e heated red hot in a clear fire, and then taken out; by which means the bony cells will appear more conspicuous. The pores of the skin may be examined by
ff a thin slice of the upper skin with a razor, and then a second from the same place; applying the latter to the microscope. The lizard, guana, &c., have two skins, one very transparent, the other thicker and more opaque; and, separating these two, you obtain very beautiful objects.
To view the scales of fish to advantage, they ought to be soaked in water for a few days, and then care- fully rubbed to clean them from the skin and dirt which may adhere to them. The scales of the eel are a great curiosity; and the more so, as this creature was not known to have any scales till they were disco- vered by the microscope. The method of discovering them is this. Take a piece of the skin of an eel from off its side, and spread it while moist on a piece of glass, that it may dry very smooth: when thus dried, the surface will appear all over dimpled or pitted by the scales, which lie under a sort of cuticle or thin skin; which may be raised with the sharp point of a penknife, together with the scales, which will then easily slip off; and thus we may procure as many as we please.
The leaves of many trees, as well as of some plants, when dissected, form a very agreeable object. In or- der to dissect them, take a few of the most perfect leaves you can find, and place them in a pan with clean water. Let them remain there three weeks, or a month, without changing the water: then take them up; and if they feel very soft, and almost rotten, they are sufficiently soaked. They must then be laid on a
oard, and holding them by the stalk, draw the edge of a knife over the upper side of the leaf, which will take off most of the skin. Then turn the leaf, and do the same with the under side; and when the skin is taken off on both sides, wash out the pulpy matter, and the fibres will be exhibited in a very beautiful man- ner. The leaf may be slit into two parts, by split- ting the stalk; and the skins peeled from the fibres will also make a good object. This operation is best performed in the autumn; the fibres of the leaves are much stronger at that season, and less liable to be broken.—The internal structure of shells may be ob- served by grinding them down on a hone; and all ores and minerals should be carefully washed and brushed with a small brush, to remove any sordes that may ad- here to them.
To view the circulation of the blood, we must ob- serve living animals of the most transparent kind. A small eel is sometimes used for this purpose; in which case it must be cleansed from the slime naturally adhering to it; after which it may be put into a tube filled with water, where it can be viewed in a satis- factory manner. The tail of any other small fish may be viewed in the same manner, or put upon a slip of flat glass, and thus laid before the microscope. By filling the tube with water when an eel is made use of, we prevent in a great measure the sliminess of the animal from soiling the glass.
The particles of the blood form a very curious object, and have been carefully viewed by different philosophers; who, nevertheless, differ from one another very much in their accounts of them. The best method of viewing these is to take a small drop of blood when warm, and spread it as thin as possible upon a flat piece of glass. By diluting it a little with warm water, some of the large globules will be separated from the smaller, and many of them subdivided; or a small drop of blood may be put into a capillary glass tube, and then placed before the microscope. Mr Baker advises warm milk as proper to be mixed with the blood; but Mr Hewson diluted the blood with its own serum; and by this method he could preserve the small particles entire, and view them distinctly; and thus he found that they were not globular, as had been imagined by other anatomists, but flat. Having shaken a piece of the crassamentum of the blood in serum till the latter became a little coloured, he spread it with a soft hair pencil on a piece of thin glass, which he placed under the microscope, in such a manner as not to be quite horizontal, but rather higher at one end than the other. Thus the serum flows from the higher to the lower part; and, as it flows, some of the particles will be found to swim on their flat sides, and will appear to have a dark spot in the middle; while others will turn over from one side to the other as they roll down the glass. Many cruel experiments have been tried in order to observe the circulation of the blood in living creatures, and an apparatus had been invented for viewing the circulation in the mesentery of a frog; but as this can answer no useful purpose, and will never be put in practice by persons of humanity, we forbear to mention it.
II. Besides the objects for the microscope already mentioned, there are innumerable others, some hardly visible, and others totally invisible, to the naked eye; and which therefore, in a more peculiar sense, are denominated.
Microscopic Animals. They are the animalcules or moving bodies in water, in which certain substances have been infused; and of which there are a great many different kinds. These animalcules are sometimes found in water which we would call pure, did not the microscope discover its minute inhabitants; but not equally in all kinds of water, or even in all parts of the same kind of it. The surfaces of infusions are generally covered with a scum which is easily broken, but acquires thickness by standing. In this scum the greatest number of animalcules are usually found. Sometimes it is necessary to dilute the infusions; but this ought always to be done with water, not only distilled, but viewed through a microscope, lest it should also have animalcules in it, and thus prove a source of deception. It is, however, most proper to observe those minute objects after the water is a little evaporated; the attention being less diverted by a few objects than when they appear in great number. One or two of the animalcules may be separated from the rest by placing a small drop of water on the glass near that of the infusion; join them together by making a small connexion between them with a pin; and as soon as you perceive that an animalcule has entered the clear drop, cut off the connexion again.
Eels in paste are obtained by boiling a little flour and water into the consistence of bookbinders paste; then exposing it to the air in an open vessel, and beating it frequently together to keep the surface from growing mouldy or hard. In a few days it will be found peopled with myriads of little animals visible to the naked eye, which are the eels in question. They may be preserved for a whole year by keeping the paste moistened with water; and while this is done, the motion of the animals will keep the surface from growing mouldy. Mr Baker directs a drop or two of vinegar to be put into the paste now and then. When they are applied to the microscope, the paste must be diluted in a piece of water for them to swim in.
Numberless animalcules are observed by the microscope in infusions of pepper. To make an infusion for this purpose, bruise as much common black pepper as will cover the bottom of an open jar, and lay it thereon about half an inch thick: pour as much soft water into the vessel as will rise about an inch above the pepper. Shake the whole well together: after which they must not be stirred, but be left exposed to the air for a few days; in which time a thin pellicle will be formed on the surface, in which innumerable animals are to be observed by the microscope.
The microscopic animals are so different from those of the larger kinds, that scarce any sort of analogy seems to exist between them; and one would almost be tempted to think that they lived in consequence of laws directly opposite to those which preserve ourselves and other visible animals in existence. They have been systematically arranged by O. F. Muller; though it is by no means probable that all the different classes have yet been discovered. Such as have been observed, however, are by this author divided in the following manner:
I. Such as have no external organs.
1. Monas: Punctiforme. A mere point. 2. Proteus: Mutabilis. Mutable. 3. Volvox: Sphericum. Spherical. 4. Enchelis: Cylindracea. Cylindrical. 5. Vibrio: Elongatum. Long.
* Membranaceous.
6. Cyclidium: Ovalis. Oval. 7. Paramecium: Oblongum. Oblong. 8. Kolpoda: Sinuatum. Sinuous. 9. Gonium: Angulatum. With angles. 10. Bursaria. Hollow like a purse.
II. Those that have external organs.
* Naked, or not enclosed in a shell.
1. Cercaria: Caudatum. With a tail. 2. Trichoda: Crinitum. Hairy. 3. Kerona: Corniculatum. With horns. 4. Himantopus: Cirratum. Cirrated. 5. Leucophora: Ciliatum undique. Every part ciliated. 6. Vorticella: Ciliatum apice. The apex ciliated. * Covered with a shell. 7. Brachionus: Ciliatum apice. The apex ciliated. In the treatise on Helminthology under the fifth order of the class vermes, viz. Infusoria, the genera here enumerated have already been noticed according to an arrangement somewhat different, and a few of the species have been described. For the sake of those who wish to prosecute microscopical inquiries, we shall introduce descriptions of a few more, and particularly those whose habitats are known.
I. Monas.
This is by our author defined to be "an invisible (to the naked eye), pellucid, simple, punctiform worm;" but of which, small as it is, there are several species.
The monas terma or gelatinosa, is a small jelly-like point, which can be but imperfectly seen by the single microscope, and not at all by the compound one. In a full light they totally disappear, by reason of their transparency. Some infusions are so full of them that scarce the least empty space can be perceived; the water itself appearing composed of innumerable globular points, in which a motion may be perceived somewhat similar to that which is observed when the sun's rays shine on the water; the whole multitude of animals appearing in commotion like a hive of bees. This animal is very common in ditch-water, and in almost all infusions either of animal or vegetable substances.
Monas atomus or albidus; white monas with a variable point. This appears like a white point, which through a high magnifier appears somewhat egg-shaped. The smaller end is generally marked with a black point, the situation of which is variable; sometimes it appears on the large end, and sometimes there are two black spots in the middle. This species was found in sea water, which had been kept through the whole winter, but was not very fetid. No other kind of animalcule was found in it.
II. The Proteus.
An invisible, very simple, pellucid worm, of a variable form.
The tenax, running out into a fine point. This is a pellucid gelatinous body, stored with black molecules, and likewise changing its figure, but in a more regular order than the former. It first extends itself in a straight line, the lower part terminating in a bright acute point. It appears to have no intestines; and when the globules are all collected in the upper part, it next draws the pointed end up toward the middle of the body, which assumes a round form. It goes through a number of different shapes, part of which are described under the article Animalcule. It is found in some kinds of river water, and appears confined almost entirely to one place, only bending side-wise.
III. Veleur.
An invisible, very simple, pellucid, spherical worm.
The punctum; of a black colour, with a lucid point. This is a small globule, with one hemisphere opaque and black, the other having a crystalline appearance; and a vehement motion is observed in the black part.
It moves as on an axis, frequently passing through the drop in this manner. Many are often seen joined together in their passage through the water; sometimes moving as in a little whirlpool, and then separating. They are found in great numbers on the surface of fetid sea water.
