin, formerly called bas piece, and worth six pennies Scots, was now coined in copper, and termed the baw-bee. Thus it corresponded with the French half sol and English halfpenny, the Scots penny being now equivalent to the French denier. Some pieces named Atkinsons were coined by James VI. in 1582, when the Scottish money was to the English as 1 to 8; but on its being still farther reduced, they went for 8 pennies, a third more than the value of the baw-bee. Besides these there were the hardie and plack; the former being worth three and the latter four pennies Scots. This coinage continued through the reigns of Charles I. and II., but Scottish coins of the former are, perhaps, the rarest of any.

24. Ireland. The first coins introduced into this kingdom seem to have been those of the Danes, and which have only a number of strokes around them instead of letters. In the tenth century, however, this coinage had been considerably improved; and in 930 and 994 there are pennies struck in Dublin, with the inscription ON DYFLI or DYFLI, Duflin or Duflin being the Danish name of that city. There are likewise coins of the Irish princes themselves, and of the English monarchs, struck in Ireland as early as the ninth century; and it is asserted by some, that Ireland even in those days had been conquered by England; of which, indeed, these coins seem to be a proof. None of the Irish coins of Henry II. are to be met with, but we have some of the coins of John; and from his time to that of Henry V., the Irish coins are known by a triangle enclosing the king's head, which appears also upon the coins of other nations at this period. The harp does not appear upon the Irish coins till the time of Henry VIII. Till the time of this monarch, the English and Irish coins are the same; but the same debasement of the coin which at that time took place in England extended also to Ireland; but in 1601 copper halfpence and farthings were coined also for this kingdom. These circulated in Ireland when James VI. issued his farthing-tokens of copper, the latter being of two sizes, that if they failed in England they might be sent to Ireland as pennies and halfpence. In 1635 a mint was established in Dublin by Charles I., but it was stopped by the Irish massacre, and the many disturbances which followed; since which time the scheme has not been resumed. After the massacre, St Patrick's halfpence and farthings were coined by the Papists, bearing the legends FLOREAT REX, and on the reverse Ecce Grex; on the farthing Quiescat Plebs. Copper tokens were struck by towns and tradesmen, as in England and Scotland. In 1682, halfpence and farthings were issued by authority, with the harp and date. In 1689, James II., having invaded Ireland, instituted a mint, and coined shillings and half crowns of all the refuse metal he could find, particularly some brass guns were employed, whence the coinage is commonly called gun-money. Even this metal, however, soon became so scarce, that a diminution in its size is quite apparent from June 1689 to July 1690; and as the month of their mintage is marked upon them, this decrease is easily perceived. In March 1690, pennies of lead mixed with tin were issued; and on the 15th of June the same year, crowns of white metal were coined; but these are now very scarce. In 1722, the patent for coining halfpence and farthings was given to William Wood, which excited such discontent in Ireland. From the small size allowed by the patent to these pieces, it was supposed that the patentee would have gained 60,000l. but as he caused them to be struck of a size still smaller, his gains were estimated at 100,000l. The coins, however, are of admirable workmanship, and very fine copper, bearing the best portrait of King George I., to be found anywhere. Sir Isaac Newton, at that time at the head of the mint, declared that they were superior to the English coins in every thing except the size. In 1737 the Irish halfpence and farthings, with the harp on the reverse, were coined, and continue to the present time. In 1760, there was such a scarcity of copper coin, that some private persons applied for leave to coin halfpence, which appeared with a very bad portrait of George II., and the words VOCE POPULI around it. No gold or silver has been coined in Ireland since the massacre of 1641.

Table V. Modern Medals, properly so called.

1. Scottish medals. These take the lead in the present article, the first modern medals of gold being those of David II., struck between the years 1330 and 1370. Only two of them are known to exist; one in the collection of Mr Barker of Birmingham, and the other in that of Dr Hunter. In 1487, there is a medal of James III., sent to the shrine of St Amboise in France. It is described as of two inches and a third in diameter; the weight near two ounces; having on the obverse a beardless king, with long hair, sitting on a throne, holding in one hand a naked sword; in the other a shield, with the Scottish arms. On the borders of the canopy above the throne is an inscription in Gothic letters, IN MI DEFFEN, being corrupt French for In my defense; a common motto in the Scottish arms. Above the canopy is Villa Berwicki; the reverse bears St Andrew and his cross, salvum fac populum tuum Domine. There is also a medal of James IV., in the collar of St Michael, having on the reverse a Doric pillar surmounted by a young Janus, standing on a hill, beyond which is the sea, and land on either side. This, however, is by some suspected to be a forgery.