The globulus, with the hinder part somewhat obscure, sometimes verges a little towards the oval in its shape, having a slow fluttering kind of motion, but more quick when disturbed. The intestines are but just visible. It is found in most vegetable infusions, and is ten times larger than the monas lens.
The lamula, with lamellar molecules, is a small roundish transparent body, consisting of an innumerable multitude of homogeneous molecules of the shape of a crescent, without any common margin. It moves continually in a twofold manner, viz. of the molecules among one another, and the whole mass turning slowly round. It is found in marshy places in the beginning of spring.
IV. Enchelis.
A simple, invisible, cylindric worm.
The viridis, or green enchelis, has an obtuse tail, the fore part terminating in an acute truncated angle; the intestines are obscure and indistinct. It continually varies its motion, turning from right to left.
The punctifera, having the fore part obtuse, the hinder part pointed. It is opaque, and of a green colour, with a small pellucid spot in the fore part, in which two black points may be seen; and a kind of double band crosses the middle of the body. The hinder part is pellucid and pointed, with an incision supposed to be the mouth, at the apex of the fore part. It is found in marshes.
The pupula, with the fore part papillary, is found in dunghill water in November and December: it has a rotatory motion on a longitudinal axis, and moves in an oblique direction through the water. Both ends are obtuse; and the hinder part is marked with a transparent circle, or circular aperture.
V. Vibrio.
A very simple, invisible, round, and rather long worm.
The linoola is found in most vegetable infusions in such numbers, that it seems to fill up almost the whole of their substance. It is so small, that with the best magnifiers we can discern little more than an obscure tremulous motion among them. It is more slender than the monas terma.
The serpens, with obtuse windings or flexures, is found in river water, but seldom. It is slender and gelatinous, resembling a serpentine line, with an intestine down the middle.
The spirillum is exceedingly minute, and twisted in a spiral form, which seems to be its natural shape, as it never untwists itself, but moves forward in a straight line, vibrating the hind and fore parts. It was found in 1782 in an infusion of the sonchus arvensis.
The verniculus has a milky appearance, with an obtuse apex, and a languid undulatory motion, like that of the common worm. It is found in marshy water in November. November, but seldom. It is thought to be the animal mentioned by Leeuwenhoek as found in the dung of the frog and spawn of the male libellula.
The sagitta, with a setaceous tail, has a long and flexible body; broadest about the middle, and filled there also with gray molecules; the fore part being drawn out into a thin and transparent neck, and the upper end thick and black. It is found in salt water, and seems to move by contracting and extending its neck.
VI. Cyclidium.
A simple, invisible, flat, pellucid, orbicular or oval worm.
The bulla, or orbicular bright cyclidium. This is found occasionally in an infusion of hay. It is very pellucid and white, but the edges somewhat darker than the rest. It moves slowly, and in a semicircular direction.
The millium is very pellucid, and splendid like crystal; and of an elliptical figure, with a line through the whole length of it. The motion is swift, interrupted, and fluttering.
VII. Paramaecium.
An invisible, membranaceous, flat, and pellucid worm.
The chrysalis is found in salt water, and differs very little from the former, only the ends are more obtuse, and the margins are filled with black globules.
The versutum is found in ditches, and has an oblong, green, and gelatinous body, filled with molecules; the lower part thicker than the other; and both ends obtuse. It propagates by division.
VIII. Kolpoda.
An invisible, pellucid, flat, and crooked worm.
The lamella is very seldom met with. It resembles a long, narrow, and pellucid membrane, with the hind part obtuse, narrower, and curved towards the top. It has a vacillatory and very singular motion; going upon the sharp edge, not on the flat side as is usual with microscopic animals.
The gallinula is found in fetid salt water; and has the apex somewhat bent, the belly oval, convex, and striated.
The rostrum is found, though seldom, in water where the lemma grows; and has a slow and horizontal motion. The fore part is bent into a kind of hook; the hind part obtuse, and quite filled with black molecules.
The triguetra was found in salt water, and appears to consist of two membranes; the upper side flattened, the lower convex, with the apex bent into a kind of shoulder.
The assimilis is found on the sea-coast, and has an elliptic mass in the middle, but is not folded like the former. The margin of the fore part is notched from the top to the middle; the lower part swells out, and contracts again into a small point.
The cucullatus is found in an infusion of the sonchus arvensis. It is very pellucid and crystalline, with several globules, and has an oblique incision a little below the apex.
The ren, or crassa, is found in an infusion of hay, commonly about 13 hours after the infusion is made, and has a quick and vacillatory motion. Its body is yellow, thick, and somewhat opaque; curved a little in the middle, so that it resembles a kidney; and full of molecules. When the water in which it swims is about to fail, it takes an oval form, is compressed, and at last bursts.
IX. Gonium.
An invisible, simple, smooth, and angular worm.
The pulvinatum is found in dunghills; and appears like a little quadrangular membrane, plain on both sides; but with a large magnifier it appears like a bolster formed of three or four cylindric pillows sunk here and there.
The corrugatum is found in various kinds of infusions; and is somewhat of a square shape, very small, and in some positions appears as streaked.
The truncatum is found chiefly in pure water, and then but seldom. It has a languid motion, and is much larger than the foregoing. The fore part is a straight line, with which the sides form obtuse angles, the end of the sides being united by a curved line. The internal molecules are of a dark green, and there are two little bright vesicles in the middle.
X. Bursaria.
A very simple, hollow, membranaceous worm.
The truncatella is visible to the naked eye; white, oval, and truncated at the top, where there is a large aperture descending towards the base. Most of them have four or five yellow eggs, at the bottom. They move from left to right, and from right to left; ascending to the surface in a straight line, and sometimes rolling about while they descend.
The bullina is pellucid and crystalline, having splendid globules of different sizes swimming about with it. The under side is convex, the upper hollow, with the fore part forming a kind of lip.
The hirundinella has two small projecting wings, which give it somewhat of the appearance of a bird; and it moves something like a swallow. It is invisible to the naked eye; but by the microscope appears a pellucid hollow membrane.
The dupletta was found among duckweed, and appears like a crystalline membrane folded up, without any visible intestines except a small congeries of points under one of the folds.
XI. Cercaria.
An invisible transparent worm with a tail.
The gyrus greatly resembles the spermatic animalcules. It has a white gelatinous body; the fore part somewhat globular; the hind part round, long, and pointed. Sometimes it appears a little compressed on each side. When swimming it keeps its tail in continual vibration like a tadpole.
The gibba is found in the infusions of hay and other vegetables; vegetables; and is small, opaque, gelatinous, white, and without any visible intestines.
The *inguicula* is found in salt water, and is remarkable for changing the shape of its body; sometimes it appears spherical, sometimes like a long cylinder, and sometimes oval. It is white and gelatinous, the tail filiform and flexible, the upper part vibrating violently. A pellucid globule may be observed at the base, and two very small black points near the top.
The *turbo*, with a tail like a bristle, is found among duckweed. It is of a talcy appearance, partly oval and partly spherical; and seems to be composed of two globular bodies, the lowermost of which is the smallest, and it has two little black points like eyes on the upper part. The tail is sometimes straight, sometimes turned back on the body.
The *poduria* is found in November and December, in marshy places covered with lemma. It is pellucid; and seems to consist of a head, trunk, and tail; the head resembles that of a herring; the trunk is ventricose and full of intestines, of a spiral form and black colour. The tail most commonly appears to be divided into two bristles. The intestines are in a continual motion when the body moves, and by reason of their various shades make it appear very rough. There are likewise some hairs to be perceived. It turns round as upon an axis when it moves.
The *viridis* is found in the spring in ditches of standing water; and in some of its states has a considerable resemblance to the last, but has a much greater power of changing its shape. It is naturally cylindrical, the lower end sharp, and divided into two parts; but sometimes contracts the head and tail so as to assume a spherical figure.
The *stiffera* is found in salt water, but seldom. It is small, the body rather opaque, and of a round figure. The upper part is bright, and smaller than the rest: the trunk is more opaque; the tail sharp, and near it a little row of short hairs. It has a slow rotary motion.
The *hirta* was likewise found in salt water. It is opaque and cylindrical; and when in motion, the body appears to be surrounded with rows of small hairs separated from each other.
The *pleuronectes* is found in water which has been kept for several months. It is membranaceous, roundish, and white, with two blackish points in the fore part, the hinder part being furnished with a slender sharp tail. It has orbicular intestines of different sizes in the middle; the larger of them bright. The motion is vacillatory; and in swimming it keeps one edge of the lateral membrane upwards, the other folded down.
The *tripos* is flat, pellucid, triangular, having each angle of the base or fore part bent down into two linear arms, the apex of the triangle prolonged into a tail. It is found in salt water.
**XII. Leucophra.**
An invisible, pellucid, and ciliated worm.
The *mamilla* is of a dark colour, and filled with globular molecules; short hairs are curved inwards; and it occasionally projects and draws in a little white protuberance. It is pretty common in marshy water.
The *virescens* is a large, pear-shaped, greenish-coloured animalcule, filled with opaque molecules, and covered with short hairs; generally moving in a straight line. It is found in salt water.
The *bursata* is found in salt water, and is similar in many respects to the former. It is of a long oval shape, bulging in the middle, and filled with green molecules, everywhere ciliated except at the apex, which is truncated and shaped somewhat like a purse; the hairs are sometimes collected into little fascicles.
The *posthuma* is globular, and covered as it were with a pellucid net; is found in fetid salt water.
The *signata* is common in salt water in the months of November and December. It is oblong and subdepressed, with a black margin filled with little molecules, but more particularly distinguished by a curved line in the middle somewhat in the shape of the letter S; one end of which is sometimes bent into the form of a small spiral.
**XIII. Trichoda.**
An invisible, pellucid, hairy worm.
The *gyrinus* is one of the smallest of this genus, and is found in salt water. It is smooth and free from hairs, except at the fore part, where there are a few.
The *nigra* was found in salt water, and has an opaque body; but when at rest one side appears pellucid. When in violent motion, it seems entirely black.
The *pubes* is found in water where duckweed grows, chiefly in the month of December. It has a bunch above the hind part marked with black spots, depressed towards the top, a little folded, and somewhat convex on the under-part. The apex is furnished with hairs, but they are seldom visible till the creature is in the agonies of death, when it extends and moves them vehemently, and attempting as it were to draw in the very last drop of water.
The *potens* is found in salt water; and is of a long cylindrical shape, filled with molecules, the fore part bright and clear, with a long opening near the top which tapers to a point, and is beset with hairs.
The *strinta* is found in the month of December in river water. It is a beautiful animalcule, of a fox colour. It is of an oblong shape, the lower end somewhat larger than the other. It has a set of streaks running from one end to the other, and at the abdomen a double row of little eggs lying in a transverse direction.
The *urula* is found in the infusion of hay and other vegetables. It is six times longer than broad, round, flexuous, of an equal size, the greater part filled with obscure molecules; the fore part rather empty, with an alimentary canal and lucid globules near the middle. The margin of the fore part is covered with short hairs.
The *linter* is found in an infusion of old grass. It is egg-shaped, oblong, with both extremities raised so that the bottom becomes convex, and the upper part depressed like a boat; it is of different shapes at different ages, and sometimes has a rotatory motion.
The *parillus* is found in salt water; and is long, full of gray molecules; the fore part truncated and hairy, and rather smaller than the other.
The *vermicularis* is found in river water; and is pel- The melitea is found in salt water, but very rarely. It is oblong, ciliated, with a globular apex, a dilatable neck, and a kind of peristaltic motion perceivable within it.
The perilum is frequently found in marshes. It is cylindrical, pellucid, muscular, and capable of being folded up. It appears double; the interior part full of molecules, with an orbicular muscular appendage, which it can open and shut, and which forms the mouth. The external part is membranaceous, pellucid, dilated, and marked with transverse streaks; and it can protrude or draw in the orbicular membrane at pleasure. Some have four articulations in the tail, others five; and it has two pairs of bristles, one placed at the second joint, the other at the last.
The delphis is found in river water. It is smooth, pellucid, having the fore part dilated into a semicircle, gradually decreasing in breadth towards the tail. The front is hairy, the hairs standing as rays from the semicircular edge: one of the edges is sometimes contracted.
The delphinus is found in hay that has been infused for some months. It is pellucid, smooth, and egg-shaped; the hinder part terminating in a tail about half the length of the body, dilated at the upper end, truncated, and always bent upwards. It moves sometimes on its belly and sometimes on its side.
The rostrata is found in water where duckweed has been kept. It is depressed, capable of changing its shape, yellow, with long ciliated hairs; it has four feet tapering to a point, one of them longer than the rest. Both feet and hairs are within the margin. The shape of the body is generally triangular; the apex formed into an obtuse beak, which the creature sometimes draws in so that it appears quite round.
The charon was found in salt water. It is oval, and resembles a boat as well as in its motion as shape; the upper part is hollowed, the under part furrowed and convex; the stern round, with several hairs proceeding from it.
XIV. Kerona.
An invisible worm with horns.
The rostellum is found in river water. It has three rows of horns on the back, which occupy almost the whole of it.
The cypris is found in water covered with lemma. It is somewhat of a pear shape, compressed, with a broad and blunt fore part; the front furnished with hairs, or little vibrating points inserted under the edge, shorter in the hind part, partly extended straight, and partly bent down, having a retrograde motion.
The calcitium is found in the infusion of vegetables. The body is broad and flat, both sides obtuse, filled with black molecules, and there is a black spot near the hinder part, where there are likewise a few short bristles.
The pustulata is found in salt water. It is oval, convex; one edge of the hinder part sinuated, both ends set with hairs, and some horns on the fore part.
XV. Himantopus.
A pellucid, invisible, and cirrated worm.
The acarus is lively, conical, ventricose, full of black molecules, with a bright and transparent fore part. The lower part of the apex has rows of long hairs on the under part set like rays. Four locks of long crooked hair or feet proceed from the belly, and it is continually moving these and other hairs in various directions.
The ludio is a lively diverting animalcule, smooth, pellucid, full of small points, the fore part clubbed and a little bent, the hinder part narrow; the base obliquely truncated, and terminating in a tail stretched out transversely. The top of the head and middle of the back are furnished with long and vibrating hairs; three moveable and flexible curls hang down from the side of the head at a distance from each other. When the creature is at rest, its tail is curled; but when in motion, it is drawn tight and extended upwards.
The sannio is found, though seldom, in water where the lemma grows. The cilia are longer than the hairs, and are continually vibrating: it has two moveable curls hanging on the side of the head.
The charon is found in sea water, but rarely. It is oval, pellucid, and membranous, with longitudinal furrows and several bent diverging rows of hair below the middle, but none on the hinder part.
XVI. Vorticella.
A naked worm with rotatory cilia, capable of contracting and extending itself.
The lunifera, is found in salt water; has the fore part obtuse, the base broad, and hollowed away like a crescent, with a short protuberance in the middle of the concave part: the fore part is ciliated.
The bursata is found in salt water, and is ventricose, crammed with molecules; the fore part truncated, and both sides of it pellucid: there is a prominent papilla in the middle, which when the animalcule is at rest appears notched, the edge of the aperture being ciliated; the hairs are capable of moving in various directions.
The sputarium is found in October, with the lesser lemma, and is one of the most singular of the microscopic animalcules. When viewed sidewise, it is sometimes nearly cylindrical, only tapering a little towards the hinder part, and having a broad pellucid edge. Viewed from the top, it has sometimes a broad face or disk, furnished with radiating hairs, the under part contracted into a globular shape, of a dark green colour, and filled with small grains.
The multiformis is found in salt water, and very much resembles the former.
The nigra is found in August in meadows covered with water. It may be seen with the naked eye, appearing like a black point swimming on the surface. Through the microscope it appears as a small conical body, obtuse and ventricose at one end, and acute at the other. When the extremities are extended, two small white hooks become visible, by the assistance of which which it moves in the water, and it probably has a rotatory organ: it moves continually in a vacillating manner on the top of the water.
The *ocreatia* is met with in rivers, though very seldom, and in shape somewhat resembles the lower part of a boat. The apex of the upper part is truncated and ciliated, the heel pointed, and the foot round.
The *colpa* is as broad as long, and the apex truncated and ciliated; both angles of the base projecting outwards, one somewhat like a wart, the other like a finger. It is found in marshy waters.
The *papillaria* is likewise found in marshes where the conserva nitida grows. It is ventricose; the fore part truncated, with a papillary tail, and a beautiful papillary excrecence on the side.
The *cratogaria* is found in the month of April, both in the mud and on the tail of the monocular quadricornis. They are generally heaped together in a spherical form, and united to one common stalk. They are likewise often to be found without a pedicle, the body rather contracted, the aperture circular, and surrounded with a marked margin. It has two small arms; and with a powerful magnifier a violent rotatory motion may be observed. Sometimes an individual will separate from the community, and move in a kind of spiral line for a little time, and then go back to the rest.
The *rotatoria* is the wheel animal described by Mr Baker; and of which an account is given under the article ANIMALCULE.
The *furcata* is commonly found in water, and has a cylindric body with a rotatory organ, consisting of a row of hairs at the apex: the tail is divided into two parts, turning a little inwards. When at rest it joins the segments of the tail, but opens them when in motion.
The *citrina* is found in stagnant water; the head full of molecules, round, everywhere of an equal size, and very transparent. Both sides of the orifice are ciliated, and each has a rotatory motion, appearing sometimes without and sometimes within the edge of the mouth.
The *convallaria* is the same with the bell-animal mentioned by Mr Baker. See the article ANIMALCULE.
The *acimosa* inhabits that whitish substance which often entirely covers plants, wood, shells, &c. When this substance is examined by a microscope, it appears to be wholly composed of living animals of the polype kind. See POLYP.
The *pyraria*. The *anastatica*. The *digitalis*.
See the article POLYP.
XVII. Brachionus.
A contractile worm, covered with a shell, and furnished with rotatory cilia.
The *patella* is found in marshy water in the winter-time. It is univalve, the shell oval, plain, crystal-line, with the anterior part terminating in two acute points on both sides, though the intervening space is commonly filled up with the head of the animal. By these points it fastens itself, and whirls about the body erect. The rotatory cilia are perceived with great difficulty.
To what has been already said on this subject, under the article ANIMALCULE, we shall here add the following observations from Mr Adams.—"How many kinds of these invisibles there may be (says he), is yet unknown; as they are discerned of all sizes, from those which are barely invisible to the naked eye, to such as resist the force of the microscope as the fixed stars do that of the telescope, and with the greatest powers hitherto invented appear only as so many moving points. The smallest living creatures our instruments can show, are those which inhabit the waters; for though animalcula equally minute may fly in the air, or creep upon the earth, it is scarcely possible to get a view of them; but as water is transparent, by confining the creatures within it we can easily observe them by applying a drop of it to the glasses.