The most remarkable Scottish medals are those of the unfortunate Mary. The first is properly French, having been issued at her coronation as queen of France, along with her husband King Francis II. On the obverse of this piece there are portraits of Francis and Mary, face to face, with three legends around them, the outermost containing their titles; the middle one the following sentence: HORA NONA DOMINUS J. H. S. EXPIRavit HELLI CLAMANS; the innermost the name of the city (Paris). On the reverse are the arms of France and Scotland. Fine testoons were also coined upon the same plan, and are now so rare that Dr Hunter gave ten guineas for one which which is in his collection. The same portraits appear on the fine crown of Mary and Henry, in 1565, which is so rare as to be esteemed a medal of the highest value; and Mr Pinkerton imagines, that if offered to sale it would bring 40 or 50 guineas.

Another remarkable medal of Mary represents her full-faced and weeping, with the inscription, O God grant patience in that I suffer wrong. The reverse has in the centre, Quho can compare with me in grief, I die and dar nocht seek relief; with this legend around, Hourt not the (figure of a heart) quhais joy thou art. There are also many counters of this unfortunate princess, being thin silver pieces of the size of a shilling. "They all appear (says Mr Pinkerton) to have been done in France, by the direction of Mary, who was fond of devices. Her cruel captivity could not debar her from intercourse with her friends in France, who must with pleasure have executed her orders, as affording her a little consolation."

The coronation medal of Charles II, struck at Edinburgh for his inauguration, June 13, 1663, is remarkable as being the only one ever coined of Scottish gold, and the first in Britain struck with a legend on the edge. With respect to the workmanship, it is inferior to Simon's. Of these medals only three are known to exist, of which one is in the Museum. It is not uncommon in silver; in which case it sometimes wants the legend on the edge.

2. Italian medals. These appear in the 15th century, and from that time successively in most European countries. Vittore Pisano, a painter of Verona, is celebrated as the restorer of the art, but it remains to be accounted for how the medals of King David, already mentioned, came to exist so long before. Mr Pinkerton considers this artist rather as an inventor than a restorer, his medals having no resemblance to the ancient coins, as being large, and all cast. They were first modelled in wax, then a mould taken from the model in fine sand and other ingredients. After a good cast was procured, it was touched up, and made a model for the rest. These medals of Pisano, are almost always inscribed Opus Pisani Pictoris. The portraits of a great number of illustrious men were done by him in this manner; and in the British Museum is a large brass medal of Pisano by himself.—Other artists were Boldu, Marescotto, Mattheus de Pastus, Sperandos, Misaldone, &c. Towards the end of the century, however, the medals began to assume a more elegant appearance; and the papal ones are not only the most elegant but the most ancient series of all the modern medals. The improvement began in the reign of Alexander VI, so famous for his own crimes, and those of his nephew Caesar Borgia. His successors, Julius II, Leo X, Hadrian VI, and Clement VII, had many of their medals designed by Raphael, Julio Romano, and other eminent painters, and the engraving executed by artists of equal merit. Among these were the celebrated Collini, and the noted Paduan forgers of Roman coins, Cavino and Bassiano. In 1644, Cormanni, a medallic artist, was imprisoned on account of a piece which represented the Pope upon one side, and Olympia Maidalchina, the relation of his holiness, on the other. The unfortunate Cormanni poisoned himself. About this time the family of the Hamerani, originally from Germany, began to engrave the papal medals; which they did with surprising merit for several generations. Each of the daughters did a fine medal, as we are informed by Venuti.

Besides the papal medals, many have been issued by the various states of Italy. There are medals of Frederic II, of Sicily in 1501, of several Venetian generals in 1509, of Alfonso duke of Ferrara in 1511, and of the celebrated Andrew Doria in 1528.

3. French medals. Till the reign of Louis XIV, the medals of this country are neither fine nor numerous; but this monarch exceeds all modern princes in this way. Many of his pieces are well designed and executed, though objectionable on account of their falsehood.

4. Danish medals. These appear of Christian II, in 1516, of Frederic and Sophia in 1532, of Frederic I, and Christian III, in bonnets worn in the 16th century. The elephant of the house of Oldenburg is frequent upon Danish medals.

5. Swedish medals. These begin with Gustavus Vasa; and several of Christina are likewise to be met with. There are also some curious ones of Charles XII.

6. Dutch medals. These begin in 1566; and many of them are remarkable for maps and plans, which must be very interesting to posterity. "Had the Greeks and Romans (says Mr Pinkerton) given us maps and plans, what a fine system of ancient geography and topography a cabinet of medals must have been!"