"Animalcules in general are observed to move in all directions with equal ease and rapidity, sometimes obliquely, sometimes straight forward; sometimes moving in a circular direction, or rolling upon one another, running backwards and forwards through the whole extent of the drop, as if diverting themselves; at other times greedily attacking the little parcels of matter they meet with. Notwithstanding their extreme minuteness, they know how to avoid obstacles, or to prevent any interference with one another in their motions: sometimes they will suddenly change the direction in which they move, and take an opposite one; and, by inclining the glass on which the drop of water is, as it can be made to move in any direction, so the animalcules appear to move as easily against the stream as with it. When the water begins to evaporate, they flock towards the place where the fluid is, and show a great anxiety and uncommon agitation of the organs with which they draw in the water. These motions grow languid as the water fails, and at last cease altogether, without a possibility of renewal if they be left dry for a short time. They sustain a great degree of cold as well as insects, and will perish in much the same degree of heat that destroys insects. Some animalcules are produced in water at the freezing point, and some insects live in snow.—By mixing the least drop of urine with the water in which they swim, they instantly fall into convulsions and die.
"The same rule seems to hold good in those minute creatures, which is observable in the larger animals, viz. that the larger kinds are less numerous than such as are smaller, while the smallest of all are found in such multitudes, that there seem to be myriads for one of the others. They increase in size, like other animals, from their birth until they have attained their full growth; and when deprived of proper nourishment, they in like manner grow thin and perish."
The modes of propagation among these animalcules are various, and the observation of them is extremely curious. Some multiply by a transverse division, as is observed under the article ANIMALCULE; and it is remarkable, that though in general they avoid one another, it is not uncommon, when one is nearly divided, to see another push itself upon the small neck which joins the two bodies in order to accelerate the separation.—Others, when about to multiply, fix themselves to the bottom of the water; then becoming first oblong, and afterwards round, turn rapidly as on a centre, but perpetually varying the direction of their rotatory motion. In a little time, two lines forming a cross are perceived; after which the spherule divides into four, which grow, and are again divided as before. A third kind multiply by a longitudinal division, which in some begins in the fore part, in others in the hind part; and from others a small fragment detaches itself, which in a short time assumes the shape of the parent animalcule. Lastly, others propagate in the same manner as the more perfect animals.
In our observations under the article Animalcule, we suggested some doubts whether all those minute bodies which go under the name of animalcules really do enjoy animal life; or whether they are not in many cases to be accounted only inanimate and exceedingly minute points of matter actuated by the internal motion of the fluid. This has also been the opinion of others; but to all hypotheses of this kind Mr Adams makes the following reply: "From what has been said, it clearly appears, that their motions are not purely mechanical, but are produced by an internal spontaneous principle; and that they must therefore be placed among the class of living animals, for they possess the strongest marks and the most decided characters of animation; and, consequently, that there is no foundation for the supposition of a chaotic and neutral kingdom, which can only have derived its origin from a very transient and superficial view of these animalcules.—It may also be further observed, that as we see that the motions of the limbs, &c., of the larger animals, are produced by the mechanical construction of the body, and the action of the soul thereon, and are forced by the ocular demonstration which arises from anatomical dissection to acknowledge this mechanism which is adapted to produce the various motions necessary to the animal; and as, when we have recourse to the microscope, we find those pieces which had appeared to the naked eye as the primary mechanical causes of particular motions, to consist themselves of lesser parts, which are the causes of motion, extension, &c., in the larger; when the structure therefore can be traced no farther by the eye, or by the glasses, we have no right to conclude that the parts which are invisible are not equally the subject of mechanism: for this would be only to assert in other words, that a thing may exist because we see and feel it, and have no existence when it is not the object of our senses.—The same train of reasoning may be applied to microscopic insects and animalcules: we see them move; but because the muscles and members which occasion these motions are invisible, shall we infer that they have not muscles, with organs appropriated to the motion of the whole and its parts? To say that they exist not because we cannot perceive them, would not be a rational conclusion. Our senses are indeed given us that we may comprehend some effects; but then we have also a mind, with reason, bestowed upon us, that, from the things which we do perceive with our senses, we may deduce the nature of those causes and effects which are imperceptible to the corporeal eye."
Leaving these speculations, however, we shall now proceed to give a particular
f the figures of the various animals, with their parts, ova, &c. represented in the plates.
Plate CCCXLII. Fig. 32-33. represent the eggs of the phalena neustria, as they are taken from the tree to which they adhere, and magnified by the microscope. The strong ground-work visible in many places shows the gum by which they are fastened together; and this connexion is strengthened by a very tenacious substance interposed between the eggs, and filling up the vacant spaces. Fig. 34. shows a vertical section of the eggs, exhibiting their oval shape.—Fig. 35. is an horizontal section through the middle Fig. 36. of the egg. These eggs make a beautiful appearance through the microscope. The small figures a, b, c, represent the objects in their natural state, without being magnified.
Fig. 36. shows the larva of the musca chameleon, an aquatic insect. When viewed by the naked eye, it appears (as here represented) to be composed of twelve annular divisions, separating it into a head, thorax, and abdomen; but it is not easy to distinguish the two last parts from each other, as the intestines lie equally both in the thorax and abdomen. The tail is furnished with a fine crown or circle of hair b, disposed in the form of a ring, and by this means it is supported on the surface of the water, the head and body hanging down towards the bottom, in which posture it will sometimes remain for a considerable time without any motion.—When it has a mind to sink to the bottom, it closes the hairs of the ring, as in fig. 37. Thus an hollow space is formed, including a small bubble of air; by enlarging or diminishing which, it can rise or sink in the water at pleasure. When the bubble escapes, the insect can replace it from the pulmonary tubes, and sometimes considerable quantities of air may be seen to escape from the tail of the worm into the common atmosphere; which operation may easily be observed when the worm is placed in a glass of water, and affords an interesting spectacle. The snout of this insect is divided into three parts, of which that in the middle is immoveable; the other two, which grow from the sides of the middle one, are moveable, and vibrate like the tongues of lizards or serpents. In these lateral parts lies most of the creature's strength; for it walks upon them when out of the water, appearing to walk on its mouth, and to use it as the parrot does its beak to assist it in climbing.
The larva is shown, fig. 38. as it appears through a microscope. It grows narrower towards the head, is largest about that part which we may call the thorax, converges all along the abdomen, and terminates at length in a sharp tail surrounded with hairs, as has already been mentioned. The twelve annular divisions are now extremely visible, and are marked by numbers in the plate. The skin appears somewhat hard, and resembling shagreen, being thick set with grains pretty equally distributed. It has nine holes, or spiracula, probably for the purpose of breathing, on each side; but it has none of these on the tail division a, nor any easily visible on the third from the head. In the latter, indeed, it has some very small holes concealed under the skin, near the place where the embryo wings of the future fly are hid. "It is remarkable says Mr Adams, that caterpillars, in general, have two rings without these spiracula, perhaps because they change into flies with four wings, whereas this worm produces a fly with only two." The skin of the larva is adorned with oblong black furrows, spots of a light colour, and orbicular rings, from which there generally springs a hair; but only those hairs which grow on the insect's sides are represented in the figure. There are also some larger hairs here and there, as at e c. The difference of colour, however, in this worm arises only from the quantity of grains in the same space; for where they are in very great numbers, the furrows are darker, and paler where they are less plentiful.
The head d is divided into three parts, and covered with a skin which has hardly any discernible grains.—The eyes are rather protuberant, lie near the snout; on which last are two small horns at i i. It is crooked, and ends in a sharp point as at f. The legs are placed near the snout between the sinuses in which the eyes are fixed. Each of these legs consists of three joints, the outermost of which is covered with stiff hairs like bristles g g. From the next joint there springs a horny bone h h, used by the insect as a kind of thumb; the joint is also composed of a black substance of an intermediate hardness between bone and horn; and the third joint is of the same nature. In order to distinguish these parts, those that form the upper sides of the mouth and eyes must be separated by means of a small knife; after which, by the assistance of the microscope, we may perceive that the leg is articulated by some particular ligaments, with the portion of the insect's mouth which answers to the lower jaw in the human frame. We may then also discern the muscles which serve to move the legs, and draw them up into a cavity that lies between the snout and those parts of the mouth which are near the horns i i. The insect walks upon these legs, not only in the water, but on the land also. It likewise makes use of them in swimming, keeping its tail on the surface contiguous to the air, and hanging downward with the rest of the body in the water. In this situation, the only perceptible motion it has is in its legs, which it moves in a most elegant manner, from whence it is reasonable to conclude, that the most of this creature's strength lies in its legs, as we have already observed.
The snout of this larva is black and hard: the back part quite solid, and somewhat of a globular form; the front f sharp and hollow. Three membranaceous divisions may be perceived on the back part; by means of which, and the muscles contained in the snout, the creature can contract or expand it at pleasure.
The extremity of the tail is surrounded with thirty hairs, and the sides adorned with others that are smaller; and here and there the large hairs branch out into smaller ones, which may be reckoned single hairs. All these have their roots in the outer skin, which in this place is covered with rough grains, as may be observed by cutting it off and holding it against the light upon a slip of glass. Thus also we find, that at the extremities of the hairs there are grains like those on the skin; and in the middle of the tail there is a small opening, within which are minute holes, by which the insect takes in and lets out the air it breathes. These hairs, however, are seldom disposed in such a regular order as is represented in fig. 38, unless when the insect floats with the body in the water, and the tail with its hairs a little lower than the surface, in which case they are disposed exactly in the order delineated in the plate. The least motion of the tail downwards produces a concavity in the water; and it then assumes the figure of a wine glass, wide at the top and narrow at the bottom. The tail answers the double purpose of swimming and breathing, and through it the insect receives what is the principle of life and motion to all animals. By means of these hairs also it can stop its motion when swimming, and remain suspended quietly without motion for any length of time. Its motions in swimming are very beautiful, especially when it advances with its whole body floating on the surface of the water, after filling itself with air by the tail.—To set out, it first bends the body to the right or left, and then contracts it in the form of the letter S, and again stretches it out in a straight line: by thus contracting and then extending the body alternately, it moves on the surface of the water. It is very quiet, and is not disturbed by handling.
These creatures are commonly found in shallow standing waters in the beginning of June: but some years much more plentifully than others. They crawl on the grass and other plants which grow in such waters, and are often met with in ditches, floating on the surface of the water by means of their tail, the head and thorax at the same time hanging down; and in this posture they turn over the clay and dirt with their snout and feet in search of food, which is commonly a viscous matter met with in small ponds and ditches. It is very harmless, though its appearance would seem to indicate the contrary. It is most easily killed for dissection by spirit of turpentine.
Fig. 39 shows in its natural size a beautiful insect, Fig. 39 described by Linnæus under the name of Leucopis dor-sigera, and which appears to be a kind of intermediate genus between a sphex and a wasp. The antennæ are black and cylindrical, increasing in thickness towards the extremity; the joint nearest the head is yellow; the head and thorax are black, encompassed with a yellow line, and furnished with a cross line of the same colour near the head. The scutellum is yellow, the abdomen black, with two yellow bands, and a deep spot of the same colour on each side between the bands. A deep polished groove extends down the back from the thorax to the anus, into which the sting turns and is deposited, leaving the anus very circular; a yellow line runs on each side of the sting.—The anus and whole body, when viewed with a small magnifier, appear punctuated; but when these points are seen through a large magnifier, they appear hexagonal. Fig. 40 shows the insect very much magnified. Fig. 41 gives a side view of it magnified in a smaller degree.
Fig. 42 shows an insect discovered by Mr John Adams of Edmonton, as he happened to be at an inna. It was first seen by some labouring people who were there at the time, by whom it was conjectured to be a louse with unusually long hairs, a mite, &c. Mr Adams hearing the debate, procured the insect; and having viewed it through a microscope, it presented the appearance exhibited in fig. 42. The insect seems to be quite distinct from the phalangium caucrodes of Linnæus. The latter has been described by several authors, but none of their descriptions agree with this. The abdomen of this insect is more extended, the claws larger, and much more obtuse; the body of the other being nearly orbicular, the claws slender, and almost terminating in a point, more transparent, and of a paler colour. Mr Marsham has one in his possession not to be distinguished from that represented in fig. 42, excepting only that it wants the break or dent in the claws, which is so conspicuous in this. He found that insect firmly fixed by its claws to the thigh of a large fly, which he caught on a flower in Essex in the first week of August, and from which he could not disengage it without great difficulty, and tearing off the leg of the fly. This was done upon a piece of writing paper; and he was surprised to see the little creature spring forward a quarter of an inch, and again seize the thigh with its claws, so that he had great difficulty in disengaging it. The natural size of this creature, which Mr Adams calls the lobster-insect, is exhibited at a.
Fig. 43. shows the insect named by M. de Geer Physopuss, on account of the bladders at its feet, (Thrips physopus, Lin.). This insect is to be found in great plenty upon the flowers of dandelion, &c., in the spring and summer. It has four wings, two upper and two under ones (represented fig. 44); but the two undermost are not to be perceived without great difficulty. They are very long; and fixed to the upper part of the breast, lying horizontally. Both of them are rather pointed towards the edges, and have a strong nerve running round them, which is set with a hair fringe tufted at the extremity. The colour of these wings is whitish: the body of the insect is black; the head small, with two large reticular eyes. The antennae are of an equal size throughout, and divided into six oval pieces, which are articulated together.—The extremities of the feet are furnished with a membranaceous and flexible bladder, which it can throw out or draw in at pleasure. It presses this bladder against the substances on which it walks, and thus seems to fix itself to them; the bladder sometimes appears concave towards the bottom, the concavity diminishing as it is less pressed. The insect is represented of its natural size at b.
Fig. 45. represents the cimer striatus of Linnæus, remarkable for very bright and elegantly disposed colours, though few in number. The head, proboscis, and thorax, are black: the thorax ornamented with yellow spots; the middle one large, and occupying almost one-third of the posterior part; the other two are on each side, and triangular. The scutellum has two yellow oblong spots, pointed at each end. The ground of the elytra is a bright yellow; spotted and striped with black. The nerves are yellow; and there is a brilliant triangular spot of orange, which unites the crustaceous and membranaceous parts; the latter are brown, and clouded. It is found in the elm tree in June. It is represented of its natural size at c.
Fig. 46. shows the chrysomela asparagi of Linnæus, so called from the larva of the insect feeding upon that plant. It is a common insect, and very beautiful. It is of an oblong figure, with black antennæ, composed of many joints, nearly oval. The head is a deep and bright blue; the thorax red and cylindrical: the elytra are blue, with a yellow margin, and having three spots of the same colour on each; one at the base, of an oblong form, and two united with the margin: the legs are black; but the under side of the belly is of the same blue colour with the elytra and head. This little animal, when viewed by the naked eye, scarcely appears to deserve any notice; but when examined by microscope, is one of the most pleasing opaque objects we have. It is found in June on the asparagus after it has run to seed; and it is shown of its natural size at d. De Geer says that it is very scarce in Sweden.
Fig. 47. shows an insect of a shape so remarkable, that naturalists have been at a loss to determine the genus to which it belongs. In the Fauna Suecica, Linnæus makes it an ottelabus: but in the last edition of the Systema Naturæ, it is ranged as a meloe, under the title of the Meloe monoceros: though of this also there seems to be some doubt. The true figure of it can only be discovered by a very good microscope. The head is black, and appears to be hid or buried under the thorax, which projects forward like a horn: the antennæ are composed of many joints, and are of a dirty yellow colour, as well as the feet: the hinder part of the thorax is reddish, the fore part black.—The elytra are yellow, with a black longitudinal line down the suture; there is a band of the same colour near the apex, and also a black point near the base, the whole animal being curiously covered with hair. The natural size of it is shown at e. It was found in May. Geoffroy says that it lives upon umbelliferous plants.
Fig. 48.—54. exhibit the anatomy of the cossus caterpillar, which lives on the willow. The egg from CCCXLIII, which it proceeds is attached to the trunk of the fig. 48—54, tree by a kind of viscous juice, which soon becomes so hard that the rain cannot dissolve it. The egg itself is very small and spheroidal, and, when examined by the microscope, appears to have broad waving furrows running through the whole length of it, which are again crossed by close streaks, giving it the appearance of a wicker basket. It is not exactly known what time they are hatched; but as the small caterpillars appear in September, it is probable that the eggs are hatched some time in August. When small, they are generally met with under the bark of the tree to which the eggs were affixed: and an aqueous moisture, oozing from the hole through which they got under the bark, is frequently, though not always, a direction for finding them. These caterpillars change their colour but very little, being nearly the same when young as when old. Like many others, they are capable of spinning as soon as they come from the egg. They also change their skin several times; but as it is almost impossible to rear them under a glass, so it is very difficult to know exactly how often this moulting takes place.—Mr Adams conjectures that it is more frequently than the generality of caterpillars do, some having been observed to change more than nine times.
The cossus generally fasts for some days previous to the moulting; during which time the fleshy and other interior parts of the head are detached from the old skull, and retire as it were within the neck. The new coverings soon grow on, but are at first very soft.—When the new skin and the other parts are formed, the old skin is to be opened, and all the members withdrawn from it; an operation naturally difficult, but which must be rendered more so from the soft and weak state of the creature at that time. It is always much larger after each change.
From Mr Lyonet's experiments, it appears, that the cossus generally passes at least two winters, if not three, before it assumes the pupa state. At the approach of winter, it forms a little case, the inside of which is lined with silk, and the outside covered with wood ground like very fine saw-dust. During the whole season it neither moves nor eats.
This caterpillar, at its first appearance, is not above one-twelfth of an inch long; but at last attains the length of two, and sometimes of three inches. In the month of May it prepares for the pupa state; the first care being to find a hole in the tree sufficient to allow the moth to issue forth; and if this cannot be found, it makes one equal in size to the future pupa. It then begins to form of wood a case or cone; uniting the bits, which are very thin, together by silk, into the form of an ellipsoid, the outside being formed of small bits of wood joined together in all directions; taking care, however, that the pointed end of the case may always be opposite to the mouth of the hole: having finished the outside of the case, it lines the inside with a silken tapestry of a close texture in all its parts, except the pointed end, where the texture is looser, in order to facilitate its escape at the proper time. The caterpillar then places itself in such a posture, that the head may always lie towards the opening of the hole in the tree or pointed end of its case. Thus it remains at rest for some time: the colour of the skin first becomes pale, and afterwards brown; the interior parts of the head are detached from the skull; the legs withdraw themselves from the exterior case; the body shortens; the posterior part grows small, while the anterior part swells so much, that the skin at last bursts; and, by a variety of motions, is pushed down to the tail; and thus the pupa is exhibited, in which the parts of the future moth may be easily traced.—The covering of the pupa, though at first soft, humid, and white, soon dries and hardens, and becomes of a dark purple colour; the posterior part is moveable; but not the fore part, which contains the rudiments of the head, legs, and wings. The fore-part of the pupa is furnished with two horns, one above and the other under the eyes. It has also several rows of points on its back. It remains for some weeks in the case; after which the moth begins to agitate itself, and the points are then of essential service, by acting as a fulcrum, upon which it may rest in its endeavours to proceed forward, and not slip back by its efforts for that purpose.