7. Medals of Spain, Portugal, and Germany. The Spanish medals began with Gonsalo in 1503, many of which are curious and interesting. Under Charles V, there are many curious Spanish medals; but those of Germany begin with Frederic in 1453. They are extremely numerous; as we may easily suppose from the greatness of the empire, and various states which compose it. There is a famous medal of Sebastian king of Portugal, famous for his unfortunate expedition into Africa in 1578; with his bust, full face, and three quarters in length. On the reverse is a shell-fish in the sea, with the moon and seven stars, bearing the inscription SERENA CALSA FAVENT. There is also a curious lozenge-shaped coin of the same, with the arms of Portugal, and the king's name and title: On the reverse is a cross with the inscription IN HOC SIGNO VINCES, 1578.

8. Satiric medals. These began almost as soon as the knowledge of the art of coining medals was revived. They seem to have been almost unknown to the ancients. One indeed of the emperor Gallienus is supposed to have been satiric. It has on the front the emperor's bust, with the inscription GALLIENÆ AUG. the reverse is Peace in a car, Pax Ubique; but this has been proved to be only a blundered coin. Some other ancient medals, however, are not liable to this objection. The first modern satiric medal published was that of Frederic king of Sicily in 1501, against his antagonist Ferdinand king of Spain. It has on one side the head of Ferdinand, with the inscription FERDINANDUS R AR. VETUS VULVES ORBIS; on the reverse a wolf carrying off a sheep, JVGVM MEVM SVAVE EST ET ONVS MEVM LEVE. Many others have been struck, of which the wit would now perhaps be difficult difficult to be found out: but of all nations the Dutch have most distinguished themselves in this way; and paid very dear for their conduct, as they brought upon themselves by one or two satiric medals the whole power of France under Louis XIV.

9. English medals. The first of these is in the duke of Devonshire's collection. It is of a large size, and done on the plan of the early Italian medals. It has on the reverse the arms of Kendal, with the inscription TEMPORI OBSIDIONIS TURCORUM, MCCCCLXXX. On the other side is a portrait with IO KENDAL RHODITVRCPPELLERIVS. It was found last century in Knaresborough forest; but Mr Pinkerton has no doubt of its having been done in Italy. The next is that of Henry VIII. in 1545, and is of gold, larger than the crown-piece, with the king's head upon the obverse, and three legends within each other, including his titles, &c. The reverse contains two inscriptions, declaring him to be the head of the church; the one in Hebrew, the other in Greek. It was imitated exactly by Edward VI. whose coronation medal is the first we have. There are two medals of Philip and Mary, whose execution is tolerably good; but those of Elizabeth are very poor. There are good medals of James I. and his queen; with a fine one of Charles I. and Henrietta, though the workmanship is much inferior to the antique. There are many good medals of Charles, with various devices upon their reverses. Under the commonwealth the celebrated Simou produced medals which are deservedly reckoned the most admirable pieces of modern workmanship. There are many good medals of Charles II., James II., and William III. Some are also found of James after his abdication. Some fine gold, silver, and copper medals, were issued in the time of Queen Anne; the two last affording a series of all the great actions of the duke of Marlborough. About the year 1740, a series of medals was engraved in London by Dassier, a native of Geneva, containing all the kings of England; being 36 in number. They are done upon fine copper, and executed with great taste. There are besides many medals of private persons in England; so that it may justly be said, that this country for medals exceeds almost every other in Europe.

To this account of modern coins and medals we shall add that of another set called siege-pieces, and which were issued during the time of a siege in cases of urgent necessity. These were formed of any kind of metal; sometimes of no metal; and Patin mentions a remarkable one struck at Leyden in 1574, when the place was besieged by the Spaniards. It was of thick paper or pasteboard, having a lion rampant, with this inscription, FVGNO PRO PATRIA, 1574; and on the reverse, LVGDVNVM BATAVORVM. There are various siege-pieces of Charles I. both in gold and silver, some of the latter being of the value of 20 shillings.

The nummi bracteati are a species of modern coins somewhat between counters and money; and have their name from the word BRACTEA, a spangle or thin bit of metal. They are commonly little thin plates of silver, stamped as would seem with wooden dies up-

on one side only, with the rude impression of various figures and inscriptions. Most of them are ecclesiastic, and were struck in Germany, Switzerland, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and a few in Poland. They continued to be in use in Germany till the end of the 15th century; and some are still used in Switzerland at this day.

Table of Abbreviations used in the Legends of Medals; from Mr Pinkerton.