The moth generally continues its endeavours to open the case for a quarter of an hour: after which, by redoubled efforts, it enlarges the hole, and presses forward until it arrives at the edge, where it makes a full stop, lest by advancing further it should fall to the ground. After having in this manner reposed itself for some time, it begins to disengage itself entirely; and having rested for some hours with its head upwards, it becomes fit for action. Mr Marsham says, that it generally pushes one-third of the case out of the hole before it halts.
The body of the caterpillar is divided into twelve rings, marked 1, 2, 3, &c. as represented in fig. 48, 49, 50, 51, each of which is distinguished from that which precedes, and that which follows, by a kind of neck or hollow; and, by forming boundaries to the rings, we make twelve other divisions, likewise expressed in the figures; but to the first of these the word ring is affixed, and to the second, division. To facilitate the description of this animal, M. Lyonet supposed a line to pass down through the middle of the back, which he called the superior line, because it marked the most elevated part of the back of the caterpillar; and another, passing from the head down the belly to the tail, he called the inferior line.
All caterpillars have a small organ, resembling an elliptic spot, on the right and left of each ring, excepting the second, third, and last; and by these we are furnished with a further subdivision of this caterpillar, viz. by lines passing through the spiracula, the one on the right side, the other on the left of the caterpillar. These four lines, which divide the caterpillar longitudinally into four equal parts, mark each the place under the skin which is occupied by a considerable viscus. Under the superior line lies the heart, or rather thread of hearts; over the inferior line, the spinal marrow; and the two tracheal arteries follow the course of the lateral lines. At equal distances from the superior and two lateral lines, we may suppose four intermediate lines. The two between the superior and lateral lines are called the intermediate superior; the two others opposite to them, and between the lateral and inferior lines, are called the intermediate inferior.
Fig. 48, 49, show the muscles of the caterpillar, arranged with the most wonderful symmetry and order, and especially when taken off by equal strata on both sides, which exhibits an astonishing and exact form and correspondence in them. The figures show the muscles of two different caterpillars opened at the belly, and supposed to be joined together at the superior lines. The muscles of the back are marked by capitals; the gastric muscles by Roman letters; the lateral ones by Greek characters. Those marked $ are called, by M. Lyonet, dividing muscles, on account of their situation.
The caterpillar was prepared for dissection by being emptied, and the muscles, nerves, &c. freed from the fat in the manner formerly directed: after which the following observations were made.
The muscle A in the first ring is double; the anterior one being thick at top, and being apparently divided into different muscles on the upper side, but without any appearance of this kind on the under side. One insertion is at the skin of the neck towards the head; the other is a little above; and that of the second muscle A is a little below the first spiraculum, near which they are fixed to the skin.
The muscle marked $ is long and slender, fixed by its anterior extremity under the gastric muscles a and b of the first ring, to the circumflex scale of the base of the lower lip. It communicates with the muscle c of the second ring, after having passed under some of the arteries, and introduced itself below the muscle $.
The muscle $ is so tender, that it is scarcely possible to open the belly of the caterpillar without breaking it. It is sometimes double, and sometimes triple. Anteriorly it is fixed to the posterior edge of the side of the parietal scale, the lower fixture being at the middle of the ring near the inferior line.
There are three muscles marked $; the first affixed Microscope at one extremity near the lower edge of the upper part of the parietal scale; the other end divides itself into three or four tails, fixed to the skin of the caterpillar under the muscle A. The anterior part of the second is fixed near the first; the anterior part of the third a little under the first and second, at the skin of the neck under the muscle A. These two last passing over the cavity of the first pair of limbs, are fixed by several tails to the edge opposite to this cavity. In this subject there are two muscles marked B, but sometimes there is only one anteriorly; they are fixed to the lower edge of the parietal scale, the other ends being inserted in the first fold of the skin of the neck on the belly-side. Fig. 50 best represents the muscles B and D; as in that figure they do not appear injured by any unnatural connection.
In the second and four following rings we discern two large dorsal muscles A and B. In the 7th, 9th and 10th rings are three, A, B, and C; in the 11th are four, A, B, C, and D; and in the anterior part of the 12th ring are five, A, B, C, D, and E. All these ranges of muscles, however, as well as the gastric muscles a, b, c, d, appear at first sight only as a single muscle, running nearly the whole length of the caterpillar; but when this is detached from the animal, it is found to consist of so many distinct muscles, each consisting only of the length of one of the rings, their extremities being fixed to the division of each ring, excepting the middle muscle a, which, at the 6th, 7th, 8th, and 9th rings, has its insertions rather beyond the division. Each row of muscles appears as one, because they are closely connected at top by some of the fibres which pass from one ring to the other.
The muscles A, which are 12 in number, gradually diminish in breadth to the lower part of the last ring; at the 8th and three following divisions they communicate with the muscles B, and at the 11th with D. In the lower part of the last ring, A is much broader than it was in the preceding ring; one extremity of it is contracted, and communicates with B; the lower insertion being at the membrane I, which is the exterior skin of the fecal bag. The muscles A and B, on the lower part of the last ring, cannot be seen until a large muscle is removed, which on one side is fixed to the subdivision of the ring, and on the other to the fecal bag.
The right muscles B, which are also 12 in number, begin at the second ring, and grow larger from thence to the seventh. They are usually narrower from thence to the 12th; the deficiency in width being supplied by the six muscles C, which accompany it from the 7th to the subdivision of the 12th ring. The muscles B and C communicate laterally with the 8th, 11th, and 12th divisions. C is wanting at the subdivision of the 12th; its place being here supplied by B, which becomes broader at this part.
The first of the three floating muscles V originates at the first ring, from whence it introduces itself under N, where it is fixed, and then subdivides, and hides itself under other parts. The second begins at the second division, being fixed to the anterior extremity B of the second ring; from thence directing itself towards the stomach; and, after communicating with the case of the corpus cavernosum, it divides, and spreads into eight muscles which run along the belly. The third begins at the third division, originating partly at the skin, and partly at the junction of the muscles B of the second and third ring. It directs itself obliquely towards the belly, meeting it near the third spiraculum; and branching from thence, it forms the oblique muscles of some of the viscera.
The thin long muscle E, which is at the subdivision of the last ring, and covers the anterior insertion of the muscle (a) where the ring terminates, is single. It begins at one extremity of the muscle (c); at the fore part of the ring runs along the subdivision round the belly of the caterpillar, and finishes, on the other side, at the extremity of a similar muscle C.
Fig. 49 shows the dorsal muscles of the coxos. To view which in an advantageous manner, we must use the following mode of preparation.
1. All the dorsal muscles, 35 in number, must be taken out, as well as the seven lateral ones already described.
2. All the straight muscles of the belly must be taken away, as well as the muscular roots (e), and the ends of the gastric muscles (e), which are at the third and fourth divisions.
3. At the second division the muscle E must be removed; only the extremities being left to show where it was inserted.
The parts being thus prepared, we begin at the third ring; where there are found four dorsal muscles C, D, E, and F. The first one C, is inserted at the third division, under the muscles E and A, where it communicates by means of some fibres with the muscle F of the second ring; proceeding from thence obliquely towards the intermediate superior line, and is fixed at the fourth division. As soon as C is retrenched, the muscle D is seen; which grows wider from the anterior extremity; it lies in a contrary direction to the muscle C, and is inserted into the third and fourth divisions. The muscle E lies in the same direction as the middle C, but not so obliquely: the lower insertion is at the fourth division; the other at the third, immediately under C. The muscle F is nearly parallel to D which joins it; the first insertion is visible, but the other is hid under the muscles E and G at the fourth division.
In the eight following rings, there are only two dorsal muscles; and of these D is the only one that is completely seen. It is very large, and diminishes gradually in breadth from one ring to the other, till it comes to the last, sending off branches in some places.—E is one of the strait muscles of the back; and is inserted under the dividing muscles E, at the divisions of its own ring.
On the anterior part of the 12th ring there are three dorsal muscles, D, E, and F. D is similar to that of the preceding ring, marked also D, only that it is no more than half the length; terminating at the subdivision of its own ring. E is of the same length, and differs from the muscle E of the preceding ring only in its direction. F is parallel to E, and shorter than it; its anterior end does not reach the twelfth division.
On the posterior part there is only one dorsal muscle, fastened by some short ones to the subdivision of the last ring, traversing the muscles A; and being fixed there as if designed to strengthen them, and to vary their direction.—Is a single muscle, of which the anterior insertion is visible; the other end being fixed to the bottom of the foot of the last leg; its use is to move the foot. The anterior part of the muscle branches into three or four heads, which cross the superior line obliquely, and are fixed to the skin a little above it. The other end is fastened to the membrane T.
Fig. 50. Fig. 51. show the muscles of the caterpillar when it is opened at the back. The preparation for this view is to disengage the fat and other extraneous matter, as before directed.
The first ring has only two gastric muscles (c) and (d): the former is broad, and has three or four little tails: the first fixture is at the base of the lower lip, from whence it descends obliquely, and is fixed between the inferior and lateral line. The small muscle (d) is fastened on one side to the first spiraculum; on the other, a little lower, to the intermediate inferior and lateral line; and seems to be an antagonist to the muscle P, which opens the spiracula. The posterior fixture of d is under the muscle C, near the skin of the neck; b is fixed a little on the other side of C, at the middle of the ring.