GREEK COINS.

| A. Athens, Argos, Aulus, Asylum; primi or first; as Εφεσιον Δ. Δεις; Ephesians, first people of Asia. | | A. Abassus, Abdera, Abydos on Hellespont | | A.B. Abydos in Egypt | | AY. Abydos on Hellespont | | AO. ΑΦΡ. Athens | | AIG. Αξινα | | AIGOSPO. Aigospotamos | | AIA. Αλιος, Αλια Capitolina | | AIN. Ανος | | AK.—AKPATAN. Agriagentum | | AKI. Acilium | | AKT. Actium | | AAE. Alexandria | | AM. Amyntas | | AMBP. Ambracia | | AMFI. Amphilochea | | ANO. ανδρατος, Proconsul | | ANTΣ. Antissa | | ANA. Anactoria | | ANTI. Antium | | AN. Ancyra | | ANT. Antoninus, Antioch | | AZ. Αξυς in Crete | | AON. Aonite | | AOYE. Avenio, Pell. | | AP. Appius | | APA. Apamea | | APNO. Apollonia | | APTA. Aptara | | AR. Aradus, Harma | | APPF. Argennos | | ARG. Argos | | API. Aricanda | | APIM. Ariminum | | APSI. Arsinoë | | APY. Alysa | | APIX. Αρχιερευς or Αρχων, high priest or magistrate | | ASIAPX. Asiarchae, presidents of the games of Asia (B) |

(b) There were also Syriarchae, Lyciarchae, Galataarchae, Bithyniarchae, Cappadociarchae, &c. Morel, Spec. MEDALS.

Abbreviations.

ΔΕΡ. Derbe in Lycaonia ΔΗ. Delos ΔΙ. Diospolis ΔΡΕ. Drepanum ΔΥΡ. Dyrrhachium

E. Eryce Ε. ΕΡΕΣ. Eresus ΕΛΕΥ. Eleusis ΕΛΕΥΘ. Ελευθερος, Free ΕΠΙ. Epidaurus ΕΡΙ. Eriza in Caria ΕΡΧ. Erchia ΕΡΥ. Erythrae ΕΤ. ΕΤΟ. Year ΕΤ. Ετenna in Pamphylia ΕΧ. Εχουσια, Power ΕΥΒΟ. Eubcea ΕΥΣ. Eusthenes, Pious ΕΥΤ. Ευτυχης, Happy ΕΦ. ΕΦΕ. Ephesus

Z. Zaconthus ΖΑΝΚΑ. Zanclae, Messana anciently so called Η. Elium ΗΓ. Ηγεμονος, President ΗΡΑΚ. Heraclea

ΘΑ. Thasus ΘΕ. Thespiae ΘΕΣ. Thessalonica ΘΕ. ΘΕΒ. Thebae

I. I. ΙΕΡ. Ιερος, Sacred ΙΕΡΑΠ. Ιεραπύθα ΙΚΑΡ. Hicara ΙΛΙ. Ilium ΙΟΥ. Julius, a city, or Julius ΙΟΥΛ. Julia ΙΠΑ. Hippana ΙΡ. Irene Ins. Pellerin. ΙΣ. Isus, Istica

Κ. K. Caius; Καιους, Quintus Κ. ΚΑΙΣ. Caesar Κ. Κ. Καιους Κλαικης, Community of Cilicia ΚΑΙ. Cælius ΚΑΛ. Chalcedon ΚΑΛΛΙ. Callipolis ΚΑΜΑ. Camara ΚΑΝ. Canata ΚΑΠ. Capua ΚΑΠΠ. Cappadocia ΚΑΡ. Carrhae ΚΑΡΤ. Carthago ΚΑΥ. Caulonia ΚΕ. Ceos ΚΕΦ. Cephaloedis ΚΙ. Cianus, Cibicum ΚΙΑ. Cilbiani ΚΑ. Claconæ, Claudius ΚΛΑ. Clazomene

ΚΝΙ. Cnidus ΚΟ. Corinth ΚΟΙΝ. Κοινος, Community ΚΟΛ. Κολοσσας, Colony, Colophon ΚΟΜ. Commodus ΚΟΡ. Corcyra ΚΡ. Cragus in Lycia ΚΡΑ. Cranos ΚΡΗ. Crete ΚΤΗ. Ctemene, Pell. ΚΥ. Cuma, Cydonium, Cyon ΚΥΘ. Cythnus ΚΥΠ. Cyprus ΚΥΡ. Cyrene

Λ. Λ. or Λ. Λυκαδωνιτος, Year ΛΑ. Lucius ΛΑΔ. Lacedemon ΛΑΜ. Lamea; Lampsacus ΛΑΡ. Larissa ΛΑΡΙ. Larinum ΛΕ. ΛΕΥ. Leucas ΛΕΩΝ. Leonium ΛΗΜ. Lemnos ΛΙΠ. Lipara ΛΙΓΙ. Liviolopolis ΛΟ. ΩΚ. Locri ΛΟΓ. Longone ΛΥΓ. ΛΥΚ. Lyctus

M. M. Marcus, Malea, Megalopolis, Mazaka ΜΑ. Μαρονεα, Massilia, Macedonia ΜΑΓ. Magnesia ΜΑΚΡ. Macrocephali ΜΑΜ. Mamertini ΜΑΣΣ. Massilia ΜΑΖ. Mazara ΜΕ. Menelais, on Syrian regal coins ΜΕΝΕΚ. Mencrantes ΜΕ. ΜΕΓ. Megara, Megalopolis, Melite ΜΕΓ. ΜΕΓΑΛΕΩΣ, Great ΜΕΣ. Messana ΜΕΤΑ. Metapontum ΜΗΤΡΟ. Metropolis ΜΙ. Miletus ΜΚ. Massaka of Cappadocia, on coins of Mithridates VI. ΜΟΡ. Morgantia ΜΥ. Mycenæ ΜΥΡ. Myrlea ΜΥΤΙ. Mytilene

Ν. Naupactos ΝΑΞ. Naxos ΝΑΥΑΡΧ. Ναυαρχιδοι, enjoying a sea-port ΝΕ. Nemea ΝΕΩΚ. Neocori

ΝΕΟΠ. Neopolis ΝΕΡ. Nerva ΝΙΚ. Niceum, Nicomedia ΝΥΣ. Nysæi, on coins of Scythopolis, Pell.

Ο. O. Oethæi ΟΝ. Ορτες, Being ΟΠΕΛ. Opelius ΟΠ. Opus ΟΡΥ. Orycus ΟΡΧ. Orchomenus ΟΥΠ. ορ ΥΠ Ουπατος or Υπατος, Consul ΟΥΕΡ. Verus ΟΥΗ. Verus ΟΥΕΣΠ. Vespasianus ΟΥΙΤΕΑ. Vitellius ΟΦΥ. Ophrynium.

Π. Π. Παξι, Προς, upon Π. ΠΟΠΑ. Publius Π. ΠΑ. Paphos or Paros ΠΑΙΣ. Paestum ΠΑΝ. Panormus ΠΑΡ. Paropinum ΠΑΡΙ. Paros ΠΑΡΦ. Parthicus ΠΕ. Perinthus. ΠΕΛ. Pella ΠΕΡ. Pergus ΠΕΡΤ. Pertinax ΠΕΣΚ. Pescennius Π. ΠΗ. Pelusium ΠΙΝ. Pinamytæ ΠΛΑ. Plateæ ΠΟ. Pontus ΠΟΛΥ. Polyrrhemum ΠΟΣ. Posidonia ΠΡΑΣ. Prassus Π. ΠΡΥ. Πρυτανες, Praefect Π. ΠΡΕΣ. Πρεσβειας, Legate ΠΡΟ. Proconnesus ΠΡΟΑΙ. Προαιδειας, Curator Π. ΠΡΩΤ. Πρωτος, First ΠΤ. Ptolemais ΠΥ. Pylos

Ρ. Ρ. Rhodes

Σ. ΣΑ. Salamis, Samos, Syria.

Greek Numerals.

Α. 1. Β. 2. Γ. 3. Δ. 4. Ε. 5. Ϛ. or ϒ 6. Ζ. 7. Η. 8. Θ. 9. Ι. 10. Κ. 20. Λ. 30. Μ. 40. Ν. 50. Ξ. 60. Ο. 70. Π. 80. Ϟ. 90. Ϙ. 90. Ρ. 100. Σ. or C 200. Τ. 300. Υ. 400. Φ. 500. Χ. 600. Ψ. 700. Ω. 800. Ϟ. 900.

Example. Examples. I is 10; add A to I, and IA makes 11; so IB, 12; IF, 13, &c. K is 20, KA, 21, &c. PIA makes 111. The English word AIR marks the grand initial numerals. On coins the numerals are often placed in retrograde order; which makes no difference in the value, as every letter is appropriated to its number. Thus ταρ or γατ imply the same, 333. But this advantage being unknown to the Roman numerals and Arabic cyphers, is apt to puzzle the beginner.

ROMAN COINS.

A

A. AULUS: in the exergue it implies the first mint, as ANT. A. coined at Antioch in the first mint.

A. A. A. F. F. Auro, Argento, Ære, Flandro, Feriundo

A. or AN. Annus

A. A. Apollo Augusti

A. F. A. N. Auli filius, Aulii nepos