In the second ring there are three gastric muscles, g, h, and i: g and h are fixed at the folds which terminate the ring; but only the anterior part of i is fixed there. The muscle h is triple, and in one of the divisions separated into two parts; that marked i comes nearer the inferior line, and is fixed a little beyond the middle of the ring, where the corresponding muscle of the opposite side is forked to receive it.
In the third ring, the muscle h, which was triple in the foregoing ring, is only double here, that part which is nearest the inferior line being broadest: it has three tails, of which only two are visible in the figure. It is exactly similar to that of the preceding ring; and is crossed in the same manner by the muscle from the opposite side of the ring.
Throughout the eight following rings, the muscle f which runs through them all is very broad and strong. The anterior part of it is fixed at the intermediate inferior line, on the fold of the first division of the ring; the other part is fixed beyond the lower division; with this difference, that at the 10th and 11th rings it is fixed at the last fold of its ring; whereas, in the others it passes over that ring, and is inserted into the skin of the following one. In all these, the first extremity of the muscle g is fastened to the fold which separates the ring from the preceding one, and is parallel to f, and placed at the side of it. The first six muscles marked g, are forked; that of the fourth ring being more so than the rest, nor does it unite till near its anterior insertion. The longest tail lays hold of the following, and is inserted near the inferior line; the other inserts itself near the same line, at about the middle of its own ring; the two last do not branch out; but terminate at the divisions, without reaching the following ring. The muscle h, placed at the side of f, has nearly the same direction, and finishes at the folds of the ring.
The anterior part of the 12th ring has only one gastric muscle, marked e: it is placed on the intermediate inferior line; and is inserted at the folds of the upper division, and at the subdivision of this ring. The lower part has a larger muscle marked c, with several divisions; one placed under b, with one extremity fixed near the lateral line, at the subdivision of its ring; the other to the fecal bag, a little lower than the muscle b.
In fig. 51. all the gastric muscles described in fig. 50. disappear, as well as those lateral and dorsal ones of which the letters are not to be found in this figure.
In the first ring are the gastric muscles, e, f, g, which are best seen here: the first is narrow and long, passing under and crossing f: one of its insertions is at the lower line, the other at the lateral, between the spiraculum and neck: f is short, broad, and nearly straight, placed along the intermediate line; but between it and the lateral it passes under c, and is fixed to the fold of the skin which goes from the one bag to the other; the lower insertion is near the second division. There are sometimes three muscles of those marked g, and sometimes four: the lower parts of them are fixed about the middle of the ring, and the anterior parts at the fold of the skin near the neck. The muscles i and h are fixed to the same fold; the other end of h being fixed under the muscle n, near the spiraculum. Above the upper end of f, a muscular body, g, may be seen. It is formed by the separation of two floating muscles.
The second ring has six gastric muscles, k, l, m, n, o, p. The first is a large oblique muscle, with three or four divisions placed at the anterior part of the ring: the head is fixed between the inferior line and its intermediate one, at the fold of the second division; from whence it crosses the inferior line and its corresponding muscle, terminating to the right and left of the line. I is a narrow muscle, whose head is fixed to the fold of the second division; the tail of it lying under n, and fastened to the edge of the skin that forms the cavity for the leg. The two muscles marked m have the same obliquity, and are placed the one on the other; the head is inserted in the skin under the muscle s, and communicates by a number of fibres with the tail of the muscle y; the other end is fixed to the intermediate inferior line at the fold of the third division. The large and broad muscle n, covers the lower edge of the cavity of the limb, and the extremity of the tail of l. It is fixed first at the skin, near the intermediate line, from whence it goes in a perpendicular direction towards m, and introduces itself under o and m, where it is fixed. The muscle o is narrow and bent, and covers the edge of the cavity of the leg for a little way; one end terminating there, and the other finishing at the third division near m. That marked p is also bent: it runs near the anterior edge of the cavity of the leg; one end meets the head of o, the other end terminates at a raised fold near the inferior line. There is a triangular muscle on the side of the lateral muscle o, similar to that marked g in the following ring; in this figure it is entirely concealed by the muscle m.
The third ring has no muscle similar to m; that marked k differs only from that of the second ring in being crossed by the opposite muscle. Those marked l, n, o, p, are similar to those of the preceding one. The muscle q is triangular; the base is fastened to the last fold of the ring; on the lower side it is fixed to the muscle o, the top to the skin at the edge of the cavity for the leg. The eight following rings have the gastric muscles, i, k, l, and m. The muscle i is quite straight, and placed at some distance from the inferior line; it is broad at the fourth ring, but diminishes gradually in breadth to the 11th. In the fourth it is united; but divides into two heads, which divericate in the following rings. In the six next rings these heads are fixed nearly at the same place with e and f; and in the other two it terminates at the fold of the ring. The anterior insertion of the first and last is at the fold where the ring begins; that of the six others is somewhat lower under the place where the muscle i terminates. The lower part of the oblique muscle k is inserted in the skin near i; the upper part at the intermediate inferior muscle upon the fold which separates the following ring, but is wanting in the 11th. The muscle l is large, and co-operates with M; in the opening and shutting the spiraculum, one of its fixtures is near the intermediate inferior line, at about the same height as i. The tail terminates a little below the spiraculum.
The twelfth ring has only the single gastric muscle d, which is a bundle of six, seven, or eight muscles; the first fixture of these is at the subdivision of the ring near the inferior line: one or two cross this, and at the same time the similar muscles of the opposite side. Their fixture is at the bottom of the foot; and their office is to assist the muscle a in bringing back the foot, and to loosen the claw from what it lays hold of. One of the insertions of this muscle a is observed in this figure near d, the other near the subdivision of the ring.
Fig. 52, 53. Fig. 52, and 53, show the organization of the head of the cossus, though in a very imperfect manner, as M. Lyonet found it necessary to employ twenty figures to explain it fully. The head is represented as it appears when separated from the fat, and disengaged from the neck. HH are the two palpi. The truncated muscles D belong to the lower lip, and assist moving it. K shows the two ganglions of the neck united. H are the two vessels which assist in spinning the silk. L, the oesophagus. M, the two dissolving vessels. The Hebrew characters show the continuation of the four cephalic arteries. In fig. 52, the ten abductor muscles of the jaw are represented by SS, TT, VV, and Z. Four occipital muscles are seen in fig. 53, under e e and f f. At a k is represented a nerve of the first pair belonging to the ganglion of the neck; b is a branch of this nerve.
Fig. 54. Exhibits the nerves as seen from the under part; but excepting in two or three nerves, which may be easily distinguished, only one of each pair is drawn, in order to avoid confusion. The nerves of the first ganglion of the neck are marked by capital letters, those of the ganglion (a) of the head by Roman letters; the nerves of the small ganglion by Greek characters. Those of the frontal ganglion, except one, by numbers.
The muscles of the cossus have neither the colour nor form of those of larger animals. In their natural state they are soft, and of the consistence of a jelly. Their colour is a greyish blue, which, with the silver-coloured appearance of the pulmonary vessels, form a glorious spectacle. After the caterpillar has been soaked for some time in spirit of wine, they lose their elasticity and transparency, becoming firm, opaque, and white, and the air-vessels totally disappear. The number of muscles in a caterpillar is very great. The greatest part of the head is composed of them, and there is a vast number about the oesophagus, intestines, &c.; the skin is, as it were, lined by different beds of them, placed the one under the other, and ranged with great symmetry. M. Lyonet has been able to distinguish 228 in the head, 1647 in the body, and 2666 in the intestinal tube, making in all 3941.
At first sight the muscles might be taken for tendons, as being of the same colour, and having nearly the same lustre. They are generally flat, and of an equal size throughout; the middle seldom differing either in colour or size from either of the extremities. If they are separated, however, by means of very fine needles, in a drop of some fluid, we find them composed not only of fibres, membranes, and air-vessels, but likewise of nerves; and, from the drops of oil that may be seen floating on the fluid, they appear also to be furnished with many unctuous particles. Their ends are fixed to the skin, but the rest of the muscle is generally free and floating. Several of them branch out considerably; and the branches sometimes extend so far, that it is not easy to discover whether they are distinct and separate muscles or parts of another. They are moderately strong; and those which have been soaked in spirit of wine, when examined by the microscope, are found to be covered with a membrane which may be separated from them; and they appear then to consist of several parallel bands lying longitudinally along the muscle, which, when divided by means of fine needles, appear to be composed of still smaller bundles of fibres lying in the same direction; which, when examined by a powerful magnifier, and in a favourable light, appear twisted like a small cord. The muscular fibres of the spider, which are much larger than those of the caterpillar, consist of two different substances, one soft and the other hard; the latter being twisted round the former spirally, and thus giving it the twisted appearance just mentioned.
There is nothing in the caterpillar similar to the brain in man. We find indeed in the head of this insect a part from which all the nerves seem to proceed; but this part is entirely unprotected, and so small, that it does not occupy one-fifth part of the head; the surface is smooth, and has neither lobes nor any anfractuosity like the human brain. But if we call this a brain in the caterpillar, we must say that it has thirteen: for there are twelve other such parts following each other in a straight line, all of them of the same substance with that in the head, and nearly of the same size; and from them, as well as from that in the head, the nerves are distributed through the body.
The spinal marrow in the cossus goes along the belly; is very small, forking out at intervals, nearly of the same thickness throughout, except at the ganglions, and is not enclosed in any case. It is by no means so tender as in man; but has a great degree of tenacity, and does not break without a considerable degree of tension. The substance of the ganglion differs from that of the spinal marrow, as no vessels can be discovered in the latter; but the for- The cossus has two large tracheal arteries, creeping under the skin close to the spiracula: one at the right and the other at the left side of the insect, each of them communicating with the air by means of nine spiracula. They are nearly as long as the whole caterpillar; beginning at the first spiraculum, and extending somewhat farther than the last; some branches also extending quite to the extremity of the body. Round each spiraculum the trachea pushes forth a great number of branches, which are again divided into smaller ones, and these further subdivided and spread through the whole body of the caterpillar. The tracheal artery, with all its numerous ramifications, are open elastic vessels, which may be pressed close together, or drawn out considerably, but return immediately to their usual size when the tension ceases. They are naturally of a silver colour, and make a beautiful appearance. This vessel, with its principal branches, is composed of three coats, which may be separated from one another. The outmost is a thick membrane furnished with a great variety of fibres, which describe a vast number of circles round it, communicating with each other by numerous shoots. The second is very thin and transparent, without any particular vessel being distinguishable in it. The third is composed of scaly threads, generally of a spiral form; and so near each other as scarcely to leave any interval. They are curiously united with the membrane which occupies the intervals; and form a tube which is always open, notwithstanding the flexure of the vessel. There are also many other peculiarities in its structure. The principal tracheal vessels divide into 1326 different branches.
The heart of the cossus is very different from that of larger animals, being almost as long as the animal itself. It lies immediately under the skin at the top of the back, entering the head, and terminating near the mouth. Towards the last rings of the body it is large and capacious, diminishing very much as it approaches the head, from the fourth to the twelfth division. On both sides, at each division, it has an appendage, which partly covers the muscles of the back, but which, growing narrower as it approaches the lateral line, it forms a number of irregular lozenge-shaped bodies.—This tube, however, seems to perform none of the functions of the heart in larger animals, as we find no vessel opening into it which answers either to the aorta or vena cava. It is called the heart, because it is generally filled with a kind of lymph, which naturalists have supposed to be the blood of the caterpillar; and because in all caterpillars which have a transparent skin, we may perceive alternate regular contractions and dilatations along the superior line, beginning at the eleventh ring, and proceeding from ring to ring, from the fourth; whence this vessel is thought to be a string or row of hearts. There are two white oblong bodies which join the heart near the eighth division; and these have been called reniform bodies, from their having somewhat of the shape of a kidney.
The most considerable part of the whole caterpillar with regard to bulk is the corpus crassum. It is the first and only substance that is seen on opening it. It forms a kind of sheath which envelopes and covers all the entrails, and, introducing itself into the head, enters all the muscles of the body, filling the greatest part of the empty spaces in the caterpillar. It very much resembles the configuration of the human brain, and is of a milk-white colour.
The oesophagus descends from the bottom of the mouth to about the fourth division. The fore part, which is in the head, is fleshy, narrow, and fixed by different muscles to the crustaceous parts of it; the lower part, which passes into the body, is wider, and forms a kind of membranaceous bag, covered with very small muscles; near the stomach it is narrower, and, as it were, confined by a strong nerve fixed to it at distant intervals. The ventricle begins a little above the fourth division, where the oesophagus ends, and finishes at the tenth. It is about seven times as long as broad; and the anterior part, which is broadest, is generally folded. These folds diminish with the bulk as it approaches the intestines; the surface is covered with a great number of aerial vessels, and opens into a tube, which M. Lyonet calls the large intestine.—There are three of these large tubes, each of which differs so much from the rest, as to require a particular name to distinguish it from them.
The two vessels from which the cossus spins its silk are often above three inches long, and are distinguished into three parts; the anterior, intermediate, and posterior. It has likewise two other vessels, which are supposed to prepare and contain the liquor for dissolving the wood on which it feeds.
Fig. 55. shows the wing of an earwig magnified; a represents it of the natural size. The wings of this insect are so artificially folded up under short cases, that few people imagine they have any. Indeed, they very rarely make use of their wings. The cases under which they are concealed are not more than a sixth part of the size of one wing, though a small part of the wing may be discovered, on a careful inspection, projecting from under them. The upper part of the wing is crustaceous and opaque, but the under part is beautifully transparent. In putting up their wings, they first fold back the parts AB, and then shut up the ribs like a fan; the strong muscles used for this purpose being seen at the upper part of the figure. Some of the ribs are extended from the centre to the outer edge; others only from the edge about half way; but they are all united by a kind of band, at a small but equal distance from the edge; the whole evidently contrived to strengthen the wing, and facilitate its various motions. The insect itself differs very little in appearance in its three different states. De Geer asserts, that the female hatches eggs like a hen, and broods over her young ones as a hen does.
Fig. 56. represents a wing of the hemerobius perla magnified. It is an insect which seldom lives more than two or three days.—The wings are nearly of a length, and exactly similar to one another. They are composed of fine delicate nerves, regularly and elegantly disposed as in the figure, beautifully adorned with hairs, and lightly tinged with green. The body is of a fine green colour; and its eyes appear like two burnished heads of gold, whence it has obtained the name of golden eye. This insect lays its eggs on the leaves of the plum or the rose tree; the eggs are of a white colour,
and each of them fixed to a little pedicle or foot-stalk, by which means they stand off a little from the leaf, appearing like the fructification of some of the mosses. The larva proceeding from these eggs resembles that of the coccinella or lady-bug, but is much more handsome. Like that, it feeds upon aphides or pucerons, sucking their blood, and forming itself a case with their dried bodies; in which it changes into the pupa state, from whence they afterwards emerge in the form of a fly.
Fig. E, F, I, represent the dust of a moth's wing magnified. This is of different figures in different moths. The natural size of these small plumes is represented at H.
Fig. 57. shows a part of the cornea of the libellula magnified. In some positions of the light, the sides of the hexagons appear of a fine gold colour, and divided by three parallel lines. The natural size of the part magnified is shown at b.
Fig. 58. shows the part c of a lobster's cornea magnified.
Fig. 59. shows one of the arms or horns of the lepas anatilora, or barnacle, magnified; its natural size being represented at d. Each horn consists of several joints, and each joint is furnished on the concave side of the arm with long hairs. When viewed in the microscope, the arms appear rather opaque; but they may be rendered transparent, and become a most beautiful object, by extracting out of the interior cavity a bundle of longitudinal fibres, which runs the whole length of the arm. Mr Needham thinks that the motion and use of these arms may illustrate the nature of the rotatory motion in the wheel-animal. In the midst of the arms is an hollow trunk, consisting of a jointed hairy tube, which encloses a long round tongue that can be pushed occasionally out of the tube or sheath, and retracted occasionally. The mouth of the animal consists of six laminae, which go off with a bend, indented like a saw on the convex edge, and by their circular disposition are so ranged, that the teeth, in the alternate elevation and depression of each plate, act against whatever comes between them. The plates are placed together in such a manner, that to the naked eye they form an aperture not much unlike the mouth of a contracted purse.
Plate CCCXLV. fig. 60. shows the apparatus of the tabanus or gad-fly, by which it pierces the skin of horses and oxen, in order to suck the blood. The whole is contained in a fleshy case, not expressed in the figure. The feelers a a are of a spongy texture and gray coloured, covered with short hairs. They are united to the head by a small joint of the same substance. They defend the other parts of the apparatus, being laid upon it side by side whenever the animal stings, and thus preserve it from external injury. The wound is made by the two lancets b b and B, which are of a delicate structure, but very sharp, formed like the dissecting knife of an anatomist, growing gradually thicker to the back.—The two instruments c c and C, appear as if intended to enlarge the wound, by irritating the parts round it; for which they are jagged or toothed. They may also serve, from their hard and horny texture, to defend the tube e E, which is of a softer nature, and tubular to admit the blood, and convey it to the stomach. This part is totally enclosed in a line d D, which entirely covers it. These parts are drawn separately at B, C, D, E.
De Geer observes, that only the females suck the blood of animals; and Reamur informs us, that having made one, that had sucked its fill, disgorge itself, the blood it threw up appeared to him to be more than the whole body of the insect could have contained. The natural size of this apparatus is shown at f.
Fig. 61. shows a bit of the skin of a lump-fish (cy. Fig. 61. clupeus) magnified. When a good specimen of this can be procured, it forms a most beautiful object. The tubercles exhibited in the figure probably secrete an unctuous juice.
Fig. 62. shows the scale of a sea perch found on the English coast; the natural size is exhibited at h.
Fig. 63. the scale of an haddock magnified; its natural size as within the circle.
Fig. 64. the scale of a parrot fish from the West Ind. Fig. 64. dies magnified; l the natural size of it.
Fig. 65. the scale of a kind of perch in the West Ind. Fig. 65. dies magnified; k the natural size of the scale.
Fig. 66. part of the skin of a sole fish, as viewed Fig. 66. through an opaque microscope; the magnified part in its real size, shown at l.
The scales of fishes afford a great variety of beautiful objects for the microscope. Some are long; others round, square, &c. varying considerably not only in different fishes, but even in different parts of the same fish. Leeuwenhoek supposed them to consist of an infinite number of small scales or strata, of which those next to the body of the fish are the largest. When viewed by the microscope, we find some of them ornamented with a prodigious number of concentric flatings, too near each other, and too fine, to be easily enumerated. These flatings are frequently traversed by others diverging from the centre of the scale, and generally proceeding from thence in a straight line to the circumference.
For more full information concerning these and other microscopical objects, the reader may consult Mr Adams's Essays on the Microscope, who has made the most valuable collection that has yet appeared on the subject. See also the articles ANIMALCULE, CRYSTALLIZATION, POLYPE, PLANTS, and WOOD, in the present work.